title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: On December 16, 2011 Corey Chamblin, who had been the defensive coordinator for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, was named the new head coach of the Roughriders. The Roughriders signed two of the top Canadian players available in free agency in non-import offensive linemen Brendon LaBatte and Dominic Picard. However, they were not so fortunate with all-star linebacker Jerrell Freeman, who led the league in tackles in 2011 and departed for the NFL. The Roughriders also lost outstanding Canadian slotback Andy Fantuz, who led the league in receiving yards in 2010, as he signed as a free agent with Hamilton. Nonetheless, the team qualified for the playoffs after missing out during the previous season. In 2012, Saskatchewan lost the Western Division Semi-Final game to the Calgary Stampeders in a close game, 36–30.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: On January 24, 2013, the Riders traded Justin Harper and a 4th round 2014 pick to the BC Lions for six-time all-star Geroy Simon. Simon holds the record for most career receiving yards. Simon played for the Lions from 2001 to 2012. The 2013 season started off spectacularly for the Roughriders, mainly for Darian Durant and Kory Sheets. The Roughriders went 8–1 in the first nine games and set a record for the best start in franchise history (their previous best was 7–1 during the 1970 season). Running back Kory Sheets had the best start for a running back in CFL history and Darian Durant had thrown only one interception while throwing 21 touchdowns.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: The 2013 season ended with an 11–7 record, for 2nd in the West Division, behind Calgary. The team hosted its first playoff game since 2010 on November 10, the West Semi Finals against the BC Lions. The Roughriders won the game, 29–25, the first playoff win of Corey Chamblin's CFL head coaching career and the first since 2010 for the Roughriders, when quarterback Darian Durant put the team on his shoulders and rushed for 41 yards. On Sunday, November 17, 2013, the Roughriders successfully defeated the Calgary Stampeders in the Western Finals, the score being 35–13. This allowed the Saskatchewan Roughriders to advance to the 101st Grey Cup. It was the first time in Saskatchewan Roughriders history that they were part of the Grey Cup in their own hometown. In defiance of the individual player introduction format the league had planned for the Grey Cup game, the Roughriders took to the field as a team as the Saskatchewan crowd chanted "bring 'em out," their usual home game entrance song. The Roughriders defeated the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, 45–23, with RB Kory Sheets winning the Grey Cup Most Valuable Player Award after rushing for a franchise and Grey Cup record 197 yards, to be the third consecutive team to win the championship at their home field. The following offseason was a difficult one for the Roughriders, as they lost top players Kory Sheets and Weston Dressler to the NFL and key leaders Mike McCullough, Renauld Williams and Geroy Simon to retirement. The expansion draft saw them give up Canadian players in Keith Shologan and Zach Evans.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: In February 2014, the Roughriders traded backup quarterback Drew Willy to the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. The Roughriders gave head coach Corey Chamblin an extension through 2017 after Chamblin won Coach of The Year in the CFL. 2014 training camp found starters in Anthony Allen and Brett Swain as the Roughriders went out to attempt the first repeat championship season in franchise history. They began the 2014 season with a record of 9–3, similar to that of the 2013 season start. The Roughriders defensive line led by John Chick, Ricky Foley and Terrious George led the league in sacks throughout the season, and Brian Peters led a defence poised to make a run at another championship. On September 7, 2014, Darian Durant sustained an elbow injury during the Banjo Bowl that required surgery, ultimately ending his 2014 campaign. The Roughriders then gave backup Tino Sunseri a shot at starting quarterback. With Tino Sunseri leading the team, the Roughriders went 1–4 and Seth Doege got a shot as well. The Roughriders then brought 2007 Most Outstanding Player Kerry Joseph out of retirement to help the struggling team. Joseph, alongside new running back Jerome Messam and receiver Korey Williams won one game before losing to the Edmonton Eskimos in the Western Semi Final.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: The 2015 offseason saw the Roughriders lose top defensive players in Brian Peters and Ricky Foley. Peters was signed by the Minnesota Vikings of the NFL and Foley was traded to Toronto for Canadian linebacker Shea Emry on January 24, 2015. Soon after, Weston Dressler was signed to a 4-year contract with the Roughriders and Tyron Brackenridge also signed a contract to stay in Saskatchewan. Free agency saw the Roughriders bring back Kevin Glenn as their backup quarterback. They also brought back veterans Alex Hall, Keenan MacDougall and Jamel Richardson. The 2015 CFL Draft saw them pick receiver Nic Demski from the University of Manitoba Bisons. To begin the year, the Roughriders found a linebacker, Jeff Knox Jr, in training camp and he became an immediate starter next to Shea Emry and Weldon Brown. The first game of the 2015 season was devastating, with the Roughriders losing quarterback Darian Durant once again to a season-ending injury, along with injuries to Shea Emry and Keenan MacDougall early in the season. This led to players such as Jake Doughty getting a starting gig with the team.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: With the injury to Durant, Kevin Glenn became the starting quarterback, fulfilling the purpose for which he was signed by Saskatchewan. Days later, Chris Milo was released by the Roughriders, and they brought in veteran Paul McCallum as starting kicker. McCallum first game back with the Green and White was on July 5, 2015, a 42–40 overtime loss to the Toronto Argonauts. Weeks later, the Roughriders still did not have a win in the 2015 season, raising concern on whether head coach Corey Chamblin would eventually be fired. The injury bug around Saskatchewan got worse as quarterback Kevin Glenn, receiver Chris Getzlaf, linebacker Weldon Brown, and receiver Taj Smith were lost to injury. This eventually led to rookie quarterback Brett Smith getting a shot as the starter. During the August 30, 2015 game against the Ottawa Redblacks, head coach Corey Chamblin made the decision to bench Smith in favour of Tino Sunseri following an interception, which disgusted many Roughrider fans. Following another disappointing loss to Ottawa and a record of 0–9 for the first half of the season, head coach Corey Chamblin and general manager Brendan Taman were fired on September 1, 2015. Special teams coordinator Bob Dyce was appointed interim head coach and assistant general manager Jeremy O'Day was appointed interim general manager.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: On December 7, 2015, a mere week after winning the 103rd Grey Cup with the Edmonton Eskimos as their head coach, it was announced that Chris Jones would be the new head coach, general manager and vice-president of football operations for the Saskatchewan Roughriders. Jones has won four Grey Cups rings with four teams: Montreal 2002, Calgary 2008, Toronto 2012, Edmonton 2015. On December 16, 2015, eight assistant coaches under Jones in Edmonton joined the Roughrider coaching staff. This is includes Stephen McAdoo as Offensive co-ordinator and assistant head coach, Craig Dickenson as Special teams co-ordinator, Jarious Jackson as Quarterbacks coach and passing game co-ordinator, Mike Scheper as Offensive line coach, Phillip Lolley as Linebackers coach, Jason Shivers as Defensive backs coach, Ed Philion as Defensive line coach and Craig Davoren as Running backs coach and special teams assistant.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: Jones' first major moves as head coach and general manager of the Roughriders occurred on December 15, when Jones cut 19 players from the roster including Tyron Brackenridge, Anthony Allen and Terrell Maze. On January 14, 2016, Jones continued the rebuild by cutting fan favourites and long-time Roughriders John Chick and Weston Dressler. Chick went on to sign with the Hamilton Tiger Cats, while Dressler went on to sign with rival Winnipeg Blue Bombers. However, the Roughriders suddenly signed defensive end Shawn Lemon to replace Chick soon after. Later that month, the Roughriders re-signed longtime receiver Rob Bagg. Jones departed after the 2018 season, being succeeded by Craig Dickenson on January 25, 2019.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: The Green Riders clinched their first first-place West Division finish since 2009 with a 13–5 record, in Craig Dickenson's first year at the coaching helm. However, the team lost in a hard-fought heartbreaker in the West Final game over the arch-rival (and eventual Grey Cup champion) Blue Bombers, 20–13. After a year-long hiatus, the Riders returned to the playoffs in 2021, finishing in second place at 9–5 in the shortened season, defeating the Calgary Stampeders in the West Semi-Final, but losing to the Winnipeg Blue Bombers again (who would win their second straight Grey Cup championship) in the West Final for the second straight season. In 2022, the Riders missed the playoffs for the first time in six years, posting a 6–12 mark, good for fourth place in the West.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: In 2009, the team was described as having the largest fan base in the CFL. The team is third behind the Montreal Canadiens and Toronto Maple Leafs for merchandise sales of Canadian sports teams, and in 2009 the team played in 5 of the 6 most viewed games on television as well as breaking a ratings record for the West Final against the Calgary Stampeders and a Grey Cup ratings record of 43% of the national population against the Montreal Alouettes. According to a survey (July 2015), the Riders were considered the third strongest sports Brand in Canada. The Riders typically bring an upsurge in attendance at all or most of their various away venues, drawing crowds of their own fans. The province of Saskatchewan went through tough economic times during the 1980s and 1990s and as a result thousands of Rider fans left the province for work, particularly to Alberta. In Edmonton and especially Calgary, Rider fans make up to half the crowd, and many violent clashes have resulted in recent years between Roughrider and Stampeder fans. The Riders have led road attendance in the CFL every year during the 2000s decade, and local support has skyrocketed in recent years due to the on-field success of the club, including the first sold-out season in 2008. The Roughriders attendance record came in 1995 in a win over the Calgary Stampeders as 55,438 (more than 25% of Regina's population) fans watched on. This crowd was attainable that year because of the increased capacity of Taylor Field in preparation of hosting the Grey Cup. Rider fans are also known for dressing up in unique and often bizarre Rider-themed costumes, the most popular being the watermelon helmet. The Roughriders have a unique fan-base that are passionate and engaging. They are the only CFL football team with a fan-based analytic website, dedicated to fan-based opinion and perception. Beginning with the 2011 season, Insightrix Research Inc. has conducted a poll after each Roughrider game, surveying a random selection of fans from the SaskWatch Research online community. Each week, fans weigh in on the Riders’ game performance and predictions for the rest of the season. These predictions are compared against other Regions in Saskatchewan, titled "Battle of the Regions."


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: Section 28 (formerly known as the University Section) was a notorious section in the East Side bleachers at Taylor Field. They were known for their strict allegiance to the Riders, standing through the entire game, and often being merciless to opposing fans who sit in the section and cheer for the road team. The University Section got its nickname from the section's main purpose in the 1980s and 1990s and was a discount section offered to university students in Saskatchewan. The section later ceased to be a university section but remained a section with a rowdy reputation until Taylor Field's closure in 2016.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: The official Rider songs are played regularly at the stadium, and include "Rider Pride", and "Paint the Whole World Green." Among several 'borrowed songs' is the team's touchdown song and victory march, "Green Is the Colour" (adapted from the original "Blue Is the Colour" written by D. Boone and R. McQueen for the Chelsea Football Club) and "On Roughriders" (adapted from "On Wisconsin", the fight song for the Wisconsin Badgers). In addition, during every fourth quarter intermission, the P.A. system plays the cult hit "The Last Saskatchewan Pirate" by The Arrogant Worms, and the Riders Cheer Team leads the crowd in a fourth quarter stretch. There are many other songs that have been created over the years to tribute the team as well. Many of these songs have proved so popular in Western Canada that they have become popular culture phenomena. The music selection at Mosaic Stadium mostly consists of mainstream popular music.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: "Green Is the Colour" is played after every rider touchdown, followed by Gainer the Gopher being driven around the stadium's track and giving high fives to those in the first row.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: The current official Rider mascot is Gainer the Gopher, who made his first appearance in 1977, and was updated in 2019. "Gainer" is an anagram of "Regina", and the gopher, or more precisely Richardson's ground squirrel, is a common animal on the Canadian Prairies.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: Roughriders radio broadcasts are broadcast throughout the province via "The Co-operators Roughrider Football Network", fronted by flagship station CKRM in Regina. Affiliates include CFWD-FM in Saskatoon, CJGX in Yorkton, CKBI in Prince Albert, CJNB in North Battleford and CJNS-FM in Meadow Lake. Additionally, CKRM's 10,000-watt signal brings Rider games to much of the province during the day.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: Notable broadcasters for the Roughriders include Dave Dryburgh from 1940 to 1947, and John Badham from 1959 to 1969, on CKCK-AM. Rod Peterson was the Roughriders' voice on CKRM from 1999 to 2019. He was replaced in 2019 by former TSN anchor Derek Taylor. Prior to the 2022 season, Taylor moved to the Blue Bombers to replace the retiring Bob Irving. For the 2022 season, Michael "Ballsy" Ball—who hosted CKRM's pre-game and post-game shows, was play-by-play announcer for the Regina Rams, and co-hosted sister station CFWF-FM's morning show—became the new voice of the Roughriders.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: The Roughriders are one of only a few publicly owned professional sports companies in North America, complete with a board of directors. Prior to 2004, the club operated as a corporation without share capital (no person or entity "owned" the team or any portion of it); the Winnipeg Blue Bombers continue to use this organizational structure as of 2021.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: Since 2004, the Roughriders' current public ownership model is similar to the NFL's Green Bay Packers, where a limited number of shares have been sold to the public. Ownership shares of the Roughriders are divided into two types: Class A shares (which have voting rights) and Class B shares (which have no voting rights). Both types of shares may be purchased but the majority of shares sold by the team are Class A shares; as of March 2019, the Roughriders had issued 11,639 Class A shares and 435 Class B shares, though the total number of individual owners is not publicly disclosed.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: It is not possible to resell these shares, no dividend payment is possible and no person may hold more than 20 voting (Class A) shares, though they may hold an unlimited number of non-voting shares. The initial public offering of Rider Shares (Series I) commenced in 2004 at an offering price of $250 per share In 2006 the "Ottawa Sun" reported that the Roughriders had sold around 3,000 at $250 each. The Series 1 offering closed in 2008 after all 6,000 shares were sold. A second public offering, Series II, was launched in 2010 in honour of the team's 100th anniversary. As of 2016, the Roughriders had released and subsequently sold out 1,989 shares of Series III at $250 each. this Series "commemorates the 1989 Grey Cup championship victory" and "features the likenesses of Kent Austin, Bobby Jurasin and Don Narcisse with an illustration of the championship winning kick in the background." Series IV shares began sale in 2017, with the price remaining consistent at $250.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: Becket, DeMarco, Syrnyk, and Sturtridge's numbers were retired posthumously after their deaths in the Trans-Canada Air Lines Flight 810 plane crash on December 9, 1956.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: As of 2016, 38 members of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame have played or worked for the Saskatchewan Roughriders.


title: Saskatchewan Roughriders

text: "*" From 2000 to 2002, the CFL awarded a single point to teams losing in overtime. The Riders had two such losses during the 2002 season.


title: Fabry disease

text: Fabry disease, also known as Anderson–Fabry disease, is a rare genetic disease that can affect many parts of the body, including the kidneys, heart, and skin. Fabry disease is one of a group of conditions known as lysosomal storage diseases. The genetic mutation that causes Fabry disease interferes with the function of an enzyme that processes biomolecules known as sphingolipids, leading to these substances building up in the walls of blood vessels and other organs. It is inherited in an X-linked manner.


title: Fabry disease

text: Fabry disease is sometimes diagnosed using a blood test that measures the activity of the affected enzyme called alpha-galactosidase, but genetic testing is also sometimes used, particularly in females.


title: Fabry disease

text: The treatment for Fabry disease varies depending on the organs affected by the condition, and the underlying cause can be addressed by replacing the enzyme that is lacking.


title: Fabry disease

text: The first descriptions of the condition were made simultaneously by dermatologist Johannes Fabry and the surgeon William Anderson in 1898.


title: Fabry disease

text: Symptoms are typically first experienced in early childhood and can be very difficult to diagnose; the rarity of Fabry disease to many clinicians sometimes leads to misdiagnoses. Manifestations of the disease usually increase in number and severity as an individual ages.


title: Fabry disease

text: Full-body or localized pain to the extremities (known as acroparesthesia) or gastrointestinal (GI) tract is common in patients with Fabry disease. This pain can increase over time. This acroparesthesia is believed to be related to the damage of peripheral nerve fibers that transmit pain. GI-tract pain is likely caused by accumulation of lipids in the small vasculature of the GI tract, which obstructs blood flow and causes pain.


title: Fabry disease

text: Kidney complications are common and serious effects of the disease; chronic kidney disease and kidney failure may worsen throughout life. The presence of protein in the urine (which causes foamy urine) is often the first sign of kidney involvement. End-stage kidney failure in those with Fabry disease typically occurs in the third decade of life, and is a common cause of death due to the disease.


title: Fabry disease

text: Fabry disease can affect the heart in several ways. The accumulation of sphingolipids within heart muscle cells causes abnormal thickening of the heart muscle or hypertrophy. This hypertrophy can cause the heart muscle to become abnormally stiff and unable to relax, leading to a restrictive cardiomyopathy causing shortness of breath.


title: Fabry disease

text: Fabry disease can also affect the way in which the heart conducts electrical impulses, leading to both abnormally slow heart rhythms such as complete heart block, and abnormally rapid heart rhythms such as ventricular tachycardia. These abnormal heart rhythms can cause blackouts, palpitations, or even sudden cardiac death.


title: Fabry disease

text: Sphingolipids can also build up within the heart valves, thickening the valves and affecting the way they open and close. If severe, this can cause the valves to leak (regurgitation) or to restrict the forward flow of blood (stenosis). The aortic and mitral valves are more commonly affected than the valves on the right side of the heart.


title: Fabry disease

text: Angiokeratomas (tiny, painless papules that can appear on any region of the body, but are predominant on the thighs, around the navel, buttocks, lower abdomen, and groin) are common.


title: Fabry disease

text: Anhidrosis (lack of sweating) is a common symptom, and less commonly hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating).


title: Fabry disease

text: Additionally, patients can exhibit Raynaud's disease-like symptoms with neuropathy (in particular, burning extremity pain).


title: Fabry disease

text: Ocular involvement may be present showing cornea verticillata (also known as vortex keratopathy), i.e. clouding of the corneas. Keratopathy may be the presenting feature in asymptomatic patients, and must be differentiated from other causes of vortex keratopathy (e.g. drug deposition in the cornea). This clouding does not affect vision.


title: Fabry disease

text: Other ocular findings can include conjunctival and retinal vascular abnormalities and anterior/posterior spoke-like cataract. Visual reduction from these manifestations is uncommon.


title: Fabry disease

text: Fatigue, neuropathy (in particular, burning extremity pain, red hands and feet on and off), cerebrovascular effects leading to an increased risk of stroke - early strokes, mostly vertebrobasilar system tinnitus (ringing in the ears), vertigo, nausea, inability to gain weight, chemical imbalances, and diarrhea are other common symptoms.


title: Fabry disease

text: Fabry disease is caused by a DNA sequence (gene) that is not functioning as it should. A person who inherits this gene does not have enough of a functioning enzyme known as alpha-galactosidase A. The lack of alpha-galactosidase leads to Fabry disease. A deficiency of alpha galactosidase A (a-GAL A, encoded by "GLA") due to mutation causes a glycolipid known as globotriaosylceramide (abbreviated as Gb3, GL-3, or ceramide trihexoside) to accumulate within the blood vessels, other tissues, and organs. This accumulation leads to an impairment of their proper functions.


title: Fabry disease

text: At least 443 disease-causing mutations in the GLA gene have been discovered. The DNA mutations that cause the disease are X-linked recessive with incomplete penetrance in heterozygous females. The condition affects hemizygous males (i.e. all non-intersex males), as well as homozygous, and in many cases heterozygous females. While males typically experience severe symptoms, women can range from being asymptomatic to having severe symptoms. Research suggests many women experience severe symptoms ranging from early cataracts or strokes to hypertrophic left ventricular heart problems and kidney failure. This variability is thought to be due to X-inactivation patterns during embryonic development of the female.


title: Fabry disease

text: Fabry disease is an inherited lysosomal storage disorder that is caused by a deficiency of alpha-galactosidase A. This enzyme deficiency is a result of an accumulation of glycosphingolipids found in the lysosomes and most cell types and tissues, which leads it to be considered a multisystem disease. Indications include painful crisis, angiokeratomas, corneal dystrophy, and hypohydrosis. In severe cases there is renal, cerebrovascular, and cardiac involvement and it is predominately responsible for premature mortality in Fabry patients. Fabry disease is X-linked and manifests mostly in homozygous males but also in heterozygous females. Cardiac involvement is recurrent in Fabry patients. Patients have developed hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, arrhythmias, conduction abnormalities, and valvular abnormalities. Deficient activity of lysosomal alpha-galactosidase results in progressive accumulation of globotriaosylceramide (GL-3) within lysosomes, that is believed to trigger a cascade of cellular events. The demonstration of marked alpha-galactosidase deficiency is the conclusive method for the diagnosis in homozygous males. It may be detected in heterozygotous females, but it is often inconclusive due to random X-chromosomal inactivation, so molecular testing (genotyping) of females is mandatory.


title: Fabry disease

text: Fabry disease is suspected based on the individual's clinical presentation, and can be diagnosed by an enzyme assay (usually done on leukocytes) to measure the level of alpha-galactosidase activity. An enzyme assay is not reliable for the diagnosis of disease in females due to the random nature of X-inactivation. Molecular genetic analysis of the "GLA" gene is the most accurate method of diagnosis in females, particularly if the mutations have already been identified in male family members. Many disease-causing mutations have been noted. Kidney biopsy may also be suggestive of Fabry disease if excessive lipid buildup is noted. Pediatricians, as well as internists, commonly misdiagnose Fabry disease. All immediate and extended family members in the same family have the same family mutation, so if one member of a family has a DNA sequence analysis performed, other members of the family can be diagnosed by performing a targeted sequence analysis instead of testing the entire gene. Targeted sequencing is quicker and less expensive to perform. One study reported that for every first diagnosis in a family, on average five more family members (immediate and extended) are also diagnosed.


title: Fabry disease

text: MRI is accurate in accessing left ventricular mass and thickness and hypertrophy. Late gadolinium enhancement shows increased signal of the midwall at the inferolateral wall of the base of the left ventricle, usually in the non-hypertrophic ventricle. T1-weighted imaging can show low T1 signal due to sphingolipid storage in the heart even without ventricular hypertrophy in 40% of the those affected by the disease. Thus, MRI is a useful way of diagnosing the disease early. T2 signal is increased in inflammation and oedema.


title: Fabry disease

text: The treatments available for Fabry disease can be divided into therapies that aim to correct the underlying problem of decreased activity of the alpha galactosidase A enzyme and thereby reduce the risk of organ damage, and therapies to improve symptoms and life expectancy once organ damage has already occurred.


title: Fabry disease

text: Pain associated with Fabry disease may be partially alleviated by enzyme replacement therapy in some patients, but pain management regimens may also include analgesics, anticonvulsants, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, though the latter are usually best avoided in kidney disease. The kidney failure seen in some of those with Fabry disease sometimes requires haemodialysis. The cardiac complications of Fabry disease include abnormal heart rhythms, which may require a pacemaker or implantable cardioverter-defibrillator, while the restrictive cardiomyopathy often seen may require diuretics.


title: Fabry disease

text: Life expectancy with Fabry disease for males was 58.2 years, compared with 74.7 years in the general population, and for females 75.4 years compared with 80.0 years in the general population, according to registry data from 2001 to 2008. The most common cause of death was cardiovascular disease, and most of those had received kidney replacements.


title: Fabry disease

text: Fabry disease is panethnic, but due to its rarity, determining an accurate disease frequency is difficult. Reported incidences, ranging from one in 476,000 to one in 117,000 in the general population, may largely underestimate the true prevalence. Newborn screening initiatives have found an unexpectedly high prevalence of the disease, as high as one in about 3,100 newborns in Italy and have identified a surprisingly high frequency of newborn males around one in 1,500 in Taiwan.


title: Fabry disease

text: Fabry disease was first described by dermatologist Johannes Fabry and surgeon William Anderson independently in 1898. It was recognised to be due to abnormal storage of lipids in 1952. In the 1960s, the inheritance pattern was established as being X-linked, as well as the molecular defect responsible for causing the accumulation of glycolipids.


title: Fabry disease

text: Ken Hashimoto published his classic paper on his electron microscopic findings in Fabry disease in 1965.


title: Currys

text: Currys (branded as Currys PC World between 2010 and 2021) is an electrical retailer and aftercare service provider operating in the United Kingdom and Ireland, specialising in white goods, consumer electronics, computers and mobile phones.


title: Currys

text: Established as a bicycle retailer in 1927, Currys expanded the range of goods sold and from the 1960s became a major retailer of household electrical items. In 1984 the company was bought by rival retailer Dixons, and the Currys brand was used for all outlets of the combined company. From 2008, the business turned away from shops in town centres to larger out-of-town stores under the Currys PC World brand, combining the operations of Currys with Dixon's PC World under one roof; after the formation of Dixons Carphone in 2014, the stores gained Carphone Warehouse departments. It was announced in July 2021 that all Currys PC World stores would be rebranded to Currys.


title: Currys

text: Henry Curry started to make bicycles in Leicester in 1884. Currys was incorporated as a business in 1927 when his four sons merged The Louth Bicycle Company, and the loose confederation of shops which the sons had run since their father's retirement in 1909, with the Nottingham-based Campion Cycle Company.


title: Currys

text: By the 1940s, the shops sold a wide variety of goods including bicycles, toys, radios and gramophones.


title: Currys

text: Meanwhile, particularly under the directorship between 1967 and 1984 of Dennis Curry, grandson of Henry Curry, the company underwent considerable expansion to become a major high street supplier of televisions and white goods (refrigerators, washing machines and other domestic appliances); by 1984 Currys Group plc had 570 shops, twice as many as the company which was then to acquire it.


title: Currys

text: In 1984, Currys was taken over by Dixons (another electrical products retail chain, now Currys Plc) but maintained its separate brand identity. In April 2006, Dixons Stores Group announced that its Dixons shops, except in Ireland and in duty-free areas in airports, would be rebranded as Currys.digital (later changed to Currys Digital). In Ireland, the Dixons shops in Ireland were rebranded as Currys in August 2008.


title: Currys

text: Before the Dixons rebranding, the chain had only a few small town centre shops compared with its much greater number of large out-of-town megastores. On 17 January 2007, group chief executive John Clare announced that when the leases on the remaining 'Currys High Street' shops (not the rebranded Currys.digital shops) expired, it would be unlikely that they would be renewed: thus the shops would be closed at the earliest opportunity.


title: Currys

text: Dixons Retail began a trial combining Currys and PC World shops in 2008. During the Dixons Carphone Christmas 2015–2016 results update to shareholders, Sebastian James, group chief executive, revealed that over the following financial year the three-in-one shop format (shops featuring Currys, PC World and Carphone Warehouse branding under one roof) would be rolled out across the company's entire portfolio in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.


title: Currys

text: Following reorganisations in 2020 and 2021, Dixons Carphone announced that the Currys PC World stores would be rebranded to Currys in October 2021.


title: Roomba

text: Roomba is a series of autonomous robotic vacuum cleaners made by the company iRobot. Introduced in September 2002, they have a set of sensors that enable them to navigate the floor area of a home. These sensors can detect the presence of obstacles, particularly dirty spots on the floor, and steep drops (e.g., to avoid falling down stairs).


title: Roomba

text: As of 2022, iRobot markets models of their 600, i, j, Combo and s9 series, while continuing to provide support and sell accessories for their previous series. Various models have different features, including tangle-free brushes, separate sweep canisters, more powerful vacuums, obstacle avoidance, and performance maps displayed via smartphone apps. Newer high-end models also have a camera, which works in conjunction with onboard mapping and navigation software to systematically cover all floor area, move from room to room, avoid obstacles such as pet waste and charging cables, and find recharging bases and beacons.


title: Roomba

text: Roombas allow some customizability and reprogramming. Parts of some models are interchangeable, allowing owners to mix and match features, or switch to other units for longer battery operation. Additionally, some units can be adapted to perform more creative tasks using an embedded computer in conjunction with the Roomba Open Interface.


title: Roomba

text: Most Roomba models are of a disk shape, measuring in diameter and high depending on the model. The S9 and S9+ robots are D-shaped rather than circular, with the flat part of the D at the front, and are narrower at wide. A large contact-sensing mechanical bumper is mounted on the front half of all models, with an omnidirectional infrared sensor at its top front center. Most models also have a recessed handle on top.


title: Roomba

text: First- and second-generation Roombas were not compatible with the Virtual Wall, an accessory used to prevent them from entering an area. It projects a pattern of infrared light, which the vacuum detects and treats as a physical wall, prompting it to stop and turn around. Third-generation and newer models are compatible with the Dual Mode Virtual Wall, which, in addition to simulating a straight wall, can create a circular barrier roughly in diameter. Some 500-, 700- and 800-series models are compatible with the Virtual Wall Lighthouse. It initially confines the vacuum to one area to be cleaned; then, once the vacuum reports the area has been sufficiently cleaned (based on its estimated area), it directs it to proceed to the next space to be cleaned, and contains it there.


title: Roomba

text: All Roomba models can be operated by pressing the "Clean" button on the top while the Roomba is on the charging base, causing it to reverse off of the base and begin cleaning; or by manually carrying the Roomba to the room to be cleaned and pressing the button. Later models introduced several additional operating modes, such as "Spot", which cleans an area of a few feet, and "Max", which cleans endlessly until the battery is depleted, this mode was only available on older Roombas. "Dock" mode, introduced with the third generation, instructs the Roomba to seek a charging base for recharging. The availability of the modes varies by model. Many second- and third-generation Roombas come packaged with infrared remote controls or special control panels, allowing a human operator to "drive" the Roomba to areas to be specially cleaned.


title: Roomba

text: Roombas are driven by two independently-operating side wheels, which can drive the Roomba forwards and backwards as well as perform turns of any radius, including 360° turns in place. Rotary encoders on the wheels can detect the rate at which the wheels are spinning so it can determine if they're slipping or stuck, and drop sensors detect if a wheel is too low (such as getting stuck in a vent). An undriven swivel caster (located at the front of most models, and at the back of the D-shaped S series) is used not for steering, as is often believed, but as an additional sensor. It too is a rotary encoder; the caster's wheel is half black and half white, and optical sensors detect the change in color as it rotates. This helps detect if the Roomba is stuck or beached (i.e., the drive wheels are spinning but the Roomba isn't moving).


title: Roomba

text: The cleaning head (brushes and suction area) on Roombas is relatively small. On most models, it is between the two side wheels, and is around wide; on the S series, it is moved to the flat square part of the D shape near the front where it is wider, but still does not extend the full width of the vehicle. To compensate for this, Roombas have a rotating multi-pronged brush on one side which sweeps debris towards the path of the cleaning head, helping to clean a wider path and to reach into edges and corners.


title: Roomba

text: Roombas before the seventh-generation models do not map out the rooms they are cleaning. Instead, iRobot developed a technology called iAdapt Responsive Cleaning Technology. This relies on a few simple algorithms, such as spiraling, room crossing, wall following, and random walk angle changing after bumping into an object or wall. This design is based on MIT researcher and iRobot CTO Rodney Brooks's philosophy that robots should be like insects, equipped with simple control mechanisms tuned to their environments. The result is that although Roombas are effective at cleaning rooms, they take several times longer to do the job than a human would. The Roomba may cover some areas many times, other areas only once or twice, and may miss some areas. However, the random algorithm has been shown to effectively cover rooms of various sizes and configurations, particularly when used repeatedly for maintenance cleaning. (Some users have used long-exposure photography or compositing to create images showing Roombas' coverage of the floor, and have even attached light sources to Roombas to create art using light painting. Some have also noted that doubts about the effectiveness of the random algorithms have been assuaged by multiple reports of Roombas rolling over dog feces and spreading it through the room, which rather unpleasantly illustrate how well the Roomba can cover the floor's area.) Roombas have become a common example of how randomized algorithms can probabilistically succeed even though they cannot absolutely guarantee success on any single run or even after many repeated runs. Compared to competing products available when Roombas were first introduced such as the Electrolux Trilobite, the effectiveness of Roombas' random navigation was on par with (or even more effective than) robotic mapping technology available at the time, and being cheaper to develop and produce, could be offered at a significantly lower price.


title: Roomba

text: Starting with the seventh generation, Roombas have an upwards-facing camera and a downward facing infrared floor-tracking sensor which are used to create a map of the floor. This enables them to use a more efficient back-and-forth cleaning pattern, which is faster and more efficient as it ensures more complete coverage without needing to cover an area multiple times. The floor-tracking sensor operates like an optical mouse and can provide precise movement data over small distances, but suffers from integration drift: small errors in measurement which accumulate over time. To rectify this, the upwards-facing camera is used periodically to identify waypoints or "landmarks", coarse points that are used to correct the Roombas' position and map. Some algorithms such as wall following are still used, partly to assist in mapping the floor and also simply to make sure the floor is cleaned along the edge and around obstacles. Unlike other mapping systems like lidar which can operate in complete darkness, Roombas' camera requires some light in the room in order to be able to map it. Starting with the eighth generation, Roombas retain the map after each run, and use subsequent runs to improve the map. Multiple maps can be stored, and users can edit maps to separate and label regions (such as rooms), which can be used to have the Roomba clean only a selected room.


title: Roomba

text: The Roombas' bumper allows them to sense when they have bumped into an obstacle, after which they will reverse or change paths. Infrared "cliff sensors" on the bottom of Roombas similarly prevent them from falling off ledges such as stairways. (These may also trigger a false positive on dark or black colored surfaces such as some carpets, preventing Roombas from entering or being able to clean those areas.) Third-generation and newer models have additional forward-looking infrared sensors to detect obstacles. These slow down the Roomba when nearing obstacles, to reduce its force of impact. It's also used to clean alongside walls without bumping into the wall repeatedly. This technology is also able to distinguish between hard and soft obstacles.


title: Roomba

text: Most second- and third-generation models and all newer ones have internal acoustic-based dirt sensors that allow them to detect particularly dirty spots and focus on those areas accordingly. Fourth-generation and newer models have an optical sensor located in front of the vacuum bin, allowing detection of wider and smaller messes.


title: Roomba

text: The cleaning time depends on room size and, for models equipped with dirt sensors, volume of dirt. First-generation models must be told the room size, while subsequent models either estimate room size by measuring the longest straight-line run they can perform without bumping into an object or create an accurate map of the room. When finished cleaning, or when the battery is nearly depleted, Roombas except for first-generation models will try to return to a base if one is detected. Roombas with mapping capability can also recharge and resume a cleaning job, enabling them to clean large areas that take more than one full battery of charge to complete. Roombas except for first-generation models also support scheduling, allowing cleaning to start at the time of day and on days of the week that the owner desires. Most 500-series models support scheduling through buttons on the unit itself, and higher-end models allow the use of a remote control, smartphone app, or smarthome automation integration to program schedules.


title: Roomba

text: Roombas are not designed for deep-pile carpet. Also, the first- and second-generation Roombas can get stuck on rug tassels and electrical cords. Third-generation and newer models are able to reverse their brushes to escape entangled cords and tassels. All models are designed to be low enough to go under a bed or most other items of furniture. If at any time the unit senses that it has become stuck, no longer senses the floor beneath it, or decides that it has worked its way into a narrow area from which it is unable to escape, it stops and sounds an error to help someone find it. Early models use only flashing lights to indicate specific problems, while later models use a synthesized voice to announce a problem and a suggested solution. The voice is available in several languages.


title: Roomba

text: Roombas require regular cleaning and maintenance. Because they are smaller and less powerful than large upright vacuums, the dustbin must be emptied frequently (sometimes as often as every single use), and hair and other obstructions must be removed from rollers and brushes more frequently. Some reviewers have complained about this necessity compared to traditional upright vacuums that only need infrequent cleaning and almost no maintenance; however others have countered that the chore is not difficult, and that it takes significantly less time to clean a Roomba than it does to vacuum by hand.


title: Roomba

text: iRobot has been praised for the availability of replacement parts for Roombas, with official parts still being sold for every model including the first-generation Roombas, almost 20 years after their release.


title: Roomba

text: Roombas are powered by a user-replaceable rechargeable battery; older models used NiMH batteries, while newer models use lithium-ion batteries, and a few models support both. First-generation models must be recharged from a wall power adapter, while all subsequent models have a self-charging homebase that the unit seeks out at the end of a cleaning session via infrared beacons. Charging takes about three hours.


title: Roomba

text: As opposed to hacking and extending Roomba, non Desktop users can use the iRobot HOME App, although only certain models support 5 GHz.


title: Roomba

text: Battery reliability is a frequently mentioned complaint on customer review websites. Battery replacements from iRobot cost a significant fraction of the purchase price of a new Roomba, though compatible third-party batteries are available at a lower price. The iRobot customer support website offers advice on maximizing battery performance and longevity.


title: Roomba

text: there have been nine generations of Roomba units. All models have a patented design using pair of brushes or rollers, rotating in opposite directions, to pick up debris from the floor. In some models, the brushes are followed by a squeegee vacuum, which directs the airflow through a narrow slit to increase its speed in order to collect fine dust. A horizontally mounted "side spinner" brush on the right side of the unit sweeps against walls to reach debris not accessible by the main brushes and vacuum. In the first generation, the dirty air passes through the fan before reaching the filter, while later models use a fan-bypass vacuum.


title: Roomba

text: The early generation models were noted for using a random algorithm for achieving a total room coverage.


title: Roomba

text: A small vacuum empties into a removable dustbin, which has rotation brushes to aid collection. The robot is propelled by two knobby rubber wheels at the edges. It has several sensors including a bumper that detects collision and an infrared sensor on top to respond to a "virtual wall". The robot is powered by a rechargeable battery contained in the unit.


title: Roomba

text: Introduced in September 2002, the first-generation Roomba had three buttons for room size. The first-generation units comprised the original silver-colored Roomba, the blue Roomba Pro, and the maroon Roomba Pro Elite. The later two models included additional accessories, but all three used the same core robot and cleaning system.


title: Roomba

text: An original roomba model robotic vacuum is in the collection of the National Museum of American History, which they note as the first successful domestic robot. The robot vacuum is described as being able to change direction when it encounters an obstacle or infrared beam, and is powered by a battery.


title: Roomba

text: The second-generation Roombas ("Discovery", later called 400 series) replaced their predecessors in July 2004, added a larger dust bin, improved software that calculates room size, dirt detection, and fast charging in the home base. Room size is detected automatically based on the longest straight-line path that can be driven; instead of buttons for room size, their buttons are "Clean", "Spot", and "Max".


title: Roomba

text: Roomba budget models (Dirt Dog and Model 401) used a simplified interface (a single "Clean" button) and lacked some of the software-controlled flexibility of other versions. They were less expensive models intended for first-time purchasers. The Roomba Dirt Dog contained sweeping brushes and a larger dust bin, but lacked the vacuum motor, using the space that would be required for the vacuum for additional dust bin volume. It was designed for a home shop or garage environment. The Roomba Model 401 was similar but had a standard-size dust bin and vacuum system. The Dirt Dog was discontinued in 2010.


title: Roomba

text: The 500 series was introduced in August 2007 and featured a forward-looking infrared sensor to detect obstacles and reduce speed, a docking command button, improved mechanical components, smoother operation, and a modular design to facilitate part replacement. The Roombas' speed is also increased, which is possible in part because of the sensors to avoid bumping into obstacles too hard. It also introduced customizable decorative face plates. The Roomba 530 included two virtual walls and a recharging dock.


title: Roomba

text: There are several types of dust and debris collection bins for the 500 series models. The standard vacuum bin incorporates a squeegee vacuum. The high-capacity sweeper bin does not include a vacuum, but has greater debris capacity. The AeroVac Bin directs suction airflow through the main brushes instead of using a squeegee, which is thought to keep the brushes cleaner.


title: Roomba

text: In August 2012, the 500 series was superseded by the 600 series, which added the AeroVac Bin and advanced cleaning head as standard features. In 2017 they released the 690, which has Wi-Fi connectivity so it can be started with an app and some personal-assistant software.


title: Roomba

text: The 700 series, introduced in May 2011, though largely similar to the 500 and 600 series, included a more robust cleaning system, improved AeroVac Bin with HEPA filter, and improved battery life. Like the 500 series, the 700 series had models with different technologies and accessories. The Roomba 760 was the simplest model, and the Roombas 780 and 790 were the most advanced with both scheduling and a large range of accessories including lighthouses, wireless command center (also compatible with select retrofitted 500-series models), and extra brushes and filters. Besides these two models, Roomba 770 and 782e were available, with scheduling, Dirt Detect, and full bin indicator.


title: Roomba

text: The 800 series, introduced in 2013, is similar to the 700 series and its predecessors, but contains updated technology. The AeroForce Performance Cleaning System, which is five times more powerful than older series, and the iRobot XLife battery are some of the new features. The AeroForce system does away with the large rotating brush, and pulls air between two rubber rollers, thereby getting the vacuum suction closer to the floor. In 2017 iRobot released the 890 with Wi-Fi connectivity that can be started with an app and various personal-assistant software.


title: Roomba

text: The Roomba 980 was released in September 2015, and contains a new visual simultaneous localization and mapping (vSLAM) navigation system, which allows it to clean an entire level of a home more efficiently. The 980 also features Wi-Fi connectivity and an iPhone and Android app. The Roomba 960 was released on August 4, 2016. As of March 29, 2017, 900 series users can receive detailed cleaning maps of their Roomba through the app. The maps show exact areas of clean and dirty spots in the home, allowing the Roomba to know where it needs to spend more time cleaning. However, the maps are not retained between cleaning runs, and each time the Roomba is run it builds a new map from scratch. Push notifications of when the Roomba is finished cleaning is also a new feature. Integration to Amazon's Echo was also announced, launching in spring 2017.


title: Roomba

text: In September 2018, iRobot introduced a new Roomba series with three models: the premium i7, the less expensive i3, and the more basic e5. Each of these models also having a "plus" version that featured an automatic dirt disposing station which could be emptied. Similarly to the 900 series, the i7 uses vSLAM navigation. This feature retains the map after the Roomba has run, and uses subsequent runs to improve the map. This lets users select which room for Roomba to clean from the iRobot Home app. In September 2020, iRobot released the i3, which is a lower cost robot similar to the i7. The i3 does not use vSLAM navigation but relies on a downward optical encoder and gyroscopes; in addition it does not allow selecting specific rooms. The i7 and i3 are compatible with the Clean Base, a base that empties the Roomba's bin into the Clean Base's internal disposable bag when it docks using a powerful vacuum. iRobot claims that the base can empty the Roomba's bin up to 30 cleaning cycles. The + in some models indicates that it includes the Clean Base. The basic e5 Roomba replaces the 800 series with an improved battery life from 60 to 90 minutes of run time on hardwood floors using a lithium-ion battery. It navigates in random patterns similar to the 6th generation and older robots.


title: Roomba

text: In late May 2019, iRobot introduced the Roomba s9 and s9+ as the "smartest, most powerful robot vacuum yet". The S series features a newly designed "D" shape and corner brush for optimized edge cleaning deep into corners and along edges. Other new features include an anti-allergen system that traps 99% of pollen, mold and allergens, 40 times the suction compared to the 600 series, 30% wider rubber brushes, and the most advanced navigation system to date. Similar to the I series, the s9+ comes with the self-emptying Clean Base. The S series also includes linking technology that allows the Roomba to communicate wirelessly with other iRobot products, where the Braava Jet M6 can automatically be set to mop after the s9 has finished vacuuming.


title: Roomba

text: The j7 and j7+ model, available only from iRobot in September 2021, debuted PrecisionVision: the navigation system that detects and avoids obstacles like power cords and pet waste. The j7 is a direct upgrade to the Roomba i7, with the same overall body design and rated ten times the suction compared to the standard model. iRobot simultaneously removed the i7 from its website.


title: Roomba

text: In September 2022, iRobot announced the Roomba Combo j7+, which is a Roomba j7+ that includes mopping capabilities with a lifting mop. Shipping began on October 4.


title: Roomba

text: From the earliest models on, Roomba vacuum cleaning robots have been hacked to extend their functionality. The first adaptations were based on a microcontroller that was directly connected to the motor drivers and sensors. Versions manufactured after October 2005 contain an electronic and software interface that allows hackers to more easily control or modify behavior and remotely monitor its sensors. One early application was using the device to map a room. The native code for Roomba is written in a dialect of Lisp.


title: Roomba

text: Models with an interface (400 series since October 2007 plus 500 and 700 series) come with a Mini-DIN connector supporting a serial interface, which is electrically and physically incompatible with standard PC/Mac serial ports and cables. However, third-party adapters are available to access the Roomba's computer via Bluetooth, USB, or RS-232 (PC/Mac serial). Roombas pre-October 2005 upgraded with the OSMO hacker device allow monitoring many sensors and modifying the unit's behavior. The Roomba Open Interface (OI, formerly Roomba Serial Command Interface) allows programmers and roboticists to create their own enhancements. Several projects are described on Roomba hacking sites.


title: Roomba

text: In response to the growing interest of hackers in their product, the company developed the iRobot Create. In this model the vacuum cleaner motor is replaced by a "cargo bay" for mounting devices like TV cameras, lasers and other robotic parts. It provides a greatly enhanced 25-pin interface providing both analog and digital bidirectional communication with the hosted device allowing use as the mobile base for completely new robots. Together with a computing platform like a netbook or handheld device with wireless networking, it can be remotely controlled through a network.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Deep-sea fish are fish that live in the darkness below the sunlit surface waters, that is below the epipelagic or photic zone of the sea. The lanternfish is, by far, the most common deep-sea fish. Other deep sea fishes include the flashlight fish, cookiecutter shark, bristlemouths, anglerfish, viperfish, and some species of eelpout.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Only about 2% of known marine species inhabit the pelagic environment. This means that they live in the water column as opposed to the benthic organisms that live in or on the sea floor. Deep-sea organisms generally inhabit bathypelagic (1000–4000m deep) and abyssopelagic (4000–6000m deep) zones. However, characteristics of deep-sea organisms, such as bioluminescence can be seen in the mesopelagic (200–1000m deep) zone as well. The mesopelagic zone is the disphotic zone, meaning light there is minimal but still measurable. The oxygen minimum layer exists somewhere between a depth of 700m and 1000m deep depending on the place in the ocean. This area is also where nutrients are most abundant. The bathypelagic and abyssopelagic zones are aphotic, meaning that no light penetrates this area of the ocean. These zones make up about 75% of the inhabitable ocean space.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: The epipelagic zone (0–200m) is the area where light penetrates the water and photosynthesis occurs. This is also known as the photic zone. Because this typically extends only a few hundred meters below the water, the deep sea, about 90% of the ocean volume, is in darkness. The deep sea is also an extremely hostile environment, with temperatures that rarely exceed 3 °C (37.4 °F) and fall as low as −1.8 °C (28.76 °F) (with the exception of hydrothermal vent ecosystems that can exceed 350 °C, or 662 °F), low oxygen levels, and pressures between 20 and 1,000 atmospheres (between 2 and 100 megapascals).


title: Deep-sea fish

text: In the deep ocean, the waters extend far below the epipelagic zone, and support very different types of pelagic fishes adapted to living in these deeper zones. In deep water, marine snow is a continuous shower of mostly organic detritus falling from the upper layers of the water column. Its origin lies in activities within the productive photic zone. Marine snow includes dead or dying plankton, protists (diatoms), fecal matter, sand, soot and other inorganic dust. The "snowflakes" grow over time and may reach several centimetres in diameter, travelling for weeks before reaching the ocean floor. However, most organic components of marine snow are consumed by microbes, zooplankton and other filter-feeding animals within the first 1,000 metres of their journey, that is, within the epipelagic zone. In this way marine snow may be considered the foundation of deep-sea mesopelagic and benthic ecosystems: As sunlight cannot reach them, deep-sea organisms rely heavily on marine snow as an energy source. Since there is no light in the deep sea (aphotic), there is a lack of primary producers. Therefore, most organisms in the bathypelagic rely on the marine snow from regions higher in the vertical column.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Some deep-sea pelagic groups, such as the lanternfish, ridgehead, marine hatchetfish, and lightfish families are sometimes termed "pseudoceanic" because, rather than having an even distribution in open water, they occur in significantly higher abundances around structural oases, notably seamounts and over continental slopes. The phenomenon is explained by the likewise abundance of prey species which are also attracted to the structures.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Hydrostatic pressure increases by 1 atmosphere for every 10m in depth. Deep-sea organisms have the same pressure within their bodies as is exerted on them from the outside, so they are not crushed by the extreme pressure. Their high internal pressure, however, results in the reduced fluidity of their membranes because molecules are squeezed together. Fluidity in cell membranes increases efficiency of biological functions, most importantly the production of proteins, so organisms have adapted to this circumstance by increasing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in the lipids of the cell membranes. In addition to differences in internal pressure, these organisms have developed a different balance between their metabolic reactions from those organisms that live in the epipelagic zone. David Wharton, author of "Life at the Limits: Organisms in Extreme Environments", notes "Biochemical reactions are accompanied by changes in volume. If a reaction results in an increase in volume, it will be inhibited by pressure, whereas, if it is associated with a decrease in volume, it will be enhanced". This means that their metabolic processes must ultimately decrease the volume of the organism to some degree.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Most fish that have evolved in this harsh environment are not capable of surviving in laboratory conditions, and attempts to keep them in captivity have led to their deaths. Deep-sea organisms contain gas-filled spaces (vacuoles). Gas is compressed under high pressure and expands under low pressure. Because of this, these organisms have been known to blow up if they come to the surface.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: The fish of the deep-sea have evolved various adaptations to survive in this region. Since many of these fish live in regions where there is no natural illumination, they cannot rely solely on their eyesight for locating prey and mates and avoiding predators; deep-sea fish have evolved appropriately to the extreme sub-photic region in which they live. Many of these organisms are blind and rely on their other senses, such as sensitivities to changes in local pressure and smell, to catch their food and avoid being caught. Those that aren't blind have large and sensitive eyes that can use bioluminescent light. These eyes can be as much as 100 times more sensitive to light than human eyes. Rhodopsin (Rh1) is a protein found in the eye’s rod cells that helps animals see in dim light. While most vertebrates usually have one Rh1 opsin gene, some deep sea fish have several Rh1 genes, and one species, the silver spinyfin ("Diretmus argenteus"), has 38. This proliferation of Rh1 genes may help deep sea fish to see in the depths of the ocean. Also, to avoid predation, many species are dark to blend in with their environment.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Many deep-sea fish are bioluminescent, with extremely large eyes adapted to the dark. Bioluminescent organisms are capable of producing light biologically through the agitation of molecules of luciferin, which then produce light. This process must be done in the presence of oxygen. These organisms are common in the mesopelagic region and below (200m and below). More than 50% of deep-sea fish, as well as some species of shrimp and squid, are capable of bioluminescence. About 80% of these organisms have photophores – light producing glandular cells that contain luminous bacteria bordered by dark colourings. Some of these photophores contain lenses, much like those in the eyes of humans, which can intensify or lessen the emanation of light. The ability to produce light only requires 1% of the organism's energy and has many purposes: It is used to search for food and attract prey, like the anglerfish; claim territory through patrol; communicate and find a mate, and distract or temporarily blind predators to escape. Also, in the mesopelagic where some light still penetrates, some organisms camouflage themselves from predators below them by illuminating their bellies to match the colour and intensity of light from above so that no shadow is cast. This tactic is known as counter-illumination.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: The lifecycle of deep-sea fish can be exclusively deep water although some species are born in shallower water and sink upon maturation. Regardless of the depth where eggs and larvae reside, they are typically pelagic. This planktonic — drifting — lifestyle requires neutral buoyancy. In order to maintain this, the eggs and larvae often contain oil droplets in their plasma. When these organisms are in their fully matured state they need other adaptations to maintain their positions in the water column. In general, water's density causes upthrust — the aspect of buoyancy that makes organisms float. To counteract this, the density of an organism must be greater than that of the surrounding water. Most animal tissues are denser than water, so they must find an equilibrium to make them float. Many organisms develop swim bladders (gas cavities) to stay afloat, but because of the high pressure of their environment, deep-sea fishes usually do not have this organ. Instead they exhibit structures similar to hydrofoils in order to provide hydrodynamic lift. It has also been found that the deeper a fish lives, the more jelly-like its flesh and the more minimal its bone structure. They reduce their tissue density through high fat content, reduction of skeletal weight — accomplished through reductions of size, thickness and mineral content — and water accumulation makes them slower and less agile than surface fish.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Due to the poor level of photosynthetic light reaching deep-sea environments, most fish need to rely on organic matter sinking from higher levels, or, in rare cases, hydrothermal vents for nutrients. This makes the deep-sea much poorer in productivity than shallower regions. Also, animals in the pelagic environment are sparse and food doesn't come along frequently. Because of this, organisms need adaptations that allow them to survive. Some have long feelers to help them locate prey or attract mates in the pitch black of the deep ocean. The deep-sea angler fish in particular has a long fishing-rod-like adaptation protruding from its face, on the end of which is a bioluminescent piece of skin that wriggles like a worm to lure its prey. Some must consume other fish that are the same size or larger than them and they need adaptations to help digest them efficiently. Great sharp teeth, hinged jaws, disproportionately large mouths, and expandable bodies are a few of the characteristics that deep-sea fishes have for this purpose. The gulper eel is one example of an organism that displays these characteristics.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Fish in the different pelagic and deep water benthic zones are physically structured, and behave in ways, that differ markedly from each other. Groups of coexisting species within each zone all seem to operate in similar ways, such as the small mesopelagic vertically migrating plankton-feeders, the bathypelagic anglerfishes, and the deep water benthic rattails.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Ray finned species, with spiny fins, are rare among deep sea fishes, which suggests that deep sea fish are ancient and so well adapted to their environment that invasions by more modern fishes have been unsuccessful. The few ray fins that do exist are mainly in the Beryciformes and Lampriformes, which are also ancient forms. Most deep sea pelagic fishes belong to their own orders, suggesting a long evolution in deep sea environments. In contrast, deep water benthic species, are in orders that include many related shallow water fishes.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Below the epipelagic zone, conditions change rapidly. Between 200 metres and about 1000 metres, light continues to fade until there is almost none. Temperatures fall through a thermocline to temperatures between 3.9 °C (39 °F) and 7.8 °C (46 °F). This is the twilight or mesopelagic zone. Pressure continues to increase, at the rate of one atmosphere every 10 metres, while nutrient concentrations fall, along with dissolved oxygen and the rate at which the water circulates.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Sonar operators, using the newly developed sonar technology during World War II, were puzzled by what appeared to be a false sea floor 300–500 metres deep at day, and less deep at night. This turned out to be due to millions of marine organisms, most particularly small mesopelagic fish, with swim bladders that reflected the sonar. These organisms migrate up into shallower water at dusk to feed on plankton. The layer is deeper when the moon is out, and can become shallower when clouds pass over the moon. This phenomenon has come to be known as the deep scattering layer.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Most mesopelagic fish make daily vertical migrations, moving at night into the epipelagic zone, often following similar migrations of zooplankton, and returning to the depths for safety during the day. These vertical migrations often occur over large vertical distances, and are undertaken with the assistance of a swim bladder. The swim bladder is inflated when the fish wants to move up, and, given the high pressures in the messoplegic zone, this requires significant energy. As the fish ascends, the pressure in the swim bladder must adjust to prevent it from bursting. When the fish wants to return to the depths, the swim bladder is deflated. Some mesopelagic fishes make daily migrations through the thermocline, where the temperature changes between 50 °F (10 °C) and 69 °F (20 °C), thus displaying considerable tolerances for temperature change.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: These fish have muscular bodies, ossified bones, scales, well developed gills and central nervous systems, and large hearts and kidneys. Mesopelagic plankton feeders have small mouths with fine gill rakers, while the piscivores have larger mouths and coarser gill rakers.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Mesopelagic fish are adapted for an active life under low light conditions. Most of them are visual predators with large eyes. Some of the deeper water fish have tubular eyes with big lenses and only rod cells that look upwards. These give binocular vision and great sensitivity to small light signals. This adaptation gives improved terminal vision at the expense of lateral vision, and allows the predator to pick out squid, cuttlefish, and smaller fish that are silhouetted against the gloom above them.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Mesopelagic fish usually lack defensive spines, and use colour to camouflage themselves from other fish. Ambush predators are dark, black or red. Since the longer, red, wavelengths of light do not reach the deep sea, red effectively functions the same as black. Migratory forms use countershaded silvery colours. On their bellies, they often display photophores producing low grade light. For a predator from below, looking upwards, this bioluminescence camouflages the silhouette of the fish. However, some of these predators have yellow lenses that filter the (red deficient) ambient light, leaving the bioluminescence visible.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: The brownsnout spookfish, a species of barreleye, is the only vertebrate known to employ a mirror, as opposed to a lens, to focus an image in its eyes.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Sampling by deep trawling indicates that lanternfish account for as much as 65% of all deep-sea fish biomass. Indeed, lanternfish are among the most widely distributed, populous, and diverse of all vertebrates, playing an important ecological role as prey for larger organisms. The estimated global biomass of lanternfish is 550–660 million tonnes, several times the entire world fisheries catch. Lanternfish also account for much of the biomass responsible for the deep scattering layer of the world's oceans.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Bigeye tuna are an epipelagic/mesopelagic species that eats other fish. Satellite tagging has shown that bigeye tuna often spend prolonged periods cruising deep below the surface during the daytime, sometimes making dives as deep as 500 metres. These movements are thought to be in response to the vertical migrations of prey organisms in the deep scattering layer.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Below the mesopelagic zone it is pitch dark. This is the midnight (or bathypelagic zone), extending from 1000 metres to the bottom deep water benthic zone. If the water is exceptionally deep, the pelagic zone below 4000 metres is sometimes called the lower midnight (or abyssopelagic zone). Temperatures in this zone range from 1 to 4 degrees celsius and is completely aphotic.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Conditions are somewhat uniform throughout these zones; the darkness is complete, the pressure is crushing, and temperatures, nutrients and dissolved oxygen levels are all low.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Bathypelagic fish have special adaptations to cope with these conditions – they have slow metabolisms and unspecialized diets, being willing to eat anything that comes along. They prefer to sit and wait for food rather than waste energy searching for it. The behaviour of bathypelagic fish can be contrasted with the behaviour of mesopelagic fish. Mesopelagic fish are often highly mobile, whereas bathypelagic fish are almost all lie-in-wait predators, normally expending little energy in movement.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: The dominant bathypelagic fishes are small bristlemouth and anglerfish; fangtooth, viperfish, daggertooth and barracudina are also common. These fishes are small, many about 10 centimetres long, and not many longer than 25 cm. They spend most of their time waiting patiently in the water column for prey to appear or to be lured by their phosphors. What little energy is available in the bathypelagic zone filters from above in the form of detritus, faecal material, and the occasional invertebrate or mesopelagic fish. About 20 percent of the food that has its origins in the epipelagic zone falls down to the mesopelagic zone, but only about 5 percent filters down to the bathypelagic zone.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Bathypelagic fish are sedentary, adapted to outputting minimum energy in a habitat with very little food or available energy, not even sunlight, only bioluminescence. Their bodies are elongated with weak, watery muscles and skeletal structures. Since so much of the fish is water, they are not compressed by the great pressures at these depths. They often have extensible, hinged jaws with recurved teeth. They are slimy, without scales. The central nervous system is confined to the lateral line and olfactory systems, the eyes are small and may not function, and gills, kidneys and hearts, and swim bladders are small or missing.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: These are the same features found in fish larvae, which suggests that during their evolution, bathypelagic fish have acquired these features through neoteny. As with larvae, these features allow the fish to remain suspended in the water with little expenditure of energy.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Despite their ferocious appearance, these beasts of the deep are mostly miniature fish with weak muscles, and are too small to represent any threat to humans.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: The swim bladders of deep sea fish are either absent or scarcely operational, and bathypelagic fish do not normally undertake vertical migrations. Filling bladders at such great pressures incurs huge energy costs. Some deep sea fishes have swim bladders which function while they are young and inhabit the upper epipelagic zone, but they wither or fill with fat when the fish move down to their adult habitat.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: The most important sensory systems are usually the inner ear, which responds to sound, and the lateral line, which responds to changes in water pressure. The olfactory system can also be important for males who find females by smell.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Bathypelagic fish are black, or sometimes red, with few photophores. When photophores are used, it is usually to entice prey or attract a mate. Because food is so scarce, bathypelagic predators are not selective in their feeding habits, but grab whatever comes close enough. They accomplish this by having a large mouth with sharp teeth for grabbing large prey and overlapping gill rakers which prevent small prey that have been swallowed from escaping.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: It is not easy finding a mate in this zone. Some species depend on bioluminescence, where bioluminescent patterns are unique to specific species. Others are hermaphrodites, which doubles their chances of producing both eggs and sperm when an encounter occurs. The female anglerfish releases pheromones to attract tiny males. When a male finds her, he bites on to her and never lets go. When a male of the anglerfish species "Haplophryne mollis" bites into the skin of a female, he releases an enzyme that digests the skin of his mouth and her body, fusing the pair to the point where the two circulatory systems join up. The male then atrophies into nothing more than a pair of gonads. This extreme sexual dimorphism ensures that, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Many forms other than fish live in the bathypelagic zone, such as squid, large whales, octopuses, sponges, brachiopods, sea stars, and echinoids, but this zone is difficult for fish to live in.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: As a fish moves deeper into the sea, the weight of the water overhead exerts increasing hydrostatic pressure on the fish. This increased pressure amounts to about one standard atmosphere for every 10 meters in depth (one atmosphere is the pressure exerted at the surface of the sea by the atmosphere above). For a fish at the bottom of the bathypelagic zone, this pressure amounts to about 400 atmospheres (nearly 6000 pounds per square inch).


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Deep sea organisms possess adaptations at cellular and physiological levels that allow them to survive in environments of great pressure. Not having these adaptations limits the depths at which shallow-water species can operate. High levels of external pressure affects how metabolic processes and biochemical reactions proceed. The equilibrium of many chemical reactions is disturbed by pressure, and pressure can inhibit processes which result in an increase in volume. Water, a key component in many biological processes, is very susceptible to volume changes, mainly because constituents of cellular fluid have an effect on water structure. Thus, enzymatic reactions that induce changes in water organization effectively change the system's volume. Proteins responsible for catalyzing reactions are typically held together by weak bonds and the reactions usually involve volume increases.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: To adapt to this change, the protein structure and reaction criteria of deep sea fish have been adapted to withstand pressure in order to perform reactions in these conditions. In high pressure environments, bilayer cellular membranes experience a loss of fluidity. Deep-sea cellular membranes favor phospholipid bilayers with a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, which induce a higher fluidity than their sea-level counterparts.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Deep sea species exhibit lower changes of entropy and enthalpy compared to surface level organisms, since a high pressure and low temperature environment favors negative enthalpy changes and reduced dependence on entropy-driven reactions. From a structural standpoint, globular proteins of deep sea fish due to the tertiary structure of G-actin are relatively rigid compared to those of surface level fish. The fact that proteins in deep sea fish are structurally different from surface fish is apparent from the observation that actin from the muscle fibers of deep sea fish are extremely heat resistant; an observation similar to what is found in lizards. These proteins are structurally strengthened by modification of the bonds in the tertiary structure of the protein which also happens to induce high levels of thermal stability. Proteins are structurally strengthened to resist pressure by modification of bonds in the tertiary structure. Therefore, high levels of hydrostatic pressure, similar to high body temperatures of thermophilic desert reptiles, favor rigid protein structures.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Na+/K+ -ATPase is a lipoprotein enzyme that plays a prominent role in osmoregulation and is heavily influenced by hydrostatic pressure. The inhibition of Na+/K+ -ATPase is due to increased compression due to pressure. The rate-limiting step of the Na+/K+ -ATPase reaction induces an expansion in the bilayer surrounding the protein, and therefore an increase in volume. An increase in volume makes Na+/K+ -ATPase reactivity susceptible to higher pressures. Even though the Na+/K+ -ATPase activity per gram of gill tissue is lower for deep sea fishes, the Na+/K+ -ATPases of deep sea fishes exhibit a much higher tolerance of hydrostatic pressure compared to their shallow-water counterparts. This is exemplified between the species "C. acrolepis" (around 2000m deep) and its hadalpelagic counterpart "C. armatus" (around 4000m deep), where the Na+/K+ -ATPases of "C. armatus" are much less sensitive to pressure. This resistance to pressure can be explained by adaptations in the protein and lipid moieties of Na+/K+ -ATPase.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: Sampling via deep trawling indicates that lanternfish account for as much as 65% of all deep-sea fish biomass. Indeed, lanternfish are among the most widely distributed, populous, and diverse of all vertebrates, playing an important ecological role as prey for larger organisms. With an estimated global biomass of 550–660 million metric tons, several times the entire world fisheries catch, lanternfish also account for much of the biomass responsible for the deep scattering layer of the world's oceans. In the Southern Ocean, Myctophids provide an alternative food resource to krill for predators such as squid and the king penguin. Although these fish are plentiful and prolific, currently only a few commercial lanternfish fisheries exist: these include limited operations off South Africa, in the sub-Antarctic, and in the Gulf of Oman.


title: Deep-sea fish

text: A 2006 study by Canadian scientists has found five species of deep-sea fish – blue hake, spiny eel – to be on the verge of extinction due to the shift of commercial fishing from continental shelves to the slopes of the continental shelves, down to depths of 1600 meters. The slow reproduction of these fish – they reach sexual maturity at about the same age as human beings – is one of the main reasons that they cannot recover from the excessive fishing.


title: Action Comics 1

text: "Action Comics" #1 (cover dated June 1938) is the first issue of the original run of the comic book/magazine series "Action Comics". It features the first appearance of several comic-book heroes—most notably the Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster creation, Superman—and sold for 10 cents (). It is widely considered to be both the beginning of the superhero genre and the most valuable comic book in the world. "Action Comics" would go on to run for 904 numbered issues (plus additional out-of-sequence special issues) before it restarted its numbering in the fall of 2011. It returned to its original numbering with issue #957, published on June 8, 2016 (cover-dated August) and reached its 1,000th issue in 2018.


title: Action Comics 1

text: On August 24, 2014, a copy graded 9.0 by CGC was sold on eBay for $3,207,852 USD; it was the first comic book to have sold for more than $3 million for a single original copy.


title: Action Comics 1

text: Published on April 18, 1938 (cover dated on June 30, 1938), by National Allied Publications, a corporate predecessor of DC Comics, it is considered the first true superhero comic; and though today "Action Comics" is a monthly title devoted to Superman, it began, like many early comics, as an anthology.


title: Action Comics 1

text: "Action Comics" was started by publisher Jack Liebowitz. The first issue had a print run of 200,000 copies, which promptly sold out, although it took some time for National to realize that the "Superman" story was responsible for sales of the series that would soon approach 1,000,000 a month. Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster were paid $10 per page, for a total of $130 () for their work on this issue. Liebowitz would later say that selecting Superman to run in "Action Comics" #1 was "pure accident" based on deadline pressure and that he selected a "thrilling" cover, depicting Superman lifting a car over his head. Christopher Knowles, author of "", compared the cover to "Hercules and the Hydra" by Antonio del Pollaiuolo.


title: Action Comics 1

text: In January 1933, Jerry Siegel wrote a short prose story titled "The Reign of the Superman", which was illustrated by his friend Joe Shuster and self-published in a science fiction magazine. It told the story of a bald villain with telepathic powers. Trying to create a character they could sell to newspaper syndicates, Siegel re-conceived the "superman" character as a powerful hero, sent to Earth from a more advanced society. He and Shuster developed the idea into a comic strip, which they pitched unsuccessfully.


title: Action Comics 1

text: National Publications was looking for a hit to accompany their success with "Detective Comics", and did not have time to solicit new material. Jack Liebowitz, co-owner of National Publications, told editor Vin Sullivan to create their fourth comic book. Because of the tight deadline, Sullivan was forced to make it out of inventory and stockpile pages. He found a number of adventurer stories, but needed a lead feature. Sullivan asked former coworker Sheldon Mayer if he could help. Mayer found the rejected Superman comic strips, and Sullivan told Siegel and Shuster that if they could paste them into 13 comic book pages, he would buy them.


title: Action Comics 1

text: Two new panels offering a "scientific explanation of Clark Kent's amazing strength" were added. The panels do not identify Superman's home planet by name or explain how he was named Clark Kent.


title: Action Comics 1

text: The next twelve pages showed Superman attempting to save an innocent woman about to be executed while delivering the real murderess, bound and gagged, and leaving her on the lawn of the state Governor's mansion after breaking through the door into his house with a signed confession; coming to the aid of a woman being beaten up by her husband, who faints when his knife shatters on Superman's skin; rescuing Lois Lane (who also debuts in this issue) from a gangster who abducted her after she rebuffed him at a nightclub, which leads to the cover scene with the car; and going to Washington, D.C. to investigate a Senator who he suspects is corrupt, prompting a confession by leaping around high buildings with the terrified man, which leads into the next issue. All the while, Clark tries to keep Superman out of the papers.


title: Action Comics 1

text: "Comics Buyer's Guide" estimated in 2012 that only 50 to 100 original copies of "Action Comics" #1 exist. In an April 2021 Associated Press article, Vincent Zurzolo, COO of ComicConnect.com, an online auction and consignment company, said that it was estimated that about 100 copies of the issue were still in existence.


title: Action Comics 1

text: "Action Comics" #1 has set several sales records for comic books. On February 22, 2010, a copy of "Action Comics" #1 CGC Grade 8.0 sold at auction for US$1 million, becoming the first million-dollar comic book. The sale, by an anonymous seller to an anonymous buyer, was through ComicConnect.com. On March 29, 2010, ComicConnect.com sold another copy for US$1.5 million, making it the most expensive and most valuable comic book of all time. The copy sold is the third highest-graded copy from the CGC, which stands at 8.5 VF+ grade, which Zurzolo said was among the best-kept copies.


title: Action Comics 1

text: As of 2011, there were six known Comic Guaranty LLC (CGC)-graded copies with a grade above VG (CGC 4.0), with only one issue having the grade of VF/NM (CGC 9.0) at that time. EC and "Mad" publisher William Gaines, whose father was also a comic book publisher and had business dealings with DC Comics at the time "Action Comics" #1 was published, claimed in a "Comics Journal" interview that he at one point had dozens of copies of the issue around his house, but they were probably all thrown out. Another copy, rated CGC 5 ("Very Good/Fine"), was discovered in July 2010 by a family facing foreclosure on their home while packing their possessions. Estimated by ComicConnect.com to sell as high as $250,000, the comic fetched $436,000 at auction, saving the family's home.


title: Action Comics 1

text: One copy was stolen from American actor Nicolas Cage, an avid comic book collector, in 2000. In March 2011, it was found in a storage locker in the San Fernando Valley and was verified by ComicConnect.com to be the copy sold to him previously. Cage had previously received an insurance payment for the item. A copy which sold for $2.16 million on November 30, 2011 through ComicConnect.com is believed to have been this same one, having been noted as stolen in 2000 and recovered in 2011. "The Hollywood Reporter" mentioned in its March 23, 2012 issue that a movie was in development based on the theft of Cage's copy of the comic book and would be titled "Action No. 1". The screenplay was a spec script written by "Reno 911!" creators Robert Ben Garant and Thomas Lennon and sold to Lionsgate. They will produce along with Peter Principato and Paul Young.


title: Action Comics 1

text: A CGC 9.0-graded comic, with white pages, was auctioned for sale on eBay in August 2014. The seller Darren Adams, a comic book store owner in Federal Way, Washington, had purchased the issue from the estate of a man who had originally bought the issue from a newsstand on its release in 1938. The original buyer lived in high altitudes in West Virginia and stored the comic in a stack with others, which provided the optimal "cool, dry and dark" conditions that lent well to a comic's age, according to Adams. The comic changed hands twice prior to the auction; first sold as part of an estate sale when the original purchaser died forty years after its publication, and then to a third person who held the comic for about thirty years. Some years prior to the auction, Adams was contacted by this third person, and seeing the pristine condition of the comic, purchased it for a "seven figure sum". He held onto the comic for a few years before deciding to sell it, keeping the existence of it otherwise a secret, even rejecting a $3 million offer to buy the comic outright. On his decision to sell, he opted to use eBay instead of other comic auction houses such as Heritage Auctions, believing the auction site would reach a wider audience and was a better fit for the pop culture nature of the piece. After discussions with the site, Adams and eBay also arranged to donate 1% of the sale to the Christopher & Dana Reeve Foundation, reflecting on Christopher Reeve's role as Superman in motion pictures. The auction ended on August 24, 2014 and sold for over $3.2 million. At the time, it was the highest value ever paid for a single issue of a comic book. The purchasers were Vincent Zurzolo and Stephen Fishler, the owners of Metropolis Collectibles; Zurzolo expected the value of the near-mint comic to continue to increase in time.


title: Action Comics 1

text: The record for the highest amount paid for a copy was narrowly broken again on April 6, 2021, when ComicConnect.com announced that another copy of the issue was sold for $3.25 million in a private sale. The seller of the copy had purchased it in 2018 for slightly over $2 million.


title: Action Comics 1

text: The first reprint of "Action Comics" #1 was published in 1974 as part of the "Famous First Editions" series. Beginning in the mid-1970s, DC reissued several of its most popular Golden Age comics as "Famous First Editions". These reprints were oversized, roughly double the size of the original editions, and had a cardboard-like cover. The interior, however, was an exact reprint of the original comic, right down to the ads. As a result, the "Overstreet Comic Book Price Guide" has, since the 1970s, published a warning advising that attempts have been made to pass off the reprint, stripped of its "Famous First Edition" cardboard cover, as an actual #1. However, the Guide does not cite any actual instances of this.


title: Action Comics 1

text: DC reprinted "Action Comics" #1 in 1988 as part of the 50th anniversary celebration of Superman that year. This edition reprinted only the Superman story, with a 50¢ U.S.A. cover price.


title: Action Comics 1

text: The complete issue was reprinted in 1998 with an additional half-cover featuring the Superman stamp from the U.S. Postal Service's "Celebrate the Century" commemorative stamp series along with a "First Day of Issue" cancellation. It was sold by the U.S. Postal Service, shrinkwrapped, for $7.95.


title: Action Comics 1

text: The complete issue, save for the inside front, inside back, and outside back cover, was reprinted in 2000 as part of DC Comics' "Millennium Edition" series of reprints of famous DC comics.


title: Action Comics 1

text: The 1988, 1998 and 2000 reprints were published to the page-size standard of the 1988–2000 period, and not the larger page size utilized by "Action Comics" in 1938.


title: Action Comics 1

text: In September 2011, DC Comics canceled all of its monthly books, and relaunched 52 new ongoing titles, with a completely new fictional continuity, an initiative branded The New 52. This included ending the original 73-year run of "Action Comics" with issue #904, October 2011 (on sale August 24, 2011). The first issue of "Action Comics" volume 2, with a cover date of November 2011, went on sale September 7, 2011.


title: Action Comics 1

text: The New 52 version of "Action Comics" #1 went through five printings. The fifth printing, which went on sale March 28, 2012, is cover-dated May 2012 in both the UPC box on the cover and the indicia, with no mention of its original November 2011 cover date.


title: Action Comics 1

text: In 2016, as part of the DC Rebirth relaunch, DC restored "Action Comics" original numbering, releasing "Action Comics" vol. 1 #957 after "Action Comics" vol. 2 #52. Subsequently, a commemorative poster celebrating 1,000 issues of "Action Comics" was released in 2018, which retroactively listed all issues of the "New 52" "Action Comics" vol. 2 with their cumulative issue numbers. As a result, "Action Comics" vol. 2 #1 is now also considered to be "Action Comics" vol. 1 #905 overall.


title: OS X Yosemite

text: OS X Yosemite ( ; version 10.10) is the eleventh major release of macOS, Apple Inc.'s desktop and server operating system for Macintosh computers.


title: OS X Yosemite

text: OS X Yosemite was announced and released to developers on June 2, 2014, at WWDC 2014 and released to public beta testers on July 24, 2014. Yosemite was released to consumers on October 16, 2014. Following the Northern California landmark-based naming scheme introduced with OS X Mavericks, Yosemite is named after the national park.


title: OS X Yosemite

text: All Macintosh products capable of running OS X Mountain Lion (v10.8.x) are able to run Yosemite as the two operating systems have the same requirements. However, to take full advantage of the Handoff feature, additional minimum system requirements include a Mac with Bluetooth LE (Bluetooth 4.0). As with Mavericks and Mountain Lion, 2GB of RAM, 8GB of available storage, and Mac OS X Snow Leopard 10.6.8 or later are required.


title: OS X Yosemite

text: These are the models that support new features such as Handoff, Instant Hotspot as well as AirDrop between Mac computers and iOS devices:


title: OS X Yosemite

text: Yosemite introduced a major overhaul of OS X's user interface, emphasizing flat graphic design over skeuomorphism, following the aesthetic introduced with iOS 7. It is the first major redesign of the OS X user interface since 10.5 Leopard. Other changes include thinner fonts and blurred translucency effects. Some icons have been changed to correspond with those of iOS 7 and iOS 8. Yosemite maintains the OS X desktop metaphor.


title: OS X Yosemite

text: Other design changes include new icons, light and dark color schemes, and the replacement of Lucida Grande with Helvetica Neue as the default system typeface. It was the only macOS version to use Helvetica Neue as the default typeface, as in El Capitan it was again changed, this time to Apple's own, newly-designed San Francisco typeface. The Dock is now a 2D translucent rectangle instead of a skeuomorphic glass shelf, reminiscent of the Dock design used in early versions of OS X through Tiger and in iOS since iOS 7.


title: OS X Yosemite

text: Many of Yosemite's new features focus on the theme of continuity, increasing its integration with other Apple platforms and services such as iOS and iCloud. The Handoff functionality allows the operating system to integrate with iOS 8 devices over Bluetooth LE and Wi-Fi; users can place and answer phone calls using their iPhone as a conduit, send and receive text messages, activate personal hotspots, or load items being worked on in a mobile app (such as Mail drafts or Numbers spreadsheets) directly into their desktop equivalent.


title: OS X Yosemite

text: Notification Center features a new "Today" view, similar to that in iOS. The Today view can display information and updates from various sources, along with widgets. The widgets in the Today view are similar to those of iOS 8.


title: OS X Yosemite

text: As of OS X 10.10.3, Photos replaces both iPhoto and Aperture. It uses iCloud Photo Library to upload all the user's photos across their devices.


title: OS X Yosemite

text: Spotlight is a more prominent part of the operating system; it now displays its search box in the center of the screen and can include results from online sources, including Bing, Maps, and Wikipedia. Stock applications such as Safari and Mail have been updated. In particular, many security features have been added to Safari, such as a custom history clearing option that lets users clear history, cookies, and other data from the previous hour, day, or two days. In addition, Apple added DuckDuckGo to its search offerings, a non-tracking search engine that doesn’t store users’ data. Safari allows you to remotely close tabs from an iOS device. Safari now supports browsing in private browsing mode with certain windows (as opposed to all the windows having to be either in or out of private browsing).


title: OS X Yosemite

text: The green "zoom" button on windows now has a different function in applications that support full-screen mode. Instead of simply enlarging the window, the button now enters full-screen mode, eliminating the full-screen button at the top-right corner of windows that has been present since Mac OS X Lion. However, holding the Option key (⌥) while clicking the zoom button or double-clicking on the window chrome continues to invoke the original behavior.