title: Bryozoa

text: Gonozooids act as brood chambers for fertilized eggs. Almost all modern cyclostome bryozoans have them, but they can be hard to locate on a colony because there are so few gonozooids in one colony. The aperture in gonozooids, which is called an ooeciopore, acts as a point for larvae to exit. Some gonozooids have very complex shapes with autozooidal tubes passing through chambers within them. All larvae released from a gonozooid are clones created by division of a single egg; this is called monozygotic polyembryony, and is a reproductive strategy also used by armadillos.


title: Bryozoa

text: Cheilostome bryozoans also brood their embryos; one of the common methods is through ovicells, capsules attached to autozooids. The autozooids possessing ovicells are normally still able to feed, however, so these are not considered heterozooids.


title: Bryozoa

text: "Female" polymorphs are more common than "male" polymorphs, but specialized zooids that produce sperm are also known. These are called androzooids, and some are found in colonies of "Odontoporella bishopi", a species that is symbiotic with hermit crabs and lives on their shells. These zooids are smaller than the others and have four short tentacles and four long tentacles, unlike the autozooids which have 15–16 tentacles. Androzooids are also found in species with mobile colonies that can crawl around. It is possible that androzooids are used to exchange sperm between colonies when two mobile colonies or bryozoan-encrusted hermit crabs happen to encounter one another.


title: Bryozoa

text: Spinozooids are hollow, movable spines, like very slender, small tubes, present on the surface of colonies, which probably are for defense. Some species have miniature nanozooids with small single-tentacled polypides, and these may grow on other zooids or within the body walls of autozooids that have degenerated.


title: Bryozoa

text: Although zooids are microscopic, colonies range in size from to over . However, the majority are under across. The shapes of colonies vary widely, depend on the pattern of budding by which they grow, the variety of zooids present and the type and amount of skeletal material they secrete.


title: Bryozoa

text: Some marine species are bush-like or fan-like, supported by "trunks" and "branches" formed by kenozooids, with feeding autozooids growing from these. Colonies of these types are generally unmineralized but may have exoskeletons made of chitin. Others look like small corals, producing heavy lime skeletons. Many species form colonies which consist of sheets of autozooids. These sheets may form leaves, tufts or, in the genus "Thalamoporella", structures that resemble an open head of lettuce.


title: Bryozoa

text: The most common marine form, however, is encrusting, in which a one-layer sheet of zooids spreads over a hard surface or over seaweed. Some encrusting colonies may grow to over and contain about 2,000,000 zooids. These species generally have exoskeletons reinforced with calcium carbonate, and the openings through which the lophophores protrude are on the top or outer surface. The moss-like appearance of encrusting colonies is responsible for the phylum's name (Ancient Greek words meaning 'moss' and meaning 'animal'). Large colonies of encrusting species often have "chimneys", gaps in the canopy of lophophores, through which they swiftly expel water that has been sieved, and thus avoid re-filtering water that is already exhausted. They are formed by patches of non-feeding heterozooids. New chimneys appear near the edges of expanding colonies, at points where the speed of the outflow is already high, and do not change position if the water flow changes.


title: Bryozoa

text: Some freshwater species secrete a mass of gelatinous material, up to in diameter, to which the zooids stick. Other freshwater species have plant-like shapes with "trunks" and "branches", which may stand erect or spread over the surface. A few species can creep at about per day.


title: Bryozoa

text: Each colony grows by asexual budding from a single zooid known as the ancestrula, which is round rather than shaped like a normal zooid. This occurs at the tips of "trunks" or "branches" in forms that have this structure. Encrusting colonies grow round their edges. In species with calcareous exoskeletons, these do not mineralize until the zooids are fully grown. Colony lifespans range from one to about 12 years, and the short-lived species pass through several generations in one season.


title: Bryozoa

text: Species that produce defensive zooids do so only when threats have already appeared, and may do so within 48 hours. The theory of "induced defenses" suggests that production of defenses is expensive and that colonies which defend themselves too early or too heavily will have reduced growth rates and lifespans. This "last minute" approach to defense is feasible because the loss of zooids to a single attack is unlikely to be significant. Colonies of some encrusting species also produce special heterozooids to limit the expansion of other encrusting organisms, especially other bryozoans. In some cases this response is more belligerent if the opposition is smaller, which suggests that zooids on the edge of a colony can somehow sense the size of the opponent. Some species consistently prevail against certain others, but most turf wars are indecisive and the combatants soon turn to growing in uncontested areas. Bryozoans competing for territory do not use the sophisticated techniques employed by sponges or corals, possibly because the shortness of bryozoan lifespans makes heavy investment in turf wars unprofitable.


title: Bryozoa

text: Bryozoans have contributed to carbonate sedimentation in marine life since the Ordovician period. Bryozoans take responsibility for many of the colony forms, which have evolved in different taxonomic groups and vary in sediment producing ability. The nine basic bryozoan colony-forms include: encrusting, dome-shaped, palmate, foliose, fenestrate, robust branching, delicate branching, articulated and free-living. Most of these sediments come from two distinct groups of colonies: domal, delicate branching, robust branching and palmate; and fenestrate. Fenestrate colonies generate rough particles both as sediment and components of stromatoporiods coral reefs. The delicate colonies however, create both coarse sediment and form the cores of deep-water, subphotic biogenic mounds. Nearly all post- bryozoan sediments are made up of growth forms, with the addition to free-living colonies which include significant numbers of various colonies. "In contrast to the Palaeozoic, post-Palaeozoic bryozoans generated sediment varying more widely with the size of their grains; they grow as they moved from mud, to sand, to gravel."


title: Bryozoa

text: The phylum was originally called "Polyzoa", but this name was eventually replaced by Ehrenberg's term "Bryozoa". The name "Bryozoa" was originally applied only to the animals also known as Ectoprocta (), in which the anus lies outside the "crown" of tentacles. After the discovery of the Entoprocta (), in which the anus lies within a "crown" of tentacles, the name "Bryozoa" was promoted to phylum level to include the two classes Ectoprocta and Entoprocta. However, in 1869 Hinrich Nitsche regarded the two groups as quite distinct for a variety of reasons, and coined the name "Ectoprocta" for Ehrenberg's "Bryozoa". Despite their apparently similar methods of feeding, they differed markedly anatomically; in addition to the different positions of the anus, ectoprocts have hollow tentacles and a coelom, while entoprocts have solid tentacles and no coelom. Hence the two groups are now widely regarded as separate phyla, and the name "Bryozoa" is now synonymous with "Ectoprocta". This has remained the majority view ever since, although most publications have preferred the name "Bryozoa" rather than "Ectoprocta". Nevertheless, some notable scientists have continued to regard the "Ectoprocta" and Entoprocta as close relatives and group them under "Bryozoa".


title: Bryozoa

text: The ambiguity about the scope of the name "Bryozoa" led to proposals in the 1960s and 1970s that it should be avoided and the unambiguous term "Ectoprocta" should be used. However, the change would have made it harder to find older works in which the phylum was called "Bryozoa", and the desire to avoid ambiguity, if applied consistently to all classifications, would have necessitated renaming of several other phyla and many lower-level groups. In practice, zoological naming of split or merged groups of animals is complex and not completely consistent. Works since 2000 have used various names to resolve the ambiguity, including: "Bryozoa", "Ectoprocta", "Bryozoa (Ectoprocta)", and "Ectoprocta (Bryozoa)". Some have used more than one approach in the same work.


title: Bryozoa

text: The common name "moss animals" is the literal meaning of "Bryozoa", from Greek ('moss') and ('animals'), based on the mossy appearance of encrusting species.


title: Bryozoa

text: Until 2008 there were "inadequately known and misunderstood type species belonging to the Cyclostome Bryozoan family Oncousoeciidae." Modern research and experiments have been done using low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy of uncoated type material to critically examine and perhaps revise the taxonomy of three genera belonging to this family, including "Oncousoecia", "Microeciella", and "Eurystrotos". This method permits data to be obtained that would be difficult to recognize with an optical microscope. The valid type species of "Oncousoecia" was found to be "Oncousoecia lobulata". This interpretation stabilizes "Oncousoecia" by establishing a type species that corresponds to the general usage of the genus. Fellow Oncousoeciid "Eurystrotos" is now believed to be not conspecific with "O. lobulata", as previously suggested, but shows enough similarities to be considered a junior synonym of "Oncousoecia". "Microeciella suborbicularus" has also been recently distinguished from "O. lobulata" and "O. dilatans", using this modern method of low vacuum scanning, with which it has been inaccurately synonymized with in the past. A new genus has also been recently discovered called "Junerossia" in the family Stomachetosellidae, along with 10 relatively new species of bryozoa such as "Alderina flaventa", "Corbulella extenuata", "Puellina septemcryptica", "Junerossia copiosa", "Calyptotheca kapaaensis", "Bryopesanser serratus", "Cribellopora souleorum", "Metacleidochasma verrucosa", "Disporella compta", and "Favosipora adunca".


title: Bryozoa

text: Counts of formally described species range between 4,000 and 4,500. The Gymnolaemata and especially Cheilostomata have the greatest numbers of species, possibly because of their wide range of specialist zooids. Under the Linnaean system of classification, which is still used as a convenient way to label groups of organisms, living members of the phylum Bryozoa are divided into:


title: Bryozoa

text: Fossils of about 15,000 bryozoan species have been found. Bryozoans are among the three dominant groups of Paleozoic fossils. Bryozoans with calcitic skeletons were a major source of the carbonate minerals that make up limestones, and their fossils are incredibly common in marine sediments worldwide from the Ordovician onward. However, unlike corals and other colonial animals found in the fossil record, Bryozoan colonies did not reach large sizes. Fossil bryozoan colonies are typically found highly fragmented and scattered; the preservation of complete zoaria is uncommon in the fossil record, and relatively little study has been devoted to reassembling fragmented zoaria. The largest known fossil colonies are branching trepostome bryozoans from Ordovician rocks in the United States, reaching 66 centimeters in height.


title: Bryozoa

text: The oldest species with a mineralized skeleton occurs in the Lower Ordovician. It is likely that the first bryozoans appeared much earlier and were entirely soft-bodied, and the Ordovician fossils record the appearance of mineralized skeletons in this phylum. By the Arenigian stage of the Early Ordovician period, about , all the modern orders of stenolaemates were present, and the ctenostome order of gymnolaemates had appeared by the Middle Ordovician, about . The Early Ordovician fossils may also represent forms that had already become significantly different from the original members of the phylum. Ctenostomes with phosphatized soft tissue are known from the Devonian. Other types of filter feeders appeared around the same time, which suggests that some change made the environment more favorable for this lifestyle. Fossils of cheilostomates, another order of gymnolaemates, first appear in the Mid Jurassic, about , and these have been the most abundant and diverse bryozoans from the Cretaceous to the present. Evidence compiled from the last 100 million years show that cheilostomates consistently grew over cyclostomates in territorial struggles, which may help to explain how cheilostomates replaced cyclostomates as the dominant marine bryozoans. Marine fossils from the Paleozoic era, which ended , are mainly of erect forms, those from the Mesozoic are fairly equally divided by erect and encrusting forms, and more recent ones are predominantly encrusting. Fossils of the soft, freshwater phylactolaemates are very rare, appear in and after the Late Permian (which began about ) and consist entirely of their durable statoblasts. There are no known fossils of freshwater members of other classes.


title: Bryozoa

text: Scientists are divided about whether the Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) are a monophyletic group (whether they include all and only a single ancestor species and all its descendants), about what are the phylum's closest relatives in the family tree of animals, and even about whether they should be regarded as members of the protostomes or deuterostomes, the two major groups that account for all moderately complex animals.


title: Bryozoa

text: Molecular phylogeny, which attempts to work out the evolutionary family tree of organisms by comparing their biochemistry and especially their genes, has done much to clarify the relationships between the better-known invertebrate phyla. However, the shortage of genetic data about "minor phyla" such as bryozoans and entoprocts has left their relationships to other groups unclear.


title: Bryozoa

text: The traditional view is that the Bryozoa are a monophyletic group, in which the class Phylactolaemata is most closely related to Stenolaemata and Ctenostomatida, the classes that appear earliest in the fossil record. However, in 2005 a molecular phylogeny study that focused on phylactolaemates concluded that these are more closely related to the phylum Phoronida, and especially to the only phoronid species that is colonial, than they are to the other ectoproct classes. That implies that the Entoprocta are not monophyletic, as the Phoronida are a sub-group of ectoprocts but the standard definition of Entoprocta excludes the Phoronida.


title: Bryozoa

text: In 2009 another molecular phylogeny study, using a combination of genes from mitochondria and the cell nucleus, concluded that Bryozoa is a monophyletic phylum, in other words includes all the descendants of a common ancestor that is itself a bryozoan. The analysis also concluded that the classes Phylactolaemata, Stenolaemata and Gymnolaemata are also monophyletic, but could not determine whether Stenolaemata are more closely related to Phylactolaemata or Gymnolaemata. The Gymnolaemata are traditionally divided into the soft-bodied Ctenostomatida and mineralized Cheilostomata, but the 2009 analysis considered it more likely that neither of these orders is monophyletic and that mineralized skeletons probably evolved more than once within the early Gymnolaemata.


title: Bryozoa

text: Bryozoans' relationships with other phyla are uncertain and controversial. Traditional phylogeny, based on anatomy and on the development of the adult forms from embryos, has produced no enduring consensus about the position of ectoprocts. Attempts to reconstruct the family tree of animals have largely ignored ectoprocts and other "minor phyla", which have received little scientific study because they are generally tiny, have relatively simple body plans, and have little impact on human economies – despite the fact that the "minor phyla" include most of the variety in the evolutionary history of animals.


title: Bryozoa

text: In the opinion of Ruth Dewel, Judith Winston, and Frank McKinney, "Our standard interpretation of bryozoan morphology and embryology is a construct resulting from over 100 years of attempts to synthesize a single framework for all invertebrates," and takes little account of some peculiar features of ectoprocts.


title: Bryozoa

text: In ectoprocts, all of the larva's internal organs are destroyed during the metamorphosis to the adult form and the adult's organs are built from the larva's epidermis and mesoderm, while in other bilaterians some organs including the gut are built from endoderm. In most bilaterian embryos the blastopore, a dent in the outer wall, deepens to become the larva's gut, but in ectoprocts the blastopore disappears and a new dent becomes the point from which the gut grows. The ectoproct coelom is formed by neither of the processes used by other bilaterians, enterocoely, in which pouches that form on the wall of the gut become separate cavities, nor schizocoely, in which the tissue between the gut and the body wall splits, forming paired cavities.


title: Bryozoa

text: When entoprocts were discovered in the 19th century, they and bryozoans (ectoprocts) were regarded as classes within the phylum Bryozoa, because both groups were sessile animals that filter-fed by means of a crown of tentacles that bore cilia.


title: Bryozoa

text: From 1869 onwards increasing awareness of differences, including the position of the entoproct anus inside the feeding structure and the difference in the early pattern of division of cells in their embryos, caused scientists to regard the two groups as separate phyla, and "Bryozoa" became just an alternative name for ectoprocts, in which the anus is outside the feeding organ. A series of molecular phylogeny studies from 1996 to 2006 have also concluded that bryozoans (ectoprocts) and entoprocts are not sister groups.


title: Bryozoa

text: However, two well-known zoologists, Claus Nielsen and Thomas Cavalier-Smith, maintain on anatomical and developmental grounds that bryozoans and entoprocts are member of the same phylum, Bryozoa. A molecular phylogeny study in 2007 also supported this old idea, while its conclusions about other phyla agreed with those of several other analyses.


title: Bryozoa

text: By 1891 bryozoans (ectoprocts) were grouped with phoronids in a super-phylum called "Tentaculata". In the 1970s comparisons between phoronid larvae and the cyphonautes larva of some gymnolaete bryozoans produced suggestions that the bryozoans, most of which are colonial, evolved from a semi-colonial species of phoronid. Brachiopods were also assigned to the "Tentaculata", which were renamed Lophophorata as they all use a lophophore for filter feeding.


title: Bryozoa

text: The majority of scientists accept this, but Claus Nielsen thinks these similarities are superficial. The Lophophorata are usually defined as animals with a lophophore, a three-part coelom and a U-shaped gut. In Nielsen's opinion, phoronids' and brachiopods' lophophores are more like those of pterobranchs, which are members of the phylum Hemichordata. Bryozoan's tentacles bear cells with multiple cilia, while the corresponding cells of phoronids', brachiopods' and pterobranchs' lophophores have one cilium per cell; and bryozoan tentacles have no hemal canal ("blood vessel"), which those of the other three phyla have.


title: Bryozoa

text: If the grouping of bryozoans with phoronids and brachiopods into Lophophorata is correct, the next issue is whether the Lophophorata are protostomes, along with most invertebrate phyla, or deuterostomes, along with chordates, hemichordates and echinoderms.


title: Bryozoa

text: The traditional view was that lophophorates were a mix of protostome and deuterostome features. Research from the 1970s onwards suggested they were deuterostomes, because of some features that were thought characteristic of deuterostomes: a three-part coelom; radial rather than spiral cleavage in the development of the embryo; and formation of the coelom by enterocoely. However the coelom of ectoproct larvae shows no sign of division into three sections, and that of adult ectoprocts is different from that of other coelomate phyla as it is built anew from epidermis and mesoderm after metamorphosis has destroyed the larval coelom.


title: Bryozoa

text: Molecular phylogeny analyses from 1995 onwards, using a variety of biochemical evidence and analytical techniques, placed the lophophorates as protostomes and closely related to annelids and molluscs in a super-phylum called Lophotrochozoa. "Total evidence" analyses, which used both morphological features and a relatively small set of genes, came to various conclusions, mostly favoring a close relationship between lophophorates and Lophotrochozoa. A study in 2008, using a larger set of genes, concluded that the lophophorates were closer to the Lophotrochozoa than to deuterostomes, but also that the lophophorates were not monophyletic. Instead, it concluded that brachiopods and phoronids formed a monophyletic group, but bryozoans (ectoprocts) were closest to entoprocts, supporting the original definition of "Bryozoa".


title: Bryozoa

text: They are the only major phylum of exclusively clonal animals, composed of modular units known as zooids. Because they thrive in colonies, colonial growth allows them to develop unrestricted variations in form. Despite this, only a small number of basic growth forms have been found and have commonly reappeared throughout the history of the bryozoa.


title: Bryozoa

text: The phylogenetic position of the ectoproct bryozoans remains uncertain, but it remains certain that they belong to the Protostomia and more specifically to the Lophotrochozoa. This implies that the ectoproct larva is a trochophore with the corona being a homologue of the prototroch; this is supported from the similarity between the coronate larvae and the Type 1 pericalymma larvae of some molluscs and sipunculans, where the prototroch zone is expanded to cover the hyposphere.


title: Bryozoa

text: A study of the mitochondrial DNA sequence suggests that the Bryozoa may be related to the Chaetognatha.


title: Bryozoa

text: Most species are filter feeders that sieve small particles, mainly phytoplankton (microscopic floating plants), out of the water. The freshwater species "Plumatella emarginata" feeds on diatoms, green algae, cyanobacteria, non-photosynthetic bacteria, dinoflagellates, rotifers, protozoa, small nematodes, and microscopic crustaceans. While the currents that bryozoans generate to draw food towards the mouth are well understood, the exact method of capture is still debated. All species also flick larger particles towards the mouth with a tentacle, and a few capture zooplankton (planktonic animals) by using their tentacles as cages. In addition the tentacles, whose surface area is increased by microvilli (small hairs and pleats), absorb organic compounds dissolved in the water. Unwanted particles may be flicked away by tentacles or shut out by closing the mouth. A study in 2008 showed that both encrusting and erect colonies fed more quickly and grew faster in gentle than in strong currents.


title: Bryozoa

text: In some species the first part of the stomach forms a muscular gizzard lined with chitinous teeth that crush armored prey such as diatoms. Wave-like peristaltic contractions move the food through the stomach for digestion. The final section of the stomach is lined with cilia (minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the intestine and out through the anus.


title: Bryozoa

text: There are no nephridia ("little kidneys") or other excretory organs in bryozoa, and it is thought that ammonia diffuses out through the body wall and lophophore. More complex waste products are not excreted but accumulate in the polypide, which degenerates after a few weeks. Some of the old polypide is recycled, but much of it remains as a large mass of dying cells containing accumulated wastes, and this is compressed into a "brown body". When the degeneration is complete, the cystid (outer part of the animal) produces a new polypide, and the brown body remains in the coelom, or in the stomach of the new polypide and is expelled next time the animal defecates.


title: Bryozoa

text: There are no respiratory organs, heart or blood vessels. Instead, zooids absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide through diffusion. Bryozoa accomplish diffusion through the use of either a thin membrane (in the case of anascans and some polyzoa) or through pseudopores located on the outer dermis of the zooid. The different bryozoan groups use various methods to share nutrients and oxygen between zooids: some have quite large gaps in the body walls, allowing the coelomic fluid to circulate freely; in others, the funiculi (internal "little ropes") of adjacent zooids connect via small pores in the body wall.


title: Bryozoa

text: Zooids of all phylactolaemate species are simultaneous hermaphrodites. Although those of many marine species are protandric, in other words function first as males and then as females, their colonies contain a combination of zooids that are in their male and female stages. In all species the ovaries develop on the inside of the body wall, and the testes on the funiculus connecting the stomach to the body wall. Eggs and sperm are released into the coelom, and sperm exit into the water through pores in the tips of some of the tentacles, and then are captured by the feeding currents of zooids that are producing eggs. Some species' eggs are fertilized externally after being released through a pore between two tentacles, which in some cases is at the tip of a small projection called the "intertentacular organ" in the base of a pair of tentacles. Others' are fertilized internally, in the intertentacular organ or in the coelom. In ctenostomes the mother provides a brood chamber for the fertilized eggs, and her polypide disintegrates, providing nourishment to the embryo. Stenolaemates produce specialized zooids to serve as brood chambers, and their eggs divide within this to produce up to 100 identical embryos.


title: Bryozoa

text: The cleavage of bryozoan eggs is biradial, in other words the early stages are bilaterally symmetrical. It is unknown how the coleom forms, since the metamorphosis from larva to adult destroys all of the larva's internal tissues. In many animals the blastopore, an opening in the surface of the early embryo, tunnels through to form the gut. However, in bryozoans the blastopore closes, and a new opening develops to create the mouth.


title: Bryozoa

text: Bryozoan larvae vary in form, but all have a band of cilia round the body which enables them to swim, a tuft of cilia at the top, and an adhesive sac that everts and anchors them when they settle on a surface. Some gymnolaemate species produce cyphonautes larvae which have little yolk but a well-developed mouth and gut, and live as plankton for a considerable time before settling. These larvae have triangular shells of chitin, with one corner at the top and the base open, forming a hood round the downward-facing mouth. In 2006 it was reported that the cilia of cyphonautes larvae use the same range of techniques as those of adults to capture food. Species that brood their embryos form larvae that are nourished by large yolks, have no gut and do not feed, and such larvae quickly settle on a surface. In all marine species the larvae produce cocoons in which they metamorphose completely after settling: the larva's epidermis becomes the lining of the coelom, and the internal tissues are converted to a food reserve that nourishes the developing zooid until it is ready to feed. The larvae of phylactolaemates produce multiple polypides, so that each new colony starts with several zooids. In all species the founder zooids then grow the new colonies by budding clones of themselves. In phylactolaemates, zooids die after producing several clones, so that living zooids are found only round the edges of a colony.


title: Bryozoa

text: Phylactolaemates can also reproduce asexually by a method that enables a colony's lineage to survive the variable and uncertain conditions of freshwater environments. Throughout summer and autumn they produce disc-shaped statoblasts, masses of cells that function as "survival pods" rather like the gemmules of sponges. Statoblasts form on the funiculus connected to the parent's gut, which nourishes them. As they grow, statoblasts develop protective bivalve-like shells made of chitin. When they mature, some statoblasts stick to the parent colony, some fall to the bottom ("sessoblasts"), some contain air spaces that enable them to float ("floatoblasts"), and some remain in the parent's cystid to re-build the colony if it dies. Statoblasts can remain dormant for considerable periods, and while dormant can survive harsh conditions such as freezing and desiccation. They can be transported across long distances by animals, floating vegetation, currents and winds, and even in the guts of larger animals. When conditions improve, the valves of the shell separate and the cells inside develop into a zooid that tries to form a new colony. "Plumatella emarginata" produces both "sessoblasts", which enable the lineage to control a good territory even if hard times decimate the parent colonies, and "floatoblasts", which spread to new sites. New colonies of "Plumatella repens" produce mainly "sessoblasts" while mature ones switch to "floatoblasts". A study estimated that one group of colonies in a patch measuring produced 800,000 statoblasts.


title: Bryozoa

text: Cupuladriid Bryozoa are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. The sexually reproducing colonies (aclonal) are the result of a larval cupuladriid growing into an adult stage whereas the asexual colonies(clonal) are a result of a fragment of a colony of cupuladriids growing into its own colony. The different forms of reproduction in cupuladriids are achieved through a variety of methods depending on the morphology and classification of the zooid.


title: Bryozoa

text: Most marine species live in tropical waters at depths less than . However, a few have been found in deep-sea trenches, especially around cold seeps, and others near the poles.


title: Bryozoa

text: The great majority of bryozoans are sessile. Typically, sessile bryozoans live on hard substrates including rocks, sand or shells. Encrusting forms are much the commonest of these in shallow seas, but erect forms become more common as the depth increases. An example of incrustation on pebbles and cobbles is found in the diverse Pleistocene bryozoans found in northern Japan, where fossils have been found of single stones covered with more than 20 bryozoan species. Sediments with smaller particles, like sand or silt, are usually unsuitable habitat for bryozoans, but tiny colonies have been found encrusting grains of coarse sand. Some bryozoan species specialize in colonizing marine algae, seagrasses, and even mangrove roots; the genus "Amphibiobeania" lives on the leaves of mangrove trees and is called "amphibious" because it can survive regular exposure to air at low tide.


title: Bryozoa

text: There are a variety of "free-living" bryozoans that live un-attached to a substrate. A few forms such as "Cristatella" can move. Lunulitiform cheilostomes are one group of free-living bryozoans with mobile colonies. They form small round colonies un-attached to any substrate; colonies of the genus Selenaria have been observed to "walk" around using setae. Another cheilostome family, the Cupuladriidae, convergently evolved similarly shaped colonies capable of movement. When observed in an aquarium, Selenaria maculata colonies were recorded to crawl at a speed of one meter per hour, climb over each other, move toward light, and right themselves when turned upside-down. Later study of this genus showed that neuroelectrical activity in the colonies increased in correlation with movement toward light sources. It is theorized that the capacity for movement arose as a side effect when colonies evolved longer setae for unburying themselves from sediment.


title: Bryozoa

text: Other free-living bryozoans are moved freely by waves, currents, or other phenomena. An Antarctic species, "Alcyonidium pelagosphaera", consists of floating colonies. The pelagic species is between in diameter, has the shape of a hollow sphere and consists of a single layer of autozooids. It is still not known if these colonies are pelagic their whole life or only represents a temporarily and previously undescribed juvenile stage. Colonies of the species "Alcyonidium disciforme", which is disc-shaped and similarly free-living, inhabit muddy seabeds in the Arctic and can sequester sand grains they have engulfed, potentially using the sand as ballast to turn themselves right-side-up after they have been overturned. Some bryozoan species can form bryoliths, sphere-shaped free-living colonies that grow outward in all directions as they roll about on the seabed.


title: Bryozoa

text: In 2014 it was reported that the bryozoan "Fenestrulina rugula" had become a dominant species in parts of Antarctica. Global warming has increased the rate of scouring by icebergs, and this species is particularly adept at recolonizing scoured areas.


title: Bryozoa

text: The phylactolaemates live in all types of freshwater environment – lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, and estuaries – and are among the most abundant sessile freshwater animals. Some ctenostomes are exclusively freshwater while others prefer brackish water but can survive in freshwater. Scientists' knowledge of freshwater bryozoan populations in many parts of the world is incomplete, even in some parts of Europe. It was long thought that some freshwater species occurred worldwide, but since 2002 all of these have been split into more localized species.


title: Bryozoa

text: Bryozoans grow in clonal colonies. A larval Bryozoan settles on a hard substance and produces a colony asexually through budding. These colonies can grow thousands of individual zooids in a relatively short period of time. Even though colonies of zooids grow through asexual reproduction, Bryozoans are hermaphrodites and new colonies can be formed through sexual reproduction and the generation of free swimming larvae. When colonies grow too large, however, they can split in two. This is the only case where asexual reproduction results in a new colony separate from its predecessor. Most colonies are stationary. Indeed, these colonies tend to be settled on immobile substances such as sediment and coarse substances. There are some colonies of freshwater species such as "Cristatella mucedo" that are able to move slowly on a creeping foot.


title: Bryozoa

text: Marine species are common on coral reefs, but seldom a significant proportion of the total biomass. In temperate waters, the skeletons of dead colonies form a significant component of shell gravels, and live ones are abundant in these areas. The marine lace-like bryozoan "Membranipora membranacea" produces spines in response to predation by several species of sea slugs (nudibranchs). Other predators on marine bryozoans include fish, sea urchins, pycnogonids, crustaceans, mites and starfish. In general marine echinoderms and molluscs eat masses of zooids by gouging pieces of colonies, breaking their mineralized "houses", while most arthropod predators on bryozoans eat individual zooids.


title: Bryozoa

text: In freshwater, bryozoans are among the most important filter feeders, along with sponges and mussels. Freshwater bryozoans are attacked by many predators, including snails, insects, and fish.


title: Bryozoa

text: In Thailand the introduced species "Pomacea canaliculata" (golden apple snail), which is generally a destructive herbivore, has wiped out phylactolaemate populations wherever it has appeared. "P. canaliculata" also preys on a common freshwater gymnolaemate, but with less devastating effect. Indigenous snails do not feed on bryozoans.


title: Bryozoa

text: Several species of the hydroid family Zancleidae have symbiotic relationships with bryozoans, some of which are beneficial to the hydroids while others are parasitic. Modifications appear in the shapes of some these hydroids, for example smaller tentacles or encrustation of the roots by bryozoans. The bryozoan "Alcyonidium nodosum" protects the whelk "Burnupena papyracea" against predation by the powerful and voracious rock lobster "Jasus lalandii". While whelk shells encrusted by the bryozoans are stronger than those without this reinforcement, chemical defenses produced by the bryozoans are probably the more significant deterrent.


title: Bryozoa

text: In the Banc d'Arguin offshore Mauritania the species "Acanthodesia commensale", which is generally growing attached to gravel and hard-substrate, has formed a facultative symbiotic relationship with hermit crabs of the species "Pseudopagurus cf. granulimanus" resulting in egg-size structures known as bryoliths. Nucleating on an empty gastropod shell, the bryozoan colonies form multilamellar skeletal crusts that produce spherical encrustations and extend the living chamber of the hermit crab through helicospiral tubular growth.


title: Bryozoa

text: Some phylactolaemate species are intermediate hosts for a group of myxozoa that have also been found to cause proliferative kidney disease, which is often fatal in salmonid fish, and has severely reduced wild fish populations in Europe and North America.


title: Bryozoa

text: "Membranipora membranacea", whose colonies feed and grow exceptionally fast in a wide range of current speeds, was first noticed in the Gulf of Maine in 1987 and quickly became the most abundant organism living on kelps. This invasion reduced the kelp population by breaking their fronds, so that its place as the dominant "vegetation" in some areas was taken by another invader, the large alga "Codium fragile tomentosoides". These changes reduced the area of habitat available for local fish and invertebrates. "M. membranacea" has also invaded the northwest coast of the US. A few freshwater species have been also found thousands of kilometers from their native ranges. Some may have been transported naturally as statoblasts. Others more probably were spread by humans, for example on imported water plants or as stowaways on ships.


title: Bryozoa

text: Fish farms and hatcheries have lost stock to proliferative kidney disease, which is caused by one or more myxozoans that use bryozoans as alternate hosts.


title: Bryozoa

text: Some fishermen in the North Sea have had to find other work because of a form of eczema (a skin disease) known as "Dogger Bank itch", caused by contact with bryozoans that have stuck to nets and lobster pots.


title: Bryozoa

text: Marine bryozoans are often responsible for biofouling on ships' hulls, on docks and marinas, and on offshore structures. They are among the first colonizers of new or recently cleaned structures. Freshwater species are occasional nuisances in water pipes, drinking water purification equipment, sewage treatment facilities, and the cooling pipes of power stations.


title: Bryozoa

text: A group of chemicals called bryostatins can be extracted from the marine bryozoan "Bugula neritina". In 2001 pharmaceutical company GPC Biotech licensed bryostatin 1 from Arizona State University for commercial development as a treatment for cancer. GPC Biotech canceled development in 2003, saying that bryostatin 1 showed little effectiveness and some toxic side effects. In January 2008 a clinical trial was submitted to the United States National Institutes of Health to measure the safety and effectiveness of Bryostatin 1 in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. However, no participants had been recruited by the end of December 2008, when the study was scheduled for completion. More recent work shows it has positive effects on cognition in sufferers of Alzheimer's disease with few side effects. About of bryozoans must be processed to extract of bryostatin, As a result, synthetic equivalents have been developed that are simpler to produce and apparently at least as effective.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: "Sorry" is a song recorded by Canadian singer Justin Bieber for his fourth studio album, "Purpose" (2015). Written by Bieber, Julia Michaels, Justin Tranter, Skrillex, and BloodPop; the song was produced by the latter two. It was released on October 22, 2015, as the second single from the album. A dancehall pop, tropical house and moombahton song, "Sorry" contains in its instrumentation "brassy horn bleats", warm island rhythms and a bouncy dembow riddim drum beat. Lyrically, "Sorry" is a plea for a chance to apologize to a lover, with Bieber asking forgiveness and a second chance to redeem himself. Bieber has since said that the lover was Selena Gomez.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: Commercially, the song topped the charts of thirteen countries. It spent seven weeks at number one on the Canadian Hot 100 and three weeks at number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100; "Sorry" was replaced by third single "Love Yourself" on the chart dated February 13, 2016, making Bieber the 12th act in the Hot 100's history to succeed himself at number one. He also accomplished the same feat in the United Kingdom, becoming the third act ever to self-replace at the top of the UK Singles Chart. Globally, the song became one of the best selling digital music releases with over 10 million in sales in 2016 alone.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: While working on his then-upcoming fourth studio album, Justin Bieber enlisted American DJ Skrillex to produce songs for the record after successfully working with him on "Where Are Ü Now", which he sent to Skrillex and Diplo for their project Jack Ü and that became a worldwide hit and helped to revamp his career. Regarding his will to work with the producer, Bieber commented: "Skrillex is a genius. He’s super futuristic and I just love his sounds. I think being able to incorporate that sound with what I’m doing has been super cool because it’s like new and fresh, and I feel like no one’s done it before." Skrillex, on other hand, commented about his involvement on the album, saying: "I heard some well-written songs that were really good that they wanted me to do production on and from there, we wrote some new songs. It was an opportunity to try some stuff that I had never done before and we ended up making something really unique." Skrillex also invited Michael Tucker, under his producer name BloodPop, to help him produce some tracks for the album. The producer wrote "Sorry" with other songwriters and immediately felt it was a relatable song. Later, he needed to convince Bieber's team that "Sorry" was "the song".


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: On October 18, 2015, Bieber announced the release of "Sorry", and a day later, the song was promoted through a Vine video that played the song in the background and featured King Bach and Michelle Obama. On October 21, 2015, Bieber posted an acoustic 13-second sample of the song, while on October 22, 2015, the song was officially released as "Purpose" second single. In the same day, Bieber posted a video on his Instagram, where he appeared in the studio with BloodPop and Skrillex, listening to the song and riding around on hoverboards. A "Latino remix" of the song, featuring Colombian singer J Balvin, was released worldwide on November 6, 2015.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: "Sorry" is the result of a studio collaboration between Michael Tucker, under his producer moniker BloodPop, with songwriters Justin Tranter and Julia Michaels. Tucker was responsible for writing the music, while Tranter and Michaels contributed to the song's lyrics. Michaels and Tranter, who had already worked together in a handful of tracks and became songwriting partners, were asked to go write with Tucker in a session. Tucker created the song's melody with Bieber in mind, while Michaels was in a vocal booth with Tranter and the word "sorry" "popped out" of her head, as she recalled. After that, they came up with the lyrics, inspired by a personal event Michaels had, sent the demo to Bieber's team, and Bieber himself loved the track and "changed a couple things to make it feel more like him." Skrillex was responsible for the beat and claimed that he also acted as a support "for what Justin was saying and help[ed] keep it simple, and record good, memorable songs." Initially, Bieber thought the song was too safe and simple, but Skrillex told him it has a very refined simplicity about it.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: BloodPop commented in an interview about the song, stating: "From the perspective of the producer, I find the muffled vocal chops to represent the people or situations in which Justin or the listener could be apologetic towards. The vocal manipulations make an ambiguous sound and a moment later Justin replies, Sorry. I love that narrative. Justin's vocal delivery and the triumphant key of the song gave the narrative a warm color. I am most excited by music that allows the beat to tell a story as much as the vocal and in 'Sorry,' the beat is saying moving forward, and apologizing, can be exciting and fun." Bieber, on the other hand, opined that "the more he listened to it the more he fell in love with it." He continued: "The melodies are really catchy and some people would misinterpret that for being safe but it's like The Beatles' 'Let It Be', simple melodies but it's so effective "music right now is missing those effective real songs."


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, the song is composed in the key of E major with a moderately fast tempo of 100 beats per minute. Bieber's vocals range from the note of Eb to Bb. "Sorry" is a dancehall pop, tropical house and moombahton song. It contains a "smooth but electrifying EDM beat, incorporating "brassy horn bleats", a reggaeton rhythm, warm island rhythms and a dembow riddim beat. It starts with a lone piano note before a distinct motif, most precisely a high-pitched coo, takes over. Bieber uses a smooth falsetto during the track. Bianca Gracie of Idolator drew parallels between "Sorry" and previous single "What Do You Mean?" for sharing "a similar tropical pop route" and found there were "a few more spritz of sweet, beachy and dancehall-inspired notes". Many critics also found sonic similarities between both songs.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: Lyrically, the song is a plea "for a chance to apologize to an unidentified lover", with Bieber asking forgiveness, "saying that he misses more than just her body and "hoping they can 'both say the words and forget this. During the song, he sings: "I know you know that I made those mistakes maybe once or twice By once or twice I mean maybe a couple of hundred times. So let me, so let me redeem myself tonight Because I just need one more shot, a second chance." Andrew Unterbgerger of "Spin" noted that on the track, "Bieber's still a little too proud to beg he undercuts the penitence of his verses by deflecting 'You know there are no innocents in this game for two,' and never actually delivering the titular apology, merely asking if doing so would still be productive."


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: Regarding its lyrics, Sheldon Pearce of "Complex" found it to be "sincere", while Amy Davidson of Digital Spy thought the opposite, considering it an unapologetic song. Meanwhile, Jamieson Cox of "The Verge" wondered, "Is he singing to an ex or to listeners around the world?" Julia Michaels, one of its songwriters, claimed that, "We were just trying to capture that moment in a relationship or a particular moment in your life where you realize you made a mistake and you're finally ready to admit it and apologize." Later, Bieber admitted that the song was not an apology for his past transgressions, explaining: People ran with that that I was like, apologizing with that song and stuff. It really had nothing to do with that. It was about a girl." Later, he confirmed that the girl in question was his ex-girlfriend Selena Gomez.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: The song received critical acclaim. Leah Greenblatt of "Entertainment Weekly" cited the song for being "stripped down for maximum aerodynamics, the vocals mentholated and sweetened with a brushstroke of bass here, a snake-charmer synth line there." Andy Kellman of AllMusic selected the song as one of the album's highlights, citing the song and "What Do You Mean?" as tracks that "showed him making a deeper connection with his material and that, yes, he was progressing from performer to artist." Brad Nelson of "Pitchfork" also praised both songs for being "vivid tropical house tracks that sound like sunlight drifting down through palm fronds. Bieber's voice often resembles a breath contorted inexpressively through notes; here, he lets it weightlessly fall through textures. They are his best performances to date, allowing him to flex a rhythmic playfulness without communicating an iota of legible emotion." "USA Today" Maeve McDermott wrote: "'Sorry' is just as much of an earworm as his previous single 'What Do You Mean?', with the same summery neon-hued electronic production." For Bianca Gracie of Idolator, the song "is a few notches above of its single predecessor" due to "the combination of dancehall flair and the continued trend of his 'come hither' laid-back vocals," considering it "one that has been unmatched this year."


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: Michelles Geslani of Consequence of Sound applauded the collaboration with Skrillex and BloodPop, saying "the results are beyond promising. It's a chill number marked by warm island rhythms." Brennan Carley of "Spin" wrote that the song "starts with a tropical drum-n-bass situation before exploding into a glorious, neatly wound chorus," calling it "a subdued step forward for the Biebs." Andrew Unterberger of the same publication noted: "Like any number of classic Motown songs, 'Sorry' understands that take-me-back songs are always more persuasive when they sound like fun you're missing out on, and the song's euphoric drop is a better second-chance argument than any the singer could present himself." Mikael Wood of the "Los Angeles Times" called it "airy tropical-house banger that makes the singer's first big hit, the puppyish 'Baby', seem like an artifact from a different era (which it pretty much is).""Time" Nolan Feeney also appreciated the song saying: With a beat this breezy, though, that's nothing to be sorry about." Dee Lockett of Vulture.com wrote: "it's a Caribbean-flavored house beat over which Bieber flexes his best falsetto." Sam C. Mac of "Slant Magazine" opined that the song brought "a mini-resurrection of the house/reggaeton fusion Moombahton, along with Bieber's most grown-n'-sexy lyrics." Amy Davidson of Digital Spy concluded: "With its show-offy vocal distortions and tropical feel, 'Sorry' might not be a sincere attempt at forgiveness—but that's probably why it sounds so good."


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: "Billboard" ranked "Sorry" at number 9 on its year-end list for 2015, writing: "Justin Bieber should try apologizing more often. From the bright opening notes to the manipulated vocal loop in the chorus, the Biebs brought EDM to his pop palette and made fans out of haters with an unforgivably good single."


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: In the United States, "Sorry" debuted at number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100 on the issue dated November 14, 2015 with 277,572 downloads sold and 23.1 million US streams in its first week, becoming Bieber's second consecutive top-10 debut (after "What Do You Mean?" which debuted at number one) and his eighth top-10 "Billboard" single overall. With having debuted at number one and number two with prior single '"What Do You Mean?" and "Sorry", respectively, Bieber's "Purpose" became only the fourth album in "Billboard's" history to have yielded multiple songs that entered the Hot 100 in the top-two positions (the others were Mariah Carey's "Daydream" in 1995–96, "Butterfly" in 1997–98, and Eminem's "Recovery" in 2010). Additionally, with "Sorry" at number two and "What Do You Mean" at number five, Justin Bieber became the 20th solo male artist to have two songs inside the top five. The following week, the song sold 129,000 downloads, descending to number four on the Hot 100. However, it moved from 37 to 27 on the Radio Songs chart, with 46 million all-format audience impressions. In its fourth week, after the release of "Purpose", the song ascended again to number two on the Hot 100, selling 82,000 copies. That week, Bieber's "What Do You Mean?" and "Love Yourself" (a track from "Purpose", which debuted on the chart after selling 140,000 downloads) were at number five and four on the Hot 100, respectively, which made the singer be only the third artist to have three singles inside the chart's top five (the others being The Beatles in 1964 and 50 Cent in 2005). Additionally, the same week, Bieber had 17 songs on the Hot 100 simultaneously, breaking the record previously held by The Beatles and Drake.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: For the chart dated December 12, 2015, after Bieber's performance on the American Music Awards, "Sorry" ascended from two to one on Digital Songs, selling 178,000 downloads and becoming Bieber's third chart-topper on that chart, after 2012's "Boyfriend" and prior single "What Do You Mean?". For the chart dated January 2, 2016, the song became Bieber's first number-one single on the Streaming Songs chart, ascending from 2 to 1. That week, it also became his second number-one song on the Mainstream Top 40 chart. After eight non-consecutive weeks (seven consecutively) at number two, on the week charting 23 January 2016, "Sorry" moved up past Adele's "Hello" to become Bieber's second number-one single on the "Billboard" Hot 100, after selling 128,000 downloads and earning 145 million audience impressions. On the chart dated 6 February 2016, 'Sorry' stayed at the top of the Hot 100 for a third consecutive week, giving Bieber his longest number one on the chart. That week, Bieber's 'Love Yourself' ascended from 3 to 2, which made the singer be the 17th act in the Hot 100's history to rank at Nos. 1 and 2 simultaneously. He was just the 11th act to hold the Hot 100's top two as a lead artist on both songs. The following week, 'Sorry' became Bieber's first number-one song on the Radio Songs chart after earning 141 million audience impressions, however, it was beaten to the top on the Hot 100 by "Love Yourself". With that, Bieber became the 12th artist in the Hot 100's 57-year history to succeed himself at number one. On the issue dated 2 April 2016, "Sorry" spent its 21st week in the Hot 100's top ten, matching the mark for the most consecutive weeks logged in the Hot 100's top 10 from a song's debut. Impressively, Bieber's "What Do You Mean?" had already tied the record. The record was surpassed later by Bieber's own "Love Yourself", which spent 23 consecutive weeks in the top ten since its debut. As of February 2016, "Sorry" has sold 2 million copies in the U.S.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: In the United Kingdom, the song entered at number two on the UK Singles Chart in October 2015. It climbed to the top of the UK Singles Chart on 20 November 2015, with 104,000 combined chart sales and 5.35 million streams, becoming Bieber's second chart-topping song in Britain. That week, Bieber had three songs inside the Official Singles Chart's top five, including "Sorry" (1), "Love Yourself" (3) and "What Do You Mean?" (5). No other male artist had achieved that in 34 years, since John Lennon did in January, 1981. In addition, the singer had eight songs inside the chart's top 40, the first time ever that a living act achieved this many entries simultaneously in the Official Singles Chart top 40 (the closest was Elvis Presley who managed a maximum of seven entries in 1957). The following week, 'Sorry' remained at number one, meanwhile 'Love Yourself' reached the number two position, making Bieber be the first act to dominate the two spots of the Official Singles Chart in 30 years, since Madonna did in 1985 with "Into the Groove" and "Holiday". The next week, "Sorry" was beaten to the top by Bieber's "Love Yourself", earning 5.5 and 5.97 million streams, respectively. With that, Bieber became the first act to replace themselves on the chart since Elvis Presley did in 2005. Also, he was the first living act to do so since The Beatles did in December 1963. "Sorry" and "Love Yourself" remained at the same place for two more consecutive weeks, making Bieber the first artist ever to log four weeks at numbers 1 and 2 consecutively, breaking the record previously held by The Beatles, who logged three consecutive weeks at numbers 1 and 2 in 1967–68. "Sorry" was the tenth best-selling song in the UK with sales of 934,000 in combined units including streams. On June 10, 2016, it was revealed that "Sorry" had become the first song to hit 100 million streams in the UK. As of September 2017, the song had accumulated 724,000 in actual sales, 144 million in streams, making a total of 2,168,000 combined units.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: In Australia, "Sorry" entered at number two on the ARIA Singles Chart, becoming Bieber's third top-ten hit in 2015 and his fourth overall. In New Zealand, "Sorry" became Bieber's second consecutive number-one single.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: A dance video for "Sorry" was released on October 22, 2015. The video, which features the New Zealand dancers of ReQuest Dance Crew and The Royal Family dance crew, was directed and choreographed by New Zealander Parris Goebel, who also appears as a dancer. The video was initially intended to be a lyric video and was eventually kept as a dance video. As of April 2022, the music video has received 3.5 billion views on YouTube, making it the seventeenth most viewed video on the site, the 22nd to reach 1 billion views, the fifth fastest to reach 1 billion views, the fourth fastest to reach 2 billion views and the seventh fastest to reach 3 billion views.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: The lyric video for "Sorry" was released on October 29, 2015. The video features a girl (played by dancer Lauren Hudson Petrilli) who goes through a day of her life, with the words of the song appearing in random places as she wanders around inside and outside her house, alongside the use of special effects. The video was directed by Zach King and Aaron Benitez.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: Bieber performed the song on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" on November 13, 2015. He was also a musical guest on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". Additionally, Bieber performed the song during the 2015 American Music Awards, which took place at Microsoft Theater on 22 November 2015 in Los Angeles, California. The singer also took the stage to perform "Sorry" during the season nine finale of "The Voice" on 15 December 2015. Bieber performed the song live at the 2016 Brit Awards in London on February 24, 2016.


title: Sorry (Justin Bieber song)

text: In May 2016, "Billboard" reported that Bieber and Skrillex were being sued by indie artist White Hinterland, who claims the duo used her vocal loop from her 2014 song "Ring the Bell" without permission. Eight seconds of the "Ring the Bell" riff is allegedly used six times in "Sorry." Co-writers are also included in the suit. Producer Skrillex responded to the claim by uploading a video of himself manipulating the vocals of co-writer Julia Michaels. The lawsuit was later dropped.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: On October 14, 2004, Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701 (ICAO: FLG3701, IATA: 9E3701, or Flagship 3701) crashed near Jefferson City, Missouri, while flying from Little Rock National Airport to Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport. Flight 3701 was a repositioning flight with no passengers aboard; both pilots were killed. Federal investigators determined the crash was due to the pilots' unprofessional behavior and disregard for training and procedures.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701, operating under the Northwest Airlink banner, was a repositioning flight of an empty 50-seat Bombardier CRJ200 (aircraft registration ). The aircraft was built in 2000 and had accumulated 10,168 hours of flight time and completed 9,613 flight cycles at the time of the crash.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: On October 14, 2004, a different Pinnacle Airlines flight crew was scheduled to fly the incident aircraft from Little Rock National Airport to Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport, but this crew received an error message and aborted their take-off. Pinnacle Airlines dispatched maintenance crews to Little Rock to resolve the problem. The problem was identified and fixed. Because the aircraft was needed in Minneapolis the next morning, Flight 3701 was scheduled overnight as a repositioning flight, to move the plane from Little Rock to Minneapolis.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: The only persons on board Flight 3701 were the two pilots, Captain Jesse Rhodes (31) and First Officer Peter Cesarz (23). Cesarz trained at Gulfstream Academy, and Rhodes trained at Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University, both in Florida. Both pilots flew for Gulfstream International Airlines before being hired for Pinnacle Airlines. Rhodes had logged a total of 6,900 flight hours, including 973 hours on the CRJ-200, and Cesarz had 761 hours, with 222 of them on the CRJ-200.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: Flight 3701 departed Little Rock at 21:21 Central Daylight Time (CDT). The flight plan from Little Rock to Minneapolis indicated a planned cruising altitude of Flight Level (FL) 330, or about . After departing Little Rock, the plane pitched up sharply several times during its ascent, briefly reaching .


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: At 21:35, Flight 3701 requested clearance to climb to , the maximum operating altitude of the Bombardier CRJ series. Clearance was granted by air traffic control (ATC) at 21:36, and the plane climbed to its new cruising altitude shortly thereafter. At 21:54, the pilots began to struggle with control of their plane. Both engines lost power and the plane's stick shaker warned the pilots of an impending stall. The pilots declared an emergency and descended, temporarily regaining control of their aircraft at .


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: The pilots attempted to restart the engines, but could not do so. At 22:09, Flight 3701 asked ATC to direct them to the nearest airport for an emergency landing, and the controller on duty directed them to Jefferson City Memorial Airport in Jefferson City, Missouri. At 22:14, the pilots realized they were not going to reach the airport and began looking for a road or highway on which to land.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: Around 22:15, the plane crashed into the ground outside Jefferson City. Both crew members were killed. No casualties occurred on the ground.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: The investigation into the accident focused mainly on information contained on the flight data recorder and the cockpit voice recorder. This is the official version of events as determined by that investigation.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: Investigators determined that the two pilots were exploring the performance limits of the empty CRJ-200 on the flight. The pilots decided to test the limits of the CRJ and join the "410 club", referring to pilots who pushed CRJs to their maximal approved altitude of flight level 410 (FL410) or above sea level.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: The accident sequence started when the pilots performed several nonstandard maneuvers at , including a pitch-up at 2.3 "g" (23 m/s) that induced a stall warning. They set the autopilot to climb at to FL410. This exceeded the manufacturer's recommended climb rate at altitudes above FL380. In the attempt to reach FL410, the plane was pulled up at over 1.2 "g", and the angle of attack became excessive to maintain climb rate in the thinner upper atmosphere. After reaching FL410, the plane was cruising at indicated airspeed, barely above stall speed, and had over-stressed the engines.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: The plane's antistall devices activated while they were at altitude, but the pilots repeatedly overrode the automatic nose-down that would increase speed to prevent stall. After four overrides, both engines experienced flameout and shut down. The plane then stalled, and the pilots recovered from the stall at FL380 or while still having no engine thrust. At that altitude, six diversion airports were within reach for a forced landing. This led the pilots to pitch nose down in an attempt to restart the engines, which requires a dive sharp enough to attain the required airspeed for a windmill restart to make the blades in the turbines windmill at 10% N2 (turbine rotational speed). The captain did not take the necessary steps to ensure that the first officer achieved the needed airspeed or greater required for the windmill engine restart procedure and then did not demonstrate command authority by taking control of the airplane and accelerating it to at least that speed.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: The crew ended the descent when they had reached indicated airspeed, but neither engine core (N2) ever indicated any rotation during the entire descent. Since they were too high for an auxiliary power unit (APU) start, the ram air turbine (known as an "air-driven generator" on Bombardier products) was deployed to provide electric power for the aircraft, and the crew donned oxygen masks, as the cabin slowly depressurized due to loss of pressurization air from the engines.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: The crew glided for several minutes and then tried to restart engines using the APU at . This was again unsuccessful. They then declared to ATC that they had a single-engine flameout. At this point, they had four diversion airports available to them. They lost considerable altitude while continuing unsuccessfully to attempt to restart both the left engine (two times) and the right engine (two times) for over 14 minutes, using the emergency restart procedure. Despite their four auxiliary APU-assisted engine restart attempts, the pilots were unable to restart the engines because their cores had locked. Without core rotation, recovery from the double engine failure was not possible. At that point, the pilots finally declared to ATC that they had, in fact, lost both engines.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: The NTSB also determined from flight data recorder information that the turbofan jet engine (General Electric CF34-3B1) engine 2 turbine was operating at above the maximal redline temperature of at . Engine 1 HPT stayed below the redline.


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: On January 9, 2007, the National Transportation Safety Board issued its final report on Flight 3701, which concluded that the probable causes of the accident were:


title: Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701

text: Thomas Palmer, former manager of Pinnacle Airlines' training program, said about the crash: "It's beyond belief that a professional air crew would act in that manner." After the accident, the airline restricted CRJ-200 flights to a maximum altitude of FL370. It also changed its training program to include ground school and simulator training in high-altitude operations. In the year following the accident, each Pinnacle pilot was given simulator training up to FL410 and shown what occurred on Flight 3701.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: The cha-cha-cha (also called cha-cha), is a dance of Cuban origin. It is danced to the music of the same name introduced by the Cuban composer and violinist Enrique Jorrin in the early 1950s. This rhythm was developed from the danzón-mambo. The name of the dance is an onomatopoeia derived from the shuffling sound of the dancers' feet when they dance two consecutive quick steps (correctly, on the fourth count of each measure) that characterize the dance.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: In the early 1950s, Enrique Jorrín worked as a violinist and composer with the charanga group Orquesta América. The group performed at dance halls in Havana where they played danzón, danzonete, and danzon-mambo for dance-oriented crowds. Jorrín noticed that many of the dancers at these gigs had difficulty with the syncopated rhythms of the danzón-mambo. To make his music more appealing to dancers, Jorrín began composing songs where the melody was marked strongly on the first downbeat and the rhythm was less syncopated. When Orquesta América performed these new compositions at the Silver Star Club in Havana, it was noticed that the dancers had improvised a triple step in their footwork producing the sound "cha-cha-cha". Thus, the new style came to be known as "cha-cha-chá" and became associated with a dance where dancers perform a triple step.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: The basic footwork pattern of cha-cha-cha (one, two, three, cha-cha-one, two, three) is also found in several Afro-Cuban dances from the Santería religion. For example, one of the steps used in the dance practiced by the Orisha ethnicity's Ogun religious features an identical pattern of footwork. These Afro-Cuban dances predate the development of cha-cha-cha, and were known by many Cubans in the 1950s, especially those of African origin. Thus, the footwork of the cha-cha-cha was likely inspired by these Afro-Cuban dances.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: In 1953, Orquesta América released two of Jorrin's compositions, "La Engañadora" and "Silver Star", on the Cuban record label Panart. These were the first cha-cha-cha compositions ever recorded. They immediately became hits in Havana, and other Cuban charanga orchestras quickly imitated this new style. Soon, there was a cha-cha-cha craze in Havana's dance halls, popularizing both the music and the associated dance. This craze soon spread to Mexico City, and by 1955 the music and dance of the cha-cha-cha had become popular in Latin America, the United States, and Western Europe, following in the footsteps of the mambo, which had been a worldwide craze a few years earlier.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: Cha-cha-cha is danced to authentic Cuban music, although in ballroom competitions it is often danced to Latin pop or Latin rock. The music for the international ballroom cha-cha-cha is energetic and with a steady beat. The music may involve complex polyrhythms.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: Styles of cha-cha-cha dance may differ in the place of the chasse in the rhythmical structure. The original Cuban and the ballroom cha-cha-cha count is "one, two, three, cha-cha", or "one, two, three, four-and." A "street version" comes about because many social dancers count "one, two, cha-cha-cha" and thus shift the timing of the dance by a full beat of music. Note that the dance known as Salsa is the result of a similar timing shift of Mambo.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: In the International School of Ballroom Dance, the basic pattern involves the lead (usually the man) taking a checked forward step with the left foot, retaining some weight on the right foot. The knee of the right leg must stay bent and close to the back of the left knee, the left leg having straightened just prior to receiving part weight. This step is taken on the second beat of the bar. Full weight is returned to the right leg on the second step (beat three).


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: The fourth beat is split in two so the count of the next three steps is 4-and-1. These three steps constitute the "cha-cha chasse". A step to the side is taken with the left foot, the right foot is half closed towards the left foot (typically leaving both feet under the hips or perhaps closed together), and finally there is a last step to the left with the left foot. The length of the steps in the chasse depends very much on the effect the dancer is attempting to make.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: The partner takes a step back on the right foot, the knee being straightened as full weight is taken. The other leg is allowed to remain straight. It is possible it will shoot slightly but no deliberate flexing of the free leg is attempted. This is quite different from technique associated with salsa, for instance. On the next beat (beat three) weight is returned to the left leg. Then a chasse is danced RLR.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: Each partner is now in a position to dance the bar their partner just danced. Hence the fundamental construction of cha-cha-cha extends over two bars.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: The checked first step is a later development in the "international cha-cha-cha" style. Because of the action used during the forward step (the one taking only part weight) the basic pattern turns left, whereas in earlier times cha-cha-cha was danced without rotation of the alignment. Hip actions are allowed to occur at the end of every step. For steps taking a single beat the first half of the beat constitutes the foot movement and the second half is taken up by the hip movement. The hip sway eliminates any increase in height as the feet are brought towards each other.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: In general, steps in all directions should be taken first with the ball of the foot in contact with the floor, and then with the heel lowering when the weight is fully transferred; however, some steps require that the heel remain lifted from the floor. When weight is released from a foot, the heel should release from the floor first, allowing the toe to maintain contact with the floor.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: In the American School of Ballroom Dance, the basic step spans two measures of music (frequently counted "one, two, three, four-and, five, six, seven, eight-and" with "five" marking the beginning of the second measure. The leader steps sideways to the left on count 1, back onto the right foot on count 2, forward with the left foot on count 3, then a cha-cha consisting of a step sideways to the right on count 4 followed by a step in place on the left foot on "and" between count four and count 5 to permit another step sideways to the right on count 5 (or count 1 of the second measure), a step forward with the left foot on count 6, a step backward with the right foot on count 7, and a cha-cha to the left on the "eight-and" to set up another step sideways to the left to begin the next repetition of the pattern.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: In traditional American Rhythm style, Latin hip movement is achieved through the alternate bending and straightening action of the knees, though in modern competitive dancing, the technique is virtually identical to the "international Latin" style.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: In the international Latin style, the weighted leg is almost always straight. The free leg will bend, allowing the hips to naturally settle into the direction of the weighted leg. As a step is taken, a free leg will straighten the instant before it receives weight. It should then remain straight until it is completely free of weight again.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: Cha-cha-cha is one of the five dances of the "Latin American" program of international ballroom competitions.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: As described above, the basis of the modern dance was laid down in the 1950s by Pierre and Lavelle and developed in the 1960s by Walter Laird and other top competitors of the time. The basic steps taught to learners today are based on these accounts.


title: Cha-cha-cha (dance)

text: In general, steps are kept compact and the dance is danced generally without any rise and fall; this is the modern ballroom technique of cha-cha-cha (and other Latin dances).


title: Body modification

text: Body modification (or body alteration) is the deliberate altering of the human anatomy or human physical appearance. In its broadest definition it includes skin tattooing, socially acceptable decoration ("e.g.", common ear piercing in many societies), and religious rites of passage (e.g., circumcision in a number of cultures), as well as the modern primitive movement.


title: Body modification

text: Body modification is performed for a large variety of reasons, including aesthetics, sexual enhancement, rites of passage, religious beliefs, to display group membership or affiliation, in remembrance of lived experience, traditional symbolism such as axis mundi and mythology, to create body art, for shock value, and as self-expression, among other reasons.


title: Body modification

text: What counts as "body modification" varies in cultures. In western cultures, the cutting or removal of one's hair is not usually considered in the category of “body modification” despite it being literally modifying one’s body, and "body modification" is used to describe only less socially acceptable body alterations.


title: Body modification

text: Body modification can be contrasted with body adornment by defining body modification as “the physical alteration of the physical body [...] can be temporary or permanent, although most are permanent and modify the body forever”


title: Body modification

text: "Disfigurement" and "mutilation" (regardless of any appreciation this always applies objectively whenever a bodily function is gravely diminished or lost) are terms used by opponents of body modification to describe certain types of modifications, especially non-consensual ones. Those terms are used fairly uncontroversially to describe the victims of torture, who have endured damage to ears, eyes, feet, genitalia, hands, noses, teeth, and/or tongues, including amputation, burning, flagellation, piercing, skinning, and wheeling.


title: Body modification

text: Some invasive procedures that modify human genitals are performed with the informed consent of the patient, using anesthesia or sterilised surgical tools The phrase "genital mutilation" is sometimes used to describe procedures that individuals are forced to undergo castration, male circumcision, and female genital mutilation in this way. Intersex campaigners say that childhood modification of genitals of individuals with intersex conditions without their informed consent is a form of mutilation.


title: Body modification

text: In many ways self-mutilation is very different than body-modification. Body modification gives one the feeling of pride and excitement, giving one something to show off to others. Alternately, those who self-mutilate typically are ashamed of what they've done and want to hide any evidence of harm. Body modification is explored for adornment, self-expression, and an array of many other positive reasons, while self-mutilation is inflicted because of mental or emotional stress and the inability to cope with psychological pain. Those who self-mutilate do so in order to punish themselves, express internal turmoil, and reduce severe anxiety.


title: Doodle

text: A doodle is a drawing made while a person's attention is otherwise occupied. Doodles are simple drawings that can have concrete representational meaning or may just be composed of random and abstract lines or shapes, generally without ever lifting the drawing device from the paper, in which case it is usually called a scribble.


title: Doodle

text: Doodling and scribbling are most often associated with young children and toddlers, because their lack of hand–eye coordination and lower mental development often make it very difficult for any young child to keep their coloring attempts within the line art of the subject. Despite this, it is not uncommon to see such behavior with adults, in which case it is generally done jovially, out of boredom.


title: Doodle

text: Typical examples of doodling are found in school notebooks, often in the margins, drawn by students daydreaming or losing interest during class. Other common examples of doodling are produced during long telephone conversations if a pen and paper are available.


title: Doodle

text: Popular kinds of doodles include cartoon versions of teachers or companions in a school, famous TV or comic characters, invented fictional beings, landscapes, geometric shapes, patterns, textures, or phallic scenes. Most people who doodle often remake the same shape or type of doodle throughout their lifetime.


title: Doodle

text: The word "doodle" first appeared in the early 17th century to mean a fool or simpleton. It may derive from the German "Dudeltopf" or "Dudeldop", meaning simpleton or noodle (literally "nightcap"). It is the origin of the early eighteenth-century verb "to doodle", meaning "to swindle or to make a fool of". The modern meaning emerged as a term for a politician who was doing nothing in office at the expense of his constituents. That led to the more generalized verb "to doodle", which means to do nothing.


title: Doodle

text: In the final courtroom scene of the 1936 film "Mr. Deeds Goes to Town", the main character explains the concept of "doodling" to a judge unfamiliar with the word, saying that "People draw the most idiotic pictures when they're thinking." The character, who has travelled from a fictional town in Vermont, describes the word "doodler" as being "a name we made up back home" for people who make "foolish designs" on paper when their mind is on something else.


title: Doodle

text: The meaning "fool, simpleton" is intended in the song title "Yankee Doodle", originally sung by British colonial troops during the American Revolutionary War.


title: Doodle

text: According to a study published in the scientific journal "Applied Cognitive Psychology", doodling can aid a person's memory by expending just enough energy to keep one from daydreaming, which demands a lot of the brain's processing power, as well as from not paying attention. Thus, it acts as a mediator between the spectrum of thinking too much or thinking too little and helps focus on the current situation. The study was done by Professor Jackie Andrade, of the School of Psychology at the University of Plymouth, who reported that doodlers in her experiment recalled 7.5 pieces of information (out of 16 total) on average, 29% more than the average of 5.8 recalled by the control group made of non-doodlers.


title: Doodle

text: Doodling has positive effects on human comprehension as well. Creating visual depictions of information allows for a deeper understanding of material being learned. When doodling, a person is engaging neurological pathways in ways that allow for effective and efficient sifting and processing of information. For these reasons, doodling is used as an effective study tool and memory device.


title: Doodle

text: Doodling can be used as a stress relieving technique. This is similar to other motor activities such as fidgeting or pacing that are also used to alleviate mental stress. According to a review of over 9,000 submitted doodles, nearly 2/3 of respondents recalled doodling when in a "tense or restless state" as a means to reduce those feelings. Scientists believe that doodling's stress relieving properties arise from the way that the act of doodling engages with the brain's default mode network. According to graphologist and behavior specialist Ingrid Seger-Woznicki, "we [doodle] because we’re problem solving on an unconscious level" and seeking to "create our life without stressing about it". Doodling is often incorporated into art therapy, allowing its users to slow down, focus and de-stress.


title: Doodle

text: Alexander Pushkin's notebooks are celebrated for their superabundance of marginal doodles, which include sketches of friends' profiles, hands, and feet. These notebooks are regarded as a work of art in their own right. Full editions of Pushkin's doodles have been undertaken on several occasions. Some of Pushkin's doodles were animated by Andrei Khrzhanovsky and Yuriy Norshteyn in the 1987 film "My Favorite Time".


title: Doodle

text: Other notable literary doodlers have included: Samuel Beckett; the poet and physician John Keats, who doodled in the margins of his medical notes; Sylvia Plath; and the Nobel laureate (in literature, 1913) poet Rabindranath Tagore, who made numerous doodles in his manuscript.


title: Doodle

text: Mathematician Stanislaw Ulam developed the Ulam spiral for visualization of prime numbers while doodling during a boring presentation at a mathematics conference.


title: Doodle

text: Many American Presidents, including Thomas Jefferson, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton, have been known to doodle during meetings.


title: Doodle

text: A portfolio featuring American Presidents' doodles while in office, including those of Herbert Hoover, John F. Kennedy, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, can be found in "Presidential Doodles: Two Centuries of Scribbles, Scratches, Squiggles & Scrawls from the Oval Office", introductions by Paul Collins and David Greenberg (New York: Cabinet Books and Basic Books, 2006) . ISBN


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: Yamaguchi became a hero and a martyr to the Japanese far-right, and commemorations in his honor continue to this day. Yamaguchi's actions inspired a number of copycat crimes, including the Shimanaka incident in 1961, and inspired Nobel Prize-winning novelist Kenzaburō Ōe's novellas "Seventeen" and "Death of a Political Youth". A photograph of the Asanuma assassination taken by Japanese photojournalist Yasushi Nagao won World Press Photo of the Year for 1960 and the 1961 Pulitzer Prize.


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: Yamaguchi was born on 22 February 1943 in Taitō ward, Tokyo. He was the second son of Yamaguchi Shinpei, who by 1960 would become a high-ranking officer in the Japan Self Defense Forces, and was the maternal grandson of the writer Namiroku Murakami, famous for his violent novels glorifying the chivalric code of yakuza gangsters. Yamaguchi grew up in relative privilege, but was radicalized as a teenager by his older brother. At age 16, he joined prominent right-wing ultranationalist Bin Akao's Greater Japan Patriotic Party (日本愛国党, "Nihon Aikokutō").


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: Akao was virulently anti-communist and strongly pro-United States. Thus when left-wing protesters, led by Asanuma and the Japan Socialist Party, staged the massive Anpo protests against the 1960 revision of the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty (known as "Anpo" in Japanese), Akao became convinced that Japan was on the verge of a communist revolution and mobilized his followers to stage counter-protests. Yamaguchi participated in these counter-protest activities, and was arrested and released 10 times over the course of 1959 and 1960.


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: Over the course of his participation in the Anpo protests, Yamaguchi became further radicalized and disillusioned with Akao's leadership, which he felt was not radical enough. On 29 May 1960, as the Anpo protests began to escalate in size and strength, Yamaguchi resigned from Akao's group in order to be free to take more "decisive" action.


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: On 12 October 1960, Yamaguchi was in the large crowd of 2,500 spectators at a televised election debate held in Hibiya Public Hall in Hibiya Park in central Tokyo, featuring Suehiro Nishio of the Democratic Socialist Party, Inejirō Asanuma of the Japan Socialist Party, and Hayato Ikeda of the Liberal Democratic Party. Asanuma was the second to speak, and took the stage at 3:00 p.m.


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: At 3:05 p.m., Yamaguchi rushed onto the stage and made a deep thrust into Asanuma's left flank with a 33-centimetre samurai short sword (wakizashi) he had stolen from his father. Yamaguchi then tried to turn the sword on himself, but was swarmed and detained by bystanders. Asanuma died within minutes from massive internal bleeding.


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: Following the assassination, Yamaguchi was arrested and imprisoned awaiting trial. Throughout his imprisonment, Yamaguchi remained calm and composed and freely gave extensive testimony to police. Yamaguchi consistently asserted that he had acted alone and without any direction from others. Less than three weeks after the assassination, on 2 November, Yamaguchi mixed a small amount of toothpaste with water and wrote on his cell wall, "Long live the Emperor" and “Would that I had seven lives to give for my country” (七生報国, "shichishō hōkoku"), the latter a reference to the famous last words of fourteenth-century samurai Kusunoki Masashige. Yamaguchi then knotted strips of his bedsheet into a makeshift rope and used it to hang himself from a light fixture.


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: Right-wing groups celebrated Yamaguchi as a martyr; they gave a burial coat, kimono, and belt to his parents and performed a memorial service for him. His ashes were interred in Aoyama Cemetery.


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: A photograph taken by Yasushi Nagao immediately after Yamaguchi withdrew his sword from Asanuma won the 1961 Pulitzer Prize, and the 1960 World Press Photo award. Footage of the incident was also captured.


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: On 15 December 1960, just weeks after Yamaguchi's suicide, a nationwide coalition of Japanese right-wing groups held a "National Memorial Service for Our Martyred Brother Yamaguchi Otoya" in the same Hibya Public Hall in Tokyo where Yamaguchi had assassinated Asanuma. Since then, right-wing groups have held an annual commemoration of Yamaguchi's death anniversary each year on 2 November. In October 2010, right-wing groups staged a large-scale celebration of the 50th anniversary of Yamaguchi's assassination of Asanuma in Hibiya Park.


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: Yamaguchi's actions and the massive publicity they received inspired a rash of copycat crimes, as a number of political figures became targets of assassination plots and attempts over the next few years. One of the notable crimes inspired by Yamaguchi's attack was the Shimanaka Incident of February 1961, in which another 17-year-old rightist, Kazutaka Komori, attempted to assassinate the president of "Chūō Kōron" magazine.


title: Otoya Yamaguchi

text: Japanese author Kenzaburō Ōe based his 1961 novellas "Seventeen" and "Death of a Political Youth" on Yamaguchi.


title: RPCS3

text: RPCS3 is a free and open-source video game console emulator and debugger for the Sony PlayStation 3 that runs on Windows, Linux, FreeBSD and macOS operating systems, allowing PlayStation 3 games and software to be played and debugged on a personal computer. It is being developed in the C++ programming language targeting x86-64 CPUs and features OpenGL and Vulkan as its backend renderers.


title: RPCS3

text: As of May 24, 2022, the compatibility list marks 2207 games as playable and 924 games being able to go in-game.


title: RPCS3

text: Despite the general idea that the complexity of the PlayStation 3's Cell architecture would prevent it from being emulated, RPCS3 released on May 23, 2011, by programmers DH and Hykem as a working emulator. The developers initially hosted the project on Google Code and eventually moved it to GitHub on August 27, 2013. The emulator was first able to successfully run simple homebrew projects in September 2011 and got its first public release in June 2012 as v0.0.0.2.


title: RPCS3

text: On February 9, 2017, RPCS3 received its first implementation of a PPU thread scheduler, enhancing its emulation of the many-core Cell microprocessor. On February 16, 2017, RPCS3 gained the ability to install official PlayStation 3 firmware directly to its core file system. In May 2017, it was reported that the implementation of the Vulkan graphics API had shown some performance improvements approaching 400%, pushing several games into "playable" status.


title: RPCS3

text: In August 2022, the developers of RPCS3 implemented save states into the emulator. This feature had previously been considered infeasible due to technical limitations.


title: RPCS3

text: As of August 18, 2022, the emulator requires a 64-bit version of Windows 7 or later, a modern Linux distribution, macOS 11.6 or later, or a modern BSD distribution. The PC must have at least 4 GB of RAM, 8 GB recommended, an x86-64 CPU and a GPU supporting one of the supported graphics APIs: OpenGL 4.3 or greater, or Vulkan, the latter being recommended. Apart from the game itself to be run, the emulator requires the PlayStation 3's firmware, which can be downloaded from Sony's official website.


title: RPCS3

text: RPCS3 received significant media attention in April 2017 for its ability to emulate "Persona 5", achieving playability prior to the game's Western release date. In September 2017, "Persona" developer Atlus issued a DMCA takedown notice against RPCS3's Patreon page. The action was motivated by the Patreon page making frequent mentions on the emulator's progress on emulating "Persona 5". The demand, however, was settled by only removing all "Persona 5" references from the page.


title: Irish Sea

text: The Irish Sea is an extensive body of water that separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is linked to the Celtic Sea in the south by St George's Channel and to the Inner Seas off the West Coast of Scotland in the north by the North Channel.


title: Irish Sea

text: Anglesey, North Wales, is the largest island in the Irish Sea, followed by the Isle of Man. The term "Manx Sea" may occasionally be encountered (, , ).


title: Irish Sea

text: On its shoreline are Scotland to the north, England to the east, Wales to the southeast, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland to the west. The Irish Sea is of significant economic importance to regional trade, shipping and transport, as well as fishing and power generation in the form of wind power and nuclear power plants. Annual traffic between Great Britain and Ireland amounts to over 12 million passengers and of traded goods.


title: Irish Sea

text: The Irish Sea joins the North Atlantic at both its northern and southern ends. To the north, the connection is through the North Channel between Scotland and Northern Ireland and the Malin Sea. The southern end is linked to the Atlantic through the St George's Channel between Ireland and Pembrokeshire, and the Celtic Sea. It is composed of a deeper channel about long and wide on its western side and shallower bays to the east. The depth of the western channel ranges from to .


title: Irish Sea

text: Cardigan Bay in the south, and the waters to the east of the Isle of Man, are less than deep. With a total water volume of and a surface area of , 80% is to the west of the Isle of Man. The largest sandbanks are the Bahama and King William Banks to the east and north of the Isle of Man and the Kish Bank, Codling Bank, Arklow Bank and Blackwater Bank near the coast of Ireland. The Irish Sea, at its greatest width, is and narrows to .


title: Irish Sea

text: The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Irish Sea (with St George's Channel) as follows,


title: Irish Sea

text: The Irish Sea has undergone a series of dramatic changes over the last 20,000 years as the last glacial period ended and was replaced by warmer conditions. At the height of the glaciation, the central part of the modern sea was probably a long freshwater lake. As the ice retreated 10,000 years ago, the lake reconnected to the sea.


title: Irish Sea

text: The Irish Sea was formed in the Neogene era. Notable crossings include several invasions from Britain. The Norman invasion of Ireland took place in stages during the late 12th century from Porthclais near St. Davids, Wales, in Hulks, Snekkars, Keels and Cogs to Wexford Harbour, Leinster. The Tudors crossed the Irish Sea to invade in 1529 in caravels and carracks. In 1690 the English fleet set sail for the Williamite War in Ireland from Hoylake, Wirral, the departure becoming permanently known as King's Gap as a result.


title: Irish Sea

text: Because Ireland has neither tunnel nor bridge to connect it with Great Britain, the vast majority of heavy goods trade is done by sea. Northern Ireland ports handle of goods trade with the rest of the United Kingdom annually; the ports in the Republic of Ireland handle , representing 50% and 40% respectively of total trade by weight.


title: Irish Sea

text: The Port of Liverpool handles of cargo and 734,000 passengers a year. Holyhead port handles most of the passenger traffic from Dublin and Dún Laoghaire ports, as well as of freight.


title: Irish Sea

text: Ports in the Republic handle 3,600,000 travellers crossing the sea each year, amounting to 92% of all Irish Sea travel.


title: Irish Sea

text: Ferry connections from Wales to Ireland across the Irish Sea include Fishguard Harbour and Pembroke to Rosslare, Holyhead to Dún Laoghaire and Holyhead to Dublin. From Scotland, Cairnryan connects with both Belfast and Larne. There is also a connection between Liverpool and Belfast via the Isle of Man or direct from Birkenhead. The world's largest car ferry, "Ulysses", is operated by Irish Ferries on the Dublin Port–Holyhead route; Stena Line also operates between Britain and Ireland.


title: Irish Sea

text: Transport for Wales Rail, Iarnród Éireann, Irish Ferries, Stena Line, Northern Ireland Railways, Stena Line and ScotRail promote SailRail with through rail tickets for the train and the ferry.


title: Irish Sea

text: The British ship LCT 326 sank in the Irish sea and was discovered in March 2020. In September 2021, the British Navy ship HMS Mercury was discovered; it sank in 1940. The British ship SS Mesaba was sunk by the Nasiz in 1918 and discovered more than a hundred years later, in 2022. This ship is well known for sailing near the Titanic and for attempting to warn the Titanic about dangerous icebergs.