title: Kansas City International Airport

text: A $258 million terminal renovation was completed in November 2004. Improvements included, amongst other things, increasing the size of each structural bay to provide larger spaces for vestibules, concessions, retail and public seating as well as new bathrooms inside security. Following the renovations, all three terminals included blue terrazzo floors. In May 2007, the final portion of the project, a new rental car facility and additional art fixtures, were completed.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: In March 2010, the Transportation Security Administration announced that the airport would be one of the first in the U.S. to have full-body scanners with the first one used at Southwest Airlines beginning in the summer of 2010.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: Despite requests from Kansas City, the airport has been unable to change its original International Air Transport Association (IATA) Mid-Continent designation of MCI, which had already been registered on navigational charts. Further complicating requests to change the designation, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) at the time reserved all call letters with "K" or "W" for radio and television stations, so KCI was not viable. The "W" and "K" restrictions have since been lifted, but the IATA is reluctant to change names that have appeared on navigational charts. The "KCI" designation is also already , Kon Airport in East Timor, so that one would have to change, adding delay and confusion. Nearby New Century AirCenter also carries the IATA code JCI (although the FAA refers to it as IXD and the ICAO as KIXD), which could also lead to confusion.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: Icelandair launched Kansas City's first transatlantic flight in May 2018, using Boeing 757's to connect the airport with its Reykjavik hub. As the airline reviewed its route network in the wake of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings, it announced in late 2019 that the service would not return for the following summer season.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: Construction is currently underway on a new single terminal with 39 gates on the site of the former Terminal A. This project, which will fulfill a longstanding goal to consolidate the terminals into one, will be completed in early 2023.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: The new single terminal, by SOM Architects, is efficient and environmentally friendly. The H shaped building has gates arrayed along two concourses, A and B, and is designed to make the passenger experience pleasant, with large windows, spacious seating areas and seats equipped with USB charging outlets. The design will also make passenger transfers a greater possibility. Once past security, many (primarily KC-based) food and beverage options will be available throughout the two concourses, and concentrated at two central nodes. Delta Air Lines is building a Sky Club above the Concourse B central node. International gates in Concourse A will allow two wide body jets to park at the same time - useful for the World Cup events in Kansas City, in 2026. The terminal will open with fourteen security lanes in two wide halls immediately beyond the main ticketing "head house". For those concerned about walking long distances, the two concourses are connected by moving walkways. There will also be a wide variety of permanent art installations, play areas, an airplane interior mockup to get new fliers used to the experience of flying, rooms for nursing mothers, and a dog relief station. A new six thousand capacity garage has also been built.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: The airport originally consisted of three terminals numbered through gate 90, although the airport has never contained 90 gates. The numbering is to make it easier to identify which terminal a gate is in: Terminal B (gates B31-B60) and Terminal C (gates C61-C90). Terminal B contains 20 gates and Terminal C contains 22 gates. In November 2017, Kansas City, Missouri voters approved a plan to build a new terminal on the site formerly occupied by Terminal A. In 2018, Terminal C underwent renovations to better handle international flights. Demolition of the former Terminal A began in June 2019, with construction expected to finish in 2023.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: The airport has a consolidated rental car facility at the corners of London and Paris and Bern and London Streets on the airport property. Each terminal has four rental car shuttle bus stops. The shuttle buses are operated by First Transit and REM Inc. The buses used for the shuttle service are Gillig low-floor buses. These are silver in color and indicate RENTAL CAR SHUTTLE BUS on the side. The shuttles come through the terminal every two to five minutes and are free of charge for all passengers and guests of the airport.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: , The Kansas City Area Transportation Authority has implemented improvements to the public bus service to the airport. Route 229 services the airport on about 18 trips per weekday, with the first bus departing at 5:32 a.m. and the last at 11:17 p.m. The bus also operates 18 round trips on Saturday and Sunday. The bus services all active terminals and provides service to the 12th and Charlotte East Village transit center in Downtown Kansas City, with intermediate stops. Systemwide fare is free.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: A number of private scheduled shared shuttle services operate from MCI to regional cities (including Saint Joseph, Missouri; Columbia, Missouri; Topeka, Kansas; Lawrence, Kansas); and military bases (Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri; Fort Riley, Kansas; Fort Leavenworth, Kansas; and Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri).


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: In 2009, the airport was reported as having the highest number of wildlife strikes of any airport in the US, based on take-offs and landings (57 per 100,000). FAA records showed 146 strikes in 2008, up from 37 in 2000.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: The Kansas City Aviation Department issued a press release on October 15, 2009, that outlined its Wildlife Hazard Management Plan created in 1998 to reduce wildlife strikes, including removal of of trees, zero tolerance for Canada geese, making sure grain crops are not grown with of the runways, and harassing wildlife to keep it clear of the airport. Furthermore, in 2007, the airport elected to enact a policy of 100% submitting wildlife strike reports to the FAA/USDA National Strike Database. When birds are involved in a strike, whether reported by an aircraft owner or operator, or the bird was found on the runway, feathers and/or DNA samples are recovered and sent to the Smithsonian Institution for positive identification. This documentation is conducted regardless of whether the strike occurred on or off the airfield.


title: Kansas City International Airport

text: In the reporting period of January 1990 to September 2008, none of the encounters resulted in injury to people and all of the airplanes landed safely. The report listed the most serious incidents.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The original "Star Wars" trilogy, formerly marketed as the "Star Wars" Trilogy (and colloquially referred to as the 'original trilogy'), is the first set of three films produced in the "Star Wars" franchise, an American space opera created by George Lucas. It was produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by 20th Century Fox, and consists of "Star Wars" (1977), "The Empire Strikes Back" (1980) and "Return of the Jedi" (1983). Beginning "in medias res", the original trilogy serves as the second act of the nine-episode Skywalker saga. It was followed by a prequel trilogy between 1999 and 2005, and a sequel trilogy between 2015 and 2019. Collectively, they are referred to as the "Skywalker Saga" to distinguish them from films set within the same universe.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The films center on the Galactic Civil War between the Rebel Alliance and the tyrannical Galactic Empire, as well as the archetypical hero's journey of Luke Skywalker in his quest to become a Jedi under the tutelage of exiled Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Yoda. Luke joins forces with Princess Leia, Han Solo, Chewbacca, C-3PO, R2-D2 and the Rebel Alliance in facing the Empire and the evil Sith Lord Darth Vader.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The original "Star Wars" film received widespread acclaim from critics for its storytelling, characters, John Williams' musical score and its groundbreaking visual and sound effects. The film surpassed 1975's "Jaws" as the highest grossing film of all time, turning science fiction films into a blockbuster genre, until it was surpassed by "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial" in 1982. Both "Star Wars" and "The Empire Strikes Back" have been hailed as among the greatest and important films of all time. With the trilogy's success, "Star Wars" became a pop culture phenomenon, spawning a multi-million dollar merchandising empire. All three films have been inducted by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: In 1971, Lucas wanted to film an adaptation of the "Flash Gordon" serial, but could not obtain the rights. He began developing his own story inspired by the work of Edgar Rice Burroughs. Immediately after directing "American Graffiti" (1973), Lucas wrote a two-page synopsis for his space opera, titled "Journal of the Whills". After United Artists, Universal Studios and Disney rejected the film, 20th Century Fox decided to invest in it. Lucas felt his original story was too difficult to understand, so on April 17, 1973, he began writing a 13-page script titled "The Star Wars", sharing strong similarities with Akira Kurosawa's "The Hidden Fortress" (1958). By May 1974, he had expanded the script into the first draft of a screenplay, adding elements such as the Sith and the Death Star, but found that the script had grown too long for a single film. Subsequent drafts evolved into the script of the original film.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: Lucas negotiated to retain the sequel rights. Tom Pollock, then Lucas's lawyer, writes: "We came to an agreement that George would retain the sequel rights. Not all the [merchandising rights] that came later, mind you; just the sequel rights. And Fox would get a first opportunity and last refusal right to make the movie." Lucas was offered $50,000 to write, another $50,000 to produce, and $50,000 to direct the film; his directing compensation was later increased to $100,000. He also negotiated the sequel rights and ownership of 40% of the merchandising profits. "American Graffiti" cast member Harrison Ford had given up on acting to try to become a carpenter, until Lucas hired him to play Han Solo.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: Thousands of actors were assessed in the search for the trilogy's main cast. The selected actors are considered by many viewers to have onscreen chemistry even though some of them were inexperienced, with the notable exceptions of Alec Guinness and Peter Cushing. Some, like Ford, have called the dialogue in the scripts clunky, and several lines were unscripted; some of these are considered the most memorable moments in the films.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: "Star Wars" was released on May 25, 1977; unlikely hero Luke Skywalker is drawn into a galactic conflict between the Empire and Rebel Alliance by two droids and an old Jedi Knight; he helps make one of the Rebellion's most significant victories. The film's unanticipated success led Lucas to make it the basis of an elaborate serial. With the backstory he created for the sequel, Lucas decided that the series would be a trilogy of trilogies, with the original film given the subtitle "Episode IV – A New Hope" to establish it as the first part of the second trilogy. The first sequel, "", was released on May 21, 1980, and sees Luke begin training as a Jedi under the last living Jedi master, Yoda. Luke confronts Sith Lord Darth Vader, who is revealed to be Luke's father. Vader attempts to convert Luke to the dark side of the Force. The third film, "Episode VI – Return of the Jedi", was released on May 25, 1983, and follows Luke as a full-fledged Jedi. Luke succeeds in redeeming Vader, thereby saving the galaxy from the Empire. The sequels were self-financed by Lucasfilm, and generally advertised without the episodic number distinction present in their opening crawls.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: A Rebel spaceship is intercepted by the Empire above the desert planet of Tatooine. Aboard, the deadliest Imperial sith warlord Darth Vader and his stormtroopers capture Princess Leia Organa, a secret member of the Rebellion. Before her capture, Leia makes sure the droid will escape with stolen Imperial blueprints for an armored space station, the Death Star, and a holographic message for the Jedi Master Obi-Wan Kenobi, who has been living in exile on Tatooine. Along with , falls under the ownership of Luke Skywalker, a farmboy who has been raised by his aunt and uncle. Luke helps the droids locate , now a solitary old hermit known as Ben Kenobi. He reveals himself as a friend of Luke's absent father, Anakin Skywalker, who was 's Jedi apprentice until being murdered by Vader. He tells Luke he must also become a Jedi. After discovering his family's homestead has been destroyed by the Empire, they go to the Mos Eisley Cantina and hire the smuggler Han Solo, his Wookiee Chewbacca and their space freighter, the "Millennium Falcon". They discover that Leia's homeworld of Alderaan has been destroyed, and are soon captured by the planet-destroying Death Star itself. While disables its tractor beam, Luke and Han rescue the captive Princess Leia, passing through incredible dangers. Finally, they deliver the Death Star plans to the Rebel Alliance with the hope of exploiting a weakness, and launch an attack on the Death Star.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The first rough draft, titled "The Star Wars", introduced "the Force" and the young hero Luke Starkiller. Annikin appeared as Luke's father, a wise Jedi knight. Between drafts, Lucas read Joseph Campbell's "The Hero with a Thousand Faces", and was surprised to find that his story "was following classical motifs." The third draft replaced (a deceased) Annikin with Ben Kenobi. Some months later, Lucas had negotiated a contract that gave him rights to two sequels. Lucas hired Alan Dean Foster, who was ghostwriting the , to write them—with the main creative restriction that they could be filmed on a low budget. By 1976, a fourth draft had been prepared for principal photography. The film was titled "The Adventures of Luke Starkiller, as taken from the Journal of the Whills, Saga I: The Star Wars". During production, Lucas changed Luke's name to Skywalker and shortened the title to "The Star Wars", and finally just "Star Wars". At that point, Lucas was not expecting the film to warrant full-scale sequels. The fourth draft of the script underwent subtle changes to become a self-contained story ending with the destruction of the Empire in the Death Star. The intention was that if the film was successful, Lucas could adapt Foster's novels into low-budget sequels. By that point, Lucas had developed a tentative backstory to aid in developing the saga.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: "Star Wars" exceeded all expectations. The success of the film and its merchandise sales led Lucas to make "Star Wars" the basis of an elaborate film serial, and use the profits to finance his filmmaking center, Skywalker Ranch. After the release of the first sequel, the original film was subtitled "Episode IV: A New Hope" in the screenplay released in the 1979 book "The Art of Star Wars" and for all subsequent rereleases beginning with a theatrical rerelease in 1981.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: Three years after the destruction of the Death Star, the Empire forces the Rebel Alliance to evacuate its secret base on Hoth. Instructed by Obi-Wan's spirit, Luke travels to the swamp world of Dagobah to find the Jedi Master Yoda in hiding. Luke's Jedi training is interrupted by Vader, who lures him into a trap by capturing Han and Leia at Cloud City, governed by Han's old friend Lando. During a fierce duel, Vader reveals that he is Luke's father.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: Owing to financial concerns, Alan Dean Foster's sequel novel, "Splinter of the Mind's Eye" (1978), restricted the story to Luke, Leia, and Darth Vader. After the success of the original film, Lucas knew a sequel would be granted a reasonable budget, and hired Leigh Brackett to write it from Lucas's story. She finished a draft by early 1978, but died of cancer before Lucas was able to discuss changes he wanted her to make. His disappointment with the first draft may have made him consider new directions. Lucas penned the next draft, the first screenplay to feature episodic numbering for a "Star Wars" story. Lucas found this draft enjoyable to write, as opposed to the yearlong struggle writing the first film, and quickly wrote two more in April 1978. The plot twist of Vader being Luke's father had drastic effects on the series. After writing these drafts, Lucas fleshed out the backstory between Anakin, Obi-Wan, and the Emperor.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: With this new backstory in place, Lucas decided that the series would be a trilogy of trilogies, designating the first sequel "Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back" in the next draft. Lawrence Kasdan, who had just completed writing "Raiders of the Lost Ark", was hired to write the next drafts, and given additional input from director Irvin Kershner. Kasdan, Kershner, and producer Gary Kurtz saw the film as a more serious and adult story, and developed the sequel from the light adventure roots of the first film.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: About a year after Han's capture, Luke joins Leia and Lando in a rescue attempt to save him from the gangster Jabba the Hutt. Afterward, Luke returns to Dagobah to complete his Jedi training, only to find Yoda on his deathbed. In his last words, Yoda confirms the truth about Luke's father, and that Luke must confront Vader again in order to complete his training. As the Rebels lead an attack on the second Death Star, Luke engages Vader in a lightsaber duel as the Emperor watches; both Sith Lords intend to turn Luke to the dark side and take him as their apprentice.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: Ford had originally not signed on to appear in a second sequel, but was convinced to return under the condition that his character would die. Kurtz wanted a bittersweet and nuanced ending outlined with Lucas that not only saw Han dead, but also depicted the Rebel forces in pieces, Leia struggling as a queen, and Luke walking off alone (as in a Spaghetti Western)—while Lucas wanted a happier ending, partly to encourage toy sales. This led to tension between the two, resulting in Kurtz leaving the production.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The "Star Wars" trilogy, unlike science fiction that features sleek and futuristic settings, portrays the galaxy as dirty and grimy in Lucas's concept of a "used universe". This was in part inspired by the period films of Akira Kurosawa, which like the original "Star Wars" trilogy, often begin "in medias res" without explaining a complete backstory.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: Political science has been an important element of "Star Wars" since the franchise launched in 1977, focusing on a struggle between democracy and dictatorship. Darth Vader's design, initially inspired by Samurai armor, also incorporated a German military helmet. Lucas originally conceived of the Sith as a group that served the Emperor in the same way that the "Schutzstaffel" (SS) served Adolf Hitler; this was condensed into one character in the form of Vader. Lucas has also drawn parallels between Palpatine and historical dictators such as Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, and politicians like Richard Nixon. Stormtroopers borrow the name of World War I "shock" troopers, Imperial officers wear uniforms resembling those of German forces during World War II, and political and security officers resemble the black-clad SS down to the stylized silver death's head on their caps. World War II terms were used for names in the films, "e.g." the planets Kessel (a term that refers to a group of encircled forces) and Hoth (after Hermann Hoth, a German general who served on the snow-laden Eastern Front). Shots of the commanders looking through AT-AT walker viewscreens in "The Empire Strikes Back" resemble tank interiors, and space battles in the original film were based on dogfights from both world wars.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The original "Star Wars" film was re-released theatrically in 1978, 1979, 1981 and 1982. All three films were released on various home video formats, including LaserDisc and VHS, until 1996. The trilogy was theatrically re-released in a 1997 "Special Edition", featuring various additions and changes, some of which were negatively received. These versions were released on VHS, replacing the original versions of the films as Lucas's 'original' vision, and were created in part to reinvigorate interest in the saga ahead of the prequel trilogy. The special edition of "Star Wars" made its broadcast premiere on February 5, 1998 on WB stations across the country (including New York and Los Angeles). Further changes to all three films were made for a DVD release in 2004, intended to bring the films into greater continuity with the prequels. These were re-released in 2006 with bonus discs of the original versions of the films (transferred from the 1993 LaserDiscs). In 2011, original and prequel trilogy box sets were released on Blu-ray, all including another round of alterations.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: In the early 2010s, 3D releases were planned for the then-six-film franchise. However, after the financially disappointing 2012 3D release of "The Phantom Menace", the rest were cancelled.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: In 2019, Kathleen Kennedy, president of Lucasfilm since the 2012 acquisition of the company by Disney, stated that she would not make alterations to Lucas's original trilogy, because "those will always remain his." While promoting "The Rise of Skywalker", director J. J. Abrams expressed his hopes that the original versions of the trilogy would be officially released, but said that the powers that be had told him "that that's not necessarily possible". He further said that when making "The Force Awakens", he had gotten into a disagreement about the dialogue between Vader and the Emperor in "The Empire Strikes Back" before realizing that different versions of the film were being referred to; he cited the fan-created "Despecialized Editions" of the films, while the other party had recalled the current official version.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: It was initially unclear whether the first six films of the "Star Wars" franchise would be available on Disney+ upon the service's launch, as TBS held streaming rights through 2024 as part of its cable rights to the franchise. However, on April 11, 2019, it was announced that the films would be available at launch.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The original "Star Wars" film was released in the summer of 1977 to critical acclaim and was a huge summer blockbuster, surpassing "Jaws" (1975), until 1982 when it was surpassed by "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial". The following year, it won six out of its eleven nominations at the 50th Academy Awards. The success of the first film led to it becoming a pop cultural phenomenon spawning countless TV spin-offs, video games, films and a multi-merchandising empire. It was then proceeded by two instalments, "The Empire Strikes Back" (1980) and "Return of the Jedi" (1983), which were also both very successful, with the former's climax, where Vader is revealed as Luke's father, becoming one of the most iconic plot twists in motion picture history.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The original trilogy was praised for its groundbreaking visual and sound effects, John Williams' music, writing, characters and concept. "Star Wars" and "The Empire Strikes Back" are considered by many to be among the greatest movies ever made, while "Return of the Jedi" was well-received but not considered to be on par with its predecessors.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: In 1989, the Library of Congress selected the original "Star Wars" film for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry, as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." "The Empire Strikes Back" was selected in 2010, and "Return of the Jedi" was selected in 2021. 35mm reels of the 1997 Special Editions were the versions initially presented for preservation because of the difficulty of transferring from the original prints, but it was later revealed that the Library possessed a copyright deposit print of the original theatrical releases. By 2015, "Star Wars" had been transferred to a 2K scan which can be viewed by appointment.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The popularity of the films have generated numerous references in popular culture works from TV series such as "The Simpsons", "Family Guy", "South Park" and "Robot Chicken" and films such as "Clerks", "Free Guy" and "Toy Story 2", and in the political lexicon, as in Ted Kennedy's nickname for Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative. The trilogy's artistic and technological achievements have been influential on other filmmakers, including Ridley Scott, James Cameron, David Fincher, Joss Whedon, Peter Jackson and Christopher Nolan, as well as sequel trilogy director J. J. Abrams.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The trilogy's impact has led to future careers of its stars including Mark Hamill (Luke Skywalker), Carrie Fisher (Princess Leia), Harrison Ford (Han Solo), Anthony Daniels (C-3PO), Kenny Baker (R2-D2), Peter Mayhew (Chewbacca), James Earl Jones (Darth Vader), Billy Dee Williams (Lando Calrissian) and Warwick Davis (Wicket W. Warrick).


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The success and large impact of the original "Star Wars" trilogy led to two more trilogies, both financially successful, with individual installments receiving mixed to positive reviews.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: The prequel trilogy consists of "The Phantom Menace" (1999), "Attack of the Clones" (2002) and "Revenge of the Sith" (2005), all directed by George Lucas. The prequels feature Baker, Daniels, Oz, Mayhew and McDiarmid reprising their roles, alongside Ewan McGregor, Natalie Portman, Hayden Christensen, Liam Neeson and Samuel L. Jackson. After completing his six-film saga, Lucas stated that there would be no further sequels.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: In 2012, Disney purchased Lucasfilm and produced a sequel trilogy. This consists of "The Force Awakens" (2015), "The Last Jedi" (2017), and "The Rise of Skywalker" (2019). Lucas had little direct involvement in the creation of these films. The new cast features Daisy Ridley, John Boyega, Oscar Issac, Adam Driver, Domhnall Gleeson and Andy Serkis, with the main original cast reprising their roles.


title: Star Wars original trilogy

text: "Star Wars" has also been spun off into films outside of the Skywalker Saga, numerous TV spin-offs like "", "The Mandalorian" and other upcoming live-action series for Disney+, as well as hundreds of video games, books, comics and theme park attractions at Disneyland and Walt Disney World.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The Redwood National and State Parks (RNSP) are a complex of one national park and three state parks, cooperatively managed, located in the United States along the coast of northern California. Comprising Redwood National Park (established 1968) and California's State Parks: Del Norte Coast, Jedediah Smith, and Prairie Creek (dating from the 1920s), the combined RNSP contain , and feature old-growth temperate rainforests. Located within Del Norte and Humboldt Counties, the four parks, together, protect 45 percent of all remaining coast redwood ("Sequoia sempervirens") old-growth forests, totaling at least . These trees are the tallest, among the oldest, and one of the most massive tree species on Earth. In addition to the redwood forests, the parks preserve other indigenous flora, fauna, grassland prairie, cultural resources, portions of rivers and other streams, and of pristine coastline.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: In 1850, old-growth redwood forest covered more than of the California coast. The northern portion of that area was originally inhabited by Native Americans who were forced out of their land by gold seekers and timber harvesters. The enormous redwoods attracted timber harvesters to support the gold rush in more southern regions of California and the increased population from booming development in San Francisco and other places on the West Coast. After many decades of unrestricted clear-cut logging, serious efforts toward conservation began. By the 1920s the work of the Save the Redwoods League, founded in 1918 to preserve remaining old-growth redwoods, resulted in the establishment of Prairie Creek, Del Norte Coast, and Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Parks among others. Redwood National Park was created in 1968, by which time nearly 90 percent of the original redwood trees had been logged. The National Park Service (NPS) and the California Department of Parks and Recreation (CDPR) administratively combined Redwood National Park with the three abutting Redwood State Parks in 1994 for the purpose of cooperative forest management and stabilization of forests and watersheds as a single unit.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The ecosystem of the RNSP preserves a number of threatened animal species such as the tidewater goby, Chinook salmon, northern spotted owl, and Steller's sea lion, though it is believed that the tidewater goby is likely to have been extirpated from the park. In recognition of the rare ecosystem and cultural history found in the parks, the United Nations designated them a World Heritage Site on September 5, 1980 and part of the California Coast Ranges International Biosphere Reserve on June 30, 1983.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Modern day native groups such as the Yurok, Tolowa, Karok, Chilula, and Wiyot all have historical ties to the region, and some Native American groups still live in the park area today. Archaeological study shows they arrived in the area as far back as 3,000 years ago. An 1852 census determined that the Yurok were the most numerous, with 55 villages and an estimated population of 2,500. They used the abundant redwood, which with its linear grain was easily split into planks, as a building material for boats, houses, and small villages. For buildings, the planks would be erected side by side in a narrow trench, with the upper portions bound with leather strapping and held by notches cut into the supporting roof beams. Redwood boards were used to form a shallow sloping roof. Until the 1860s, the Chilula lived in the middle region of the Redwood Creek valley in close company with the redwood trees. Two village sites of the Chilula (Howunakut and Noieding), who primarily settled along Redwood Creek in the Bald Hills to Minor Creek, California, are located within the contemporary boundaries of the park.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The relationship between Indigenous groups and the redwoods extends beyond a physical connection. Scholar Gail L. Jenner notes that "their lives were – and are – built on more than just wood, although the redwood was the source of much of their material culture; their lives were enmeshed in the very character and fabric of the trees." As noted by Minnie Reeves, a Chilula tribal elder and religious leader, in 1976, the Chilula are "people from "within" the redwood tree." Reeves further elaborates that the trees are a gift from the creator as a demonstration of love: "Destroy these trees and you destroy the Creator's love. And if you destroy that which the Creator loves so much, you will eventually destroy mankind." To the Yurok, the trees are sacred living beings which "stand as 'guardians' over sacred places." Indigenous people regard traditional houses made of the redwood trees also as "living beings" since, according to Edwin C. Bearss, "the redwood that formed its planks was itself the body of one of the Spirit Beings," which were considered, in his words, to be a "divine race who existed before humans in the redwood region and who taught people the proper way to live there."


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Previous to Jedediah Smith in 1828, no other explorer of European descent is known to have thoroughly investigated the inland region away from the immediate coast. The discovery of gold along the Trinity River in 1850 led to a minor secondary rush in California. This brought miners into the area and many stayed on at the coast after failing to strike it rich. This quickly led to conflicts wherein native peoples were placed under great strain, if not forcibly removed or massacred. By 1895, only one third of the Yurok in one group of villages remained; by 1919, virtually all members of the Chilula tribe had either died or been assimilated into other tribes. The miners logged redwoods for building; when this minor gold rush ended, some of them turned again to logging, cutting down the giant redwood trees. Initially, over of the California and southwestern coast of Oregon were old-growth redwood forest, but by 1910, extensive logging led conservationists and concerned citizens to begin seeking ways to preserve the remaining trees, which they saw being logged at an alarming rate. In 1911, U.S. Representative John E. Raker, of California, became the first politician to introduce legislation for the creation of a redwood national park. However, no further action was taken by Congress at that time.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Preservation of the redwood stands in California is considered one of the most substantial conservation contributions of the Boone and Crockett Club. The Save the Redwoods League was founded in 1918 by Boone and Crockett Club members Madison Grant, John C. Merriam, Henry Fairfield Osborn, and future member, Frederick Russell Burnham. The initial purchases of land were made by club member Stephen Mather and William Kent. In 1921, Boone and Crockett Club member John C. Phillips donated $32,000 to purchase land and create the Raynal Bolling Memorial Grove in the Humboldt Redwoods State Park. This was timely as U.S. Route 101, which would soon provide nearly unfettered access to the trees, was under construction. Using matching funds provided initially by the County of Humboldt and later by the State of California, the Save the Redwoods League managed to protect areas of concentrated or multiple redwood groves and a few entire forests in the 1920s. As California created a state park system, beginning in 1927, three of the preserved redwood areas became Prairie Creek Redwoods, Del Norte Coast Redwoods, and Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Parks. A fourth became Humboldt Redwoods State Park, by far the largest of the individual Redwood State Parks, but not in the Redwood National and State Park system. Because of the high demand for lumber during World War II and the construction boom that followed in the 1950s, the creation of a national park was delayed. Efforts by the Save the Redwoods League, the Sierra Club, and the National Geographic Society to create a national park began in the early 1960s. After intense lobbying of Congress, the bill creating Redwood National Park was signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 2, 1968.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The Save the Redwoods League and other entities purchased over , which were added to existing state parks. Amidst both local support of environmentalists and opposition from local loggers and logging companies, were added to Redwood National Park in a major expansion in 1978. However, only a fifth of that land was old-growth forest, the rest having been logged. This expansion protected the watershed along Redwood Creek from being adversely affected by logging operations outside the park. The federal and state parks were administratively combined in 1994.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Expansion of the national park was controversial because of the impact on the logging community and because most of the parkland was already sustainably managed by the private timber industry with the old-growth within the expanded park already protected. It remains the largest purchase of private land by the Federal Government in history as well as the largest eminent domain action. In 1977, a 25-truck convoy featuring logging equipment crossed the country to deliver President Jimmy Carter a 9-ton peanut carved from old-growth redwood. The president refused the gift, and the Orick Peanut was returned to Orick, a logging town adjacent to the newly-expanded park that saw substantial economic decline in the following decades.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The United Nations designated Redwood National and State Parks a World Heritage Site on September 5, 1980. The evaluation committee noted 50 prehistoric archaeological sites, spanning 4,500 years. It also cited ongoing research in the park by Humboldt State University researchers, among others. The park is part of a much larger region designated the "California Coast Ranges" International Biosphere Reserve on June 30, 1983. The California Coast Ranges biosphere is overseen by the University of California Natural Reserve System.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Scenes set on the forest moon Endor in "" were filmed on private logging company land that was shortly thereafter clearcut near the town of Smith River, California north of the park and, south of the park, the speeder chase scene at the Chetham Grove section of Grizzly Creek Redwoods State Park. Scenes for "" as well as the movie "Outbreak" were filmed at the nearby Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park and Sue-meg State Park.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Redwood National and State Parks consists of Redwood National Park, directly managed by the U.S. Government's National Park Service (NPS) and Jedediah Smith, Del Norte Coast and Prairie Creek Redwoods State Parks overseen by the California Department of Parks and Recreation (CDPR). They are jointly managed as Redwoods National and State Parks. Redwood National Park headquarters is located in Crescent City, California. There are five visitor and interpretive centers located in or adjacent to the park, including the Hiouchi, Jedediah Smith, Prairie Creek and Thomas H. Kuchel visitor centers as well as the Crescent City Information Center at the park headquarters location.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The Redwood National and State Parks form one of the most significant protected areas of the Northern California coastal forests ecoregion.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: It is estimated that old-growth redwood forest once covered close to of coastal northern California. 96% of all old-growth redwoods have been logged, and almost half (45%) of the redwoods remaining are found in Redwood National and State Parks. The parks protect of old-growth forest almost equally divided between federal and state management. Redwoods have existed along the coast of northern California for at least 20 million years and are related to tree species that existed 160 million years ago.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The native range of coast redwood is from the northern California coast north to the southern Oregon Coast. The tree is closely related to the giant sequoia of central California, and more distantly to the dawn redwood which is indigenous to the Sichuan–Hubei region of China. Coast redwoods are the tallest trees on Earth; as of September 2006, the tallest tree in the park was Hyperion at , followed by Helios and Icarus which were and respectively.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Before September 2006, the tallest living specimen known was the Stratosphere Giant, outside the park in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, which was in 2004. For many years, one specimen simply named Tall Tree in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park and within the RNSP was measured at , but the top of the tree was reported to have died in the 1990s. One tree that fell in 1991 was reported to be . Only the giant sequoia has more mass. The largest redwood by volume is the 42,500 cubic foot (1,205 m³) Lost Monarch, located in Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park. Mature Coast redwoods live an average of 500–700 years and a few are documented to be 2,000 years old, making them some of the longest-living organisms on earth. They are highly resistant to disease, due to a thick protective bark and high tannin content. Redwoods prefer sheltered slopes, slightly inland and near water sources such as rivers and streams.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Redwood trees develop enormous limbs that accumulate deep organic soils and can support tree-sized trunks growing on them. This typically occurs above . Scientists have recently discovered that plants which normally grow on the forest floor also grow in these soils, well above ground. The soil mats provide homes to invertebrates, mollusks, earthworms, and salamanders. During drought seasons, some treetops die back, but the trees do not die outright. Instead, redwoods have developed mechanisms to regrow new trunks from other limbs. These secondary trunks, called "reiterations", also develop root systems in the accumulated soils at their bases. This helps transport water to the highest reaches of the trees. Coastal fog also provides up to one-third of their annual water needs.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Another large tree commonly found in the forest is the coast Douglas-fir, which has been measured at heights of over . Sitka spruce are plentiful along the coast and are better adapted to salty air than other species. The evergreen hardwood tanoak produces a nut similar to the acorns produced by the related genus "Quercus" (oak). Both tanoaks and oaks are members of the beech family. Trees such as the Pacific madrone, bigleaf maple, California laurel, and red alder are also widespread throughout the parks.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Huckleberry, blackberry, and salmonberry are part of the forest understory and provide food for many animal species. The California rhododendron and azalea are flowering shrubs common in the park, especially in old-growth forest. Plants such as the sword fern are prolific, particularly near ample water sources. In Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, Fern Canyon is a well-known ravine deep, with walls completely covered in ferns.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The ecosystems of RNSP preserve a number of rare animal species. Numerous ecosystems exist, with seacoast, river, prairie, and densely forested zones all within the park. The tidewater goby is a federally listed endangered species that live near the Pacific coastline. The bald eagle, which usually nests near a water source, is listed as a state of California endangered species. The Chinook salmon, northern spotted owl, and Steller's sea lion are a few of the other animal species that are threatened.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Over 40 species of mammals have been documented, including the black bear, coyote, cougar, bobcat, beaver, river otter, and black-tailed deer. Roosevelt elk are the most readily observed of the large mammals in the park. Successful herds, brought back from the verge of extinction in the region, are now common in park areas south of the Klamath River. Many smaller mammals live in the high forest canopy. Different species of bats, such as the big brown bat, and other smaller mammals including the red squirrel and northern flying squirrel spend most of their lives well above the forest floor.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Along the coastline, California sea lions, Steller sea lions and harbor seals live near the shore and on seastacks, rocky outcroppings forming small islands just off the coast. Dolphins and Pacific gray whales are occasionally seen offshore. Brown pelicans and double-crested cormorants are mainly found on cliffs along the coast and on seastacks, while sandpipers and gulls inhabit the seacoast and inland areas. Inland, freshwater-dependent birds such as the common merganser, osprey, red-shouldered hawk, great blue heron, and Steller's jay are a few of the bird species that have been documented. At least 400 bird species have been documented in the forestlands.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Reptiles and amphibians can also be found in the parks, with the northwestern ringneck snake, northern red-legged frog, Pacific giant salamander, and the rough-skinned newt most commonly seen.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Currently, over 200 exotic species live in Redwood National and State Parks. Of these, 30 have been identified as invasive species, and ten of the 30 are considered as threats to local species and ecosystems. Exotic species currently account for about a quarter of the total flora in the parks. Only about one percent of plant growth in old-growth areas are of exotic species, while areas such as the Bald Hills prairies have a relative cover of fifty to seventy-five percent exotic. The type of foreign vegetation also varies, with plants such as the English Ivy (Hedera helix), Spotted Knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), and the Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum). The spotted knapweed and poison hemlock are both under consideration for addition to a high priority watch list maintained by the park system.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The northern coastal region of California, which includes RNSP and the adjacent offshore area, is the most seismically active in the U.S. Frequent minor earthquakes in the park and offshore under the Pacific Ocean have resulted in shifting river channels, landslides, and erosion of seaside cliffs. The North American, Pacific, and Gorda Plates are tectonic plates that all meet at the Mendocino Triple Junction, only southwest of the parks. During the 1990s, more than nine magnitude 6.0 earthquakes occurred along this fault zone resulting in 1 death and major financial loss, and there is always potential for a major earthquake. The park ensures that visitors are aware of the potential for a major earthquake through the use of pamphlets and information posted throughout the parks. The threat of a tsunami is of particular concern, and visitors to the seacoast are told to seek higher ground immediately after any significant earthquake.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Both coastline and the Coast Ranges can be found within park boundaries. The majority of the rocks in the parks are part of the Franciscan Assemblage, uplifted from the ocean floor millions of years ago. These sedimentary rocks are primarily sandstone, siltstone, shale, and chert, with lesser amounts of metamorphic rocks such as greenstone. For the most part, these rocks are easily eroded, and can be viewed along the seacoast and where rivers and streams have cut small gorges. Formed during the Cretaceous Period, they are highly deformed from uplift and folding processes. In some areas, river systems have created fluvial deposits of sand, mud, and gravel, which are transported into the park from upstream. Redwood Creek follows the Grogan Fault; along the west bank of the creek, schist and other metamorphic rocks can be found, while sedimentary rocks of the Franciscan Assemblage are located on the east bank.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The Redwood National and State Parks have an oceanic temperate rainforest climate, with cool-summer Mediterranean characteristics. Weather in RNSP is greatly influenced by the Pacific Ocean. Coastal temperatures generally range between 40 and 60 degrees Fahrenheit (4–15 °C) all year round, while further from the coast summers are hotter and drier, and winters are colder. Redwoods mostly grow a mile or two (1.5–3 km) from the coast, and never more than from it. In this temperate but humid coastal zone, the trees receive moisture from both heavy winter rains and persistent summer fog. The presence and consistency of the summer fog is actually more important to overall health of the trees than heavy precipitation. This fact is born out in annual precipitation totals, which range between annually, with healthy redwood forests throughout the areas of less precipitation because excessive needs for water are mitigated by the ever-present summer fog and the cooler temperatures it ensures. Snow is uncommon even on peaks above , further exemplifying the mild, temperate nature of this northern latitude; however, light snow mixed with rain is common during the winter months.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Wildfires are a natural part of most terrestrial ecosystems. In many ways nature has adapted to fire, and the absence of fire can often be disadvantageous. Wildfire eliminates dead and decayed plant and tree matter, enriching the soil and ensuring that healthier trees have less competition for limited nutrients. Prescribed controlled fires are currently part of the fire management plan and helps to eliminate exotic species of plants and allows a more fertile and natural ecosystem. Fire is also used to protect prairie grasslands and to keep out forest encroachment, ensuring sufficient rangeland for elk and deer. The oak forest regions also benefit from controlled burns, as Douglas fir would otherwise eventually take over and decrease biodiversity. The use of fire in old-growth redwood zones reduces dead and decaying material, and lessens the mortality of larger redwoods by eliminating competing vegetation. In the park, a fire management plan monitors all fires, weather patterns and the fuel load (dead and decaying plant material). This fuel load is removed from areas near structures and where fire poses high risk to the public, and controlled burns are used elsewhere. The National Interagency Fire Center provides additional firefighters and equipment in the event of a large fire.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The park has three visitor centers, where guided nature walks and general information are available, along with two additional information points. Unlike most other national parks in the U.S., there is no entry fee or entrance stations at Redwood National and State Parks.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: The DeMartin Redwood Youth Hostel, a low-amenities shared lodging facility (near Klamath), has now closed.<ref name="nps.gov/redw"></ref> There are no hotels or motels within the parks boundaries. However, nearby towns such as Klamath, Requa, and Orick provide small hotels and inns, with extensive lodging options available in the regional trading centers of Crescent City on the northern end of the park and Arcata and Eureka located to the south. The park is about north of San Francisco, and south of Portland, Oregon; U.S. Route 101 passes through it from north to south. The Smith River National Recreation Area, part of the Six Rivers National Forest, is adjacent to the north end of RNSP.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: While the state parks have front country campsites that can be driven to. Each campground offers campfire talks during the summer months as well as guided tours. The parks have many picnic areas, which can be accessed by vehicle. In the federal sections of the park, hiking is the only way to reach back country campsites. These are at Mill Creek campground in Del Norte Coast Redwoods State Park and Jedediah Smith campground in Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park, which together have 251 campsites; the Elk Prairie campground in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park which has 76; and the Gold Bluffs Beach campground which has 25 campsites. Other nearby state parks have additional front country camping.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Back country camping is by permit only and is only allowed in designated sites, except on gravel bars along Redwood Creek. Access to the back country is highly regulated to prevent overuse while permitting as many groups as possible to explore the forest. Camping in the back country is therefore limited to five consecutive nights, and 15 nights in any one year. Proper food storage to minimize encounters with bears is strongly enforced, and hikers and backpackers are required to take out any trash they generate.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Almost of hiking trails exist in the parks, but during the rainy season some temporary footbridges are removed, as they would be destroyed by high streams. Throughout the year, trails are often wet and hikers need to be well prepared for rainy weather and consult information centers for updates on trail conditions.


title: Redwood National and State Parks

text: Horseback riding and mountain biking are popular but are only allowed on certain trails. Kayaking is popular along the seacoast and in the various rivers and streams. Kayakers and canoeists frequently travel the Smith River, which is the longest undammed river remaining in California. Fishing for salmon and steelhead, a highly prized anadromous form of rainbow trout over , is best in the Smith and Klamath rivers. A California sport fishing license is required to fish any of the rivers and streams. Hunting is not permitted anywhere in the parks, but is allowed in nearby National Forests.


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: The Thirteenth Floor is a 1999 science fiction neo-noir film written and directed by Josef Rusnak, and produced by Roland Emmerich through his Centropolis Entertainment company. It is loosely based upon "Simulacron-3" (1964), a novel by Daniel F. Galouye, and a remake of the German TV-film "World on a Wire" (1973). The film stars Craig Bierko, Gretchen Mol, Armin Mueller-Stahl, Vincent D'Onofrio, and Dennis Haysbert. In 2000, "The Thirteenth Floor" was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film, but lost to "The Matrix."


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: In 1999 Los Angeles, Hannon Fuller (Mueller-Stahl) owns a multibillion-dollar computer enterprise and is the inventor of a newly completed virtual reality (VR) simulation of 1937 Los Angeles, filled with simulated humans unaware they are computer programs. When Fuller is murdered just as he begins premature testing of the VR system, his friend and protégé, Douglas Hall (Bierko), who is also the heir to the company, becomes the primary suspect. The evidence against him is so strong that Hall begins to doubt his own innocence.


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: Between interrogations by LAPD Detective Larry McBain (Haysbert), Hall meets Jane Fuller (Gretchen Mol), the estranged daughter of Hannon Fuller, who is busy with the shutdown of the new VR system. Hall then romances her. When a local bartender is murdered after he claims to have witnessed a meeting between Hall and Fuller on the night Fuller was murdered, Hall is arrested. He is released when Jane gives him an alibi.


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: With the assistance of his associate Whitney (D'Onofrio), Hall attempts to find a message that Fuller left for him inside the simulation. Entering the virtual reality, Hall becomes a bank clerk named John Ferguson. Fuller left the message with a bartender named Jerry Ashton (D'Onofrio), who read the message and discovered he is an artificial creation. Earlier, Ashton notices that Ferguson switched places with Hall in the men's restroom of the hotel where Ashton works, and began to realize that something was wrong. Frightened and angry, Ashton tries to kill Hall. Hall barely survives to escape the VR.


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: McBain informs Hall that Jane does not exist, as Fuller never had a daughter. Hall tracks her down only to discover her double, Natasha Molinaro, working as a grocery store clerk, but Molinaro does not recognize Hall. This leads Hall to perform an experiment outside the VR system, something that Fuller's message instructed him to try: drive to a place where he never would have considered going otherwise. He does so, and discovers a point beyond which the world becomes a crude wireframe model. Hall grasps the revelation behind Fuller's message: 1999 Los Angeles is itself a simulation.


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: Jane Fuller explains the truth to Hall: his world is one of thousands of virtual worlds, but it is the only one in which one of the occupants have developed a virtual world of their own. Jane Fuller lives in the real world outside the simulation in the 1990s. After Fuller's death, she entered the virtual version to assume the guise of Fuller's daughter, gain control of the company, and shut down the simulated 1937 reality, a plan foiled by Hall being made the company heir. The virtual Hall is modeled after David, Jane's real-world husband, though Jane has since fallen in love with Hall. David committed the murders via Hall's body, being driven to increasingly jealous and psychopathic behavior from prolonged use of VR to live out his dark fantasies.


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: Whitney enters the 1937 simulation, assuming the body of bartender Jerry Ashton, who has kidnapped Ferguson (Hall's 1937 identity) and bound him in the trunk of his car. When Whitney is killed in a car crash inside the 1937 simulation, Ashton's consciousness takes control of Whitney's body in the 1990s simulation and takes Hall hostage. Hall tells Ashton that he is not in the real world, and that they are both products of a VR simulation. Hall takes Ashton to the place where he was 'born': a computer lab. David assumes control of Hall again to kill Ashton and then attempts to rape and murder Jane. Jane is rescued by Detective McBain, who shoots and kills David. McBain at this point has realized the nature of his own reality, and jokingly asks Jane, "So, is somebody going to unplug me now?" She answers "no", so McBain follows with the request "Look, do me a favor, when you get back to wherever it is you come from, just leave us the hell alone down here, okay?"


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: David's death as Hall in the 1990s simulation allows Hall's artificial consciousness to take control of David's body in the real world. He wakes in 2024, connected to a VR system. He disconnects the system and finds Jane and her father, the real Hannon Fuller. Jane wants to tell Hall more about the simulation, but as she begins the film ends, the screen image collapsing to a thin line of light before going dark like a computer monitor being turned off.


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: "The Thirteenth Floor" was a co-production of Columbia Pictures and Centropolis Entertainment. Most of the film was shot in Los Angeles, California.


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: "The Thirteenth Floor" was first released in Denmark on April 16, 1999, followed by a North American released on May 28, 1999.


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: It grossed $11.9 million in North America, and $18.5 million worldwide. "The Thirteenth Floor" was released on DVD on October 5, 1999, and on Blu-ray on April 14, 2009.


title: The Thirteenth Floor

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reported that 30% of critics gave the film positive reviews, with an average score of 4.51/10, based upon a sample of 64 reviews, and the critical consensus "Bad script and confusing plot undermine the movie's impressive visuals." At Metacritic, the film received an average score of 36/100, based on 22 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "D+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: History of email

text: The history of email entails an evolving set of technologies and standards that culminated in the email systems in use today.


title: History of email

text: Computer-based messaging between users of the same system became possible following the advent of time-sharing in the early 1960s, with a notable implementation by MIT's CTSS project in 1965. Informal methods of using shared files to pass messages were soon expanded into the first mail systems. Most developers of early mainframes and minicomputers developed similar, but generally incompatible, mail applications. Over time, a complex web of gateways and routing systems linked many of them. Some systems also supported a form of instant messaging, where sender and receiver needed to be online simultaneously.


title: History of email

text: In 1971 the first ARPANET network mail was sent, introducing the now-familiar address syntax with the '@' symbol designating the user's system address. Over a series of RFCs, conventions were refined for sending mail messages over the File Transfer Protocol. Several other email networks developed in the 1970s and expanded subsequently.


title: History of email

text: Proprietary electronic mail systems began to emerge in the 1970s and early 1980s. IBM developed a primitive in-house solution for office automation over the period 1970–1972, and replaced it with OFS (Office System), proving mail transfer between individuals, in 1974. This system developed into IBM Profs, which was available on request to customers before being released commercially in 1981. CompuServe began offering electronic mail designed for intraoffice memos in 1978. The development team for the Xerox Star began using electronic mail in the late 1970s. Development work on DEC's ALL-IN-1 system began in 1977 and was released in 1982. Hewlett-Packard launched HPMAIL (later HP DeskManager) in 1982, which became the world's largest selling email system.


title: History of email

text: The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) protocol was implemented on the ARPANET in 1983. LAN email systems emerged in the mid-1980s. For a time in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it seemed likely that either a proprietary commercial system or the X.400 email system, part of the Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile (GOSIP), would predominate. However, once the final restrictions on carrying commercial traffic over the Internet ended in 1995, a combination of factors made the current Internet suite of SMTP, POP3 and IMAP email protocols the standard.


title: History of email

text: During the 1980s and 1990s, use of email became common in business, government, universities, and defense/military industries. Starting with the advent of webmail (the web-era form of email) and email clients in the mid-1990s, use of email began to extend to the rest of the public. By the 2000s, email had gained ubiquitous status. The popularity of smartphones since the 2010s has enabled instant access to emails.


title: History of email

text: The first electrical transmission of messages began in the 19th century in the form of the electrical telegraph, which started to replace earlier forms of telegraphy from the 1840s in the United Kingdom and the United States.


title: History of email

text: Telex became an operational teleprinter service in 1933, beginning in Germany and Europe, and after 1945 spread around the world.


title: History of email

text: The AUTODIN military network in the United States, first operational in 1962, provided a message service between 1,350 terminals, handling 30 million messages per month, with an average message length of approximately 3,000 characters. By 1968, AUTODIN linked more than 300 sites in several countries.


title: History of email

text: The term "mail" in the context of messages between computer users has been in use since the 1960s. In RFCs relating to the ARPANET, "network mail" was used since 1973.


title: History of email

text: Historically, the term "electronic mail" is any electronic document transmission. For example, several writers in the early 1970s used the term to refer to fax document transmission. The "Oxford English Dictionary" (OED) has a first quotation for "electronic mail" in the modern context in 1975. Electronic mail was widely discussed in the late 1970s, but was usually shortened simply to "mail." In September 1976, a "Business Week" article entitled "When interoffice mail goes electronic" remarked "In a sense, electronic mail is not new".


title: History of email

text: The OED provides a June 1979 first usage for "E-mail": “Postal Service pushes ahead with E-mail” in the journal "Electronics". No earlier usage has been found; although, the first usage of the term email may be lost. CompuServe rebranded its electronic mail service as "EMAIL" in April 1981, which popularized the term. The term "computer mail" was also used in the early 1980s.


title: History of email

text: The June 1979 usage of "E-mail" referred to the United States Postal Service (USPS) project called Electronic Computer Originated Mail, which they abbreviated E-COM. USPS began looking into electronic mail in 1977 resulting in the E-COM proposal in September 1978. The service launched in 1982, allowing corporate customers to send electronic mail to a post office branch from where it was printed and delivered in the normal way. It operated until 1985.


title: History of email

text: With the introduction of MIT's Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) in 1961, for the first time multiple users could log into a central system from remote terminals, and store and share files on the central disk. Informal methods of using such shared files to pass messages were soon developed and expanded into the first mail systems.


title: History of email

text: In the early 1980s, networked personal computers on LANs became increasingly important. Server-based systems similar to the earlier mainframe systems were developed. Examples include:


title: History of email

text: Eventually these systems could link different organizations as long as each organization ran the same email system and proprietary protocol. Various vendors supplied gateway software to link these incompatible systems.


title: History of email

text: To facilitate electronic mail exchange between remote sites and with other organizations, telecommunication links, such as dialup modems or leased lines, provided means to transport email globally, creating local and global networks. This was challenging for a number of reasons, including the widely different email address formats in use.


title: History of email

text: Experimental message transfers between separate computer systems began shortly after the creation of the ARPANET in 1969. Ray Tomlinson, of BBN, sent the first message across the network in 1971, initiating the use of the "@" sign to separate the names of the user and the user's machine. He sent a message from one Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-10 computer to another PDP-10. The two machines were placed next to each other. Tomlinson's work was adopted across the ARPANET, which significantly increased network traffic. Tomlinson has been called "the inventor of modern email".


title: History of email

text: In the early 1970s, Ray Tomlinson updated an existing utility called SNDMSG so that it could copy messages (as files) over the network. Lawrence Roberts, the project manager for the ARPANET development, took the idea of READMAIL, which dumped all "recent" messages onto the user's terminal, and wrote a program for TENEX in TECO macros called "RD", which permitted access to individual messages. Barry Wessler then updated RD and called it "NRD".


title: History of email

text: Marty Yonke rewrote NRD to include reading, access to SNDMSG for sending, and a help system, and called the utility "WRD", which was later known as "BANANARD". John Vittal then updated this version to include three important commands: "Move" (combined save/delete command), "Answer" (determined to whom a reply should be sent) and "Forward" (sent a message to a person who was not already a recipient). The system was called "MSG". With inclusion of these features, MSG is considered to be the first integrated modern electronic mail program, from which many other applications have descended.


title: History of email

text: Mail on the ARPANET was implemented using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). Two FTP commands, MAIL and MLFL, permitted an FTP user process to deliver a file or string of text to an FTP server process, designating it as mail to be made available to a user, identified by a local name, in its host. A "Mail Protocol" was proposed in in July 1971, and a more comprehensive approach in in June 1973, but these were not implemented.


title: History of email

text: The use of the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for "network mail" was proposed in in March 1973. Through , , , and finally in November 1977, a standardized framework was developed for "electronic mail" using FTP mail servers on the ARPANET.


title: History of email

text: Delivermail was introduced in 1979 as a mail transport agent, i.e. email server. It used the FTP protocol to transmit electronic mail messages to the recipient.


title: History of email

text: In September 1980, Jon Postel and Suzanne Sluizer published which proposed the Mail Transfer Protocol to implement "computer mail", as a replacement of the use of FTP for mail. of May 1981 removed all references to FTP. In November 1981, Postel published describing the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) protocol, which was updated by in August 1982. After ARPANET switched to TCP/IP in 1982, a new mail transfer agent based on SMTP, Sendmail, was introduced in 1983.


title: History of email

text: After the introduction of the Domain Name System (DNS) in 1985, mail routing was updated in January 1986 by .


title: History of email

text: As the influence of the ARPANET spread across academic communities, gateways were developed to pass mail to and from other networks such as CSNET, JANET, BITNET, X.400, and FidoNet. This often involved addresses such as:


title: History of email

text: During the 1980s and 1990s, use of email became common in business, government, universities, and defense/military industries. Starting with the advent of webmail (the web-era form of email) and email clients in the mid-1990s, use of email began to extend to the rest of the public. By the 2000s, email had gained ubiquitous status. The popularity of smartphones since the 2010s has enabled instant access to emails.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: An order of magnitude of time is usually a decimal prefix or decimal order-of-magnitude quantity together with a base unit of time, like a microsecond or a million years. In some cases, the order of magnitude may be implied (usually 1), like a "second" or "year". In other cases, the quantity name implies the base unit, like "century". In most cases, the base unit is seconds or years.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: Prefixes are not usually used with a base unit of years. Therefore, it is said "a million years" instead of "a mega year". Clock time and calendar time have duodecimal or sexagesimal orders of magnitude rather than decimal, e.g., a year is 12 months, and a minute is 60 seconds.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: The smallest meaningful increment of time is the Planck time―the time light takes to traverse the Planck distance, many decimal orders of magnitude smaller than a second.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: The largest realized amount of time, based on known scientific data, is the age of the universe, about 13.8 billion years—the time since the Big Bang as measured in the cosmic microwave background rest frame. Those amounts of time together span 60 decimal orders of magnitude. Metric prefixes are defined spanning to , 48 decimal orders of magnitude which may be used in conjunction with the metric base unit of second.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: Metric units of time larger than the second are most commonly seen only in a few scientific contexts such as observational astronomy and materials science, although this depends on the author. For everyday use and most other scientific contexts, the common units of minutes, hours (3,600 s or 3.6 ks), days (86,400 s), weeks, months, and years (of which there are a number of variations) are commonly used. Weeks, months, and years are significantly variable units whose length depend on the choice of calendar and are often not regular even with a calendar, e.g., leap years versus regular years in the Gregorian calendar. This makes them problematic for use against a linear and regular time scale such as that defined by the SI, since it is not clear which version is being used.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: Because of this, the table below does not include weeks, months, and years. Instead, the table uses the annum or astronomical Julian year (365.25 days of 86,400 seconds), denoted with the symbol a. Its definition is based on the average length of a year according to the Julian calendar, which has one leap year every four years. According to the geological science convention, this is used to form larger units of time by the application of SI prefixes to it; at least up to giga-annum or Ga, equal to 1,000,000,000 a (short scale: one billion years, long scale: one milliard years).


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: In this table, large intervals of time surpassing one second are catalogued in order of the SI multiples of the second as well as their equivalent in common time units of minutes, hours, days, and Julian years.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 3.6 ks: one hour (h), time for the minute hand of a clock to cycle once around the face, approximately 1/24 of one mean solar day


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 86.399 ks (23 h 59 min 59 s): one day with a removed leap second on UTC time scale. Such has not yet occurred.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 86.4 ks (24 h): one day of Earth by standard. More exactly, the mean solar day is 86.400 002 ks due to tidal braking, and increasing at the rate of approximately 2 ms/century; to correct for this time standards like UTC use leap seconds with the interval described as "a day" on them being most often 86.4 ks exactly by definition but occasionally one second more or less so that every day contains a whole number of seconds while preserving alignment with astronomical time. The hour hand of an analogue clock will typically cycle twice around the dial in this period as most analogue clocks are 12-hour, less common are analogue 24-hour clocks in which it cycles around once.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 86.401 ks (24 h 0 min 1 s): one day with an added leap second on UTC time scale. While this is strictly 24 hours and 1 second in conventional units, a digital clock of suitable capability level will most often display the leap second as 23:59:60 and not 24:00:00 before rolling over to 00:00:00 the next day, as though the last "minute" of the day were crammed with 61 seconds and not 60, and similarly the last "hour" 3601 s instead of 3600.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 2.592 Ms (30 d): length of April, June, September, and November in the Gregorian calendar; common interval used in legal agreements and contracts as a proxy for a month


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 126.2326 Ms (1461 d 0 h 34 min 40 s): the elected term of the President of the United States or one Olympiad


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 63.8 Gs: approximate time since the beginning of the Anno Domini era as of 2019 – 2,019 years, and "traditionally" the time since the birth of Jesus Christ


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 7.9 Ps (250 Ma): approximate time since the Permian-Triassic extinction event, the actually largest known mass extinction in Earth history which wiped out 95% of all extant species and believed to have been caused by the consequences of massive long-term volcanic eruptions in the area of the Siberian Traps. Also, the approximate time to the supercontinent of Pangaea. Also, the length of one galactic year or "cosmic year", the time required for the Sun to complete one orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 16 Ps (510 Ma): approximate time since the Cambrian explosion, a massive evolutionary diversification of life which led to the appearance of most existing multicellular organisms and the replacement of the previous Ediacaran biota.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 31.6 Ps (1000 Ma, 1 Ga): one giga-annum (Ga), one billion years, the largest fixed time unit used in the standard geological time scale, approximately the order of magnitude of an eon, the largest division of geological time.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: +1 Ga: The estimated remaining habitable lifetime of Earth, according to some models. At this point in time the stellar evolution of the Sun will have increased its luminosity to the point that enough energy will be reaching the Earth to cause the evaporation of the oceans and their loss into space (due to the uv flux from the Sun at the top of the atmosphere dissociating the molecules), making it impossible for any life to continue.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 136 Ps (4.32 Ga): The length of the legendary unit kalpa in Hindu mythology, or one day (but not including the following night) of the life of Brahma.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 143 Ps (4.5 Ga): The age of the Earth by our best estimates. Also the approximate half-life of the uranium isotope U.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 1.08 Es (+34 Ga): time to the Big Rip according to some models, but this is not favored by existing data. This is one possible scenario for the ultimate fate of the Universe. Under this scenario, dark energy increases in strength and power in a feedback loop that eventually results in the tearing apart of all matter down to subatomic scale due to the rapidly increasing negative pressure thereupon


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: 1,340,009 Qs (): The time period equivalent to the value of 13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.0.0.0.0 in the Mesoamerican Long Count, a date discovered on a stela at the Coba Maya site, believed by archaeologist Linda Schele to be the absolute value for the length of one cycle of the universe


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: formula_1 Qs: scale of an estimated Poincaré recurrence time for the quantum state of a hypothetical box containing an isolated black hole of stellar mass This time assumes a statistical model subject to Poincaré recurrence. A much simplified way of thinking about this time is that in a model in which history repeats itself arbitrarily many times due to properties of statistical mechanics, this is the time scale when it will first be somewhat similar (for a reasonable choice of "similar") to its current state again.


title: Orders of magnitude (time)

text: formula_2 Qs: scale of an estimated Poincaré recurrence time for the quantum state of a hypothetical box containing a black hole with the mass of the observable Universe.


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: The Bentley Flying Spur is a full-sized high-performance luxury saloon produced by Bentley Motors Limited since 2005. It is the four-door grand tourer variant of the Bentley Continental GT coupé.


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: The Flying Spur is handcrafted at Bentley's factory in Crewe, England. Each bespoke saloon takes more than 100 hours to assemble completely by hand. Briefly, due to lack of capacity at the Crewe factory upon the car's introduction, 1,358 units of the first generation Flying Spur destined for markets other than the United States and United Kingdom were built at Volkswagen's Transparent Factory in Dresden, Germany. This arrangement ended in early 2007, when all assembly works reverted to Crewe in England.


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: The first-generation Flying Spur was officially unveiled at the 75th Geneva Motor Show in March 2005. It had a twin-turbocharged W12 engine tuned to produce and torque of at 1,600–6,100 rpm. Torsen-based permanent all-wheel drive system was standard on the Flying Spur. It can go in 4.9 seconds, and can reach a top speed of . It also has Adaptive Air Suspension and Continuous Damping Control as standard. At that time, it was the world's fastest and most powerful production saloon.


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: Sales of the first-generation Flying Spur began in late 2005. During the first full-year sales of the Flying Spur, the number of deliveries exceeded 4,000 units. The Speed model of the Flying Spur was introduced in 2008 as a higher performance variant with revised ceramic disc brakes and tuned to produce 602 horsepower. The acceleration of the Speed model is in 4.5 seconds, and can reach a top speed of . The total production of the first generation Flying Spur was 19,786 units while only a limited number of 1,155 units of the Speed model were ever made.


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: The steering column-mounted paddle shifters enable direct access to the six-speed gearbox when the ZF transmission is in "S" or sports mode.


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: The "Continental" prefix was omitted; according to Bentley's designers, this was a conscious attempt to take the Flying Spur in a more opulent direction and distance it from the more driver-oriented, two-door Continental GT range (historically, the Continental name has generally been used by Bentley to refer to models of a "sporting" nature). Despite this, the Flying Spur and Continental GT continue to share the same engineering platform.


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: The third-generation Flying Spur was unveiled in June 2019. The car has been completely overhauled and is built on a brand-new platform, resembling the current Continental GT. The front receives a new grille with vertical slats akin to that of a Rolls-Royce, while the rear features new taillights that incorporate a B motif. The hood ornament is now illuminated at night, electrically deployable, and capable of meeting pedestrian impact requirements. The interior boasts a rotating display and an all-new Touch Screen remote that allows rear occupants to control several systems


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: Rear-wheel steering is new and is accompanied by air springs with 60 percent more volume than its predecessor. The all-wheel-drive system is also new and uses an electronically controlled clutch pack. Compared to the second generation model, the new Flying Spur gets close to 130 mm additional wheelbase.


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: There are three powertrains available for the Flying Spur: a 6.0 L W12, a 4.0 L V8, and plug-in hybrid, all of which have twin turbos. The W12 variant accelerates from in 3.7 seconds and reaches a maximum speed of . It produces 626 horsepower and 664 pound-feet of torque. The V8 variant produces 549 horsepower and 568 pound-feet of torque and accelerates from 0-62 mph in 4.1 seconds, with a top speed of 198 mph. The plug-in hybrid variant uses a 2.9 liter V6 engine combined with a 14.1 kilowatt-hour battery to deliver a claimed electric range of 40 kilometers (25 miles) and a 0-60 time of 4.1 seconds.


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: The Flying Spur became the only Bentley sedan model, as production of the Mulsanne ended in the second quarter of 2020 without a direct successor.


title: Bentley Flying Spur (2005)

text: In March 2021, Bentley issued a recall for a single Flying Spur due to an improper welding process used on the fuel tank.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: The Kra–Dai languages (also known as Tai–Kadai and Daic) are a language family in Mainland Southeast Asia, Southern China and Northeast India. All languages in the family are tonal languages, including Thai and Lao, the national languages of Thailand and Laos respectively. Around 93 million people speak Kra–Dai languages, 60% of whom speak Thai. "Ethnologue" lists 95 languages in the family, with 62 of these being in the Tai branch.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: The name "Kra–Dai" was proposed by Weera Ostapirat (2000), as Kra and Dai are the reconstructed autonyms of the Kra and Tai branches respectively. "Kra–Dai" has since been used by the majority of specialists working on Southeast Asian linguistics, including Norquest (2007), Pittayaporn (2009), Baxter & Sagart (2014) and Enfield & Comrie (2015).


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: The name "Tai–Kadai" is used in many references, as well as "Ethnologue" and "Glottolog", but Ostapirat (2000) and others suggest that it is problematic and confusing, preferring the name "Kra–Dai" instead. "Tai–Kadai" comes from an obsolete bifurcation of the family into two branches, Tai and Kadai, which had first been proposed by Paul K. Benedict (1942). In 1942, Benedict placed three Kra languages (Gelao, Laqua (Qabiao) and Lachi) together with Hlai in a group that he called "Kadai", from "ka", meaning "person" in Gelao and Laqua (Qabiao) and "Dai", a form of a Hlai autonym. Benedict's (1942) "Kadai" group was based on his observation that Kra and Hlai languages have Austronesian-like numerals. However, this classification is now universally rejected as obsolete after Ostapirat (2000) demonstrated the coherence of the Kra branch, which does not subgroup with the Hlai branch as Benedict (1942) had proposed. "Kadai" is sometimes used to refer to the entire Kra–Dai family, including by Solnit (1988). Adding to the confusion, some other references restrict the usage of "Kadai" to only the Kra branch of the family.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: James R. Chamberlain (2016) proposes that the Tai-Kadai (Kra-Dai) language family was formed as early as the 12th century BCE in the middle of the Yangtze basin, coinciding roughly with the establishment of the Chu fiefdom and the beginning of the Zhou dynasty. The high diversity of Kra–Dai languages in Southern China points to the origin of the Kra–Dai language family in Southern China. The Tai branch moved south into Southeast Asia only around 1000 AD. Genetic and linguistic analyses show great homogeneity among Kra–Dai-speaking people in Thailand.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: Although the position of Kra-Dai in relation to Austronesian is still contested, some propose that Kra-Dai and Austronesian are genetically connected. Weera Ostapirat (2005) sets out a series of regular sound correspondences between them, assuming a model of a primary split between the two; they would then be co-ordinate branches. Weera Ostapirat (2013) continues to maintain that Kra-Dai and Austronesian are sister languages, based on some phonological correspondences. On the other hand, Laurent Sagart (2008) proposes that Kra-Dai is a later form of "FATK", a branch of Austronesian belonging to subgroup "Puluqic" developed in Taiwan, whose speakers migrated back to the mainland, both to Guangdong, Hainan and north Vietnam around the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE. Upon their arrival in this region, they underwent linguistic contact with an unknown population, resulting in a partial relexification of FATK vocabulary. If Sagart's theory that Kra-Dai being a sub-group of proto-Austronesian migrated out of Taiwan and back to the coastal regions of Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, and (possibly) Vietnam is right, they would simply not have had a development resembling anything like the fate of other proto-Austronesian languages that migrated out of Taiwan to the Philippines and other islands in Southeast Asia. Besides various concrete evidences for a Kra-Dai existence in the present-day Guangdong, remnants of Kra–Dai languages spoken further north can be found in unearthed inscriptional materials and non-Han substrata in Min- and Wu Chinese.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: Wolfgang Behr (2002, 2006, 2009, 2017) points out that most of non-Sinitic words found in Chu inscriptional materials are of Kra-Dai origin. For example, the Chu graph for ""one, once"" written as (? < OC *nnəŋ) in the "E jun qijie" 鄂君啟筯 bronze tally and in Warring States bamboo inscriptions, which represents a Kra-Dai areal word; compare proto-Tai *hnïŋ "=" *hnɯŋ (Siamese nɯŋ, Dai nɯŋ, Longzhou nəəŋ etc.) "one, once".


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: In the early 1980s, Wei Qingwen (韦庆稳), a Zhuang linguist, proposed that the Old Yue language recorded in the ""Song of the Yue Boatman"" is in fact a language ancestral to Zhuang. Wei used reconstructed Old Chinese for the characters and discovered that the resulting vocabulary showed strong resemblance to modern Zhuang. Later, Zhengzhang Shangfang (1991) followed Wei’s insight but used Thai script for comparison, since this orthography dates from the 13th century and preserves archaisms not found in modern pronunciation. Zhengzhang notes that 'evening, night, dark' bears the C tone in Wuming Zhuang "xam" and "ɣam" 'night'. The item "raa" normally means 'we inclusive' but in some places, e.g. Tai Lue and White Tai 'I'. However, Laurent Sagart criticizes Zhengzhang's interpretation as anachronistic, because however archaic that Thai script is, the Thai language was only written 2000 years after the song had been recorded; even if the Proto-Kam-Tai had emerged by the 6th century BCE, its pronunciation would have been substantially different from Thai.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: Kra–Dai consists of at least five well established branches, namely Kra, Kam–Sui, Tai, Be and Hlai (Ostapirat 2005:109).


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: Kra–Dai languages that are not securely classified and may constitute independent Kra–Dai branches, include the following.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: An early but influential classification, with the traditional Kam–Tai clade, was Edmondson and Solnit's classification from 1988:


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: This classification is also used by Liang and Zhang (1996), Chamberlain (2016: 38), and "Ethnologue", though by 2009 Lakkia was made a third branch of Kam–Tai and Biao was moved into Kam–Sui.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: Weera Ostapirat (2005:128) suggests the possibility of Kra and Kam–Sui being grouped together as Northern Kra–Dai and Hlai with Tai as Southern Kra–Dai. Norquest (2007) has further updated this classification to include Lakkia and Be. Norquest notes that Lakkia shares some similarities with Kam–Sui, while Be shares some similarities with Tai. Norquest (2007:15) notes that Be shares various similarities with Northern Tai languages in particular. Following Ostapirat, Norquest adopts the name Kra–Dai for the family as a whole. The following tree of Kra–Dai is from Norquest (2007:16).


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: Several scholars have presented evidence that Kra–Dai may be related to, or even be a branch of the Austronesian language family. There are a number of possible cognates in the core vocabulary displaying regular sound correspondences. Among proponents, there is yet no agreement as to whether they are a sister group to Austronesian in a family called Austro-Tai, a back-migration from Taiwan to the mainland or a later migration from the Philippines to Hainan during the Austronesian expansion.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: The inclusion of Japanese in the Austro-Tai family, as proposed by Paul K. Benedict in the late 20th century, is not supported by the current proponents of the Austro-Tai hypothesis.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: The Kra–Dai languages were formerly considered to be part of the Sino-Tibetan family, partly because they contain large numbers of words that are similar to Sino-Tibetan languages. However, these words are seldom found in all branches of the family and do not include basic vocabulary, indicating that they are old loan words. Outside China, the Kra–Dai languages are now classified as an independent family. In China, they are called Zhuang–Dong languages and are generally included, along with the Hmong–Mien languages, in the Sino-Tibetan family. It is still a matter of discussion among Chinese scholars whether Kra languages such as Gelao, Qabiao and Lachi can be included in Zhuang–Dong, since they lack the Sino-Tibetan similarities that are used to include other Zhuang–Dong languages in Sino-Tibetan.


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: Kosaka (2002) argued specifically for a Miao–Dai family. He argues that there is much evidence for a genetic relation between Hmong–Mien and Kra–Dai languages. He further suggests that similarities between Kra–Dai and Austronesian are because of later areal contact in coastal areas of Eastern and Southeastern China or an older ancestral relation (Proto-East Asian).


title: Kra–Dai languages

text: Vovin (2014) proposed that the location of the Japonic Urheimat (linguistic homeland) is in Southern China. Vovin argues for typological evidence that Proto-Japanese may have been a monosyllabic, SVO syntax and isolating language, which are also characteristic of Tai–Kadai languages. According to him, these common features are however not due to a genetic relationship, but rather the result of intense contact.


title: Chicken marsala

text: Chicken marsala (Italian: "Scaloppine di pollo al Marsala") is an Italian-American dish of chicken escalopes in a Marsala wine sauce.


title: Chicken marsala

text: It is a variation of traditional Italian "scaloppina" dishes, of which there are many varieties throughout Italy. The dish dates to the 19th century, when it may have originated with English families who lived in western Sicily, where Marsala wine is produced.


title: Chicken marsala

text: Slices of chicken breast are coated in flour, briefly sautéed, and then removed from the pan, which is then used to make a Marsala reduction sauce. The sauce is made by reducing the wine to nearly the consistency of a syrup while adding garlic. The sauce is then poured over the chicken, which has been kept in a warming oven, and served immediately.


title: Chicken marsala

text: As an alternative method, the chicken breasts may be braised in a mixture of Marsala wine and butter.


title: University of the Pacific (United States)

text: University of the Pacific (Pacific or UOP) is a private Methodist-affiliated university with its main campus in Stockton, California, and graduate campuses in San Francisco and Sacramento. It claims to be California's first university, the first independent coeducational campus in California, and the first conservatory of music and first medical school on the West Coast.


text: Pacific was chartered on July 10, 1851, in Santa Clara, California, under the name California Wesleyan College. The school moved to San Jose in 1871 and then to Stockton in 1923. Pacific is accredited by the WASC Senior College and University Commission. In addition to its liberal arts college and graduate school, Pacific has schools of business, dentistry, education, engineering, international studies, law, music, pharmacy, and health sciences.


text: It is home to the papers of environmental pioneer John Muir in Pacific's Holt-Atherton Special Collections and Archives. The university also has a John Muir Center that hosts a Muir Symposium to encourage the use of John Muir's Papers. At Pacific's William Knox Holt Memorial Library, there is a museum style presentational space for Muir's Papers. The Muir Experience has on display physical and digital exhibits to inspire user interaction with Muir's work.


text: Pacific was founded on July 10, 1851, in Santa Clara. It was originally named California Wesleyan College, but one month later, it petitioned to have its name changed to the University of the Pacific. In 1858, the college opened the first medical school on the West Coast, the Medical Department of the University of the Pacific. The medical school was later affiliated with University College under the name Cooper Medical College, and in 1908 it was taken over by Stanford University and became the Stanford University School of Medicine.


text: In 1871, the campus was moved to San Jose, to an area that came to be known as the College Park neighborhood, and opened its doors to women, becoming the first independent co-educational campus in California. In 1878, the Conservatory of Music was established at Pacific, making it the first of its kind west of the Mississippi River. In 1896, Napa College merged with the college. In 1911, the name was changed to College of the Pacific (COP).


text: In 1923, the campus relocated from the Bay Area to the city of Stockton becoming the first private four-year university in the Central Valley. In 1925, the San Jose campus was sold to Santa Clara College which moved its Santa Clara Prep to the campus and renamed it Bellarmine College Preparatory.


text: The university expanded into graduate and professional education in the 1950s, establishing the School of Pharmacy in 1955 and the Graduate School in 1956. The School of Engineering was established in 1957. In 1961, the university resumed using the name University of the Pacific.


text: In 1962, Pacific merged with the San Francisco College of Physicians and Surgeons (established in 1896 in San Francisco), and then in 1966, with the McGeorge School of Law (established in 1924 in Sacramento).


text: In the late 1960s, when federal law surrounding funding of church-associated universities came into question, Pacific stopped receiving funding from the United Methodist Church, but maintains its affiliation with the church while operating as a non-denominational school.


text: Also in the 1960s, three new colleges were established that were modeled after British universities Oxford and Cambridge, integrating faculty and students into distinct living and learning communities: Raymond College (1962) was introduced as an accelerated, interdisciplinary liberal arts program in which students could shape their courses of study; Elbert Covell College (1963) was a unique inter-American college, with half its students from the U.S. and half from Latin America and classes taught in Spanish; and Callison College (1967) focused on non-western studies, giving students the opportunity to spend a year of their studies in Asia. These independent colleges merged with the rest of the university in 1982.


text: In 2013, the university received an estate gift of $125 million from Robert and Jeanette Powell. It is the largest gift in the university's history. This gift increased Pacific's endowment to $334 million. That same year, Pacific awarded its highest honor, the Order of Pacific, to the Powells.