title: Dutch guilder

text: In 1904, the Netherlands Bank recommenced the issuance of paper money. By 1911, it was issuing notes for 10, 25, 40, 60, 100, 200, 300 and 1000 guilders. In 1914, because of silver shortage for minting, the government introduced silver certificates ("zilverbonnen") for 1, and 5 guilders. Although the 5 guilder notes were only issued that year, the 1 guilder notes continued until 1920 and the guilder until 1927.


title: Dutch guilder

text: In 1926, the Netherlands Bank introduced 20 guilder notes, followed by 50 guilder in 1929 and 500 guilder in 1930. These introductions followed the cessation of production of the unusual 40, 60 and 300 guilder notes during the 1920s.


title: Dutch guilder

text: In 1938, silver notes were reintroduced for 1 and guilders. During World War II, the Netherlands Bank continued to issue paper money, although there were some design changes, most notably, the replacement of a portrait of Queen Emma by a Rembrandt portrait on the 10-guilder note. The Allies printed state notes dated 1943 for use following liberation. These were in denominations of 1, , 10, 25, 50 and 100 guilders. More state notes were issued for 1 and guilders in 1945 and 1949.


title: Dutch guilder

text: Following the war, The Dutch Bank introduced notes for 10, 20, 25, 50, 100 and 1000 guilders. The last 20 guilder notes were dated 1955, whilst 5 guilder notes were introduced in 1966 (replaced by coins in 1988) and 250 guilder notes in 1985.


title: Dutch guilder

text: At the time of withdrawal, all but the 50 and 250 guilder notes had been issued in a new series that was the same colour as the older, long-serving notes but with a mostly abstract pattern, featuring a different bird for each denomination.


title: Dutch guilder

text: These 1970s "face"-notes and the 1980s ƒ50 (sunflower), ƒ100 (snipe) and ƒ250 (lighthouse) were designed by R.D.E. Oxenaar. Eventually all faces were to be replaced by abstracts, designed by Jaap Drupsteen (see above).


title: Umar II

text: Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (; 2 November 680 – ), commonly known as Umar II (), was the eighth Umayyad caliph. He made various significant contributions and reforms to the society, and he has been described as and was often called the first Mujaddid and sixth righteous caliph of Islam.


title: Umar II

text: He was also a cousin of the former caliph, being the son of Abd al-Malik's younger brother, Abd al-Aziz. He was also a matrilineal great-grandson of the second caliph, Umar ibn Al-Khattab.


title: Umar II

text: Surrounded with great scholars, he is credited with having ordered the first official collection of Hadiths and encouraged education to everyone.


title: Umar II

text: He also sent out emissaries to China and Tibet, inviting their rulers to accept Islam. At the same time, he remained tolerant with non-Muslim citizens. According to Nazeer Ahmed, it was during the time of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz that the Islamic faith took roots and was accepted by huge segments of the population of Persia and Egypt.


title: Umar II

text: Militarily, Umar is sometimes deemed a pacifist, since he ordered the withdrawal of the Muslim army in places such as Constantinople, Central Asia and Septimania despite being a good military leader. However, under his rule the Umayyads conquered many territories from the Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula.


title: Umar II

text: Umar was likely born in Medina around 680. His father, Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan, belonged to the wealthy Umayyad clan resident in the city, while his mother, Umm Asim bint Asim, was a granddaughter of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (). His descent from Caliph Umar would later be much emphasized by Umar II and the traditional Muslim sources to differentiate him from the other Umayyad rulers. At the time of his birth, another branch of the Umayyads, the Sufyanids, ruled the Caliphate from Damascus. When Caliph Yazid I and his son and successor, Mu'awiya II, died in quick succession in 683 and 684, respectively, Umayyad authority collapsed across the Caliphate and the Umayyads of the Hejaz, including Medina, were expelled by supporters of the rival caliph, the Mecca-based Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. The Umayyad exiles took refuge in Syria, where loyalist Arab tribes supported the dynasty. Umar's grandfather, Marwan I, was ultimately recognized by these tribes as caliph and, with their support, reasserted Umayyad rule in Syria.


title: Umar II

text: In 685, Marwan ousted Ibn al-Zubayr's governor from Egypt and appointed Umar's father to the province. Umar spent part of his childhood in Egypt, particularly in Hulwan, which had become the seat of his father's governorship between 686 and his death in 705. He received his education in Medina, however, which was retaken by the Umayyads under Umar's paternal uncle, Caliph Abd al-Malik (), in 692. Having spent much of his youth in Medina, Umar developed ties with the city's pious men and transmitters of hadiths. Following the death of Umar's father, Abd al-Malik recalled Umar to Damascus, where he arranged Umar's marriage to his daughter, Fatima.


title: Umar II

text: Shortly after his accession, Abd al-Malik's son and successor, al-Walid I (), appointed Umar governor of Medina. According to Julius Wellhausen, al-Walid's intention was to use Umar to reconcile the townspeople of Medina to Umayyad rule and " the evil memory" of the preceding Umayyad governors, namely Hisham ibn Isma'il al-Makhzumi, whose rule over Medina had been harsh for its inhabitants. Umar took up the post in February/March 706 and his jurisdiction later extended to Mecca and Ta'if.


title: Umar II

text: Information about his governorship is scant, but most traditional accounts note that he was a "just governor", according to historian Paul Cobb. He often led the annual Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca and showed favor toward the Islamic legal scholars of Medina, notably Sa'id ibn al-Musayyab. Umar tolerated many of these scholars' open criticism of the Umayyad government's conduct. However, other accounts hold that he showed himself to be materialistic during his early career. On al-Walid's orders, Umar undertook the reconstruction and expansion of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina beginning in 707. Under Umar's generally lenient rule, the Hejaz became a refuge for Iraqi political and religious exiles fleeing the persecutions of al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, al-Walid's powerful viceroy over the eastern half of the Caliphate. According to Cobb, this served as Umar's "undoing" as al-Hajjaj pressured the caliph to dismiss Umar in May/June 712.


title: Umar II

text: Despite his dismissal, Umar remained in al-Walid's favor, being the brother of the caliph's first wife, Umm al-Banin bint Abd al-Aziz. He remained in al-Walid's court in Damascus until the caliph's death in 715, and according to the 9th-century historian al-Ya'qubi, he performed the funeral prayers for al-Walid. The latter's brother and successor, Sulayman (), held Umar in high regard. Alongside Raja ibn Haywa al-Kindi, an influential religious figure in the Umayyads' court, Umar served as a principal adviser of Sulayman. He accompanied the latter when he led the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in 716 and on his return to Jerusalem. Likewise, he was at the caliph's side at the Muslims' marshaling camp at Dabiq in northern Syria, where Sulayman directed the massive war effort to conquer the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 717.


title: Umar II

text: According to the traditional Muslim sources, when Sulayman was on his deathbed in Dabiq, he was persuaded by Raja to designate Umar as his successor. Sulayman's son Ayyub had been his initial nominee, but predeceased him, while his other sons were either too young or away fighting on the Byzantine front. The nomination of Umar voided the wishes of Abd al-Malik, who sought to restrict the office to his direct descendants. The elevation of Umar, a member of a cadet branch of the dynasty, in preference to the numerous descendants of Abd al-Malik surprised these princes. According to Wellhausen, "nobody dreamed of this, himself [Umar] least of all". Raja managed the affair, calling the Umayyad princes into Dabiq's mosque and demanding that they recognize Sulayman's will, which Raja had kept secret. Only after the Umayyads accepted did Raja reveal that Umar was the caliph's nominee. Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik voiced his opposition, but relented after being threatened with violence. A potential intra-dynastic conflict was averted with the designation of a son of Abd al-Malik, Yazid II, as Umar's successor.


title: Umar II

text: According to the historian Reinhard Eisener, Raja's role in the affair was likely "exaggerated"; "more reasonable" was that Umar's succession was the result of "traditional patterns, like seniority and well-founded claims" stemming from Caliph Marwan I's original designation of Umar's father, Abd al-Aziz, as Abd al-Malik's successor, which had not materialized due to Abd al-Aziz predeceasing Abd al-Malik. Umar acceded without significant opposition on 22 September 717.


title: Umar II

text: The most significant reform of Umar II was effecting the equality of Arabs and "mawali" (non-Arab Muslims). This was mainly relevant to the non-Arab troops in the Muslim army, who had not been entitled to the same shares in spoils, lands and salaries given to Arab soldiers. The policy also applied to Muslim society at large. Under previous Umayyad rulers, Arab Muslims had certain financial privileges over non-Arab Muslims. Non-Arab converts to Islam were still expected to pay the jizya (poll tax) that they paid before becoming Muslims. Umar put into practice a new system that exempted all Muslims, regardless of their heritage, from the jizya tax. He also added some safeguards to the system to make sure that mass conversion to Islam would not cause the collapse of the finances of the Umayyad government. Under the new tax policy, converted "mawali" would not pay the jizya (or any other "dhimmi" tax), but upon conversion, their land would become the property of their villages and would thus remain liable to the full rate of the "kharaj" (land tax). This compensated for the loss of income due to the diminished jizya tax base.


title: Umar II

text: Whosoever accepts Islam, whether Christian, Jew or Zoroastrian, of those now subject to taxes and who joins himself to the body of the Muslims in their abode, forsaking the abode in which he was before, he shall have the same rights and duties as they have, and they are obliged to associate with him and to treat him as one of themselves.


title: Umar II

text: Possibly to stave off potential blowback from opponents of the equalization measures, Umar expanded the Islamization drive that had been steadily strengthening under his Marwanid predecessors. The drive included measures to distinguish Muslims from non-Muslims and the inauguration of an Islamic iconoclasm. He put a stop to the ritual cursing of Caliph Ali (), the cousin and brother-in-law of Muhammad, in Friday prayer sermons. The ritual had begun under Ali's opponent and future founder of the Umayyad Caliphate Mu'awiya I during the First Muslim Civil War.


title: Umar II

text: Umar II is credited with having ordered the first official collection of hadith (sayings and actions attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad), fearing that some of it might be lost. Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Amr ibn Hazm and Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri are among those who compiled hadiths at Umar II's behest.


title: Umar II

text: Shortly after his accession, Umar overhauled the administrations of the provinces. He appointed competent men that he could control, indicating his intention "to keep a close eye on provincial administration". Wellhausen noted that the caliph did not leave the governors to their own devices in return for their forwarding of the provincial revenues; rather, he actively oversaw his governors' administrations and his main interest was "not so much the increase of power as the establishment of right".


title: Umar II

text: He subdivided the vast governorship established over Iraq and the eastern Caliphate under Abd al-Malik's viceroy al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. Sulayman's appointee to this super-province, Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, was dismissed and imprisoned by Umar for failing to forward the spoils from his earlier conquest of Tabaristan along the southern Caspian coast to the caliphal treasury. In place of Ibn al-Muhallab, he appointed Abd al-Hamid ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Zayd ibn al-Khattab, a member of Caliph Umar I's family, to Kufa, Adi ibn Artah al-Fazari to Basra, al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami to Khurasan and Amr ibn Muslim al-Bahili, a brother of the conqueror Qutayba ibn Muslim, to Sind. He appointed Umar ibn Hubayra al-Fazari to the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia). Although many of these appointees were pupils of al-Hajjaj or affiliated with the Qays faction, Umar chose them based on their reliability and integrity, rather than opposition to Sulayman's government.


title: Umar II

text: Umar appointed al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani to al-Andalus (Iberian Peninsula) and Isma'il ibn Abd Allah to Ifriqiya. He chose these governors because of their perceived neutrality in the tribal factionalism between the Qays and Yaman and justice toward the oppressed.


title: Umar II

text: After his accession in late 717, Umar ordered the withdrawal of the Muslim army led by his cousin Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik from their abortive siege against Constantinople to the regions of Antioch and Malatya, closer to the Syrian frontier. He commissioned an expedition in the summer of 718 to facilitate their withdrawal. Umar kept up the annual summer raids against the Byzantine frontier, out of the obligation to "jihad". He remained in northern Syria, often residing at his estate in Khunasira, where he built a fortified headquarters.


title: Umar II

text: At some point in 717, he dispatched a force under Ibn Hatim ibn al-Nu'man al-Bahili to Adharbayjan to disperse a group of Turks who had launched damaging raids against the province. In 718, he successively deployed Iraqi and Syrian troops to suppress the Kharijite rebellion of Shawdhab al-Yashkuri in Iraq, though some sources say the revolt was settled diplomatically.


title: Umar II

text: Umar is often deemed a pacifist by the sources and Cobb attributes the caliph's war-weariness to concerns over the diminishing funds of the caliphal treasury. Wellhausen asserts that Umar was "disinclined to wars of conquest, well-knowing that they were waged, not for God, but for the sake of spoil". Blankinship considers this reasoning to be "insufficient". He proposed it was the massive losses faced by the Arabs in their abortive siege against Constantinople, including the destruction of their navy, that caused Umar to view his positions in al-Andalus, separated by the rest of the Caliphate by sea, and Cilicia as acutely vulnerable to Byzantine attack. Thus he favored withdrawing Muslim forces from these two regions. This same calculus led to him to consider withdrawing Muslim forces from Transoxiana so as to shore up the defenses of Syria. Shaban views Umar's efforts to curb offensives as linked to the resentment of the Yamani elements of the army, who Shaban views to have been politically dominant under Umar, at excessive deployments in the field.


title: Umar II

text: Although he halted further eastward expansion, the establishment of Islam in a number of cities in Transoxiana, precluded Umar's withdrawal of Arab troops from there. During his reign, the Muslim forces in al-Andalus conquered and fortified the Mediterranean coastal city of Narbonne in modern-day France.


title: Umar II

text: Following the example of the Prophet, Umar sent out emissaries to China and Tibet, inviting their rulers to accept Islam. According to Nazeer Ahmed, it was during the time of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz that Islam took roots and was accepted by a large segment of the population of Persia and Egypt. When the officials complained that because of conversions, the jizya revenues of the state had experienced a steep decline, Umar wrote back saying that he had accepted the Caliphate to invite people to Islam and not to become a tax collector. The infusion of non-Arabs in large number into the fold of Islam shifted the center of gravity of the empire from Medina and Damascus to Persia and Egypt.


title: Umar II

text: On his way back from Damascus to Aleppo or possibly to his Khunasira estate, Umar fell ill. He died between 5 February and 10 February 720, at the age of 37, in the village of Dayr Sim'an (also called Dayr al-Naqira) near Ma'arrat al-Nu'man. Umar had purchased a plot there with his own funds and was buried in the village, where the ruins of his tomb, built at an unknown date, are still visible. Umar II was succeeded by Yazid II.


title: Umar II

text: On 26 May 2020, during the Syrian Civil War, Iran-backed militias reportedly raided Umar's mausoleum as shown in video footage published by pro-Syrian government pages on social media. Another video showed the grave opened and emptied. No information was available about where the remains buried inside were moved.


title: Umar II

text: The unanimous view in the Muslim traditional sources is that Umar was pious and ruled like a true Muslim in singular opposition to the other Umayyad caliphs, who were generally considered "godless usurpers, tyrants and playboys". The tradition recognized Umar as an authentic caliph, while the other Umayyads were viewed as kings. In the view of Hawting, this is partly based on the historical facts and Umar's character and actions. He holds that Umar "truly as all evidence indicates was a man of honour, dignity and a ruler worthy of every respect". As a result of this and his short term in office, it is difficult to assess the achievements of his caliphate and his motives. Indeed, Kennedy calls Umar "the most puzzling character among the Marwanid rulers". As Kennedy states "He was a pious individual who attempted to solve the problems of his day in a way which would reconcile the needs of his dynasty and state with the demands of Islam". In the assessment of H. A. R. Gibb, Umar acted to prevent the collapse of the caliphate by "maintaining the unity of the Arabs; removing the grievances of the "mawālī"; and reconciling political life with the claims of religion."


title: Umar II

text: In his "al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya", Ibn Arabi claimed that Mu'awiya II was a spiritual Pole ("Ghawth") of his time and one of the few in history having such a "spiritual degree" combined with a "temporal" power, like the Rashidun caliphs and caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz.


title: Maggie Haberman

text: Maggie Lindsy Haberman (born October 30, 1973) is an American journalist, a White House correspondent for "The New York Times", and a political analyst for CNN. She previously worked as a political reporter for the "New York Post", the New York "Daily News", and "Politico". She wrote about Donald Trump for those publications and rose to prominence covering his campaign, presidency, and post-presidency for the "Times". In 2022, she published the best-selling book "".


title: Maggie Haberman

text: Haberman was born on October 30, 1973, in New York City, the daughter of Clyde Haberman, who became a longtime journalist for "The New York Times", and Nancy Haberman (née Spies), a media communications executive at Rubenstein Associates. At that firm, a "publicity powerhouse" whose eponymous founder has been called "the dean of damage control" by Rudy Giuliani, Haberman's mother worked for a client list of influential New Yorkers including Donald Trump. She is a 1991 graduate of Ethical Culture Fieldston School, followed by Sarah Lawrence College where she obtained a bachelor's degree in 1995.


title: Maggie Haberman

text: Haberman's career began in 1996 when she was hired by the "New York Post". In 1999, the "Post" assigned her to cover City Hall, where she became "hooked" on political reporting. Haberman worked for the "Post"s rival newspaper, the "New York Daily News", for three and a half years in the early 2000s, where she continued to cover City Hall. Haberman returned to the "Post" to cover the 2008 U.S. presidential campaign and other political races. In 2010, Haberman was hired by "Politico" as a senior reporter. She became a political analyst for CNN in 2014.


title: Maggie Haberman

text: Haberman was hired by "The New York Times" in early 2015 as a political correspondent for the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign. According to one commentator, Haberman "formed a potent journalistic tag team with Glenn Thrush".


title: Maggie Haberman

text: Her reporting style as a member of the White House staff of the "Times" features in the Liz Garbus documentary series "The Fourth Estate".


title: Maggie Haberman

text: According to an analysis by British digital strategist Rob Blackie, Haberman was one of the most commonly followed political writers among Biden administration staff on Twitter.


title: Maggie Haberman

text: Haberman frequently broke news about the Trump campaign and administration. In March 2016 Haberman, along with "New York Times" reporter David E. Sanger, questioned Trump in an interview, "Donald Trump Expounds on His Foreign Policy Views," during which he "agreed with a suggestion that his ideas might be summed up as 'America First'".


title: Maggie Haberman

text: In October 2016, one month before Donald Trump defeated Hillary Clinton in the US presidential election, a stolen document released by WikiLeaks outlined how Clinton's campaign could induce Haberman to place sympathetic stories in "Politico". However, contrary to the hopes of her campaign, subsequent stories by Haberman about Clinton were much more critical of her than they had hoped for. Haberman was criticized for applying a double standard in her reporting about the scandals involving the two presidential candidates of the 2016 election. Haberman and "The New York Times" supposedly disproportionately covered Hillary Clinton's email controversy with many more articles critical of her than of the numerous scandals involving her competitor Donald Trump, including his sexual misconduct allegations, with Taylor Link writing: "The NYT's White House reporter calls the Clinton campaign liars, but was hesitant to use that word with Trump."


title: Maggie Haberman

text: She has been credited with becoming "the highest-profile reporter" to cover Trump's campaign and presidency, as well as "the most-cited journalist in the Mueller report". She has also been accused "from certain corners of the left as a supposed water carrier for the 45th president".<ref name="Ellison_8/26/2021"></ref>


title: Maggie Haberman

text: In 2022, Haberman published a book on the Trump presidency called "". In advance of its release, CNN published an excerpt that revealed that Trump planned to simply remain in the White House after his November 2020 election loss. A "Guardian" review of the book describes her as "the "New York Times"' Trump whisperer", and describes the book as "much more than 600 pages of context, scoop and drama...it gives Trump and those close to him plenty of voice – and rope."<ref name="Green_10/2/2022"></ref> The book debuted at number one on "The New York Times" nonfiction best-seller list for the week ending October 8, 2022.


title: Maggie Haberman

text: In 2018, Haberman's reporting on the Trump administration earned the Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting (shared with colleagues at the "Times" and "The Washington Post"), the individual Aldo Beckman Award for Journalistic Excellence award from the White House Correspondents' Association, and the Front Page Award for Journalist of the Year from the Newswomen's Club of New York.


title: Maggie Haberman

text: In January 2020, attorneys representing Nick Sandmann announced that Haberman was one of many media personalities they were suing for defamation for her coverage of the 2019 Lincoln Memorial Confrontation.


title: Maggie Haberman

text: Journalists and authors criticized Haberman for allegedly choosing to withhold information about Donald Trump for the sake of her book, despite being aware of it ahead of the January 6 United States Capitol attack, although they presented no evidence of when she had learned of Trump's statements.


title: Maggie Haberman

text: Haberman married Dareh Ardashes Gregorian, a reporter for the "New York Daily News", formerly of the "New York Post", and son of Vartan Gregorian, in a November 2003 ceremony at the Tribeca Rooftop in Manhattan. They have three children and live in Brooklyn.


title: Székelys

text: The Székelys (, Székely runes: 𐳥𐳋𐳓𐳉𐳗), also referred to as Szeklers, are a Hungarian subgroup living mostly in the Székely Land in Romania. A significant population descending from the Székelys of Bukovina lives in Tolna and Baranya counties in Hungary and certain districts of Vojvodina, Serbia.


title: Székelys

text: In the Middle Ages, the Székelys played a role in the defense of the Kingdom of Hungary against the Ottomans in their posture as guards of the eastern border. With the Treaty of Trianon of 1920, Transylvania (including the Székely Land) became part of Romania, and the Székely population was a target of Romanianization efforts. In 1952, during the communist rule of Romania, the former counties with the highest concentration of Székely population – Mureș, Odorhei, Ciuc, and Trei Scaune – were legally designated as the Magyar Autonomous Region. It was superseded in 1960 by the Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region, itself divided in 1968 into two non-autonomous counties, Harghita and Mureș. In post-Cold War Romania, where the Székelys form roughly half of the ethnic Hungarian population, members of the group have been among the most vocal of Hungarians seeking an autonomous Székely region in Transylvania. They were estimated to number about 860,000 in the 1970s and are officially recognized as a distinct minority group by the Romanian government.


title: Székelys

text: Today's Székely Land roughly corresponds to the Romanian counties of Harghita, Covasna, and central and eastern Mureș where they currently make up roughly 80% of the population. Based on the official 2011 Romanian census, 1,227,623 ethnic Hungarians live in Romania, mostly in the region of Transylvania, making up 19.6% of the population of this region. Of these, 609,033 live in the counties of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureș, which taken together have a Hungarian majority (58%). The Hungarians in Székely Land, therefore, account for half (49.41%) of the Hungarians in Romania. When given the choice on the 2011 Romanian census between ethnically identifying as "Székely" or as "Hungarian", the overwhelming majority of the Székelys chose the latter – only 532 persons declared themselves as ethnic "Székely".


title: Székelys

text: The Székely territories came under the leadership of the Count of the Székelys (Latin: "Comes Siculorum"), initially a royal appointee from the non-Székely Hungarian nobility who was de facto a margrave; from the 15th century onward, the voivodes of Transylvania held the office themselves. The Székelys were considered a distinct ethnic group ("natio Siculica") and formed part of the "Unio Trium Nationum" ("Union of Three Nations"), a coalition of three Transylvanian estates, the other two "nations" being the (also predominantly Hungarian) nobility and the Saxons (that is, ethnic German burghers). These three groups ruled Transylvania from 1438 onward, usually in harmony though sometimes in conflict with one another. During the Long Turkish War, the Székelys formed an alliance with Prince Michael the Brave of Wallachia against the army of Andrew Báthory, recently appointed Prince of Transylvania.


title: Székelys

text: The origin of the Székelys has been much debated. It is now generally accepted that they are descendants of Hungarians. The Székelys have historically claimed descent from Attila's Huns and believed they played a special role in shaping Hungary. Ancient legends recount that a contingent of Huns remained in Transylvania, later allying with the main Hungarian army that conquered the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century. The thirteenth-century chronicler Simon of Kéza also claimed that the Székely people descended from Huns who lived in mountainous lands prior to the Hungarian conquest.


title: Székelys

text: After the theory of Hunnic descent lost scholarly currency in the 20th century, two substantial ideas emerged about Székely ancestry:


title: Székelys

text: Some historians have dated the Székely presence in the Eastern Carpathian Mountains as early as the fifth century, and found historical evidence that the Székelys were part of the Avar confederation during the so-called Dark Ages, but this does not mean that they were ethnically Avar.


title: Székelys

text: Research indicates that Székelys spoke Hungarian. Toponyms at the Székely settlement area also give proof of their Hungarian mother tongue. The Székely dialect does not have more Bulgaro-Turkish loan-words derived from before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin than standard Hungarian does. Even if the Székelys had been a Turkic stock they had to have lost their original vernacular at a very early date.


title: Székelys

text: An autosomal analysis, studying non-European admixture in Europeans, found 4.4% of admixture of East Asian/Central Asian among Hungarians, which was the strongest among sampled populations. It was found at 3.6% in Belarusians, 2.5% in Romanians, 2.3% in Bulgarians and Lithuanians, 1.9% in Poles and 0% in Greeks. The authors stated "This signal might correspond to a small genetic legacy from invasions of peoples from the Asian steppes (e.g., the Huns, Magyars, and Bulgars) during the first millennium CE."


title: Székelys

text: Among 100 Hungarian men (90 of them from the Great Hungarian Plain), the following haplogroups and frequencies are obtained:


title: Székelys

text: It can be inferred that Szekelys have more significant German admixture. A study sampling 45 Palóc from Budapest and northern Hungary, found


title: Székelys

text: A study estimating possible Inner Asian admixture among nearly 500 Hungarians based on paternal lineages only, estimated it at 5.1% in Hungary, at 7.4% in Székelys and at 6.3% at Csangos. It has boldly been noted that this is an upper limit by deep SNPs and that the main haplogroups responsible for that contribution are J2-M172 (negative M47, M67, L24, M12), J2-L24, R1a-Z93, Q-M242 and E-M78, the last of which is typically European, while N is still negligible (1.7%). In an attempt to divide N into subgroups L1034 and L708, some Hungarian, Sekler, and Uzbek samples were found to be L1034 SNP positive, while all Mongolians, Buryats, Khanty, Finnish, and Roma samples showed a negative result for this marker. The 2500 years old SNP L1034 was found typical for Mansi and Hungarians, the closest linguistic relatives.


title: Székelys

text: The Székely live mainly in Harghita, Covasna and Mureș counties. They identify themselves as Hungarians, but they maintain a somewhat distinct ethnic identity from other Hungarians. Hungarians form a majority of the population in the counties of Covasna and Harghita. They were estimated to number about 860,000 in the 1970s and are officially recognized as a distinct minority group by the Romanian government.


title: Székelys

text: The Székelys of Bukovina, today settled mostly in Vojvodina and southern Hungary, form a culturally separate group with its own history.


title: Székelys

text: An autonomous Székely region existed between 1952 and 1968. First created as the Magyar Autonomous Region in 1952, it was renamed the Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region in 1960. Ever since the abolition of the Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region by the Ceaușescu regime in 1968, some of the Székely have pressed for their autonomy to be restored. Several proposals have been discussed within the Székely Hungarian community and by the Romanian majority. One of the Székely autonomy initiatives is based on the model of the Spanish autonomous community of Catalonia. A major peaceful demonstration was held in 2006 in favor of autonomy.


title: Székelys

text: In 2013 and 2014, thousands of ethnic Hungarians marched for autonomy on 10 March (on the Székely Freedom Day) in Târgu Mureș, Romania. 10 March is the anniversary of the execution in Târgu Mureș in 1854, by the Austrian authorities, of three Székelys who tried to achieve national self-determination. Since 2015, the Székelys also have the Székely Autonomy Day, celebrated every last Sunday of October.


title: Székelys

text: Áron Tamási, a 20th-century Székely writer from Lupeni, Harghita, wrote many novels about the Székely which set universal stories of love and self-individuation against the backdrop of Székely village culture. Other Székely writers include the folklorist Elek Benedek, the novelist József Nyírő and the poet Sándor Kányádi.


title: Székelys

text: The flag and coat of arms of the Székelys as approved by the Szekler National Council, one of the main political organizations of the Székelys.


title: Székelys

text: The Sun and Moon are the symbols of the Székelys, and are used in the coat of arms of Transylvania and on the Romanian national coat of arms. The Sun and the Moon, the symbols of the cosmic world, are known from Hungarian grave findings from the period of the Hungarian conquest. After the Hungarians became Christians in the 11th century, the importance of these icons became purely visual and symbolic. The Székelys have succeeded in preserving traditions to an extent unusual even in Central and Eastern Europe. A description of the Székely Land and its traditions was written between 1859 and 1868 by Balázs Orbán in his "Description of the Székely Land".


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Astrid of Sweden (17 November 1905 – 29 August 1935) was the Queen of the Belgians and the first wife of King Leopold III. Originally a princess of Sweden of the House of Bernadotte, Astrid became the Duchess of Brabant after her marriage to Leopold in November 1926. She was Queen of the Belgians from 23 February 1934 until her death. Her charity work revolved around women, children, and disadvantaged people.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Astrid's only daughter, Joséphine-Charlotte, later became Grand Duchess consort of Luxembourg, while both her sons reigned as King of the Belgians. Astrid was also a sister of Crown Princess Märtha of Norway (wife of King Olav V) and a maternal aunt of King Harald V of Norway.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Princess Astrid was born on 17 November 1905, at the "Arvfurstens Palats" in Stockholm. She was the third child and youngest daughter of Prince Carl, Duke of Västergötland, and his wife, Princess Ingeborg of Denmark. Her father was the third son of Oscar II, King of Sweden and Norway, by his wife, Sophia of Nassau, and was a younger brother of King Gustav V of Sweden. Her mother was a daughter of King Frederick VIII of Denmark by his wife, Louise of Sweden, and the younger sister of kings Christian X of Denmark and Haakon VII of Norway.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Astrid had two elder sisters, Margaretha, Princess Axel of Denmark, and Märtha, Crown Princess of Norway, as well as a younger brother, Prince Carl Bernadotte (prev. Prince Carl of Sweden, Duke of Östergötland).


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Astrid spent most of her childhood at Arvfurstens Palats in central Stockholm and at the family's summer residence in Fridhem. Astrid was raised in strict education and without much luxury. Astrid attended the Sint Botvid boarding school, where lessons were taught in French. She then went to Akerstrom-Soderstrom finishing school, where she studied sewing, piano, ballet and childcare. After finishing school, Astrid worked at a Stockholm orphanage, caring for children.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: As an eligible princess, Astrid was mentioned as a potential bride for a number of princes including the future Edward VIII of the United Kingdom and the future Olav V of Norway. Astrid's successful suitor was Prince Leopold of Belgium, Duke of Brabant.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: In September 1926, their engagement was announced. King Albert I and Queen Elisabeth of Belgium invited the press to the royal palace in Brussels. The King said: "The Queen and I would like to announce to you the impending marriage between Prince Leopold, Duke of Brabant and the Princess Astrid of Sweden. We are convinced that the princess will bring joy and happiness to our son. Leopold and Astrid have decided to join their lives without any pressures or reasons of state. Theirs is a true union among people with the same inclinations." Queen Elisabeth said: "It is a marriage of love... tell it to our people. Nothing was arranged. Not a single political consideration prevailed in our son's decision."


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Princess Astrid married Prince Leopold in Stockholm on 4 November 1926 civilly, and in Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula, Brussels on 10 November religiously. The couple travelled separately to Antwerp after their civil marriage, to be reunited in Belgium. The religious marriage was attended by a large wedding party of young friends and relatives: Princess Feodora of Denmark, Princess Marie-José of Belgium, Princess Märtha of Sweden, Princess Ingrid of Sweden, Alfhild Ekelund, Prince Carl of Sweden, Prince Gustav Adolf of Sweden, Crown Prince Olav of Norway, Margareta Stähl, Count Claes Sparre, Anna Adelswärd, Prince Charles of Belgium, Count Folke Bernadotte, Baron Sigvard Beck-Friis, Anne Marie von Essen, and Baron Carl Strömfelt.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Princess Astrid was given a tiara as a wedding gift from the Belgian government, created by Belgian jeweler Van Bever. The original version of the diadem is a flexible diamond bandeau in a stylized Greek key motif topped with 11 large diamonds on spikes. These large stones, totaling around 100 carats on their own, symbolized the nine provinces of Belgium and the now former Belgian colony of the Congo. She later added a set of diamond arches to enclose each of the 11 independent stones. After Astrid's death, the tiara was in the possession of King Leopold, and his second wife Lilian, Princess of Réthy wore parts of the tiara but not the full gem as Lilian never held the title of Queen. Leopold abdicated the throne in favor of his son Baudouin; when Baudouin married, Leopold gave the tiara to the new queen, Fabiola, who wore it on her wedding day. She handed the jewel over after Baudouin's death to be worn by Queen Paola who, after the abdication of her husband Albert, gave it to Mathilde, the new Queen of the Belgians.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: The Duke and Duchess of Brabant spent their honeymoon in the south of France before moving into a wing of the Royal Palace of Brussels. After the honeymoon period, Princess Astrid began learning French and Dutch. Astrid was enthusiastically adopted by the Belgians. She was widely loved for her beauty, charm and simplicity. As the Duchess of Brabant, she worked to alleviate various forms of adversity.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: In October 1927, Leopold and Astrid had a daughter, Princess Joséphine-Charlotte, later Grand Duchess of Luxembourg. The birth of her only daughter had been a difficult period for Astrid, as women were barred from the line of succession to the throne. One year later, she and her husband visited the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia. They arrived on the ship "Insulinde". When the couple visited Surakarta, Astrid and her husband received a box with a golden kris inside as a present from the Dutch East Indie government. Princess Astrid received a box with a fan inlaid with gold inside as a gift. Local people admired Princess Astrid's warm, enthusiastic and less formal attitude. The couple visited Radio Poestoko Museum and Societet Habiprojo, where they watched a wayang show. They also visited Surabaya and Bali. After having spent five months in the Dutch East Indies, the couple travelled back to Belgium on the ship "Tjerimai". Upon their return, the couple moved into Stuyvenberg Castle. In September 1930, Astrid gave birth to Prince Baudouin, who eventually became King of the Belgians.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Raised as a Lutheran, Astrid converted to Catholicism after marrying Leopold. She had initially considered converting to Catholicism, simply because it was the religion of Belgium, but the priest she consulted, Father William Hemmick, told her not to do so until she genuinely believed it was the true religion. Astrid converted to Catholicism in 1930, confiding to a close childhood friend: "My soul has found peace." On the day of Astrid's conversion, her father-in-law King Albert I said: "I am glad, very glad. Now all the family is united in the same religion."


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: In 1932, Astrid and her husband traveled to Asia and the Congo. According to a May 1933 print of "De Locomotief", the photographs of their visit to the Dutch East Indies were published as a photograph collection book titled "De Reis van Prins Leopold door Ned-Indie". After their visit to the Congo, Astrid wrote to her friend Countess Anna Sparre (née Baroness Anna Adelswärd) about the majestic landscapes of Congo land and her concerns about suffering, poverty and infant mortality that the Congolese faced.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: The Duchess of Brabant became a godmother to Anna Sparre's daughter, Christina, and her sister Crown Princess Märtha's second daughter, Princess Astrid.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: On 17 February 1934, King Albert I died in a mountain-climbing accident in Marche-les-Dames, Belgium. Leopold and Astrid became the new King and Queen of the Belgians with the style of "Majesty". Later that year, the third child of Leopold and Astrid was born. He was named Albert after his grandfather and would eventually succeed his brother Baudouin as King of the Belgians.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: As Queen of the Belgians, Astrid dedicated her time to raising her children and promoting social causes that brought her into contact with the Belgians. She was very concerned with the situation of women, children, and disadvantaged people. During an economic crisis in Belgium in 1935, she organized a collection of clothing, money and food for the poor through an open letter, which was published as the "Queen’s Appeal". Queen Astrid also visited poor settlements in Belgium.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Queen Astrid was particularly interested in training women formally in childcare and healthcare. She also supported the training of young girls as dressmakers so they would have better career opportunities. She supported Catholic charitable institutions, such as the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, and liberal organizations, such as the "Fédération des Foyers Belges". She also gave audiences to advocates of women's rights such as Baroness Marthe Boël, president of the National Council of Belgian Women.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: In May 1935, Queen Astrid patronized Milk Week, an effort to encourage Belgians to drink healthy beverages. She charged Gatien du Parc, one of her courtiers, with the task of preparing a detailed report on milk regulations in foreign countries with a strict investigation. Queen Astrid often did charitable works as part of a Relief Committee.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Queen Astrid had a warm, friendly, social and charming personality. According to her friend Countess Anna Sparre, Astrid was a shy and insecure woman. Sparre believed that Astrid's mother Princess Ingeborg's constant praising of her sister Märtha contributed to her shyness and insecurity. Astrid, apparently a timid and fragile woman, could be fierce and stern when she had to defend a wronged loved one.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: She collected Swedish folk art and enjoyed sports such as swimming, skiing, climbing, horseback riding and golf.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: In August 1935, the King and Queen went incognito to their holiday home, "Villa Haslihorn" in Horw, on the shores of Lake Lucerne, Switzerland. Joséphine-Charlotte and Baudouin travelled with their parents, while the one-year-old Prince Albert was remained in Brussels.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: On 29 August 1935, the King and Queen went for a last hike in the mountains before returning home. Their chauffeur was sitting in the back of the Packard One-Twenty convertible; the King was driving and the Queen looking at a map. At approximately 9:30 am the Queen pointed out something to her husband, who looked away from the road. The car left the road, travelled down a steep slope, and collided with a pear tree. Queen Astrid had opened her door and was thrown out upon impact, striking the trunk of the tree while the car hit a second tree.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Queen Astrid is interred in the royal vault at the Church of Our Lady of Laeken, Brussels, beside her husband, King Leopold III, and his second wife, Lilian, Princess of Réthy.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: , a Swiss historian, describes how Queen Astrid entered folklore in Belgium and Switzerland. Months after her death, newlyweds were bringing flowers to the place where the Queen died. The chapel visitors would also bring wreaths and candles. The visits peaked on feasts of All Saints and All Souls. The Queen was described as an icon of beauty, kindness, romance, marriage and a model Catholic. The Mayor of Küssnacht told the Belgian Ambassador to Switzerland: "It is on pilgrimage that these couples arrive here from all over the canton. These young newlyweds, in bridal dress, whom you saw visiting the place where Queen Astrid passed away, are imploring her protection. Your young Queen has become part of Swiss legend; she is, for our people, who have beatified her in their hearts, the symbol of maternal love and conjugal fidelity."


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: In 1935, the Belgian postal authorities issued a postage stamp showing her portrait outlined in black. This is known as the "Astrid Mourning" issue. Later that same year, it released a series of anti-tuberculosis fund stamps with the same design. in 8th arrondissement of Paris was named in her memory.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: A commemorative chapel named "Astrid Chapel" was built in Switzerland at the site of the crash. The Swiss government gave the land to Belgium a year after Astrid's death and the chapel was built in the style of a Walloon country church. The chapel has become a destination for Swedish and Belgian tourists. "The King's Cross", built in where the Queen died in her husband's arms, is made from Swedish granite. A museum nearby holds images and memorabilia of the event, including a shard from the windscreen and the log of the pear tree. The tree itself was felled by a storm in 1992. The car was sunk at a deep part of the Vierwaldstättersee at the request of the king.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: A memorial was built by the architect Paul Bonduelle in Laeken, Belgium, and inaugurated on 21 July 1938. The building, which is in the late neo-classical style, faces the Church of Our Lady of Laeken and backs onto the Palace of Laeken. The same year, on the initiative of the local Veterans' Front, a bronze bust of the Queen was erected in Wisterzée Park in Court-Saint-Étienne, Belgium, by sculptor Victor Rousseau.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Astrid Avenue in Bogor Botanical Garden in Indonesia (formerly Dutch East Indies) was named after her while she was honeymooning there with her spouse in 1928. The avenue is decorated with spectacular displays of canna lilies of various colors. The Swedish layer cake Princess cake was named after Astrid and her two sisters when they were children.


title: Astrid of Sweden

text: Four of her descendants were named Astrid to honour her. Her granddaughters Princess Marie-Astrid of Luxembourg, Princess Astrid of Belgium, her great-granddaughter Princess Marie-Astrid of Liechtenstein, and her great-great-granddaughter Archduchess Anna Astrid of Austria-Este. Her niece Princess Astrid of Norway (later Mrs. Ferner) was also named in her honour. Her husband King Leopold III's first daughter with his second wife Lilian Baels, Princess Marie-Christine Daphné Astrid Élisabeth Léopoldine of Belgium (b. 1951), was named after her.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: Swallow is a 2019 psychological thriller film written and directed by Carlo Mirabella-Davis and starring Haley Bennett, Austin Stowell, Elizabeth Marvel, David Rasche, and Denis O'Hare. Its plot follows a young woman who, emotionally stifled in her marriage and domestic life, develops an impulse to consume inedible objects.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 28, 2019. It was released in France on January 15, 2020, by UFO Distribution, and in the United States on March 6, 2020, by IFC Films.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: Hunter Conrad, a young woman from a lower-working-class family, has recently married Richie Conrad, a man from a wealthy family who is set to take over as CEO of his father's Manhattan corporation. This affords Hunter the ability to stay at home in the couple's lavish upstate New York home. Despite this, Hunter finds herself emotionally stifled and isolated in both her marriage and domestic life, while Richie is distant and inconsiderate toward her. For example, at a dinner with Richie's parents to congratulate the young couple on their pregnancy, Hunter is enticed to tell a story, only to be interrupted by her father-in-law zoning out and asking Richie about business. One day while home alone, Hunter develops the impulse to eat a marble. She finds it exhilarating and begins to consume other inedible objects around the house, including thumbtacks, metal figurines, and batteries.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: Hunter becomes pregnant and the sonogram technician notices an anomaly in her abdomen during the routine ultrasound. She is rushed in for emergency surgery to remove a variety of objects trapped in her intestine. Hunter is diagnosed with pica, a psychological disorder that compels individuals to eat inedible objects. Richie's parents, Katherine and Michael, arrange for her to see a psychiatrist in the city. During her therapy sessions, Hunter says she swallows the objects because she likes the feel of their textures in her mouth.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: Richie hires Luay, a family friend and immigrant from Syria, to monitor Hunter while he is at work. Hunter, feeling smothered, is initially hostile toward Luay, who dismisses her mental illness as resulting from her privileged life. In therapy, she eventually reveals she was not raised by her biological father and has never met him, though she knows his name and keeps a picture of him. She was conceived as a result of her mother's rape at the hands of a strange man she had met in a bar. The rapist served time in prison for the crime.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: One afternoon, Hunter overhears Richie speaking with her psychiatrist on the phone, and realizes Richie has bribed the doctor to tell him what was discussed in Hunter's therapy sessions. This sends Hunter into a panic, and she swallows a miniature screwdriver. Luay finds her choking violently, and calls 9-1-1. After undergoing surgery to remove the screwdriver, Michael and Katherine arrange to have Hunter committed to a psychiatric hospital for the next seven months until she delivers the baby, threatening that Richie will divorce her. Luay, who has warmed to Hunter, allows her to flee into the woods, and stages it to appear as though she had escaped.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: Hunter hitchhikes to a motel and calls Richie, who begs her to return. She explains she had rushed into their marriage and pregnancy to make him happy. When she refuses to come back, he chastises and insults her. Hunter smashes her cell phone and spends the rest of the night watching television and eating soil from outside. The next day, she hitchhikes to the home of her biological father, William Erwin. At William's house, he is celebrating his birthday with family and friends. He and his wife Lucy assume Hunter is the parent of one of their daughter's friends, but she privately reveals her true identity to William. During an emotional conversation, William professes his shame for raping Hunter's mother. Hunter asks him if he is ashamed of her and whether she is like him, which he denies.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: Having obtained closure, Hunter visits a clinic and is prescribed medication to induce an abortion. She takes the pills while eating lunch in a food court and experiences the abortion in a public restroom.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: In September 2016, it was announced that Carlo Mirabella-Davis would direct the film based on a screenplay that he wrote. Mynette Louie, Mollye Asher were slated to produce the film along with Syncopated Films and Standalone Productions. In May 2018, Haley Bennett, Austin Stowell, Elizabeth Marvel, David Rasche and Denis O'Hare joined the cast of the film. Carole Baraton, Frédéric Fiore were also announced as producers under their Charades and Logical Pictures banners, respectively. Joe Wright, Bennett, Constantin Briest, Johann Comte, Pierre Mazars, Eric Tavitian and Sam Bisbee were named executive producers.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: Principal photography began in May 2018. The film was shot in a glass home in Highland, New York, along the Hudson River, and at a nearby farm. Mirabella-Davis attributes the selection of the home to its Hitchcock-like appearance. He also has compared the home's nearby river to a "mood ring", representing freedom, power and danger, a stark contrast to the powerless life that protagonist Hunter finds herself living.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: In a 2020 interview, production designer Erin Magill noted that inspiration for the film's overall aesthetic and strong visual look was taken from films such as "Safe" and "Rosemary's Baby". She was also inspired by famous photographers such as Tina Barney, Philip Lorca-diCorcia and Gregory Crewdson.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: "Swallow" had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 28, 2019. Shortly thereafter, IFC Films acquired American distribution rights. It was released in France on January 15, 2020, by UFO Distribution and in the United States on March 6, 2020. It tied for the highest-grossing film in the U.S. for the week of April 17, 2020, though earning just $2,490 from a handful of drive-in theaters during the COVID-19 pandemic, with a total of $31,646 in its seven-week run up to that point.


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: "Swallow" received generally positive reviews from film critics. It holds an 88% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 139 reviews, with an average of 7.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Swallow"s unconventional approach to exploring domestic ennui is elevated by a well-told story and Haley Bennett's powerful leading performance." On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 65 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Swallow (2019 film)

text: Dissenting opinions included that of critic Barry Hertz of "The Globe and Mail", who wrote that "Mirabella-Davis treats Hunter's behaviour with kid gloves — it is a disorder that the film treats as fit for gawking and disgust, not anything close to understanding or empathy."


title: Pálinka

text: Pálinka is a traditional fruit spirit (or fruit brandy) with origins in Carpathian Mountains basin, more exactly known under several names, and invented in the Middle Ages. Protected as a geographical indication of the European Union, only fruit spirits mashed, distilled, matured and bottled in Hungary, and similar apricot spirits from four provinces of Austria can be called ""pálinka"", while ""Tótpálinka"" refers to wheat-derived beverages. Törkölypálinka, a different product in the legal sense, is a similarly protected pomace spirit that is commonly included with pálinka. While pálinka may be made of any locally grown fruit, the most common ones are plums, apricots, apples, pears, and cherries.


title: Pálinka

text: A similar product exists in the Czech Republic and Slovakia where it is known as pálenka, and in Romania (Transylvania), Italy, and Greece under the name "palincă".


title: Pálinka

text: The words "pálinka" (in Hungarian), "pálenka" (Czech and Slovak), and "palincă" (Romanian) derive from the Slavonic stem "paliti", "to burn, to distill". In Hungarian, the word "Tótpálinka" (literally 'Slavic pálinka') was used to refer to alcoholic drinks derived from wheat.


title: Pálinka

text: The production of Hungarian pálinka is regulated by local law LXXIII of 2008, often referred to as "pálinka law", which is based on the regulation of generic fruit spirits of the European Union. An alcoholic beverage may be called pálinka if:


title: Pálinka

text: While pálinka is traditionally made from a mash of ripe fruit, the law does not control the addition of non-concentrated fruit juice, and explicitly allows the use of fruit pulp. Dried fruits are excluded from the mash only, and may be used in the aging process.


title: Pálinka

text: As a consequence of this regulation, a whole family of popular Hungarian products were rebranded as "szeszes ital" (spirit drinks). Traditional pálinkas mixed with honey were also rebranded as "szeszes ital" (or liqueur if the sugar content exceeded the required limit), even if there were no unorthodox steps in the process of distillation. Most of the brands re-categorized as spirit drinks, however, are cheap mixtures of flavorings, water, and rectified spirit.


title: Pálinka

text: In 2004, the European Union accepted pálinka as a Hungarian speciality, and hence its production is limited to Hungary (and four provinces of Austria for pálinka made from apricots). This caused some confusion in neighbouring countries, as some claimed that producers of fruit spirits would have to pay a royalty to Hungary. This is, however, not the case. It is the brand "pálinka" that is protected by Hungarian and EU law, hence producers outside of Hungary are not allowed to use the brand "pálinka" for their products, but they are free to produce fruit spirits and sell them under different names. This is in spite of the drink being historically distilled in most of the former Kingdom of Hungary, much of which falls outside present-day Hungary.


title: Pálinka

text: In Austria, four provinces are allowed to label local apricot spirits as "Barack Palinka" (transliteration of Hungarian "barackpálinka"): Burgenland, Lower Austria, Styria, and Vienna. Unlike Hungarian pálinka, its Austrian counterpart may not be made with column stills, and in order to achieve a full character, careful slow distillation is required by law.


title: Pálinka

text: Pálinka as a geographical indication (in other terms, a product with protected designation of origin or PDO) has been officially registered in the European Union since 2004.


title: Pálinka

text: While pálinka has PDO on its own, some regions of Hungary are especially suitable for the production of certain fruits, and pálinka of excellent quality has been produced in those regions for centuries. These local variations are protected as separate geographical indications and have their own well-detailed regulations. In order to use these protected names on the label, strict geographical and technical requirements must be met. A product not meeting the special requirements of "gönci barackpálinka" (apricot pálinka of Gönc) for example, cannot be labeled as such, not even if it is otherwise a legitimate apricot pálinka from Gönc. In Hungary, only these local variations are referred to as pálinka with protected designations of origin.


title: Pálinka

text: Pálinkas with PDO include "szatmári szilvapálinka" (plum pálinka of Szatmár), "kecskeméti barackpálinka" (apricot pálinka of Kecskemét), "szabolcsi almapálinka" (apple pálinka of Szabolcs), "békési szilvapálinka" (plum pálinka of Békés), "gönci barackpálinka" (apricot pálinka of Gönc), "újfehértói meggypálinka" (sour cherry pálinka of Újfehértó), "göcseji körtepálinka" (pear pálinka of Göcsej), and "pannonhalmi törkölypálinka" (pomace pálinka of Pannonhalma).


title: Pálinka

text: The first records of the Hungarian spirit date back to the fourteenth century (1332); called "Aqua vitae reginae Hungariae". This spirit was probably a spirit blended with rosemary, and had its use in medicine, as both the king and the queen suffered from arthritis.


title: Pálinka

text: In the 19th century, breweries and pálinka distilleries operated in tandem. Comenius described the equipment used to make pálinka in "Orbis sensualium pictus" ("The World in Pictures"), his famous book written for children in the Hungarian town of Sárospatak. Distilling itself was the right of landowners, and laws were introduced to prevent peasants from making pálinka at home. The use of wheat was banned, and distillation was forbidden on religious holidays. Despite this, the church still oversaw alcohol production. Records show that Cistercian monks in Heves County were brewing beer and distilling pálinka in 1715. The role of Jewish lenders and businessmen also grew with the production of alcohol, and Saint Michael was designated patron saint of distilling. Textbooks and publications also began to appear on the subject around this time.


title: Pálinka

text: The larger-scale production of distillates, pálinka and liqueurs from 1799 resulted in guidelines being drawn up for distillation, and the priority rights granted to landowners were made law. It was not long before a pálinka tax was introduced, and by 1850 distillation was a state monopoly. In 1920, there were 260 pálinka distilleries in Hungary, a figure that grew to 1,070 in 1970 before falling back down to 815 in 1982. In the meantime, various laws were introduced to restrict production, including prohibition during the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 and the splitting of production 50-50 with the state from 1952 to 1970.


title: Pálinka

text: Illegal home distilling became popular in the 18th century when peasant breweries were shut down. The practice was fuelled by the desire to make use of fruit that had fallen from the tree and could not be eaten, coupled with the knowledge that making pálinka at home was much less expensive. Because the end product was often inferior, it was reserved for personal use and only offered to friends and guests.


title: Pálinka

text: The word pálinka became widespread in Hungary in the 17th century, but it still referred to distillates made from grain. The meaning was later transferred to fruit spirits while wheat distillates were referred to as "crematura". Distillation became a privilege of the landlords, which led to the proliferation of home stills. Law forbade the use of bread-stuffs for distillation, hence the use of fruits. Private distilleries and factories started to appear towards the end of the eighteenth century, which led to legislation and to the introduction of a pálinka tax.


title: Pálinka

text: A popular saying in Hungary says: what can be used to prepare jam can also be used to produce pálinka. For a fruit to be suitable for jam production it has to contain some sugar. This saying suggests that pálinka can be made from a variety of fruit, and indeed it is made from most of the fruits available in Hungary.


title: Pálinka

text: The most common pálinkas are made from apricots, pears, and plums. Other fruits that are often used are sour cherries, apples, mulberries, and quince. Pálinka made from chestnuts or walnuts is also available.


title: Pálinka

text: Pálinka should be served at because it is at this temperature that the fine smell and taste of the fruit can be best enjoyed. If served too cold, the smell and the taste will be difficult to appreciate.


title: Pálinka

text: The form of the glass used to drink pálinka affects the drinking experience. The ideal glass is wide at the bottom and narrow at the rim, that is, tulip-shaped. The relatively narrow neck of the glass concentrates the "nose" released from the larger surface at the bottom of the glass, magnifying the smell of the drink.


title: Pálinka

text: Modern commercial production occurs in Hungary and parts of Austria. It is commonly made from the fermentation of plums, but other fruits used include apricots, apples, pears, peaches, and cherries. The traditional double distillation process results in a strong alcohol content of 40 to 70 percent ABV.


title: Pálinka

text: The quality of pálinka is largely influenced by the quality of the fruit used, hence the distiller has to choose good quality fruit with a rich taste.


title: Pálinka

text: The first step in the production process is the preparation of the fruit mash. The stony seed is removed from the fruits that have such (e.g., cherry, apricot, plum) in order to prevent the cyanide contained in these seeds from ending up in the distillate. Some fruits (e.g., apple, pear, quince) are ground in order to make the mash soft.


title: Pálinka

text: The second step in the production process is fermentation. Some fruits, like quince, require an additive to start the fermentation process (e.g., citric acid). The fermentation is carried out in an anaerobic environment. The ideal temperature for the fermentation process is between , and the process takes between 10 and 15 days.


title: Pálinka

text: The third step in the production process is distillation. There are two types of distillation processes used: in a pot still or in a column still. Distillation in a pot still is considered to be the traditional way of distillation ("kisüsti" pálinka refers to a pálinka distilled in a pot still no bigger than 1000 litres). Pálinka distilled in a pot still is always double distilled. In the first step, the alcohol is extracted from the fermented mash; the result is called "alszesz" (low alcohol). In the second step, the taste of the fruit is extracted from the fermented mash. The second distillation has the biggest influence on the quality of the pálinka and thus requires special skills. During the second distillation one distinguishes between "előpárlat" (foreshots), "középpárlat" (middle cut) and "utópárlat" (feints). The "előpárlat" is not used, even though much of the taste is contained in this cut. The "középpárlat" is the one that gives the body of the distillate.


title: Pálinka

text: Distillation in a column still involves a single distillation. The process is faster and cheaper than distillation in a pot still, and hence the resulting pálinka is cheaper.


title: Pálinka

text: The last step in the process is aging. Pálinka can be aged in wooden casks (made of, e.g., mulberry wood) or in tanks made of metal. Not all varieties of pálinka can be aged in wooden casks because the wood can cancel the fruity taste of the drink.


title: Pálinka

text: In Hungary, one can ferment a batch of fruit mash at home, then take the fermented mash to a distiller, who can then legally distill the mash to the desired strength. Legislation legalized small home distillers in 2010.


title: Pálinka

text: The most alcoholic pálinkas are (informally) referred to as "kerítésszaggató" in Hungarian, which literally means "fence-ripper" (referring to a drunkard's loss of balance) or "guggolós" ("squatter"), referring to the action required while walking near the windows of the houses of non-professional distillers to avoid getting invited (again) to taste their home-made pálinka. These potent, homemade, "házi" (home-made) pálinkas are commercially available in small portions and are very common in the countryside.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: The Ussuri brown bear (Ursus arctos lasiotus), also known as the Ezo brown bear, Russian bear, or the black grizzly bear, is a subspecies of the brown bear or a population of the Eurasian brown bear ("U. a. arctos"). One of the largest brown bears, a very large Ussuri brown bear may approach the Kodiak bear in size.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: It is very similar to the Kamchatka brown bear, though it has a more-elongated skull, a less-elevated forehead, somewhat-longer nasal bones and less-separated zygomatic arches, and is somewhat darker in color, with some individuals being completely black, which once led to the now-refuted speculation that black individuals were hybrids of brown bears and Asian black bears. Adult males have skulls measuring on average long and wide. They can occasionally reach greater sizes than their Kamchatkan counterparts; the largest skull measured by Sergej Ognew (1931) was only slightly smaller than that of the largest Kodiak bear (the largest subspecies of brown bears) on record at the time.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: Although the diet of an Ussuri brown bear is mainly vegetarian, being a large predator it is able to kill any prey in its habitat. In Sikhote Alin, Ussuri brown bears den mostly in burrows excavated into hillsides, though they, on rare occasions, den in rock outcroppings or build ground nests. These brown bears rarely encounter Ussuri black bears, as they den at higher elevations and on steeper slopes than the latter species. They may, on rare occasions, attack their smaller black relatives.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: In middle Sakhalin in spring, brown bears feed on the previous year's red bilberry, ants, and flotsam, and at the end of the season, they concentrate on the shoots and rhizomes of tall grasses. On the southern part of the island, they feed primarily on flotsam, as well as insects and maple twigs. In springtime in Sikhote Alin, they feed on acorns, Manchurian walnuts, and Korean nut pine seeds. In times of scarcity, in addition to bilberries and nuts, they feed on larvae, wood-boring ants, and lily roots. In early summer, they strip bark from white-barked fir trees and feed on the cambium and sap. They also eat berries from honeysuckle, yew, Amur grape, and buckthorn. In southern Sakhalin, their summer diet consists of currants and chokeberries. In August n the middle part of the island, fish comprise 28% of their diet.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: In Hokkaido, the brown bears' diet includes small and large mammals, fish, birds, and insects such as ants. Recent increases in size and weight, reaching , or possibly up to to , are largely caused by feeding on crops.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: On Shiretoko Peninsula, especially in the area called "Banya", many females with cubs often approach fishermen and spend time near people. This unique behavior was first noted more than a half century ago, with no casualties or accidents ever recorded. The females are thought to take cubs to approach fishermen to avoid encountering aggressive adult males.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: Ussuri brown bears are occasionally preyed on by Siberian tigers, and constitute about 1% of their diet (and up to 18.5% together with Asian black bears in very particular cases). When preying on bears, tigers regularly target young bears, but adult female Ussuri brown bears are also taken outside their dens. Siberian tigers most typically attack brown bears in the winter in the bears' hibernacula. They are typically attacked by tigers more often than the smaller black bears, due to their habit of living in more open areas and their inability to climb trees. When hunting bears, tigers position themselves from the leeward side of a rock or fallen tree, waiting for the bear to pass by. When the bear passes, the tiger springs from an overhead position and grab the bear from under the chin with one forepaw and the throat with the other. The immobilised bear is then killed with a bite to the spinal column. After killing a bear, the tiger will concentrate its feeding on the bear's fat deposits, such as the back, legs and groin. Tiger attacks on bears tend to occur when ungulate populations decrease. From 1944 to 1959, more than 32 cases of tigers attacking bears were recorded in the Russian Far East. In the same period, four cases of brown bears killing female and young tigers were reported, both in disputes over prey and in self-defense. Gepnter et al. (1972) stated bears are generally afraid of tigers and change their path after coming across tiger trails. In the winters of 1970–1973, Yudakov and Nikolaev recorded one case of brown bear showing no fear of the tigers and another case of brown bear changing path upon crossing tiger tracks. Large brown bears may actually benefit from the tiger's presence by appropriating tiger kills that the bears may not be able to successfully hunt themselves and follow. During telemetry research in the Sikhote-Alin protected area, 44 direct confrontations between the two predators were observed, in which bears were killed in 22 cases, and tigers in 12 cases.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: The Ussuri brown bear is found in the Ussuri Krai, Sakhalin, the Amur Oblast, the Shantar Islands, Iturup Island, and Kunashir Island in Siberia, northeastern China, the Korean Peninsula, and Hokkaidō in Japan. Until the 13th century, bears inhabited the islands of Rebun and Rishiri, having crossed the La Pérouse Strait to reach them. They were also present on Honshu during the last glacial period, but were possibly driven to extinction either by competing with Asian black bears or by habitat loss due to climate change. There have been several hypotheses regarding the crossing of Blakiston's Line by brown bears; there could be three genetic groups, distinct for at least 3 million years which reached to Hokkaido via Honshu at different times, or brown bears from Hokkaido reached to Honshu.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: About 500–1,500 Ussuri brown bears are present in Heilongjiang, and are classed as a vulnerable population. Illegal hunting and capture have become very serious contributing factors to the decline in bear numbers, as their body parts are of high economic value.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: Five regional subpopulations of Ussuri brown bears are now recognized in Hokkaido. Of these, the small size and isolation of the western Ishikari subpopulation has warranted its listing as an endangered species in Japan’s Red Data Book. About 90 to 152 brown bears are thought to dwell in the West Ishikari Region and from 84 to 135 in the Teshio-Mashike mountains. Their habitat has been severely limited by human activities, especially forestry practices and road construction. Excessive harvesting is also a major factor in limiting their population.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: In 2015, the Biodiversity Division of the Hokkaido government estimated the population as being as high as 10,600.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: In Russia, the Ussuri brown bear is considered a game animal, though it is not as extensively hunted as the Eurasian brown bear.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: In Korea, a few of these bears still exist only in the North, where this bear is officially recognized as a natural monument by its government. Traditionally called "ku'n gom" (big bear), whereas black bears are called "gom" (bear), the Ussuri brown bear became extinct many years ago in South Korea largely due to poaching. In North Korea, the two major areas of brown bear population include Ja Gang Province and the Ham Kyo'ng Mountains. The ones from JaGang are called "RyongLim "ku'n gom"" (RyongLim big bear) and they are listed as Natural Monument No.124 of North Korea. The others from Hamkyo'ng Mountains are called GwanMoBong Ku'n Gom (GwanMo Peak big bear) and they are listed as Natural Monument No.330 of North Korea. All big bears (Ussuri brown bears) in North Korea are mostly found around the peak areas of mountains. Their average size varies from 150 kg to 250 kg for Ryonglim bears found in the area south of Injeba'k Mountain, up to 600 kg for the ones found in the area north of Injeba'k Mountain.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: In Hokkaido during the first 57 years of the 20th century, 141 people died from bear attacks, and another 300 were injured. The , which occurred in December 1915 at Sankei in the Sankebetsu district, was the worst bear attack in Japanese history, and resulted in the deaths of seven people and the injuring of three others. The perpetrator was a and 2.7-m-tall brown bear, which twice attacked the village of Tomamae, returning to the area the night after its first attack during the prefuneral vigil for the earlier victims. The incident is frequently referred to in modern Japanese bear incidents, and is believed to be responsible for the Japanese perception of bears as man-eaters.


title: Ussuri brown bear

text: The Ainu people worship the Ussuri brown bear, eating its flesh and drinking its blood as part of a religious festival known as Iomante.


title: Plot twist

text: A plot twist is a literary technique that introduces a radical change in the direction or expected outcome of the plot in a work of fiction. When it happens near the end of a story, it is known as a twist or surprise ending. It may change the audience's perception of the preceding events, or introduce a new conflict that places it in a different context. A plot twist may be foreshadowed, to prepare the audience to accept it. There are a variety of methods used to execute a plot twist, such as withholding information from the audience or misleading it with ambiguous or false information.


title: Plot twist

text: Revealing a plot twist to readers or viewers in advance is commonly regarded as a "spoiler", since the effectiveness of a plot twist usually relies on the audience's not having expected it. Even revealing the fact that a work contains plot twists – especially at the ending – can also be controversial, as it changes the audience's expectations. However, at least one study suggests that this does not affect the enjoyment of a work.


title: Plot twist

text: An early example of the romance genre with multiple twists was the "Arabian Nights" tale "The Three Apples". It begins with a fisherman discovering a locked chest. The first twist occurs when the chest is broken open and a corpse is found inside. The initial search for the murderer fails, and a twist occurs when two men appear, separately claiming to be the murderer. A complex chain of events finally reveals the murderer to be the investigator's own slave.


title: Plot twist

text: Literary analysts have identified several common categories of plot twists, based on how they are executed.


title: Plot twist

text: "Anagnorisis", or discovery, is the protagonist's sudden recognition of his or her own or another character's true identity or nature. Through this technique, previously unforeseen character information is revealed. A notable example of anagnorisis occurs in "Oedipus Rex": Oedipus kills his father and marries his mother in ignorance, learning the truth only toward the climax of the play. The earliest use of this device as a twist ending in a murder mystery was in "The Three Apples", a medieval "Arabian Nights" tale, where the protagonist Ja'far ibn Yahya discovers by chance a key item towards the end of the story that reveals the culprit behind the murder to have been his own slave all along.


title: Plot twist

text: Flashback, or analepsis, a sudden, vivid reversion to a past event, surprises the reader with previously unknown information that solves a mystery, places a character in a different light, or reveals the reason for a previously inexplicable action. The Alfred Hitchcock film "Marnie" employed this type of surprise ending. Sometimes this is combined with the above category, as the flashback may reveal the true identity of one of the characters, or that the protagonist is related to one of the villain's past victims, as Sergio Leone did with Charles Bronson's character in "Once Upon a Time in the West" or Frederick Forsyth's "The Odessa File".


title: Plot twist

text: A cliffhanger or cliffhanger ending, is a plot device in fiction which features a main character in a precarious or difficult dilemma or confronted with a shocking revelation at the end of an episode of serialized fiction. A cliffhanger is hoped to incentivize the audience to return to see how the characters resolve the dilemma.


title: Plot twist

text: An unreliable narrator twists the ending by revealing, almost always at the end of the narrative, that the narrator has manipulated or fabricated the preceding story, thus forcing the reader to question his or her prior assumptions about the text. This motif is often used within noir fiction and films, notably in the film "The Usual Suspects". An unreliable narrator motif was employed by Agatha Christie in "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd", a novel that generated much controversy due to critics' contention that it was unfair to trick the reader in such a manipulative manner. Another example of unreliable narration is a character who has been revealed to be insane and thus causes the audience to question the previous narrative; notable examples of this are in the Terry Gilliam film "Brazil", Chuck Palahniuk's "Fight Club" (and David Fincher's film adaptation), Gene Wolfe's novel "Book of the New Sun", the second episode of "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", "Premonition", the 1920 German silent horror film "The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari", Iain Pears's "An Instance of the Fingerpost", "Shutter Island" and Kim Newman's "Life's Lottery".


title: Plot twist

text: Peripeteia is a sudden reversal of the protagonist's fortune, whether for good or ill, that emerges naturally from the character's circumstances. Unlike the "deus ex machina" device, peripeteia must be logical within the frame of the story. An example of a reversal for ill would be Agamemnon's sudden murder at the hands of his wife Clytemnestra in Aeschylus' "The Oresteia" or the inescapable situation Kate Hudson's character finds herself in at the end of "The Skeleton Key". This type of ending was a common twist ending utilised by "The Twilight Zone", most effectively in the episode "Time Enough at Last" where Burgess Meredith's character is robbed of all his hope by a simple but devastating accident with his eyeglasses. A positive reversal of fortune would be Nicholas Van Orton's suicide attempt after mistakenly believing himself to have accidentally killed his brother, only to land safely in the midst of his own birthday party, in the film "The Game".


title: Plot twist

text: "Deus ex machina" is a Latin term meaning "god from the machine." It refers to an unexpected, artificial or improbable character, device or event introduced suddenly in a work of fiction to resolve a situation or untangle a plot. In Ancient Greek theater, the "deus ex machina" ('ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός') was the character of a Greek god literally brought onto the stage via a crane (μηχανῆς—"mechanes"), after which a seemingly insoluble problem is brought to a satisfactory resolution by the god's will. The term is now used pejoratively for any improbable or unexpected contrivance by which an author resolves the complications of the plot in a play or novel, and which has not been convincingly prepared for in the preceding action; the discovery of a lost will was a favorite resort of Victorian novelists.


title: Plot twist

text: A red herring is a false clue intended to lead investigators toward an incorrect solution. This device usually appears in detective novels and mystery fiction. The red herring is a type of misdirection, a device intended to distract the protagonist, and by extension the reader, away from the correct answer or from the site of pertinent clues or action. The Indian murder mystery film "" cast many veteran actors who had usually played villainous roles in previous Indian films as red herrings in this film to deceive the audience into suspecting them. In the bestselling novel "The Da Vinci Code", the misdeeds of a key character named "Bishop Aringarosa" draw attention away from the true master villain ("Aringarosa" literally translates as "pink herring"). In the William Diehl novel "Primal Fear" (also adapted into a film), a defendant named Aaron Stampler is accused of brutally murdering the Archbishop of Chicago. He is revealed to have a dissociative identity disorder, and is not executed on plea of insanity. Near the end, Aaron's lawyer discovers that he feigned his insanity to avoid the death penalty. Agatha Christie's classic "And Then There Were None" is another famous example and includes the term as well in a murder ploy where the intended victims are made to guess that one of them will be killed through an act of treachery. The complete second timeline of the sixth season of the television series "Lost" is a red herring. Until the end it seems like a way that could happen, but in fact it takes place after they were all dead. A red herring can also be used as a form of false foreshadowing.


title: Plot twist

text: A false protagonist is a character presented at the start of the story as the main character, but then disposed of, usually killed to emphasize that they will not return. An example is the film "Executive Decision", in which the special-forces team leader, played by highly-billed action star Steven Seagal, is killed shortly after the mission begins. Another instance is "Psycho"'s Marion Crane (portrayed by Janet Leigh), who is brutally murdered about halfway through the film. The character of Casey Becker (played by then A-list actress Drew Barrymore) in "Scream" is killed in the first fifteen minutes. An example in literature is Ned Stark in "A Game of Thrones," who is killed before the end of the first book in the series, despite receiving the most focus of the ensemble of characters.


title: Plot twist

text: A non-linear narrative works by revealing plot and character in non-chronological order. This technique requires the reader to attempt to piece together the timeline in order to fully understand the story. A twist ending can occur as the result of information that is held until the climax and which places characters or events in a different perspective. Some of the earliest known uses of non-linear story telling occur in "The Odyssey", a work that is largely told in flashback via the narrator Odysseus. "The Aeneid", another epic poem, uses a similar approach; it begins with the main protagonist, Aeneas, telling stories about the end of the Trojan War and the first half of his journey to Dido, queen of Carthage. The nonlinear approach has been used in works such as the films "Mulholland Drive", "Sin City", "Premonition", "Arrival", "Pulp Fiction", "Memento", "Babel", the television shows "Lost", "How to Get Away with Murder", "How I Met Your Mother" (especially in many episodes in the later seasons), "Heroes", "Westworld", the book "Catch-22", and "WandaVision".


title: Plot twist

text: Reverse chronology works by revealing the plot in reverse order, i.e., from final event to initial event. Unlike chronological storylines, which progress through causes before reaching a final effect, reverse chronological storylines reveal the final effect before tracing the causes leading up to it; therefore, the initial cause represents a "twist ending". Examples employing this technique include the films "Irréversible", "Memento", "Happy End" and "5x2", the play "Betrayal" by Harold Pinter, and Martin Amis' "Time's Arrow". Stephen Sondheim and George Furth's "Merrily We Roll Along" and the 1934 Kaufman and Hart play that inspired it both tell the story of the main characters in reverse order.


title: German keyboard layout

text: The German keyboard layout is a QWERTZ keyboard layout commonly used in Austria and Germany. It is based on one defined in a former edition (October 1988) of the German standard DIN 2137-2. The current edition DIN 2137-1:2012-06 standardizes it as the first (basic) one of three layouts, calling it "T1" ("", "keyboard layout 1").


title: German keyboard layout

text: The characters ², ³, {, [, ], }, \, @, |, µ, ~, and € are accessed by holding the key and tapping the other key. The key on the left will not access these additional characters. Alternatively and pressing the respective key also produce the alternative characters in many environments, in order to support keyboards that only have one left key.


title: German keyboard layout

text: The accent keys , , are dead keys: press and release an accent key, then press a letter key to produce accented characters (ô, á, ù, etc.; the current DIN 2137-1:2012-06 extends this for e.g. ń, ś etc.). If the entered combination is not encoded in Unicode by a single code point (precomposed character), most current implementations cause the display of a free-standing (spacing) version of the accent followed by the unaccented base letter. For users with insufficient typing skills this behaviour (which is explicitly not compliant with the current DIN 2137-1:2012-06) leads to mistype a spacing accent instead of an apostrophe (e.g., "it´s" instead of correctly "it's").


title: German keyboard layout

text: The "T1" layout lacks some important characters like the German-style quotation marks ( and ). As a consequence, these are seldom used in internet communication and usually replaced by and .


title: German keyboard layout

text: The "T2" layout newly defined in DIN 2137-1:2012-06 was designed to overcome such restrictions, but firstly to enable typing of other languages written in the Latin script. Therefore, it contains several additional diacritical marks and punctuation characters, including the full set of German, English, and French-style quotation marks in addition to the typographic apostrophe, the prime, the double prime, and the okina.


title: German keyboard layout

text: The image shows characters to be entered using in the lower left corner of each key depiction (characters not contained in the "T1" layout are marked red). Diacritical marks are marked by a flat rectangle which also indicates the position of the diacritical mark relative to the base letter.


title: German keyboard layout

text: The characters shown at the right border of a keytop are accessed by first pressing a dead key sequence of AltGr plus the × multiplication sign. This X-like symbol may be thought of as an "extra" dead key or "extra" accent type, used to access "miscellaneous" letters that do not have a specific accent type like diaeresis or circumflex. Symbols on the right border shown in green have both upper-case and lower-case forms; the corresponding capital letter is available by pressing the Shift key simultaneously with the symbol key. For instance, to type the lower-case æ ligature, hold the AltGr key and type ×, then release both keys and type the (unshifted) A key. To type the upper-case Æ ligature, hold the AltGr key and type ×, then release both keys, hold Shift and type the (shifted) A key. An active Caps Lock can be used instead of the Shift key to obtain the Æ ligature and similar letters.


title: German keyboard layout

text: In addition, DIN 2137-1:2012-06 defines a layout "T3", which is a superset of "T2" incorporating the whole "secondary group" as defined in ISO/IEC 9995-3:2010. Thus, it enables to write several minority languages (e.g. Sami) and transliterations, but is more difficult to comprehend than the "T2" layout, and therefore not expected to be accepted by a broad audience beyond experts who need this functionality.


title: German keyboard layout

text: Contrary to many other languages, German keyboards are usually not labeled in English (in fact, DIN 2137-1:2012-06 requires either the symbol according to ISO/IEC 9995-7 or the German abbreviation is to be used, with "Esc" as an exception). The abbreviations used on German keyboards are:


title: German keyboard layout

text: On some keyboards – including the original IBM PC/AT (and later) German keyboards – the asterisk (*) key on the numeric keypad is instead labeled with the multiplication sign (×), and the divide-key is labeled with the division sign (÷) instead of slash (/). However, those keys still generate the asterisk and slash characters, not the multiplication and division signs.


title: German keyboard layout

text: The behaviour of according to former editions of the DIN 2137 standard is inherited from mechanical typewriters: Pressing it once shifts all keys including numbers and special characters until the key is pressed again. Holding while is active unshifts all keys. Both and lack any textual labels. The key is simply labeled with a large down-arrow (on newer designs pointing to an uppercase A letter) and is labeled with a large up-arrow. The current DIN 2137-1:2012-06 simply requests the presence of a "capitals lock" key (which is the name used in the ISO/IEC 9995 series), without any description of its function.


title: German keyboard layout

text: In IT, an alternative behaviour is often preferred, usually described as "IBM", which is the same as on English keyboards – only letters are shifted, and hitting again releases it.


title: German keyboard layout

text: Most Linux distributions include a keymap for German in Germany that extends the T1 layout with a set of characters and dead keys similar, but not identical to the "Outdated common secondary group" of ISO/IEC 9995-3:2002.


title: Ron Carter

text: Ronald Levin Carter (born May 4, 1937) is an American jazz double bassist. His appearances on 2,221 recording sessions make him the most-recorded jazz bassist in history. He has won three Grammy awards, and is also a cellist who has recorded numerous times on that instrument.


title: Ron Carter

text: Some of his studio albums as a leader include: "Blues Farm" (1973), "All Blues" (1973), "Spanish Blue" (1974), "Anything Goes" (1975), "Yellow & Green" (1976), "Pastels" (1976), "Piccolo" (1977), "Third Plane" (1977), "Peg Leg" (1978), "A Song for You" (1978), "Etudes" (1982), "The Golden Striker" (2003), "Dear Miles" (2006), and "Ron Carter's Great Big Band" (2011).


title: Ron Carter

text: Carter was born in Ferndale, Michigan. He started to play cello at the age of 10, and switched to bass while in high school. He earned a B.A. in music from the Eastman School of Music (1959) and a master's degree in music from the Manhattan School of Music (1961).


title: Ron Carter

text: Carter's first jobs as a jazz musician were playing bass with Chico Hamilton in 1959, followed by freelance work with Jaki Byard, Cannonball Adderley, Randy Weston, Bobby Timmons, and Thelonious Monk. One of his first recorded appearances was on Hamilton alumnus Eric Dolphy's "Out There", recorded on August 15, 1960, and featuring George Duvivier on bass, Roy Haynes on drums, and Carter on cello. The album's advanced harmonies and concepts were in step with the third stream movement. In early October 1960, Carter recorded "How Time Passes" with Don Ellis, and on June 20, 1961, he recorded "Where?", his first album as a leader, featuring Dolphy on alto sax, flute, and bass clarinet; Mal Waldron on piano; Charlie Persip on drums; and Duvivier playing basslines on tracks where Carter played cello.


title: Ron Carter

text: Carter was a member of the second Miles Davis Quintet in the mid 1960s, which also included Herbie Hancock, Wayne Shorter and drummer Tony Williams. Carter joined Davis's group in 1963, appearing on the album "Seven Steps to Heaven", and the follow-up "E.S.P.", the latter being the first album to feature only the full quintet. It also featured three of Carter's compositions (the only time he contributed compositions to Davis's group). He stayed with Davis until 1968 (when he was replaced by Dave Holland), and participated in a couple of studio sessions with Davis in 1969 and 1970. Although he played electric bass occasionally during this era of early jazz-rock fusion, he has subsequently stopped playing that instrument, and in the 2000s plays only double bass.


title: Ron Carter

text: Carter also performed on some of Hancock, Williams and Shorter's recordings during the 1960s for Blue Note. He was a sideman on many Blue Note recordings of the era, playing with Sam Rivers, Freddie Hubbard, Duke Pearson, Lee Morgan, McCoy Tyner, Andrew Hill, Horace Silver, and others. He also played on soul-pop star Roberta Flack's album "First Take".


title: Ron Carter

text: After leaving Davis, Carter was for several years a mainstay of CTI Records, making albums under his own name and also appearing on many of the label's records with a diverse range of other musicians. Notable musical partnerships in the 1970s and 1980s included Joe Henderson, Houston Person, Hank Jones, Gabor Szabo and Cedar Walton. During the 1970s he was a member of the New York Jazz Quartet. In 1986, Carter played double bass on "Big Man on Mulberry Street" on Billy Joel's album "The Bridge".


title: Ron Carter

text: In 1987, Carter won a Grammy for "an instrumental composition for the film" "Round Midnight". In 1994, he won another Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Group for a tribute album to Miles Davis. He appears on the alternative hip hop group A Tribe Called Quest's influential album "The Low End Theory" on a track called "Verses from the Abstract". He appeared as a member of the jazz combo the Classical Jazz Quartet. In 1994, Carter appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation album, "". The album, meant to raise awareness and funds in support of the AIDS epidemic in relation to the African-American community, was heralded as "Album of the Year" by "TIME". In 2001, Carter collaborated with Black Star and John Patton to record "Money Jungle" for the Red Hot Organization's compilation album, "Red Hot + Indigo", a tribute to Duke Ellington.


title: Ron Carter

text: Carter is a Distinguished Professor Emeritus of the music department of City College of New York, having taught there for 20 years, and received an honorary doctorate from the Berklee College of Music in spring 2005. He joined the faculty of the Juilliard School in New York City in 2008, teaching bass in the school's Jazz Studies program. Carter made an appearance in Robert Altman's 1996 film, "Kansas City". The end credits feature him and fellow bassist Christian McBride duetting on "Solitude".


title: Ron Carter

text: Carter sits on the advisory committee of the board of directors of The Jazz Foundation of America and on the Honorary Founder's Committee. Carter has worked with the Jazz Foundation since its inception to save the homes and the lives of America's elderly jazz and blues musicians including musicians that survived Hurricane Katrina.


title: Ron Carter

text: Carter appeared as himself in an episode of the HBO series "Treme" entitled "What Is New Orleans". His authorized biography, "Ron Carter: Finding the Right Notes", () by Dan Ouellette, was published by ArtistShare in 2008.


title: Ron Carter

text: In 2010, Carter was honored with France's premier cultural award, the medallion and title of Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. Carter was elected to the "DownBeat" Jazz Hall of Fame in 2012.