title: Megalosaurus

text: In 1824, Buckland assigned "Megalosaurus" to the Sauria, assuming within the Sauria a close affinity with modern lizards, more than with crocodiles. In 1842, Owen made "Megalosaurus" one of the first three genera placed in the Dinosauria. In 1850, Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte coined a separate family Megalosauridae with "Megalosaurus" as the type genus. For a long time, the precise relationships of "Megalosaurus" remained vague. It was seen as a "primitive" member of the Carnosauria, the group in which most large theropods were united.


title: Megalosaurus

text: In the late 20th century the new method of cladistics allowed for the first time to exactly calculate how closely various taxa were related to each other. In 2012, Matthew Carrano "et al." showed that "Megalosaurus" was the sister species of "Torvosaurus" within the Megalosaurinae, giving this cladogram:


title: Megalosaurus

text: Living in what is now Europe, during the Jurassic Period (~201 to ~145 million years ago), "Megalosaurus" may have hunted stegosaurs and sauropods. Repeated descriptions during the nineteenth and early twentieth century of "Megalosaurus" hunting "Iguanodon" (another of the earliest dinosaurs named) through the forests that then covered the continent are now known to be inaccurate, because "Iguanodon" skeletons are found in much younger Early Cretaceous formations. The only specimens belonging to "Megalosaurus bucklandii" are from the Lower/Middle Bathonian of Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire. No material from outside of the Bathonian formations of England can be referred to "Megalosaurus". It lived alongside the theropods "Cruxicheiros", "Iliosuchus" and "Streptospondylus", and the sauropods "Cardiodon", "Cetiosaurus", and possibly "Cetiosauriscus". The pterosaur "Rhamphocephalus", and indeterminate sauropod and ornithopod remains have also been found alongside fossils of "Megalosaurus".


title: Megalosaurus

text: Benson in 2010 concluded from its size and common distribution that "Megalosaurus" was the apex predator of its habitat. He saw the absence of "Cetiosaurus" on the French Armorican Massif as an indication that "Megalosaurus" too did not live on that island and was limited to the London-Brabant Massif.


title: Megalosaurus

text: A "Megalosaurus" rib figured in 1856 and 1884 by Sir Richard Owen has a pathological swollen spot near the base of its capitular process. The swollen spot appears to have been caused by a healed fracture and is located at the point where it would have articulated with its vertebra.


title: Megalosaurus

text: During the later nineteenth century, "Megalosaurus" was seen as the typical carnivorous dinosaur. If remains were found that were not deemed sufficiently distinct to warrant a separate genus, often single teeth, these were classified under "Megalosaurus", which thus began to function as a wastebasket taxon, a sort of default genus. Eventually, "Megalosaurus" contained more species than any other non-avian dinosaur genus, most of them of dubious validity. During the twentieth century, this practice was gradually discontinued; but scientists discovering theropods that had been mistakenly classified under a different animal group in older literature, still felt themselves forced to rename them, again choosing "Megalosaurus" as the default generic name.


title: Megalosaurus

text: In 1857, Joseph Leidy renamed "Deinodon horridus" (Leidy, 1856) into "Megalosaurus horridus", the "frightening one", a genus based on teeth. In 1858, Friedrich August Quenstedt named "Megalosaurus cloacinus", based on a probable Late Triassic theropod tooth found near Bebenhausen, specimen SMNH 52457. It is a "nomen dubium". In 1869 Eugène Eudes-Deslongchamps named "Megalosaurus insignis", the "significant", based on a theropod tooth found near La Hève in Normandy that was twelve centimetres long, a third longer than the teeth of "M. bucklandii". The name at first remained a "nomen nudum", but a description was provided, in 1870, by Gustave Lennier. Today, it is considered a "nomen dubium", an indeterminate member of the Theropoda, the specimen having in 1944 been destroyed by a bombardment. In 1870, Jean-Baptiste Greppin named "Megalosaurus meriani" based on specimen MH 350, a premaxillary tooth found near Moutier and part of the collection of Peter Merian. Today, this is either referred to "Amanzia", "Ceratosaurus" or seen as a "nomen dubium", an indeterminate member of the Ceratosauria. In 1871, Emanuel Bunzel named remains found near Schnaitheim "Megalosaurus schnaitheimi". It is a "nomen nudum", the fossils possibly belonging to "Dakosaurus maximus". In 1876, J. Henry, a science teacher at Besançon, in a published dissertation named four Late Triassic possible dinosaur teeth found near Moissey "Megalosaurus obtusus", "the blunt one". It is a "nomen dubium", perhaps a theropod or some indeterminate predatory archosaur. In 1881, Harry Govier Seeley named two possible theropod teeth found in Austria "Megalosaurus pannoniensis". The specific name refers to Pannonia. It is a "nomen dubium", possibly an indeterminate member of the Dromaeosauridae or Tyrannosauroidea. In 1883, Seeley named "Megalosaurus bredai", based on a thighbone, specimen BMNH 42997 found near Maastricht, the Netherlands. The specific name honours Jacob Gijsbertus Samuël van Breda. In 1932, this was made a separate genus "Betasuchus" by Friedrich von Huene.


title: Megalosaurus

text: In 1882, Henri-Émile Sauvage named remains found at Louppy-le-Château, teeth and vertebrae from the Early Cretaceous, "Megalosaurus superbus", "the proud one". In 1923, this became the genus "Erectopus". In 1884/1885, Wilhelm Barnim Dames, based on specimen UM 84, a tooth from the Early Cretaceous, named "Megalosaurus dunkeri", the specific name honouring Wilhelm Dunker. In 1923, this was made a separate genus "Altispinax". In 1885, Joseph Henri Ferdinand Douvillé renamed "Dakosaurus gracilis" Quenstedt 1885 into "Megalosaurus gracilis". Today the renaming is generally rejected. In 1889, Richard Lydekker named "Megalosaurus oweni", the specific name honouring Owen, based on a series of metatarsals from the Early Cretaceous, specimen BMNH R2556. In 1991, this was made a separate genus "Valdoraptor". In 1892, Edward Drinker Cope renamed "Ceratosaurus nasicornis" Marsh 1884 into "Megalosaurus nasicornis". This had been largely motivated by a desire to annoy his rival Othniel Charles Marsh and the name has found no acceptance. In 1896, Charles Jean Julien Depéret named "Megalosaurus crenatissimus", "the much crenelated", based on remains from the Late Cretaceous found in Madagascar. In 1955 this was made a separate genus "Majungasaurus". The generic name "Laelaps", used by Cope to denote a theropod, had been preoccupied by a mite. Marsh had therefore provided the replacement name "Dryptosaurus", but Henry Fairfield Osborn, a partisan of Cope, rejected this replacement and thus in 1898 renamed "Laelaps aquilunguis" Cope 1866 into "Megalosaurus aquilunguis".


title: Megalosaurus

text: In 1901 Baron Franz Nopcsa renamed "Laelaps trihedrodon" Cope 1877 into "Megalosaurus trihedrodon". In the same publication Nopcsa renamed "Poekilopleuron valens" Leidy 1870 into "Megalosaurus valens"; this probably represents fossil material of "Allosaurus". In 1902, Nopcsa named "Megalosaurus hungaricus" based on two teeth found in Transylvania, then part of the Kingdom of Hungary. The specimens, MAFI ob. 3106, were later lost. It represents an indeterminate theropod. In 1903, Louis Dollo named "Megalosaurus lonzeensis" based on a manual claw found near Lonzee in Belgium. He had first reported this claw in 1883, and as a result some sources by mistake indicate this year as the date of the naming. It perhaps represents a member of the Noasauridae, or an indeterminate member of the Coelurosauria. In 1907/1908, von Huene renamed "Streptospondylus cuvieri" Owen 1842, based on a presently lost partial vertebra, into "Megalosaurus cuvieri". This is today seen as a "nomen dubium", an indeterminate member of the Tetanurae. In 1909, Richard Lydekker named "Megalosaurus woodwardi", based on a maxilla with tooth, specimen BMNH 41352. This is today seen as a "nomen dubium", an indeterminate member of the Theropoda.


title: Megalosaurus

text: In 1910, Arthur Smith Woodward named "Megalosaurus bradleyi" based on a skull from the Middle Jurassic, the specific name honouring the collector F. Lewis Bradley. In 1926, this was made a separate genus "Proceratosaurus". In 1920, Werner Janensch named "Megalosaurus ingens", "the enormous", based on specimen MB R 1050, a twelve centimetre long tooth from German East Africa. It possibly represents a large member of the Carcharodontosauridae; Carrano e.a. saw it as an indeterminate member of the Tetanurae. "M. ingens" is now seen as a specimen of "Torvosaurus". In 1923, von Huene renamed "Poekilopleuron bucklandii" Eudes-Deslongchamps 1838 into "Megalosaurus poikilopleuron". Today, the genus "Poekilopleuron" is generally seen as valid. In the same publication, von Huene named two additional "Megalosaurus" species. The first was "Megalosaurus parkeri", its specific name honouring William Kitchen Parker and based on a pelvis, leg bones and vertebrae from the Late Cretaceous. This was made the separate genus "Metriacanthosaurus" in 1964. The second was "Megalosaurus nethercombensis", named after its provenance from Nethercombe and based on two dentaries, leg bones, a pelvis and vertebrae from the Middle Jurassic, which von Huene himself in 1932 made the separate genus "Magnosaurus". In 1925, Depéret, based on two teeth from Algeria, named "Megalosaurus saharicus". In 1931/1932 this was made the separate genus "Carcharodontosaurus". In 1956 von Huene by mistake named the same species as "Megalosaurus africanus", intending to base it on remains from Morocco but referring the Algerian teeth; this implies that "M. africanus" is a junior objective synonym of "M. saharicus". In 1926, von Huene named "Megalosaurus lydekkeri", its specific name honouring Richard Lydekker, based on BMNH 41352, i.e. the same specimen that had already been made the holotype of "M. woodwardi" (Lydekker, 1909). This implies that "M. lydekkeri" is a junior objective synonym of "M. woodwardi". It is likewise seen as a "nomen dubium". In the same publication von Huene named "Megalosaurus terquemi" based on three teeth found near Hettingen, its specific name honouring Olry Terquem. It is seen as a "nomen dubium", the fossil material probably representing some member of the Phytosauria or some other archosaur. In 1932, a work by von Huene mentioned a "Megalosaurus (Magnosaurus) woodwardi", a synonym of "Magnosaurus woodwardi" named in the same book. Its type specimen is differing from the earlier "Megalosaurus woodwardi" (Lydekker, 1909), the two names are not synonyms. In 1954 Samuel Welles named "Megalosaurus wetherilli". This species is exceptional in being based on a rather complete skeleton, found in Arizona, from the Early Jurassic. Its specific name honours John Wetherill. In 1970, Welles made this the separate genus "Dilophosaurus". In 1955, Albert-Félix de Lapparent named "Megalosaurus mersensis" based on a series of twenty-three vertebrae found near Tizi n'Juillerh in a layer of the El Mers Formation of Morocco. This probably represents a member of the Mesosuchia. In 1956, Alfred Sherwood Romer renamed "Aggiosaurus nicaeensis" Ambayrac 1913, based on a lower jaw found near Nice, on the authority of von Huene into "Megalosaurus nicaeensis". Originally it had been considered to be some crocodilian; present opinion confirms this. In 1957, de Lapparent named "Megalosaurus pombali" based on three teeth found near Pombal in the Jurassic of Portugal. Today it is seen as a "nomen dubium", an indeterminate member of the Theropoda.


title: Megalosaurus

text: In 1965, Oskar Kuhn renamed "Zanclodon silesiacus" Jaekel 1910 into "Megalosaurus? silesiacus". It is a "nomen dubium" based on the tooth of some indeterminate predatory Triassic archosaur, found in Silesia, perhaps a theropod. In 1966, Guillermo del Corro named "Megalosaurus inexpectatus", named "the unexpected" as it was discovered on a sauropod site with remains of "Chubutisaurus", based on specimen MACN 18.172, a tooth found in Argentina. It might represent a member of the Carcharodontosauridae. In 1970, Rodney Steel named two "Megalosaurus" species. Firstly, he renamed "Iliosuchus incognitus" Huene 1932 into "Megalosaurus incognitus". Secondly, he renamed "Nuthetes destructor" Owen 1854 into "Megalosaurus destructor". Both genera are today seen as not identical to "Megalosaurus". Michael Waldman in 1974 renamed "Sarcosaurus andrewsi" Huene 1932 into "Megalosaurus andrewsi". Indeed, "Sarcosaurus andrewsi" is today by some scientists not seen as directly related to the type species of "Sarcosaurus": "Sarcosaurus woodi". In the same publication Waldman named "Megalosaurus hesperis", "the western one", based on skull fragments from the Middle Jurassic. In 2008 this was made the separate genus "Duriavenator". Del Corro in 1974 named "Megalosaurus chubutensis", based on specimen MACN 18.189, a tooth found in Chubut Province. It is a "nomen dubium", a possible carcharodontosaurid, or a very large abelisaurid.


title: Megalosaurus

text: In 1985, Zhao Xijin named two "Megalosaurus" species found in Tibet. He had earlier mentioned these species in an unpublished dissertation of 1983, implying they initially were invalid "nomina ex dissertatione". However, his 1985 publication did not contain descriptions so the names are still "nomina nuda". The first species was "Megalosaurus dapukaensis", named for the Dapuka Group. It was, in the second edition of "The Dinosauria", by mistake spelled as "Megalosaurus cachuensis". The second species was "Megalosaurus tibetensis". In 1987/1988, Monique Vianey-Liaud renamed "Massospondylus rawesi" (Lydekker, 1890), based on specimen NHMUK R4190, a tooth from the Maastrichtian of India, into "Megalosaurus rawesi". This is a "nomen dubium", a possible member of the Abelisauridae. In 1988, Gregory S. Paul renamed "Torvosaurus tanneri" Galton & Jensen 1979 into "Megalosaurus tanneri". The change has found no acceptance. In 1973, Anatoly Konstantinovich Rozhdestvensky had renamed "Poekilopleuron schmidti" Kiprijanow 1883 into a "Megalosaurus" sp. However, as it is formally impossible to change a named species into an unnamed one, George Olshevsky in 1991 used the new combination "Megalosaurus schmidti". It is a chimaera. In 1993, Ernst Probst and Raymund Windolf by mistake renamed "Plateosaurus ornatus" Huene 1905 into "Megalosaurus ornatus" by mentioning the latter name in a species list. This can be seen as a "nomen vanum". The same publication listed the ichnospecies "Megalosauropus teutonicus" Kaever & Lapparent 1974 as a "Megalosaurus teutonicus". In 1997, Windolf renamed "Saurocephalus monasterii" Münster 1846, based on a tooth found near Hannover, into "Megalosaurus monasterii". It is a "nomen dubium", an indeterminate member of the Theropoda. In 1998, Peter Malcolm Galton renamed "Zanclodon cambrensis" Newton 1899, based on a left lower jaw, specimen BGS 6532 found at Bridgend, into ?"Megalosaurus cambrensis" because it was not a basal sauropodomorph. It is a senior synonym of "Gressylosaurus cambrensis" Olshevsky 1991. The specific name refers to Cambria, the Latin name of Wales. It probably represents a member of the Coelophysoidea, or some other predatory archosaur.


title: Megalosaurus

text: The complex naming history can be summarised in a formal species list. The naming authors are directly mentioned behind the name. If the name has been changed, they are placed in parentheses and the authors of the changed name are mentioned behind them. The list also indicates whether a name has been insufficiently described ("nomen nudum"), is not taxonomically identifiable at the generic level ("nomen dubium"), or fallen out of use ("nomen oblitum"). Reclassifications under a different genus are mentioned behind the "=" sign; if the reclassification is today considered valid, it is listed under Reassigned species.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: Rated R is the fourth studio album by Barbadian singer Rihanna. It was released on November 20, 2009, by Def Jam Recordings and SRP Records. Recording sessions for the album began in March 2009 and took place at recording studios throughout United States and Europe. Rihanna, together with Antonio "L.A." Reid and The Carter Administration, was the executive producer of the album and worked with various record producers, including Chase & Status, Stargate, The-Dream, Ne-Yo, and Brian Kennedy. The record featured several vocalists and instrumentalists, including Young Jeezy, will.i.am, Justin Timberlake and Slash, who played the guitars in "Rockstar 101".


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: Musically, the album represents a departure from her previous effort "Good Girl Gone Bad" (2007), which contained up-tempo and ballad-oriented songs. Conceived after Rihanna's assault by her then-boyfriend, singer Chris Brown, "Rated R" is primarily a pop, hip hop and R&B album; it features a foreboding and atmospheric tone in terms of musical and lyrical direction, and it incorporates elements of rock and dubstep. It also explores other genres, such as dancehall in "Rude Boy" and Latin-infusion in "Te Amo". "Rated R" received positive reviews from music critics, who commended Rihanna's mature performance and called the album her most layered and heartfelt effort. The album debuted at number four on the US "Billboard" 200 chart and sold 181,000 copies in its first week. It also attained top ten positions in over twelve other countries.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: The album produced six singles, "Russian Roulette", "Wait Your Turn", "Hard", "Rude Boy", "Rockstar 101", and "Te Amo". "Russian Roulette" was released as the album's lead single and managed to reach top-ten in over 25 countries. "Hard" became her thirteenth US top-ten single, while "Rude Boy" topped the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart for five consecutive weeks. "Te Amo" attained top-ten positions around Europe and reached number one in Brazil. To further promote the album, Rihanna embarked on her third worldwide concert tour Last Girl on Earth (2010–2011). "Rated R" is deemed as an important album in Rihanna's career and a groundwork inspiration for her follow-up releases.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: Rihanna's previous album "Good Girl Gone Bad" (2007) was a commercial success and received generally positive reviews from most music critics. The album featured five top ten singles—three US number one songs—including the international breakthrough single "Umbrella". Following the assault of Rihanna's boyfriend Chris Brown on her in February 2009, there was much speculation as to whether any song featured on the upcoming album would be about him. In an interview with MTV News, regular Rihanna collaborator Ne-Yo clarified that he would not write a song for Rihanna about Brown, because he considered the idea unnecessary. Producer Chuck Harmony mused that no matter what song Rihanna released as the lead single, it would immediately be looked at as a song about Brown.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: During an interview at the MTV Video Music Awards, Ne-Yo stated that listeners should expect an "edgier" and "angrier" Rihanna on the album. He later told "In Touch Weekly" that the album is definitely more edgy than Rihanna's prior work, describing the album as "liberated". American singer Akon, on the other hand, stated that he was "going to lighten her up" and did not want an angry Rihanna. With the success of her last album, Rihanna wanted to make sure that she did not fall into one sound or vibe. At the "Justin Timberlake & Friends Concert in Las Vegas", Timberlake told MTV News that the "Rated R" is a whole new sound and that the new material significantly differs from the one on her last album. "She broke onto the scene so hard with the last record — to have that many songs on the charts is impressive. I think that the smartest thing she's doing is not trying to emulate what she did but move forward", Timberlake explained.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: After the release of the lead single, "Russian Roulette", Harmony was aware of the mixed reaction from fans who had heard the track. He assured fans that the song was not fully representative to the rest of the album, though it reflected Rihanna's growth as an artist. In an interview with "Rap-Up", Tricky Stewart announced that he had collaborated with The-Dream on the project and said that the album is different from her past works. In February 2010, Rihanna expressed a positive opinion on the album, but commented that her future work would be less intense. She asserted, "I really like the bottom, the grime of it. But if I were to combine that with more energetic, up-tempo pop records, then I think that would be a happy marriage. And that's where we'll probably go next".


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: Rihanna began recording songs for the album in March 2009. The recording sessions for the album took place at Milk Studios in Manhattan, New York, Metropolis Studios in London, England, Studios Davout in Paris, France and at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles, California. Rihanna worked with several different songwriters and producers on the album, including Chuck Harmony, The-Dream, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, Chase & Status, Stargate, Demo, and Justin Timberlake. Rihanna wanted the album to be less influenced by synthpop, attempting to avoid the "lighthearted commercial pop" of her previous albums. By doing so, she incorporated a production style with more bass, and utilized Gothic imagery. In the early stages of the production, she worked with Adonis Shropshire, who stated that Rihanna had brainstormed a large number of ideas over the course of a few weeks. Rihanna also worked with Norwegian producer duo Stargate, who mused that the collaboration was "very rewarding" and "inspiring for us", commenting: "I don't think we should talk about titles just yet. We don't really know which songs are gonna make it, but it feels exciting." It was later revealed that Stargate originally produced a collaboration between Rihanna and Canadian rapper Drake, however, the song did not make the final cut for the album.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: Rihanna was involved with writing most of the lyrics on the album with the help of Timberlake and Ne-Yo, who helped the singer to translate her emotions into the songs. She worked with Ne-Yo on a number of songs although he was often unclear as to which songs would actually make the album. While working together, he felt that Rihanna was not the same girl as the one he worked with a few years before, complimenting her growth musically. In terms of musical direction, Rihanna requested more somber songs for the album. Ne-Yo and Harmony co-wrote "Russian Roulette", pushing a darker and more morbid aesthetic.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: After listening to the track "Saxon" performed by Nicki Minaj and production duo Chase & Status, Rihanna got in contact with the latter and wanted to collaborate. Chase & Status had a pair of sessions with Rihanna and worked together for a few weeks in an undisclosed location. The songs they worked on had a "big beats and big bass", although Rihanna had some disagreements with the duo. In October 2009, she concluded recording sessions with Tricky Stewart and The-Dream. Dream and Tricky flew out to Paris and played a few songs for Rihanna which included "Hard" and "Rockstar 101." She felt that "Hard" stood out from all the songs, due to its arrogance. In the song "Rockstar 101," guitarist Slash contributed a bass guitar on the track while "Photographs" is a duet with singer-songwriter will.i.am. In addition, Ester Dean co-wrote "Rude Boy". "The Last Song" was one of the last tracks crafted for the album. Rihanna recorded the song within the final twelve hours of the album's conception; "when the label finally said we had 12 hours to turn in the album, I was like, Okay, I have to do it. I just drank some red wine, dimmed the lights, got in the booth and sang it", she explained.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Rated R" features a darker and more foreboding tone than Rihanna's previous albums. Primarily a pop, hip hop and R&B album, it also incorporates musical elements of rock music. The album's production is typified by a sleek sound and incorporates ominous synthesizers, intertwining guitar licks, tense beats, minor-key melodies, and polyrhythmic vocal harmonies. Songs such as "G4L", "Mad House", and "Wait Your Turn" incorporate elements of dubstep, including brooding synths and grumbling basslines. The album also incorporates other musical genres, such as dancehall in the Jamaican inspired "Rude Boy" and Latin music-infusion in "Te Amo". Rihanna discussed the musical direction of the project in an interview for "Glamour" magazine, stating "The songs are really personal. It's rock 'n' roll, but it's really hip-hop: If Lil Wayne and Kings of Leon like my album, then I'll feel good."


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: The lyrical content of the album features generally bleak views on love and boastful lyrics concerning perseverance and overcoming adversity. Its lyrics are characterized by grim and angry tones, and songs that contain boastful and persevering themes are characterized by images of violence and brutality. While journalists Ann Powers of "Los Angeles Times", Eric Henderson of "Slant Magazine", and Rob Harvilla of "The Village Voice" perceived its lyrics as allusions to Rihanna's assault by Chris Brown, Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" wrote that the album "doesn't specifically address those events, but it hardly ignores them". According to Powers, regret is a significant theme on the album: "The songs on 'Rated R' never have their singer apologize for the man who so seriously wronged her, but they do acknowledge the other emotions that come with separation, even from a partner who's also a perpetrator. Those feelings include regret, tenderness and deep sadness".


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: The final image from the photoshoot for the album was made by German fashion photographer Ellen von Unwerth. Von Unwerth, who has also shot other album covers such as "The Velvet Rope" (1997) by Janet Jackson, "Back to Basics" (2006) by Christina Aguilera, and "Blackout" (2007) by Britney Spears, said that Rihanna was "fantastic to work with — very giving, very creative, very involved in every aspect of the shoot and ready to push the boundaries." The album cover was released on October 27, 2009, and features Rihanna in a moody, contemplative pose wearing a leather top with her hand covering her right eye and each finger wrapped in an intricate set of rings. The black-and-white cover was compared to the 1980s album covers by singer Grace Jones.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: The brand and styling of "Rated R" was conceived by British artist and director Simon Henwood. "We spent a lot of time developing ideas, yes. We went to Paris for Fashion Week, met with designers, sat and made drawings/designs together for the photo shoot/costume pieces, etc," Henwood revealed in an interview with MuuMuse. "Everything comes from the music, and this is her most personal album to date—so everything draws from it in one way or another." For the visual creation of the era, Henwood took inspiration from the film "The Omega Man" and the book "The Lathe of Heaven", "We wanted to create her a world that was personal... The whole thing was a dark dream; a chance for her to express all these things without being specific/literal." Henwood also conceived the look and feel of the album's artwork, videos and TV spots, and also contributed to Rihanna's Last Girl on Earth Tour, including the show's stage design, costumes, and background visuals.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: On October 13, 2009, Rihanna released a statement along with a picture of a metal 'R' on her official website saying, "The Wait is Ova. Nov 23 09", indicating the release date for "Rated R". Two days later, a countdown timer appeared on her official website and was scheduled to end on October 20, 2009. After the timer ended, "Russian Roulette" premiered on BBC Radio 1, the singer's official website and on American radio stations. Three days after, on October 16, Rihanna shot a music video for "Wait Your Turn" in Washington Heights, New York City; it premiered on her official website on November 3, 2009. A snippet of the song with the title "The Wait is Ova" also appeared as background music for a promotional video of the album. On November 5, 2009, Rihanna's first televised interview since her altercation with Brown aired on "Good Morning America" in support of the album. In addition to appearing on "Good Morning America," the interview continued the following day on ABC's "20/20".


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: In November 2009, Island Def Jam convened with Nokia for a special promotional concert held on November 16, 2009, in the United Kingdom. Rihanna shot a promotional video for the event which took place at the Brixton Academy in London. She premiered songs from the album during the event which was her first solo concert since the incident with Brown. Nokia hosted listening parties around the globe on the same date of the event. The Nokia Music Store offered an enhanced version of the album on its release date, a remix and exclusive track titled "Hole in My Head" which featured Justin Timberlake. "Rated R" was first released on November 20, 2009, in Australia, France and Germany. Three days after, on November 23, it was launched in North America and the United Kingdom.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: On February 4, 2010, Rihanna performed at the Pepsi Super Bowl Fan Jam on VH1 along with performers Timbaland and Justin Bieber. She sang a "hard-rocking version" of "Wait Your Turn", "Live Your Life", "Disturbia" and "Russian Roulette" among others. Rihanna performed a medley of "Hard", "Rude Boy" and "Don't Stop the Music" at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards on March 27, 2010. To further promote "Rated R", Rihanna embarked on her third concert tour titled Last Girl on Earth Tour (2010–2011). It started on April 16, 2010, in Belgium, Europe and ended on March 12, 2011, in Australia; it also visited Asia, North America and Oceania. Ten songs from "Rated R" were remixed by electronic disc jockey Chew Fu and released as a remix album under the title "". The majority of the remixes were remastered to incorporate sounds from the genre of house music, and incorporate heavy usage of synthesizers as part of their instrumentation.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Russian Roulette" was sent to US radio stations on October 26, 2009, as the lead single from "Rated R". The pop ballad received positive reviews from music critics, with Todd Martens of "Los Angeles Times" praising Rihanna's vocal performance and its lyrics. It peaked at number nine on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, and at number two on the UK Singles Chart. The music video for the song was directed by Anthony Mandler and features American actor Jesse Williams.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Hard", which features rap vocals by Jeezy, was released as the album's second US single, being sent to radio on November 10, 2009. Leah Greenblat of "Entertainment Weekly" praised the singer's vocal performance and the decision to include Jeezy as a featured artist. It became Rihanna's thirteenth top ten US "Billboard" Hot 100 single, peaking at number eight.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: The album's third single, "Wait Your Turn", alongside its music video, was released three days after "Hard" on November 13, 2009. Mandler shot the video, which was filmed in a black and white grainy fashion.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Rude Boy", the album's fourth single, was released to Italian radio stations on February 5, 2010. It was received enthusiastically and was the biggest success from the album, eventually becoming Rihanna's sixth song to reach number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. By doing so, she equaled Paula Abdul and Diana Ross as the female artists with the fifth-most number one singles on the Hot 100 chart in its fifty-one year history. It stayed on the summit for five consecutive weeks.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Rockstar 101" was released as the fifth single on May 18, 2010. The song peaked at number 24 in Australia and number 64 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. An accompanying music video was shot in April 2010 and was directed by Melina Matsoukas.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Te Amo" was released as the sixth and final single from "Rated R"; it was sent to Italian radio on May 28, 2010. It peaked within the top-ten in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland, and reached number one in Brazil. The Mandler-directed music video was shot at Castle of Vigny in Paris and featured French model Laetitia Casta as Rihanna's love interest.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Rated R" received positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 75, based on 21 reviews. It is currently her highest rated album on the site. Jody Rosen, writing for "Rolling Stone", called it one of the year's best pop albums. AllMusic's Andy Kellman gave the album four out of five stars and said that "Rated R" is exaggerated, but "compelling" and performed convincingly by Rihanna, who sings "many memorably belligerent lines". Greg Kot of the "Chicago Tribune" rated it three-and-half stars out of four and called it "powerful and moving art" that Rihanna personalizes in a way that suggests she had more creative input than on her previous albums. Pareles of "The New York Times", said that, although its personal subject matter is brave, it does not compromise the creativity of the music.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: Powers of the "Los Angeles Times" gave the album four out of four star rating and called it "a complex and fascinating portrait" of an abused woman's emotional range and resolve. Alex Macpherson of "Fact" said that, apart from its interesting music, "Rated R" is important for how Rihanna has "seized back control of her public story" during "our current panoptic age". Sarah Rodman of "The Boston Globe" praised it as a brief look at both Rihanna's development as an artist and "the confluence of tabloid culture and pop art". For "MSN Music", Robert Christgau gave the album a , indicating a "likable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy." He cited "Hard" and "Rude Boy" as highlights and credited Rihanna for "concocting a persona of interest out of one dynamite musical trick" and a difficult period in her personal life.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: In a mixed review, Sean Fennessey of "Spin" felt that the album does not suit Rihanna's ballad-based strengths and found her voice too flat and unexpressive to convey the anger of the songs. "Pitchfork"'s Ryan Dombal similarly said that her "artistic aspirations are currently loftier than her abilities". Michaelangelo Matos of "The A.V. Club" rated the album C+ and viewed the music as bloated and compared its lyrics negatively to "excerpts from a therapy session". Alexis Petridis, writing in "The Guardian", criticized its allusions to Brown's assault of her and said that the album does not offer anything beyond "the public's prurient interest in her private life." Harvilla of "The Village Voice" found the subtext uncomfortable and commented that the album's highlights, "thrilling as they are, might make you feel even worse" than the low points.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Rated R" was included in three top-10 albums lists by critics for 2009. In her year-end list of best albums, "Entertainment Weekly"s Leah Greenblatt named it the best pop album of the year. Greg Kot of the "Chicago Tribune" ranked it number eight on his list of 2009's best albums. Jonah Weiner of "Slate" ranked "Rated R" number 10 on his list and hailed Rihanna as one of the women that "have a stranglehold on the pop zeitgeist."


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Rated R" debuted at number four on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, with first-week sales of 181,000 copies in the country, giving Rihanna her highest first-week sales at that time. It surpassed the first week sales of her previous album "Good Girl Gone Bad", which entered at number two on the chart in 2007, with sales of 162,000 copies sold. It topped the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and became her first number-one on the chart. On March 26, 2018, "Rated R" was certified two-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and has sold over 1,130,000 copies in the US as of June 2015. The album debuted and peaked at number five on the Canadian Albums Chart and it received a platinum certification from Music Canada (MC).


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: For the issue dated November 29, 2009, the album entered at number sixteen on the UK Albums Chart and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) in just four days. For the issue dated March 7, 2010, the album broke into the top ten, and reached its number nine peak in the 15th week on the chart. As of August 1, 2010, "Rated R" has spent 36 weeks on the UK Albums Chart. It has sold over 710,000 copies in the country, as of 2015, and earned a two-times platinum certification from BPI. The album debuted at number 15 on the Australian Albums Chart. In August, the album was certified Platinum for shipping 70,000 units. For the issue dated March 14, 2010, "Rated R" set a new high of 12. It entered and peaked at number 14 on the New Zealand Albums Chart.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Rated R" debuted at number 22 on the Norwegian Albums Chart. In its tenth week, it peaked atop the chart and became Rihanna's first number-one album in the country. It was certified gold by IFPI Norway, denoting sales of over 15,000 copies. The album opened at number one on the Swiss Albums Chart for the issue dated December 6, 2009, and spent a total of 43 weeks on the chart. It received a platinum certification from IFPI Switzerland for shipment of 15,000 copies in the country. "Rated R" debuted and peaked at number four on the German Albums Chart for the issue dated December 4, 2009. It became Rihanna's second top-five album and received a platinum certification from Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI) for shipments of over 200,000 copies in the country. In Poland, the album peaked at number five and received a gold certification, selling 20,000 copies in one month, beating "Good Girl Gone Bad"s sales of 20,000 achieved in two years. It also peaked at number 7 at the Austrian and Irish Albums charts, and number 10 on the Croatian, French and Japanese Albums charts. Worldwide, "Rated R" has sold over three million copies, as of November 2010.


title: Rated R (Rihanna album)

text: "Rated R" is deemed a pivotal record in Rihanna's career as it was released nine months after the domestic violence case with Brown. In 2019, ten years after the album release, Chuck Arnold of "Billboard" described the record as a "coming-of-age manifesto" and also Rihanna's version of Jackson's "Control" (1986). According to him, "Rated R" is "her declaration of independence from Brown and her taking charge of a narrative that had turned her into a victim." Similarly, Blavity's Jordan Simon compared it to Jackson's "The Velvet Rope", and described it as "a dark portrait of a Black woman's journey to self-healing".


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: A trans-Neptunian object (TNO), also written transneptunian object, is any minor planet in the Solar System that orbits the Sun at a greater average distance than Neptune, which has a semi-major axis of 30.1 astronomical units (au).


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Typically, TNOs are further divided into the classical and resonant objects of the Kuiper belt, the scattered disc and detached objects with the sednoids being the most distant ones. As of October 2020, the catalog of minor planets contains 678 numbered and more than 2,000 unnumbered TNOs.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: The first trans-Neptunian object to be discovered was Pluto in 1930. It took until 1992 to discover a second trans-Neptunian object orbiting the Sun directly, 15760 Albion. The most massive TNO known is Eris, followed by Pluto, , , and . More than 80 satellites have been discovered in orbit of trans-Neptunian objects. TNOs vary in color and are either grey-blue (BB) or very red (RR). They are thought to be composed of mixtures of rock, amorphous carbon and volatile ices such as water and methane, coated with tholins and other organic compounds.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Twelve minor planets with a semi-major axis greater than 150 au and perihelion greater than 30 au are known, which are called extreme trans-Neptunian objects (ETNOs).


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: The orbit of each of the planets is slightly affected by the gravitational influences of the other planets. Discrepancies in the early 1900s between the observed and expected orbits of Uranus and Neptune suggested that there were one or more additional planets beyond Neptune. The search for these led to the discovery of Pluto in February 1930, which was too small to explain the discrepancies. Revised estimates of Neptune's mass from the "Voyager 2" flyby in 1989 showed that the problem was spurious. Pluto was easiest to find because it has the highest apparent magnitude of all known trans-Neptunian objects. It also has a lower inclination to the ecliptic than most other large TNOs.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: After Pluto's discovery, American astronomer Clyde Tombaugh continued searching for some years for similar objects, but found none. For a long time, no one searched for other TNOs as it was generally believed that Pluto, which up to August 2006 was classified a planet, was the only major object beyond Neptune. Only after the 1992 discovery of a second TNO, 15760 Albion, did systematic searches for further such objects begin. A broad strip of the sky around the ecliptic was photographed and digitally evaluated for slowly moving objects. Hundreds of TNOs were found, with diameters in the range of 50 to 2,500 kilometers. Eris, the most massive TNO, was discovered in 2005, revisiting a long-running dispute within the scientific community over the classification of large TNOs, and whether objects like Pluto can be considered planets. Pluto and Eris were eventually classified as dwarf planets by the International Astronomical Union. In December 2018, the discovery of , nicknamed "Farout", was announced. Farout is the most distant solar system object so-far observed and is about 120 au away from the sun. It takes 738 years to complete one orbit.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: According to their distance from the Sun and their orbital parameters, TNOs are classified in two large groups: the Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) and the scattered disc objects (SDOs). The diagram to the right illustrates the distribution of known trans-Neptunian objects (up to 70 au) in relation to the orbits of the planets and the centaurs for reference. Different classes are represented in different colours. Resonant objects (including Neptune trojans) are plotted in red, classical Kuiper belt objects in blue. The scattered disc extends to the right, far beyond the diagram, with known objects at mean distances beyond 500 au (Sedna) and aphelia beyond 1,000  ().


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: The Edgeworth-Kuiper belt contains objects with an average distance to the Sun of 30 to about 55 au, usually having close-to-circular orbits with a small inclination from the ecliptic. Edgeworth-Kuiper belt objects are further classified into the resonant trans-Neptunian object, that are locked in an orbital resonance with Neptune, and the classical Kuiper belt objects, also called "cubewanos", that have no such resonance, moving on almost circular orbits, unperturbed by Neptune. There are a large number of resonant subgroups, the largest being the twotinos (1:2 resonance) and the plutinos (2:3 resonance), named after their most prominent member, Pluto. Members of the classical Edgeworth-Kuiper belt include 15760 Albion, 50000 Quaoar and Makemake.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Another subclass of Kuiper belt objects is the so-called scattering objects (SO). These are non-resonant objects that come near enough to Neptune to have their orbits changed from time to time (such as causing changes in semi-major axis of at least 1.5 AU in 10 million years), and are thus undergoing gravitational scattering. Scattering objects are easier to detect than other trans-Neptunian objects of the same size because they come nearer to Earth, some having perihelia around 20 AU. Several are known with g-band absolute magnitude below 9, meaning that the estimated diameter is more than 100 km. It is estimated that there are between 240,000 and 830,000 scattering objects bigger than r-band absolute magnitude 12, corresponding to diameters greater than about 18 km. Scattering objects are hypothesized to be the source of the so-called Jupiter-family comets (JFCs), which have periods of less than 20 years.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: The scattered disc contains objects farther from the Sun, with very eccentric and inclined orbits. These orbits are non-resonant and non-planetary-orbit-crossing. A typical example is the most-massive-known TNO, Eris. Based on the Tisserand parameter relative to Neptune (T), the objects in the scattered disc can be further divided into the "typical" scattered disc objects (SDOs, Scattered-near) with a T of less than 3, and into the detached objects (ESDOs, Scattered-extended) with a T greater than 3. In addition, detached objects have a time-averaged eccentricity greater than 0.2 The Sednoids are a further extreme sub-grouping of the detached objects with perihelia so distant that it is confirmed that their orbits cannot be explained by perturbations from the giant planets, nor by interaction with the galactic tides.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Given the apparent magnitude (>20) of all but the biggest trans-Neptunian objects, the physical studies are limited to the following:


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Studying colours and spectra provides insight into the objects' origin and a potential correlation with other classes of objects, namely centaurs and some satellites of giant planets (Triton, Phoebe), suspected to originate in the Kuiper belt. However, the interpretations are typically ambiguous as the spectra can fit more than one model of the surface composition and depend on the unknown particle size. More significantly, the optical surfaces of small bodies are subject to modification by intense radiation, solar wind and micrometeorites. Consequently, the thin optical surface layer could be quite different from the regolith underneath, and not representative of the bulk composition of the body.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Small TNOs are thought to be low-density mixtures of rock and ice with some organic (carbon-containing) surface material such as tholin, detected in their spectra. On the other hand, the high density of , 2.6–3.3 g/cm, suggests a very high non-ice content (compare with Pluto's density: 1.86 g/cm). The composition of some small TNOs could be similar to that of comets. Indeed, some centaurs undergo seasonal changes when they approach the Sun, making the boundary blurred "(see 2060 Chiron and 7968 Elst–Pizarro)". However, population comparisons between centaurs and TNOs are still controversial.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Colour indices are simple measures of the differences in the apparent magnitude of an object seen through blue (B), visible (V), i.e. green-yellow, and red (R) filters. The diagram illustrates known colour indices for all but the biggest objects (in slightly enhanced colour).


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: For reference, two moons: Triton and Phoebe, the centaur Pholus and the planet Mars are plotted "(yellow labels, size not to scale)". Correlations between the colours and the orbital characteristics have been studied, to confirm theories of different origin of the different dynamic classes:


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: While the relatively dimmer bodies, as well as the population as the whole, are reddish (V−I = 0.3–0.6), the bigger objects are often more neutral in colour (infrared index V−I < 0.2). This distinction leads to suggestion that the surface of the largest bodies is covered with ices, hiding the redder, darker areas underneath.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Among TNOs, as among centaurs, there is a wide range of colors from blue-grey (neutral) to very red, but unlike the centaurs, bimodally grouped into grey and red centaurs, the distribution for TNOs appears to be uniform. The wide range of spectra differ in reflectivity in visible red and near infrared. Neutral objects present a flat spectrum, reflecting as much red and infrared as visible spectrum. Very red objects present a steep slope, reflecting much more in red and infrared.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: A recent attempt at classification (common with centaurs) uses the total of four classes from BB (blue, or neutral color, average B−V 0.70, V−R 0.39, e.g. Orcus) to RR (very red, B−V 1.08, V−R 0.71, e.g. Sedna) with BR and IR as intermediate classes. BR (intermediate blue-red) and IR (moderately red) differ mostly in the infrared bands I, J and H.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Typical models of the surface include water ice, amorphous carbon, silicates and organic macromolecules, named tholins, created by intense radiation. Four major tholins are used to fit the reddening slope:


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: As an illustration of the two extreme classes BB and RR, the following compositions have been suggested


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Characteristically, big (bright) objects are typically on inclined orbits, whereas the invariable plane regroups mostly small and dim objects.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: It is difficult to estimate the diameter of TNOs. For very large objects, with very well known orbital elements (like Pluto), diameters can be precisely measured by occultation of stars. For other large TNOs, diameters can be estimated by thermal measurements. The intensity of light illuminating the object is known (from its distance to the Sun), and one assumes that most of its surface is in thermal equilibrium (usually not a bad assumption for an airless body). For a known albedo, it is possible to estimate the surface temperature, and correspondingly the intensity of heat radiation. Further, if the size of the object is known, it is possible to predict both the amount of visible light and emitted heat radiation reaching Earth. A simplifying factor is that the Sun emits almost all of its energy in visible light and at nearby frequencies, while at the cold temperatures of TNOs, the heat radiation is emitted at completely different wavelengths (the far infrared).


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Thus there are two unknowns (albedo and size), which can be determined by two independent measurements (of the amount of reflected light and emitted infrared heat radiation). Unfortunately, TNOs are so far from the Sun that they are very cold, hence producing black-body radiation around 60 micrometres in wavelength. This wavelength of light is impossible to observe on the Earth's surface, but only from space using, e.g. the Spitzer Space Telescope. For ground-based observations, astronomers observe the tail of the black-body radiation in the far infrared. This far infrared radiation is so dim that the thermal method is only applicable to the largest KBOs. For the majority of (small) objects, the diameter is estimated by assuming an albedo. However, the albedos found range from 0.50 down to 0.05, resulting in a size range of 1200–3700 km for an object of magnitude of 1.0.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: The only mission to date that primarily targeted a trans-Neptunian object was NASA's New Horizons, which was launched in January 2006 and flew by the Pluto system in July 2015 and 486958 Arrokoth in January 2019.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: The existence of planets beyond Neptune, ranging from less than an Earth mass (Sub-Earth) up to a brown dwarf has been often postulated for different theoretical reasons to explain several observed or speculated features of the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud. It was recently proposed to use ranging data from the "New Horizons" spacecraft to constrain the position of such a hypothesized body.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: NASA has been working towards a dedicated Interstellar Precursor in the 21st century, one intentionally designed to reach the interstellar medium, and as part of this the flyby of objects like Sedna are also considered. Overall this type of spacecraft studies have proposed a launch in the 2020s, and would try to go a little faster than the Voyagers using existing technology. One 2018 design study for an Interstellar Precursor, included a visit of minor planet 50000 Quaoar, in the 2030s.


title: Trans-Neptunian object

text: Among the extreme trans-Neptunian objects are three high-perihelion objects classified as sednoids: 90377 Sedna, , and 541132 Leleākūhonua. They are distant detached objects with perihelia greater than 70 au. Their high perihelia keep them at a sufficient distance to avoid significant gravitational perturbations from Neptune. Previous explanations for the high perihelion of Sedna include a close encounter with an unknown planet on a distant orbit and a distant encounter with a random star or a member of the Sun's birth cluster that passed near the Solar System.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: Philippine Airlines is composed of wide-body and narrow-body aircraft from five families (including PAL Express fleet): Airbus A320ceo family, Airbus A321neo, Airbus A330, Airbus A350, and Boeing 777. This article shows the fleet operated by the main airline excluding aircraft operated by PAL Express.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: The Airbus A321 is the main aircraft utilized for short-haul and medium-haul flights that serve Southeast and East Asia such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Bangkok, and Kuala Lumpur, as well as major domestic destinations including Cebu and Davao. On August 28, 2012, Philippine Airlines ordered 24 Airbus A321-200 equipped with IAE V2500 engines. The first A321 was delivered on August 7, 2013.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: On August 28, 2012, Philippine Airlines ordered 10 Airbus A321neos equipped with two Pratt & Whitney PW1000G engines. The airline, in total, ordered 34 A321s of both the current (CEO) and new engine option (NEO) variants.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: On March 29, 2015, the airline announced that it will be receiving the A321neo starting 2017. However, the deliveries were delayed to May 2018 due to problems with the Pratt & Whitney engines. PAL received its first A321neo (new engine option) on June 1, 2018, while the other five A321neos were delivered until December 2018. The remaining fifteen A321neos in the SR variant, on the other hand, will be delivered in the following years. However, PAL only received two A321neo SRs in 2019 as the airline revises its re-fleeting plan.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: The first six Airbus A321neos serve the airline's medium-haul and long-haul routes such as Guam, Singapore, Tokyo, Ho Chi Minh City, Sapporo, Brisbane and Sydney, while the other SR variants will be serving short-haul regional routes in Southeast Asia and other neighboring countries.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: The Airbus A330-300 is primarily deployed in Asia and Oceania routes. They are also deployed in US territories like Honolulu and Guam and domestic destinations such as General Santos, Cebu and Davao (flights starting with 1 (e.g. PR 1811/1812, PR 1845/1846).


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: Philippine Airlines introduced their first Airbus A330-300 on July 30, 1997, with the delivery of the first aircraft, F-OHZM. Philippine Airlines later acquired eight Airbus A330-300s as replacement for their aging Airbus A300B4 fleet's gradual retirement. On August 28, 2012, Philippine Airlines ordered 10 new Airbus Airbus A330-300s, but later the airline later expanded its orders to 20 on October 1.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: The airline received its first A330-300 High Gross Variant (HGW) in September 2013. The newer A330s use a pair of Rolls-Royce Trent 700 engines, unlike the older General Electric CF6 engines that powered the earlier A330 fleet. The original fleet of eight A330s were transferred to PAL Express until these were retired on August 31, 2014.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: The Airbus A350-900 is primarily deployed in the airline's long-haul flights to cities such as New York, Toronto, London, and Vancouver. The A350s are also used in regional Asian flights during peak seasons or when there is high demand in destinations such as Seoul, Bangkok, Hong Kong, Sydney, Singapore, and Tokyo. PAL's A350s have a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of 278 tonnes, enabling non-stop Manila-New York flights without payload limitations in either direction, a flight which began in October 2018.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: In April 2016, Philippine Airlines finalized the purchase agreement with Airbus covering the firm order of six A350-900s. The contract firms up a memorandum of understanding announced during the 2016 Singapore Airshow in February 2016. The A350-900s, which will have a three-class configuration, are scheduled to be deployed on new routes to North America and Europe. The A350-900s also replaced the aging Airbus A340-300s that serves North America and Asia.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: In February 2018, Jaime Bautista, then-president of the airline, stated that they were also interested in the larger Airbus A350-1000 variant.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: On July 14, 2018, PAL received its first A350-900. In February 2019, Philippine Airlines took delivery of their fifth A350 with the iconic Love Bus decal to mark the 40th anniversary of their partnership with Airbus.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: The Boeing 777-300ER is primarily used for long-haul flights to Los Angeles, San Francisco, Vancouver and Toronto. It was also used for service to London, and New York, but was later replaced by the A350-900. They are sometimes deployed in Asian and Australian routes as well if the demand needs it.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: On March 12, 2007, Philippine Airlines finalized the purchase agreement with Boeing covering the firm order of two Boeing 777-300ERs. It ordered two more three months later. The purchase of Boeing 777s effectively signals the end of additional 747-400 orders. In 2009, the airline leased two Boeing 777-300ER to replace the former flagship Boeing 747-400 from GECAS. The first Boeing 777 was delivered to PAL on November 19, 2009. The airline currently has 10 777s in its fleet.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: In 2019, Philippine Airlines planned to acquire the next-generation Boeing 777X to gradually replace their aging Boeing 777 fleet.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: The entire Philippine Airlines fleet of Airbus and Boeing jets were formerly maintained in-house at the PAL Technical Center, which consisted of two hangars. The hangars contained an engine overhaul shop, two engine test cells, and test shops. The responsibility of maintaining the fleet, as well as all the facilities, was subsequently transferred in 2000 to Lufthansa Technik Philippines (LTP), a joint venture of Hamburg-based Lufthansa Technik AG, a leading maintenance provider in aircraft maintenance, repair and overhaul, and Macro Asia Corporation, one of the Philippines' leading providers of aviation support services and catering for foreign airlines, owned by Lucio Tan, the majority owner of PAL. LTP currently maintains an eight-bay hangar and workshops occupying at the Ninoy Aquino International Airport.


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: Currently all A320 including all A321 aircraft that are already delivered and those to be delivered are being maintained by Lufthansa. PAL Express is the budget arm of PAL and has overtaken PAL in 2012 in domestic seats second only to Cebu Pacific (5J).


title: Philippine Airlines fleet

text: On May 18, 2018, Philippine Airlines signed a deal with Lufthansa Technik Philippines to maintain its new Airbus jets for 12 years. The deal, which took effect on May 31, is estimated to be worth P13.6 billion ($260 million) during its lifespan.


title: Chas Chandler

text: Bryan James "Chas" Chandler (18 December 1938 – 17 July 1996) was an English musician, record producer and manager, best known as the original bassist in The Animals, for which he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994. He also managed the band Slade, and Jimi Hendrix, about whom he was regularly interviewed until his death in 1996.


title: Chas Chandler

text: Chandler was born in Heaton, Newcastle. After leaving school, he worked as a turner in the Tyneside shipyards. He became the bass player with The Alan Price Trio in 1962.


title: Chas Chandler

text: After Eric Burdon joined the band, the Alan Price Trio was renamed The Animals. Chandler's bass lines were rarely given critical attention but some, including the opening riff of the group's 1965 hit "We Gotta Get Out of This Place" subsequently received praise. Chandler was also the most prominent of the group's backing vocalists and did occasional songwriting with Burdon. In 1966, despite commercial success, Chandler became disillusioned with the lack of money, recalling that, "We toured non-stop for three years, doing 300 gigs a year and we hardly got a penny."


title: Chas Chandler

text: After The Animals underwent personnel changes in 1966, Chandler turned to becoming a talent scout, artist manager, and record producer. During his final tour with The Animals, Chandler saw a then-unknown Jimi Hendrix play in Cafe Wha?, a Greenwich Village, New York City nightclub. At the time Hendrix was performing under the name Jimmy James. In September, Chandler convinced Hendrix to accompany him to Britain, which was made possible with the help of Michael Jeffery, who suggested that he revert to his actual name, and later suggested naming the band the Jimi Hendrix Experience. In Britain, Chandler recruited bassist Noel Redding and drummer Mitch Mitchell as the other members of the Experience. His enthusiasm fuelled Hendrix during the early days, but halfway through the recording of his third album in 1968, "Electric Ladyland", much had changed within the band's framework.


title: Chas Chandler

text: Chandler was a key figure in Hendrix's rise to critical and commercial success. Chandler provided the young musician with living accommodations and financed the Experience's first single "Hey Joe", before they had a recording contract. He was also instrumental in introducing Hendrix to Eric Clapton. It was through this introduction that Hendrix was given the opportunity to play with Clapton and Cream on stage. It was Chandler's idea for Hendrix to set his guitar on fire, which made national news when this idea was used at a concert at the Finsbury Park Astoria Theatre and subsequently at the Monterey Pop festival. Hendrix's sound engineer Eddie Kramer later recalled that Chandler was very hands-on with the first two Hendrix albums, adding that "he was his mentor and I think it was very necessary."


title: Chas Chandler

text: By 1968, Chandler had become frustrated with the recording sessions for Hendrix's album "Electric Ladyland", claiming they were self-indulgent. He left management services in the hands of Jeffery during the following year. Chandler then managed and produced the British rock band Slade for 12 years, during which they achieved six number one chart hits in the UK. Chandler and Slade parted company following the failure of the "Knuckle Sandwich Nancy" single in May 1981. He would, however negotiate their RCA contract which lasted for four new albums.


title: Chas Chandler

text: Chandler bought IBC Studios which he renamed Portland Recording Studios, after the studio address of 35 Portland Place, London and ran it for four years until he sold it to Don Arden. Chandler also ran a series of record labels from the studios including Barn Records, Six of the Best and Cheapskate Records. He formed a music publishing agency, as well as a production company and management companies. He also had a brief stint in which he produced the Philadelphia-based rock group Horsepower, founded by Michael James Kennedy in 1978.


title: Chas Chandler

text: In 1977, Chandler played and recorded with The Animals during a brief reunion and he joined them again for a further revival in 1983, at which point he sold his business interests, in order to concentrate on being a musician. During the early 1990s, he helped finance the development of Newcastle Arena, a 10,000 seat sports and entertainment venue which opened in 1995.


title: Chas Chandler

text: Chandler died of an aortic aneurysm at Newcastle General Hospital on 17 July 1996, days after performing a solo show. Chandler's former home at 35 Second Avenue, Heaton, hosts a blue plaque placed on the wall by Newcastle City Council, which reads: "Chas Chandler 1938–1996. Founder member of the 'Animals'. Manager of Jimi Hendrix & Slade. Co-founder of Newcastle Arena. Lived in this house 1938–1964."


title: Chas Chandler

text: Chandler had one son, Steffan, from his first marriage. He later married Madeleine Stringer, with whom he had a son, Alex, and two daughters, Elizabeth and Katherine.


title: Paternoster lift

text: A paternoster (, , or ) or paternoster lift is a passenger elevator which consists of a chain of open compartments (each usually designed for two people) that move slowly in a loop up and down inside a building without stopping. Passengers can step on or off at any floor they like. The same technique is also used for filing cabinets to store large amounts of (paper) documents or for small spare parts. The much smaller belt manlift, which consists of an endless belt with steps and rungs but no compartments, is also sometimes called a paternoster.


title: Paternoster lift

text: The name "paternoster" ("Our Father", the first two words of the Lord's Prayer in Latin) was originally applied to the device because the elevator is in the form of a loop and is thus similar to rosary beads used as an aid in reciting prayers.


title: Paternoster lift

text: The construction of new paternosters was stopped in the mid-1970s out of concern for safety, but public sentiment has kept many of the remaining examples open. By far, most remaining paternosters are in Europe, with 230 examples in Germany and 68 in Czechia. Only three have been identified outside Europe: one in Malaysia, one in Sri Lanka and another in Peru.


title: Paternoster lift

text: Peter Ellis installed the first elevators that could be described as paternoster lifts in Oriel Chambers in Liverpool in 1868. Another was used in 1876 to transport parcels at the General Post Office in London. In 1877, British engineer Peter Hart obtained a patent on the first paternoster. In 1884, the engineering firm of J & E Hall of Dartford, Kent, installed its first "Cyclic Elevator", using Hart's patent, in a London office block.


title: Paternoster lift

text: The newly built Dovenhof in Hamburg was inaugurated in 1886. The prototype of the Hamburg office buildings equipped with the latest technology also had a paternoster. This first system outside of Great Britain already had the technology that would later become common, but was still driven by steam power like the British systems.


title: Paternoster lift

text: The highest paternoster lift in the world was located in Stuttgart in the 16-floor Tagblatt tower, which was completed in 1927.


title: Paternoster lift

text: Paternosters were popular throughout the first half of the 20th century because they could carry more passengers than ordinary elevators. They were more common in continental Europe, especially in public buildings, than in the United Kingdom. They are relatively slow elevators, typically travelling at about 30 cm per second (approx. 1 ft per second), to facilitate getting on and off.


title: Paternoster lift

text: Paternoster elevators are intended only for transporting people. Accidents have occurred when they have been misused for transporting bulky items, such as ladders or library trolleys. The risk involved is estimated as 30 times higher than conventional elevators. A representative of the Union of Technical Inspection Associations stated that Germany saw an average of one death per year prior to 2002, at which point many paternosters were made inaccessible to the general public.


title: Paternoster lift

text: The construction of new paternosters is no longer allowed in many countries, such as Germany, because of the high risk of accident for people who cannot use them properly. In 2012, an 81-year-old man was killed when he fell into the shaft of a paternoster in the Dutch city of The Hague. Elderly people, disabled people and children are most vulnerable.


title: Paternoster lift

text: In September 1975, the paternoster in Newcastle University's Claremont Tower was taken out of service after a passenger was killed when a car left its guide rail at the top of its journey and forced the two cars ascending behind it into the winding room above. In October 1988 a second, non-fatal accident occurred in the same lift. A conventional lift replaced it in 1989–1990.


title: Paternoster lift

text: In West Germany, new paternoster installations were banned in 1974, and in 1994 there was an attempt to shut down all existing installations. However, there was a wave of popular resistance to the ban, and to a similar attempt in 2015. , Germany had 231 paternosters.


title: Paternoster lift

text: In April 2006, Hitachi announced plans for a modern paternoster-style elevator with computer-controlled cars and standard elevator doors to alleviate safety concerns. A prototype was revealed . In 2009, Solon received special permission to build a brand new paternoster in its Berlin headquarters.


title: Paternoster lift

text: In the Netherlands, seven paternoster lifts could be found in 2012, some of which were still operational:


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī (, 767–19 January 820 CE) was an Arab Muslim theologian, writer, and scholar, who was one of the first contributors of the principles of Islamic jurisprudence (Uṣūl al-fiqh). Often referred to as 'Shaykh al-Islām', al-Shāfi‘ī was one of the four great Sunni Imams, whose legacy on juridical matters and teaching eventually led to the formation of Shafi'i school of "fiqh" (or Madh'hab). He was the most prominent student of Imam Malik ibn Anas, and he also served as the Governor of Najar. Born in Gaza in Palestine (Jund Filastin), he also lived in Mecca and Medina in the Hejaz, Yemen, Egypt, and Baghdad in Iraq.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: The biography of al-Shāfi‘i is difficult to trace. Dawud al-Zahiri was said to be the first to write such a biography, but the book has been lost. The oldest surviving biography goes back to Ibn Abi Hatim al-Razi (died 327 AH/939 CE) and is no more than a collection of anecdotes, some of them fantastical. A biographical sketch was written by Zakarīya b. Yahya al-Sājī was later reproduced, but even then, a great deal of legend had already crept into the story of al-Shāfi‘i's life. The first real biography is by Ahmad Bayhaqi (died 458 AH/1066 CE) and is filled with what a modernist eye would qualify as pious legends. The following is what seems to be a sensible reading, according to a modern reductionist perspective.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Al-Shāfi‘ī belonged to the Qurayshi clan of Banu Muttalib, which was the sister clan of the Banu Hashim, to which Muhammad SAW and the Abbasid caliphs belonged. This lineage may have given him prestige, arising from his belonging to the tribe of Muhammad, and his great-grandfather's kinship to him. However, al-Shāfi‘ī grew up in poverty, in spite of his connections in the highest social circles.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: He was born in Gaza by the town of Asqalan in 150 AH (767 CE). His father died in Ash-Sham while he was still a child. Fearing the waste of his sharīf lineage, his mother decided to move to Mecca when he was about two years old. Furthermore, his maternal family roots were from Yemen, and there were more members of his family in Mecca, where his mother believed he would better be taken care of. Little is known about al-Shāfi‘ī's early life in Mecca, except that he was brought up in poor circumstances and that from his youth he was devoted to learning. An account states that his mother could not afford to buy his paper, so he would write his lessons on bones, particularly shoulder-bones. He studied under Muslim ibn Khalid az-Zanji, the Mufti of Mecca then, who is thus considered to be the first teacher of Imam al-Shāfi‘ī. By the age of seven, al-Shāfi‘ī had memorised the Qur’an. At ten, he had committed Imam Malik's "Muwatta"' to heart, at which time his teacher would deputise him to teach in his absence. Al-Shāfi‘ī was authorised to issue fatwas at the age of fifteen.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Al-Shāfi‘ī moved to Al-Medinah in a desire for further legal training, as was the tradition of acquiring knowledge. Accounts differ on the age in which he set out to Medina; an account placed his age at thirteen, while another stated that he was in his twenties. There, he was taught for many years by the famous Imam Malik ibn Anas, who was impressed with his memory, knowledge and intelligence. By the time of Imam Mālik's death in 179 AH (795 CE), al-Shāfi‘ī had already gained a reputation as a brilliant jurist. Even though he would later disagree with some of the views of Imam Mālik, al-Shāfi‘ī accorded the deepest respect to him by always referring to him as "the Teacher".


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: At the age of thirty, al-Shāfi‘ī was appointed as the ‘Abbasid governor in the Yemeni city of Najran. He proved to be a just administrator but soon became entangled with factional jealousies. In 803 CE, al-Shāfi‘ī was accused of aiding the 'Alids in a revolt, and was thus summoned in chains with a number of 'Alids to the Caliph Harun ar-Rashid at Raqqa. Whilst other conspirators were put to death, al-Shafi'i's own eloquent defence convinced the Caliph to dismiss the charge. Other accounts state that the famous Hanafi jurist, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Shaybānī, was present at the court and defended al-Shāfi‘ī as a well-known student of the sacred law. What was certain was that the incident brought al-Shāfi‘ī in close contact with al-Shaybānī, who would soon become his teacher. It was also postulated that this incident impelled him to devote the rest of his career to legal studies, never again to seek government service.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Al-Shāfi'ī travelled to Baghdad to study with Abu Hanifah's acolyte al-Shaybānī and others. It was here that he developed his first madh'hab, influenced by the teachings of both Imam Abu Hanifa and Imam Malik. His work thus became known as "al Madhhab al Qadim lil Imam as Shafi’i," or the Old School of al-Shafi'i.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: It was here that al-Shāfi'ī actively participated in legal arguments with the Hanafī jurists, strenuously defending the Mālikī school of thought. Some authorities stress the difficulties encountered by him in his arguments. Al-Shāfi'ī eventually left Baghdad for Mecca in 804 CE, possibly because of complaints by Hanafī followers to al-Shaybānī that al-Shafi'i had become somewhat critical of al-Shaybānī's position during their disputes. As a result, al-Shāfi'ī reportedly participated in a debate with al-Shaybānī over their differences, though who won the debate is disputed.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: In Mecca, al-Shāfi'ī began to lecture at the Sacred Mosque, leaving a deep impression on many students of law, including the famous Hanbali jurist, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. Al-Shāfi'ī's legal reasoning began to mature, as he started to appreciate the strength in the legal reasoning of the Hanafī jurists, and became aware of the weaknesses inherent in both the Mālikī and Hanafī schools of thought.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Al-Shāfi'ī eventually returned to Baghdad in 810 CE. By this time, his stature as a jurist had grown sufficiently to permit him to establish an independent line of legal speculation. Caliph al-Ma'mun is said to have offered al-Shāfi'ī a position as a judge, but he declined the offer.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: In 814 CE, al-Shāfi'ī decided to leave Baghdad for Egypt. The precise reasons for his departure from Iraq are uncertain, but it was in Egypt that he would meet another tutor, Sayyida Nafisa bint Al-Hasan, who would also financially support his studies, and where he would dictate his life's works to students. Several of his leading disciples would write down what al-Shāfi'ī said, who would then have them read it back aloud so that corrections could be made. Al-Shāfi'ī biographers all agree that the legacy of works under his name are the result of those sessions with his disciples.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Nafisa was a descendant of Muhammad, through his grandson Hasan ibn Ali, who married another descendant of Muhammad, that is Ishaq al-Mu'tamin, the son of the Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, who was reportedly a teacher of ash-Shafi'i's teacher Malik ibn Anas and Abu Hanifah. Thus all of the four great Imams of Sunni "Fiqh" (Abu Hanifah, Malik, his student Ash-Shafi'i, and his student Ibn Hanbal) are connected to Imam Ja'far from the "Bayt" (Household) of Muhammad, whether directly or indirectly.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: At least one authority states that al-Shāfi'ī died as a result of injuries sustained from an attack by supporters of a Maliki follower named Fityan. The story goes that al-Shāfi'ī triumphed in the argument over Fityan, who, being intemperate, resorted to abuse. The Governor of Egypt, with whom al-Shafi'i had good relations, ordered Fityan punished by having him paraded through the streets of the city carrying a plank and stating the reason for his punishment. Fityan's supporters were enraged by this treatment and attacked Shafi'i in retaliation after one of his lectures. Al-Shafi'i died a few days later. However, Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani in his biography of al-Shāfi'ī "Tawālī al-Ta'sīs", casts doubt on this story saying "I do not consider this from a reliable source". However, al-Shāfi'ī was also known to have suffered from a serious intestinal illness/haemorrhoids, which kept him frail and ailing during the later years of his life. The precise cause of his death is thus unknown.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Al-Shāfi'ī died at the age of 54 on the 30th of Rajab in 204 AH (20 January 820 CE), in Al-Fustat, Egypt, and was buried in the vault of the Banū ‘Abd al-Hakam, near Mount al-Muqattam. The "qubbah" (, dome) was built in 608 AH (1212 CE) by the Ayyubid Sultan Al-Kamil, and the mausoleum remains an important site today.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Al-Shāfi'ī is credited with creating the essentials of the science of fiqh (the system of Islamic jurisprudence). He designated the four principles/sources/components of fiqh, which in order of importance are:


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Scholar John Burton goes farther, crediting Al-Shafi'i not just with establishing the science of fiqh in Islam, but its importance to the religion. "Where his contemporaries and their predecessors had engaged in defining Islam as a social and historical phenomenon, Shafi'i sought to define a revealed Law."


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: With this systematisation of shari'a, he provided a legacy of unity for all Muslims and forestalled the development of independent, regionally based legal systems. The four Sunni legal schools or madhhabs keep their traditions within the framework that Shafi'i established. One of the schools – Shafi'i fiqh – is named for Al-Shāfi‘ī. It is followed in many different places in the Islamic world: Indonesia, Malaysia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Somalia, Yemen, west of Iran, as well as Sri Lanka and southern parts of India, especially in the Malabar coast of North Kerala and Canara region of Karnataka.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Al-Shāfi‘ī emphasised the final authority of a hadith of Muhammad so that even the Qur'an was "to be interpreted in the light of traditions (i.e. hadith), and not vice versa." While traditionally the Quran is considered above the Sunna in authority, Al-Shafi'i "forcefully argued" that the sunna stands "on equal footing with the Quran", (according to scholar Daniel Brown) for – as Al-Shafi'i put it – "the command of the Prophet is the command of Almighty Allah."


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: "insists time after time that nothing can override the authority of the Prophet, even if it be attested only by an isolate tradition, and that every well-authenticated tradition going back to the Prophet has precedence over the opinions of his Companions, their Successors, and later authorities."


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: The focus by the Muslim community on ahadith of Muhammad and disinterest in ahadith of Muhammad's companions (whose ahadith were commonly used before Al-Shāfi‘ī since most of whom survived him and spread his teachings after his death) is thought (by scholar Joseph Schacht) to reflect the success of Al-Shāfi‘ī's doctrine.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Al-Shāfi‘ī influence was such that he changed the use of the term Sunnah, "until it invariably meant only the Sunnah of the Prophet" (according to John Burton this was his "principle achievement"). While earlier, sunnah had been used to refer to tribal manners and customs, (and while Al-Shāfi‘ī distinguished between the non-authoritative "sunnah of the Muslims" that was followed in practice, and the "sunnah of the Prophet" that Muslims "should" follow), sunnah came to mean the Sunnah of Muhammad.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: In the Islamic sciences, Burton credits him with "the imposition of a formal theoretical distinction" between `the Sunnah of the Prophet` and the Quran, "especially where the two fundamental sources appeared to clash".


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Al-Shafi'i was part of those early traditionalist theologians who strongly opposed "Kalam" and criticised the speculative theologians for abandoning the "Qur'an" and "Sunnah" through their adoption of Kalam.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Saladin built a madrassah and a shrine on the site of his tomb. Saladin's brother Afdal built a mausoleum for him in 1211 after the defeat of the Fatimids. It remains a site where people petition for justice.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: He authored more than 100 books. But most them have not reached us. The extant works of his which are accessible today are:


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: In addition to this, al-Shafi'i was an eloquent poet, who composed many short poems aimed at addressing morals and behaviour.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Many stories are told about the childhood and life of al-Shafi'i, and it is difficult to separate truth from myth:


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Tradition says that he memorised the Qur’an at the age of seven; by ten, he had memorised the Muwatta of Malik ibn Anas; he was a mufti (given authorization to issue fatwa) at the age of fifteen. He recited the Qur'an every day in prayer, and twice a day in Ramadan. Some apocryphal accounts claim he was very handsome, that his beard did not exceed the length of his fist, and that it was very black. He wore a ring that was inscribed with the words, "Allah suffices Muhammad ibn Idris as a reliance." He was also known to be very generous.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: He was also an accomplished archer, a poet and some accounts call him the most eloquent of his time. Some accounts claim that there was a group of Bedouin who would come and sit to listen to him, not for the sake of learning, but just to listen to his eloquent use of the language. Even in later eras, his speeches and works were used by Arabic grammarians. He was given the title of Nasir al-Sunnah, the Defender of the Sunnah.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Al-Shafi‘i loved the Islamic prophet Muhammad very deeply. Al Muzani said of him, "He said in the Old School: ‘Supplication ends with the invocation of blessings on the Prophet, and its end is but by means of it.’" Al-Karabisi said: "I heard al-Shafi’i say that he disliked for someone to say ‘the Messenger’ (al-Rasul), but that he should say ‘Allah’s Messenger’ (Rasul Allah) out of veneration for him." He divided his night into three parts: one for writing, one for praying, and one for sleeping.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Apocryphal accounts claim that Imam Ahmad said of al-Shafi'i, "I never saw anyone adhere more to hadith than al-Shafi’i. No one preceded him in writing down the hadith in a book." Imam Ahmad is also claimed to have said, "Not one of the scholars of hadith touched an inkwell nor a pen except he owed a huge debt to al-Shafi’i."


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: Ahmad Ibn Hanbal considered al-Shafi'i as the ""Imam" most faithful to tradition" who led the people of tradition to victory against the exponents of "ra'y". In the words of Ibn Hanbal, "at no time was there anyone of importance in learning who erred less, and who followed more closely the sunnah of the Prophet than al-Shafi'i."


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: According to many accounts, he was said to have a photographic memory. One anecdote states that he would always cover one side of a book while reading because a casual glance at the other page would commit it to memory.


title: Al-Shafi'i

text: He claimed that the game of chess was an image of war, and it was possible to play chess as a mental exercise for the solution of military tactics. Chess could not be played for a stake, but if a player was playing for a mental exercise, he was not doing anything illegal. Provided the player took care that his fondness for chess did not cause him to break any other rule of life, he saw no harm in playing chess. He played chess himself, defending his practice by the example of many of his companions.


title: Roth/Kirschenbaum Films

text: Roth/Kirschenbaum Films (formerly Roth Films) is a production company formed in 2007 by producer Joe Roth, the founder of Revolution Studios.


title: Roth/Kirschenbaum Films

text: Joe Roth announced that they signed an overall deal with Sony Pictures in October 2007, when Revolution Studios' deal with Sony Pictures Entertainment was about to end.


title: Roth/Kirschenbaum Films

text: In 2015, Jeff Kirschenbaum announced that he would leave Universal Pictures in order to join Roth Films, which they rebranded to its current name Roth/Kirschenbaum Films.


The 2022 United States House of Representatives elections in Ohio were held on November 8, 2022, to elect the 15 U.S. representatives from Ohio, one from each of the state's 15 congressional districts. The elections coincided with other elections to the House of Representatives, other elections to the United States Senate, and various state and local elections. Primary elections took place on May 3.


title: 2022 United States House of Representatives elections in Ohio

text: The 1st district is based in the city of Cincinnati, stretching northward to Warren County. The incumbent is Republican Steve Chabot, who was re-elected with 51.8% of the vote in 2020.


text: This district was included on the list of Republican-held seats the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee targeted in 2022. Democrat Greg Landsman won the election by a 5-point margin.


text: The 2nd district takes eastern Cincinnati and its suburbs, including Norwood and Loveland, and stretches eastward along the Ohio River. The incumbent is Republican Brad Wenstrup, who was re-elected with 61.1% of the vote in 2020. He was re-elected in 2022.


text: The 3rd district, located entirely within the borders of Franklin County, taking in inner Columbus, Bexley, Whitehall, as well as Franklin County's share of Reynoldsburg. The incumbent is Democrat Joyce Beatty, who was re-elected with 70.8% of the vote in 2020. She was re-elected in 2022.


text: The 4th district, sprawls from the Columbus exurbs, including Marion and Lima into north-central Ohio, taking in Mansfield. The incumbent is Republican Jim Jordan, who was re-elected with 67.9% of the vote in 2020. He was re-elected in 2022.


text: The 5th district encompasses the lower portion of Northwestern Ohio and the middle shore of Lake Erie, taking in Findlay, Lorain, Oberlin, and Bowling Green. The incumbent is Republican Bob Latta, who was re-elected with 68.0% of the vote in 2020. He was re-elected in 2022.


text: The 6th district encompasses Appalachian Ohio and the Mahoning Valley, including Youngstown, Steubenville, and Marietta. The incumbent is Republican Bill Johnson, who was re-elected with 74.4% in 2020. Some parts of the 6th district, including Youngstown, were formerly in the 13th district before redistricting. He was re-elected in 2022.


text: The 7th district stretches from exurban Cleveland to rural areas in north central Ohio, including Medina and Wooster. The incumbents are Republicans Bob Gibbs and Anthony Gonzalez, both of whom are retiring. Max Miller won the election.


text: The 8th district takes in the northern and western suburbs of Cincinnati, including Butler County. The incumbent is Republican Warren Davidson, who was re-elected with 69.0% of the vote in 2020. He was re-elected in 2022.


text: The 9th district is based in Northwest Ohio, including Toledo and the western Lake Erie coast. The incumbent is Democrat Marcy Kaptur, who was re-elected with 63.1% of the vote in 2020. She is running for re-election.


text: This district is included on the list of Democratic-held seats the National Republican Congressional Committee is targeting in 2022. The seat was significantly changed due to redistricting, losing all of its territory in Lorain and Cuyahoga counties while picking up more territory in northwest Ohio. This turned the district from a safely Democratic seat to a competitive one.


text: J.R. Majewski ran on his military experience, claiming to have been a combat veteran deployed to Afghanistan. A public records request by the Associated Press showed that Majewski worked for six months loading planes in Qatar but did not receive any medals given to those who served in Afghanistan, and the campaign did not confirm if he was ever there.


text: The 10th district encompasses the Dayton metro area, including Dayton and the surrounding suburbs, as well as Springfield. The incumbent is Republican Mike Turner, who was re-elected with 58.4% of the vote in 2020. He was re-elected in 2022.


text: The 11th district takes in Cleveland and its inner suburbs, including Euclid, Cleveland Heights, and Warrensville Heights. The incumbent is Democrat Shontel Brown, who was elected with 78.8% of the vote in a 2021 special election after the previous incumbent, Marcia Fudge was appointed as the United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development.


text: The Democratic primary was low-profile, especially in contrast to the highly contentious 2021 special election.


text: The Congressional Progressive Caucus supported Nina Turner in the Democratic primary for Ohio's 11th congressional district special election in 2021 but switched its endorsement for the 2022 Democratic primary.


text: The 12th district encompasses area of Ohio east of the Columbus metro area, taking in Newark, and Zanesville, as well as Athens. The incumbent is Republican Troy Balderson, who was re-elected with 55.2% of the vote in 2020. He was re-elected in 2022.


text: The 13th district includes most of the Akron - Canton population corridor. The incumbent is Democrat Tim Ryan, who was re-elected with 52.5% in 2020. On April 26, 2021, Ryan announced that he would seek the U.S. Senate seat being vacated by two-term Senator Rob Portman.


text: This district is included on the list of Democratic-held seats the National Republican Congressional Committee is targeting in 2022. The seat was altered significantly due to redistricting, now including all of Summit County and switching out parts of the Mahoning Valley for Canton. Despite this, it remains a Democratic leaning swing seat. Sykes won the election in 2022.


text: Despite many prediction websites stating it would be a likely Republican flip, Sykes held the district and defeated Gesiotto by 5 percentage points. Had the map been enacted in time for the 2020 presidential election, Joe Biden would have carried the district by 3 percentage points.


text: The 14th district is located in Northeast Ohio, taking in the eastern suburbs and exurbs of Cleveland, including Mayfield Heights, Solon, Parma, and Independence, as well as Ashtabula, Lake, Geauga, and Portage County. The incumbent is Republican David Joyce, who was re-elected with 60.1% of the vote in 2020. He was re-elected in 2022.


text: The 15th district encompasses the southwestern Columbus metro area, taking in the western, southern, and some northern suburbs of Columbus, including Dublin, Hilliard, and Grove City. The incumbent is Republican Mike Carey, who was elected with 58.3% of the vote in a 2021 special election after the previous incumbent, Steve Stivers, resigned to take a job as president and CEO of the Ohio Chamber of Commerce. He was re-elected in 2022.


title: Tayshaun Prince

text: Tayshaun Durell Prince (born February 28, 1980) is an American professional basketball executive and former player. The small forward graduated from Dominguez High School before playing college basketball for the University of Kentucky. He was drafted 23rd overall by the Detroit Pistons in the 2002 NBA draft and went on to win a championship with the team in 2004.


title: Tayshaun Prince

text: Prince played four seasons (1998 to 2002) for the Kentucky Wildcats, averaging 13.2 points and 5.7 rebounds as the Wildcats posted a 97–39 record and advanced to the NCAA Tournament each year. Prince won SEC Player of the Year in his junior season (2000–2001)—also leading the SEC in free throw percentage (84.3%)—and was named to the Associated Press All-SEC Teams in both his junior and senior years. Kentucky won the SEC Tournament in 1999 and 2001, and Prince was awarded the 2001 tournament's Most Valuable Player award. He was a three-time team MVP with the Wildcats.


title: Tayshaun Prince

text: Notable individual performances included a 31-point, 11-rebound, four-assist, and four-steal effort in a 79–59 victory over North Carolina. In scoring Kentucky's first fifteen points, Prince made five consecutive three-point shots. Kentucky shooting guard Keith Bogans compared Prince's performance to "the Chicago Bulls' Michael Jordan blistering Portland in the 1992 NBA Finals." In an 87–82 victory over Tulsa during the 2002 NCAA Tournament, Prince scored a career-high 41 points (along with nine rebounds, four assists and three blocks) to lead Kentucky to the Sweet 16. He graduated from Kentucky in 2002 with a degree in sociology.


title: Tayshaun Prince

text: In his rookie season under head coach Rick Carlisle, Prince was not a member of the team's playing rotation and appeared in just 42 of 82 regular-season games. However, in the first round of the 2003 NBA playoffs, Detroit trailed the Orlando Magic three games to one, forcing Carlisle to experiment with a different rotation. Prince was inserted into the lineup and received heavy minutes. He then became the only player in NBA history to score more points in the playoffs than in the regular season (137 in the season, 141 in the playoffs).


title: Tayshaun Prince

text: The Pistons rallied to win the series, and Prince had a breakout performance during the decisive seventh game, scoring 20 points in 24 minutes. In the second round against the Philadelphia 76ers, Prince continued to see action and made several memorable plays, including a turnaround hook shot during the final seconds of Game 2, forcing an overtime period that the Pistons went on to win.


title: Tayshaun Prince

text: After the Pistons were swept by the New Jersey Nets in the Eastern Conference Finals, Carlisle was fired and former Sixers coach Larry Brown took over as head coach. Under Brown, Prince became the Pistons' starting small forward and increased his scoring average to 10.3 points per game, up from 3.3 as a rookie. In that 2003–04 season, Prince was also selected to play for the Sophomores (second-year players) in the NBA Rookie Challenge.


title: Tayshaun Prince

text: In Game 2 of the 2004 Eastern Conference Finals against the Indiana Pacers, Prince made a memorable defensive play. In the final minute of the game, Pacers star shooting guard Reggie Miller took an outlet pass after an Indiana steal and sprinted up the right sideline for a seemingly uncontested basket that would have tied the score. Prince pursued from the left sideline. Miller, presumably thinking that Prince could not catch him, attempted a layup. At the last possible moment, Prince soared in from the other side of the basket and swatted the ball away; the ball landed in bounds and was scooped up by Pistons teammate Richard Hamilton, effectively ending the game. The Pistons went on to win the series and, eventually, the NBA championship. When the Pistons defeated the Los Angeles Lakers four games to one in the NBA Finals, Prince's tough defense on Lakers guard Kobe Bryant was credited as a key factor in the Pistons' victory, holding Bryant to only 11 points in an 88–68 win in Game 3 of the 2004 NBA Finals.


title: Tayshaun Prince

text: Prince continued to show improvement in the 2004–05 season, setting career highs in scoring (14.7 points per game), rebounding (5.3 per game), assists (3.0) and blocks (0.9). He was selected for the NBA's NBA All-Defensive Second Team and was a candidate for the NBA Most Improved Player Award, where he came in third behind winner Bobby Simmons of the Los Angeles Clippers and Primož Brezec of the Charlotte Bobcats. Although he and the Pistons made it back to the NBA Finals in 2005, they lost to the San Antonio Spurs in seven games. During the Malice at the Palace brawl, Prince was the only player on either team who did not leave the bench during the entire incident.


title: Tayshaun Prince

text: Prince's play was rewarded by the Pistons with a five-year contract extension worth $49 million on October 31, 2005.