title: Villa

text: In Cambodia, "villa" is used as a loanword in the local language of Khmer, and is generally used to describe any type of detached townhouse that features yard space. The term doesn't apply to any particular architectural style or size, the only features that distinguish a Khmer villa from another building are the yard space and being fully detached. The terms "twin-villa" and "mini-villa" have been coined meaning semi-detached and smaller versions respectively. Generally, these would be more luxurious and spacious houses than the more common row houses. The yard space would also typically feature some form of garden, trees or greenery. Generally, these would be properties in major cities, where there is more wealth and hence more luxurious houses.


title: Systems thinking

text: Systems thinking is a way of making sense of the complexity of the world by looking at it in terms of wholes and relationships rather than by splitting it down into its parts. It has been used as a way of exploring and developing effective action in complex contexts, enabling systems change. Systems thinking draws on and contributes to systems theory and the system sciences.


title: Bibi Besch

text: Bibi Besch (born Bibiana Maria Köchert; February 1, 1942 – September 7, 1996) was an Austrian-American film, television, and stage actress. She is best known for her portrayal of Dr. Carol Marcus in the science fiction film "" (1982). Her other notable film roles were in "Who's That Girl" (1987), "Steel Magnolias" (1989), and "Tremors" (1990). Besch also appeared in a number of television productions, including the television film "The Day After" (1983) and "The Jeff Foxworthy Show", and received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations.


title: Bibi Besch

text: Bibiana Maria Köchert was born in Vienna in 1942, the younger of two daughters born to theater actress Gusti Huber, who starred in German films during World War II, and Gotfrid Köchert, an Austrian racing driver, who served in the Wehrmacht. She had an elder sister, Christiana Barbara Köchert. Gusti and her two daughters remained in Vienna throughout World War II, immigrating to the United States after the war ended. Joseph Besch, a radio executive and former U.S. Army captain, married Huber, a divorcee, in 1946, and became Huber's daughters' stepfather; his stepchildren took his surname. Huber and Besch later had two children, born in the United States, Drea and Andrew, the half-siblings of Bibiana and Christiana. Bibi, her sister and half-siblings, grew up in Chappaqua, New York, where they attended local elementary and junior high schools. She graduated from Horace Greeley High School there in 1959, and attended Connecticut College for Women, but, before graduating, moved to New York City to become an actress. She had a daughter, Samantha Mathis, also an actress.


title: Bibi Besch

text: Most of Besch's early TV experience came from years spent on New York-based daytime soap operas — "The Secret Storm" (1966), "The Edge of Night" (1969), "Love Is a Many Splendored Thing" (1973) and "Somerset" (1974). In later years she was seen in primetime soaps, such as "Secrets of Midland Heights" (1980), "The Hamptons" (1983), "Dynasty" (1984), "Dallas" (1985), "Falcon Crest" (1985-1986), "Knots Landing" (1989) and an episode of "Melrose Place" which aired on September 9, 1996, two days after her death.


title: Bibi Besch

text: Besch guest starred in a variety of television series, including "Street Hawk", "The Rockford Files", "The Golden Girls", "Murder, She Wrote", "Backstairs at the White House", and "It's Garry Shandling's Show". Having appeared on a 1979 episode of James Arness' western series, "How the West Was Won", she reunited with him in the 1981 made-for-TV film "McClain's Law" which served as the two-hour debut episode of Arness' 1981–82 same-named police detective series.


title: Bibi Besch

text: She played Dr. Carol Marcus, the early love of Admiral James T. Kirk in "" (1982). Her other films included "Victory at Entebbe" (1976), "The Pack" (1977), "The Promise" (1979), "Meteor" (1979), "The Beast Within" (1982), "The Lonely Lady" (1983), "The Day After" (1983), "Mrs. Delafield Wants to Marry" (1986), "He's My Girl" (1987), "Who's That Girl" (1987), "Date with an Angel" (1987), "Steel Magnolias" (1989), "Tremors" (1990), and "Betsy's Wedding" (1990).


title: Bibi Besch

text: In 1992, she received an Emmy Award nomination for her performance in "Doing Time on Maple Drive", which starred William McNamara and Jim Carrey as her sons. She received another Emmy nomination in 1993 for her recurring-character role as the neurotic mother of Janine Turner's character on "Northern Exposure". She continued to act, with 11 television and film credits in 1996, her final year.


title: Bibi Besch

text: Bibi Besch died of breast cancer at Daniel Freeman Hospital in Los Angeles on September 7, 1996. She was 54 years old.


title: Nellie Bowles

text: Nellie Bowles is an American journalist. She is noted for covering the technology world of Silicon Valley. She worked as a journalist for the English-language Argentine daily the "Buenos Aires Herald", the "San Francisco Chronicle", "The California Sunday Magazine", the technology journalism website "Recode", the British daily "The Guardian" beginning in 2016, then for "Vice News" and most recently "The New York Times".


title: Nellie Bowles

text: From 2017 to 2021, Bowles covered technology for the "New York Times" in the San Francisco Bay Area. In 2020, she was awarded the prestigious Robert F. Kennedy Journalism Award and the Gerald Loeb Award for investigative reporting along with two colleagues for her investigation into online child abuse; according to editor Dean Murphy, their "deep, persistent and compassionate reporting" served to "hold both government and big tech accountable, and tell the stories of untold children who have endured this abuse in silence." She covers the technology and business world of hi-tech startups and venture capital, and she has written about personalities such as Elon Musk, Eric Schmidt, and iHeartMedia CEO Bob Pittman. She covered the exclusive conference of technology CEOs called Further Future, and has written about subjects such as doxxing and cryptocurrencies. She appeared twice on the "Charlie Rose" nationally broadcast television interview show.


title: Nellie Bowles

text: Her reporting is often controversial; for example, her account of her interview with Jordan Peterson attracted much attention. She has moderated televised discussions on the subject of free speech in the digital age, and she has written about gender equality in the tech world. Her reports regarding the conflict between Israelis and Palestinians have sometimes generated additional controversy.


title: Nellie Bowles

text: Bowles is a descendant of Henry Miller, who was dubbed the "Cattle King of California" and was at one point one of the largest land-owners in the United States, and a descendant of Thomas Crowley, who founded the transportation and logistics company Crowley Maritime. Bowles graduated from Columbia University in 2010. She is married to political commentator Bari Weiss, a relationship she says led her to convert to Judaism. She also says the conversion was part of a personal drive to be more empathy-driven in her reporting.


title: Nellie Bowles

text: She takes temporary breaks from addictive technologies such as social media with a practice dubbed dopamine fasting.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway , often referred to as the Santa Fe or AT&SF, was one of the larger railroads in the United States. The railroad was chartered in February 1859 to serve the cities of Atchison and Topeka, Kansas, and Santa Fe, New Mexico. The railroad reached the Kansas–Colorado border in 1873 and Pueblo, Colorado, in 1876. To create a demand for its services, the railroad set up real estate offices and sold farmland from the land grants that it was awarded by Congress.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: Despite being chartered to serve the city, the railroad chose to bypass Santa Fe, due to the engineering challenges of the mountainous terrain. Eventually a branch line from Lamy, New Mexico, brought the Santa Fe railroad to its namesake city.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The Santa Fe was a pioneer in intermodal freight transport; at various times, it operated an airline, the short-lived Santa Fe Skyway, and the fleet of Santa Fe Railroad Tugboats. Its bus line extended passenger transportation to areas not accessible by rail, and ferryboats on the San Francisco Bay allowed travelers to complete their westward journeys to the Pacific Ocean. The AT&SF was the subject of a popular song, Harry Warren and Johnny Mercer's "On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe", written for the film "The Harvey Girls" (1946).


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The railroad officially ceased operations on December 31, 1996, when it merged with the Burlington Northern Railroad to form the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: On , the railway was one of many companies that sponsored attractions in Disneyland with its five-year sponsorship of all Disneyland trains and stations until 1974.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: In 1960, AT&SF bought the Toledo, Peoria & Western Railroad (TP&W); then sold a half-interest to the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR). The TP&W cut straight east across Illinois from near Fort Madison, Iowa (Lomax, IL), to a connection with the PRR at Effner, Indiana (Illinois–Indiana border), forming a bypass around Chicago for traffic moving between the two lines. The TP&W route did not mesh with the traffic patterns Conrail developed after 1976, so AT&SF bought back the other half, merged the TP&W in 1983, then sold it back into independence in 1989.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: AT&SF began to talk mergers in the 1980s. The Southern Pacific Santa Fe Railroad (SPSF) was a proposed merger between the parent companies of the Southern Pacific and AT&SF announced on December 23, 1983. As part of the joining of the two firms, all rail and non-rail assets owned by Santa Fe Industries and the Southern Pacific Transportation Company were placed under the control of a holding company, the Santa Fe–Southern Pacific Corporation. The merger was subsequently denied by the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) on the basis that it would create too many duplicate routes.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The companies were so confident the merger would be approved that they began repainting locomotives and non-revenue rolling stock in a new unified paint scheme. While Southern Pacific (railroad) was sold off to Rio Grande Industries, all of the SP's real estate holdings were consolidated into a new company, Catellus Development Corporation, making it California's largest private landowner, of which Santa Fe remained the owner. In the early 1980s, gold was discovered on several properties west of Battle Mountain, Nevada along I-80, on ground owned by the Santa Fe Railroad (formerly SP). The Santa Fe Pacific Corporation (a name correlation of Santa Fe and Southern Pacific) was to develop the properties. They were sold to Newmont during 1997 in preparation for the merger with Burlington Northern). Sometime later, Catellus would purchase the Union Pacific Railroad's interest in the Los Angeles Union Passenger Terminal (LAUPT).


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: On September 22, 1995, AT&SF merged with Burlington Northern Railroad to form the Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway (BNSF). Some of the challenges resulting from the joining of the two companies included the establishment of a common dispatching system, the unionization of AT&SF's non-union dispatchers, and incorporating AT&SF's train identification codes throughout. The two lines maintained separate operations until December 31, 1996, when it officially became BNSF.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: AT&SF was widely known for its passenger train service in the first half of the 20th century. AT&SF introduced many innovations in passenger rail travel, among these the "Pleasure Domes" of the "Super Chief" (billed as the ""...only dome car[s] between Chicago and Los Angeles"" when they were introduced in 1951) and the "Big Dome" Lounge cars and double-decker Hi-Level cars of the "El Capitan", which entered revenue service in 1954. The railroad was among the first to add dining cars to its passenger trains, a move which began in 1891, following the examples of the Northern Pacific and Union Pacific railroads. The AT&SF offered food on board in a dining car or at one of the many Harvey House restaurants that were strategically located throughout the system.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: In general, the same train name was used for both directions of a particular train. The exceptions to this rule included the "Chicagoan" and "Kansas Cityan" trains (both names referred to the same service, but the "Chicagoan" was the eastbound version, while the "Kansas Cityan" was the westbound version), and the "Eastern Express" and "West Texas Express". All AT&SF trains that terminated in Chicago did so at Dearborn Station. Trains terminating in Los Angeles arrived at AT&SF's La Grande Station until May 1939, when Los Angeles Union Passenger Terminal was opened.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The Santa Fe was the only railroad to run trains from Chicago to California on its own tracks. The railway's extensive network was also home to a number of regional services. These generally couldn't boast of the size or panache of the transcontinental trains, but built up enviable reputations of their own nonetheless. Of these, the Chicago-Texas trains were the most famous and impressive. The "San Diegans," which ran from Los Angeles to San Diego, were the most popular and durable, becoming to the Santa Fe what New York City-Philadelphia trains were to the Pennsylvania Railroad. But Santa Fe flyers also served Tulsa, Oklahoma, El Paso, Texas, Phoenix, Arizona (the "Hassayampa Flyer"), and Denver, Colorado, among other cities not on their main line.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: To reach smaller communities, the railroad operated mixed (passenger and freight) trains or gas-electric doodlebug rail cars. The latter were later converted to diesel power, and one pair of Budd Rail Diesel Cars was eventually added. After World War II, Santa Fe Trailways buses replaced most of these lesser trains. These smaller trains generally were not named; only the train numbers were used to differentiate services.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The ubiquitous passenger service inspired the title of the 1946 Academy-Award-winning Harry Warren tune "On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe." The song was written in 1945 for the film "The Harvey Girls", a story about the waitresses of the Fred Harvey Company's restaurants. It was sung in the film by Judy Garland and recorded by many other singers, including Bing Crosby. In the 1970s, the railroad used Crosby's version in a commercial.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: AT&SF ceased operating passenger trains on May 1, 1971, when it conveyed its remaining trains to Amtrak. These included the "Super Chief" / "El Capitan", the "Texas Chief" and the "San Diegan" (though Amtrak reduced the "San Diegan" from three round trips to two). Discontinued were the "San Francisco Chief", the ex-"Grand Canyon", the "Tulsan", and a Denver–La Junta local. ATSF had been more than willing to retain the "San Diegan" and its famed "Chiefs." However, any railroad that opted out of Amtrak would have been required to operate "all" of its passenger routes until at least 1976. The prospect of having to keep operating its less-successful routes, especially the money-bleeding 23/24 (the former "Grand Canyon") led ATSF to get out of passenger service altogether.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: Amtrak still runs the "Super Chief" and "San Diegan" today as the "Southwest Chief" and "Pacific Surfliner," respectively, although the original routes and equipment have been modified by Amtrak.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: Occasionally, a special train was chartered to make a high-profile run over the Santa Fe's track. These specials were not included in the railroad's regular revenue service lineup, but were intended as one-time (and usually one-way) traversals of the railroad. Some of the more notable specials include:


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The Santa Fe employed several distinctive wayside and crossing signal styles. In an effort to reduce grade crossing accidents, the Santa Fe was an early user of wigwag signals from the Magnetic Signal Company, beginning in the 1920s. They had several distinct styles that were not commonly seen elsewhere. Model 10's, which had the wigwag motor and banner coming from halfway up the mast with the crossbucks on top, were almost unique to the Santa Fe–the Southern Pacific had a few as well. Upper quadrant Magnetic Flagmen were used extensively on the Santa Fe as well–virtually every small town main street and a number of city streets had their crossings protected by these unique wigwags. Virtually all the wigwags were replaced with modern signals by the turn of the 21st century.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The railroad was also known for its tall "T-2 style" upper quadrant semaphores which provided traffic control on its lines. Again, the vast majority of these had been replaced by the beginning of the 21st century, with fewer than 50 still remaining in use in New Mexico as of 2015.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The Santa Fe operated a large and varied fleet of steam locomotives. In 1899, the company owned 1036 locomotives. Among them was the 2-10-2 "Santa Fe", originally built for the railroad by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1903. The railroad would ultimately end up with the largest fleet of them, at over 300. Aside from the 2-10-2, Santa Fe rostered virtually every type of steam locomotive imaginable, including 4-4-2 Atlantics, 2-6-0 Moguls, 2-8-0 Consolidations, 2-8-2 Mikados, 2-10-0 Decapods, 2-6-2 Prairies, 4-8-4 Northerns, 4-6-4 Hudsons, 4-6-2 Pacifics, 4-8-2 Mountains, 2-8-4 Berkshires, and 2-10-4 Texas. The railroad also operated a fleet of heavy articulated steam locomotives, including 1158 class 2-6-6-2s, 2-8-8-0s, 2-10-10-2s, 2-8-8-2s, and the rare 4-4-6-2 "Mallet" type. The Railroad retired its last steam locomotive in 1959.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: During the twentieth century, all but one of these was painted black, with white unit numbers on the sand domes and three sides of the tender. Cab sides were lettered "AT&SF", also in white. The subsidiary Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe often painted all or part of the smokebox (between the boiler and the headlight) white or silver. In 1940, the circle and cross emblem was applied to the tenders of a few passenger locomotives, but these were all later painted over. After World War II, "Santa Fe" appeared on tender sides of mainline road locomotives in white, above the unit number. Locomotives were delivered from Baldwin with white paint on the wheel rims, but the road did not repaint these "whitewalls" after shopping the locomotives. After World War II, side rods and valve gear were painted chrome yellow. For a short time, Pacific types 1369 and 1376 were semi-streamlined for "Valley Flyer" service, with a unique paint scheme in colors similar to those used on the new passenger diesels. More unique was the two-tone light blue over royal blue scheme of streamlined Hudson type 3460.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: While most of the Santa Fe's steam locomotives were retired and sold for scrap, over fifty were saved and donated to various parks and museums, a handful of which have either been restored to operating condition or are pending future restoration.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: Santa Fe's first set of diesel-electric passenger locomotives was placed in service on the "Super Chief" in 1936, and consisted of a pair of blunt-nosed units (EMC 1800 hp B-B) designated as Nos. 1 and 1A. The upper portion of the sides and ends of the units were painted gold, while the lower section was a dark olive green color; an olive stripe also ran along the sides and widened as it crossed the front of the locomotive.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: Riveted to the sides of the units were metal plaques bearing a large "Indian Head" logo, which owed its origin to the 1926 "Chief" "drumhead" logo. ""Super Chief"" was emblazoned on a plaque located on the front. The rooftop was light slate gray, rimmed by a red pinstripe. This unique combination of colors was called the "Golden Olive" paint scheme. Before entering service, Sterling McDonald<nowiki>'</nowiki>s General Motors Styling Department augmented the look with the addition of red and blue striping along both the sides and ends of the units in order to enhance their appearance.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: In a little over a year, the EMC E1 (a new and improved streamlined locomotive) would be pulling the "Super Chief" and other passenger consists, resplendent in the now-famous "Warbonnet" paint scheme devised by Leland Knickerbocker of the GM Art and Color Section. Its design was protected under a U.S. design patent, granted on November 9, 1937. It is reminiscent of a Native American ceremonial head-dress. The scheme consisted of a red "bonnet" that wrapped around the front of the unit and was bordered by a yellow stripe and black pinstripe. The extent of the bonnet varied according to the locomotive model and was largely determined by the shape and length of the car body. The remainder of the unit was either painted silver or was composed of stainless-steel panels.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: All units wore a nose emblem consisting of an elongated yellow "Circle and Cross" emblem with integral "tabs" on the nose and the sides, outlined and accented with black pinstripes, with variances according to the locomotive model. "SANTA FE" was displayed on the horizontal limb of the cross in black, Art Deco-style lettering. This emblem has come to be known as the "cigar band" due to its uncanny resemblance to the same. On all but the "Erie-built" units (which were essentially run as a demonstrator set), GE U28CG, GE U30CG, and FP45 units, a three-part yellow and black stripe ran up the nose behind the band.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: A "Circle and Cross" motif (consisting of a yellow field, with red quadrants, outlined in black) was painted around the side windows on "as-delivered" E1 units. Similar designs were added to E3s, E6s, the DL109/110 locomotive set, and ATSF 1A after it was rebuilt and repainted. The sides of the units typically bore the words "SANTA FE" in black, 5"– or 9"–high extra extended Railroad Roman letters, as well as the "Indian Head" logo, with a few notable exceptions.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: In later years, Santa Fe adapted the scheme to its gas-electric "doodlebug" units. The standard for all of Santa Fe's passenger locomotives, the "Warbonnet" is considered by many to be the most-recognized corporate logo in the railroad industry. Early after Amtrak's inception in 1971, Santa Fe embarked on a program to repaint the red bonnet on its F units that were still engaged in hauling passenger consists with yellow (also called "Yellowbonnets") or dark blue (nicknamed "Bluebonnets"), as it no longer wanted to project the image of a passenger carrier.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: Diesels used as switchers between 1935 and 1960 were painted black, with just a thin white or silver horizontal accent stripe (the sills were painted similarly). The letters "A.T.& S.F." were applied in a small font centered on the sides of the unit, as was the standard blue and white "Santa Fe" box logo. After World War II, diagonal white or silver stripes were added to the ends and cab sides to increase the visibility at grade crossings (typically referred to as the "Zebra Stripe" scheme). "A.T.& S.F." was now placed along the sides of the unit just above the accent stripe, with the blue and white "Santa Fe" box logo below.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: Due to the lack of abundant water sources in the American desert, the Santa Fe Railway was among the first railroads to receive large numbers of streamlined diesel locomotives for use in freight service, in the form of the EMD FT. For the first group of FTs, delivered between December 1940 and March 1943 (#100–#119), the railroad selected a color scheme consisting of dark blue accented by a pale yellow stripe up the nose, and pale yellow highlights around the cab and along the mesh and framing of openings in the sides of the engine compartment; a thin red stripe separated the blue areas from the yellow.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The words SANTA FE were applied in yellow in a 5"–high extended font, and centered on the nose was the "Santa Fe" box logo (initially consisting of a blue cross, circle, and square painted on a solid bronze sheet, but subsequently changed to baked steel sheets painted bronze with the blue identifying elements applied on top). Three thin, pale yellow stripes (known as "Cat Whiskers") extended from the nose logo around the cab sides. In January, 1951, Santa Fe revised the scheme to consist of three yellow stripes running up the nose, with the addition of a blue and yellow "Cigar Band" (similar in size and shape to that applied to passenger units); the blue background and elongated yellow "SANTA FE" lettering were retained.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: The years 1960 to 1972 saw non-streamlined freight locomotives sporting the "Billboard" color scheme (sometimes referred to as the "Bookends" or "Pinstripe" scheme), where the units were predominantly dark blue with yellow ends and trim, with a single yellow accent pinstripe. The words "Santa Fe" were applied in yellow in large bold serif letters (logotype) to the sides of the locomotive below the accent stripe (save for yard switchers which displayed the "SANTA FE" in small yellow letters above the accent stripe, somewhat akin to the "Zebra Stripe" arrangement).


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: From 1972 to 1996, and even on into the BNSF era, the company adopted a new paint scheme often known among railfans as the "Freightbonnet", which placed more yellow on the locomotives (reminiscent of the company's retired "Warbonnet" scheme); the goal again was to ensure higher visibility at grade crossings. The truck assemblies, previously colored black, now received silver paint.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: In 1965, the road took delivery of ten GE U28CG dual-service roadswitcher locomotives equally suited to passenger or fast freight service. These wore a variation of the "Warbonnet" scheme in which the black and yellow separating stripes disappeared. The "Santa Fe" name was emblazoned on the sides in large black letters, using the same stencils used on freight engines; these were soon repainted in red. In 1989, Santa Fe resurrected this version of the "Warbonnet" scheme and applied it to two SDFP45 units, #5992 and #5998. The units were re-designated as #101 and #102 and reentered service on July 4, 1989, as part of the new "Super Fleet" campaign (the first Santa Fe units to be so decorated for freight service). The six remaining FP45 units were thereafter similarly repainted and renumbered. From that point forward, most new locomotives wore red and silver, and many retained this scheme after the Burlington Northern Santa Fe merger, some with "BNSF" displayed across their sides.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: For the initial deliveries of factory-new "Super Fleet" equipment, Santa Fe took delivery of the EMD GP60M and General Electric B40-8W which made the Santa Fe the only US Class I railroad to operate new 4-axle (B-B) freight locomotives equipped with the North American Safety Cab intended for high-speed intermodal service.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: Several experimental and commemorative paint schemes emerged during the Santa Fe's diesel era. One combination was developed and partially implemented in anticipation of a merger between the parent companies of the Santa Fe and Southern Pacific (SP) railroads in 1984. The red, yellow, and black paint scheme with large yellow block letters on the sides and ends of the units of the proposed Southern Pacific Santa Fe Railroad (SPSF) has come to be somewhat derisively known among railfans as the "Kodachrome" livery, due to the similarity in colors to the boxes containing slide film sold by the Eastman Kodak Company under the same name. Santa Fe units repainted in this scheme were labeled "SF", Southern Pacific units "SP", and some (presumably new) units wore the letters "SPSF". After the ICC's denial of the merger, railfans joked that SPSF really stood for "Shouldn't Paint So Fast."


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: Santa Fe maintained and operated a fleet of three passenger ferry boats (the "San Pablo", the "San Pedro", and the "Ocean Wave") that connected Richmond, California, with San Francisco by water. The ships traveled the eight miles between the San Francisco Ferry Terminal and the railroad's Point Richmond terminal across San Francisco Bay. The service was originally established as a continuation of the company's named passenger train runs such as the "Angel" and the "Saint". The larger two ships (the "San Pablo" and the "San Pedro") carried Fred Harvey Company dining facilities.


title: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway

text: Rival SP owned the world's largest ferry fleet (which was subsidized by other railroad activities), at its peak carrying 40 million passengers and 60 million vehicles annually aboard 43 vessels. Santa Fe discontinued ferry service in 1933 due to the effects of the Great Depression and routed their trains to Southern Pacific's ferry terminal in Oakland. The San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge opened in 1936, initiating a slow decline in demand for SP's ferry service, which was eventually discontinued circa 1958; starting in 1938, SF-bound passengers could board buses across the bridge at the Santa Fe Oakland depot (located in Emeryville).


title: Drugs controlled by the UK Misuse of Drugs Act

text: These drugs are known in the UK as "controlled drugs", because this is the term by which the act itself refers to them. In more general terms, however, many of these drugs are also controlled by the Medicines Act 1968, there are many other drugs which are controlled by the Medicines Act but not by the Misuse of Drugs Act, and some other drugs (alcohol, for example) are controlled by other laws.


text: The Misuse of Drugs Act sets out three separate categories, Class A, Class B, and Class C. Class A drugs represent those deemed most dangerous, and so carry the harshest punishments. Class C represents those thought to have the least capacity for harm, and so the Act demands more lenient punishment. In reality the potential harm has little bearing on the class, which has led to dissatisfaction with drug laws.


text: Being found in possession of a drug on this list is dealt with less seriously than would be if it were deemed that there is intent to supply (even without payment) the drug to others. Possession with intent to supply carries a maximum penalty of life imprisonment.


text: With regard to lawful possession and supply, a different set of categories apply which are set out in the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001 (as amended). This sets out five schedules each with their own restrictions. Schedule 1 contains substances considered by the government to have no medicinal value, such as hallucinogens, and their use is limited primarily to research, whereas schedules 2–5 contain the other regulated drugs. This means that although drugs may fall into the category of Class A/B/C, they may also fall into one of the schedules for legitimate medicinal use. For example, morphine is a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, but when lawfully supplied falls under the category of a Schedule 2 controlled drug.


text: Substances may be removed and added to different parts of the schedule by statutory instrument, provided a report of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs has been commissioned and has reached a conclusion, although the Secretary of State is not bound by the council's findings. This list has in practice been modified a great number of times, sometimes removing substances, but more commonly adding some; for example, many benzodiazepines became Class C drugs in 1985, and many cathinones became Class B drugs in 2010.


text: (b) any compound (not being a compound for the time being specified in sub-paragraph (a) above) structurally derived from tryptamine or from a ring-hydroxy tryptamine by modification in any of the following ways, that is to say—


text: (c) any compound (not being methoxyphenamine or a compound for the time being specified in sub-paragraph (a) above) structurally derived from phenethylamine an N-alkylphenethylamine, a methylphenethylamine, an N-alkyl-α-methylphenethylamine, an ethylphenethylamine, or an N-alkyl-α-ethylphenethylamine by substitution in the ring to any extent with alkyl, alkoxy, alkylenedioxy or halide substituents, whether or not further substituted in the ring by one or more other univalent substituents.


text: (d) any compound (not being a compound for the time being specified in sub-paragraph (a) above) structurally derived from fentanyl by modification in any of the following ways, that is to say,


text: (e) any compound (not being a compound for the time being specified in sub-paragraph (a) above) structurally derived from pethidine by modification in any of the following ways, that is to say,


text: (f) any compound (not being benzyl(α-methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyphenethyl)amine) structurally derived from mescaline, 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxy-α-methylphenethylamine, 2,5-dimethoxy-α,4-dimethylphenethylamine, N-hydroxytenamphetamine (N-hydroxy-MDA), or a compound specified in sub-paragraph (ba) or (c) above, by substitution at the nitrogen atom of the amino group with a benzyl substituent, whether or not substituted in the phenyl ring of the benzyl group to any extent.”.


text: 2. Any stereoisomeric form of a substance for the time being specified in paragraph 1 above not being dextromethorphan or dextrorphan.


text: 3. Any ester or ether of a substance for the time being specified in paragraph 1 or 2 above [not being a substance for the time being specified in Part II of this Schedule].


text: 5. Any preparation or other product containing a substance or product for the time being specified in any of paragraphs 1 to 4 above.


text: 6. Any preparation designed for administration by injection which includes a substance or product for the time being specified in any of paragraphs 1 to 3 of Part II of this Schedule.


text: (aa) Any compound (not being bupropion, cathinone, diethylpropion, pyrovalerone or a compound for the time being specified in sub–paragraph (a) above) structurally derived from 2–amino–1–phenyl–1–propanone by modification in any of the following ways, that is to say,


text: Any compound structurally derived from 2–aminopropan–1–one by substitution at the 1-position with any monocyclic, or fused‑polycyclic ring system (not being a phenyl ring or alkylenedioxyphenyl ring system), whether or not the compound is further modified in any of the following ways, that is to say,


text: [2,3–Dihydro–5–methyl–3–(4–morpholinylmethyl)pyrrolo[1, 2, 3–de]–1,4–benzoxazin–6–yl]–1–naphthalenylmethanone. (WIN 55,212-2)


text: [9–Hydroxy–6–methyl–3–[5–phenylpentan–2–yl] oxy–5, 6, 6a, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10a–octahydrophenanthridin–1–yl] acetate.


text: 9-(Hydroxymethyl)–6, 6–dimethyl–3–(2–methyloctan–2–yl)–6a, 7, 10, 10a–tetrahydrobenzo[c]chromen–1–ol.


text: [2,3–Dihydro–5–methyl–3–(4–morpholinylmethyl)pyrrolo[1, 2, 3–de]–1,4–benzoxazin–6–yl]–1–naphthalenylmethanone.


text: Any compound structurally derived from 3–(1–naphthoyl)indole or 1H–indol–3–yl–(1–naphthyl)methane by substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring by alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl or 2–(4–morpholinyl)ethyl, whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the naphthyl ring to any extent.


text: Any compound structurally derived from 3–(1–naphthoyl)pyrrole by substitution at the nitrogen atom of the pyrrole ring by alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl or 2–(4–morpholinyl)ethyl, whether or not further substituted in the pyrrole ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the naphthyl ring to any extent.


text: Any compound structurally derived from 1–(1–naphthylmethyl)indene by substitution at the 3–position of the indene ring by alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl or 2–(4–morpholinyl)ethyl, whether or not further substituted in the indene ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the naphthyl ring to any extent.


text: Any compound structurally derived from 3–phenylacetylindole by substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring with alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl or 2–(4–morpholinyl)ethyl, whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the phenyl ring to any extent.


text: Any compound structurally derived from 2–(3–hydroxycyclohexyl)phenol by substitution at the 5–position of the phenolic ring by alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl or 2–(4–morpholinyl)ethyl, whether or not further substituted in the cyclohexyl ring to any extent.";


text: Any compound structurally derived from 3-benzoylindole by substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring by alkyl, haloalkyl, alkenyl, cyanoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl, (N-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl or 2–(4–morpholinyl)ethyl, whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the phenyl ring to any extent.


text: Any compound structurally derived from 3-(1-adamantoyl)indole or 3-(2-adamantoyl)indole by substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring by alkyl, haloalkyl, alkenyl, cyanoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl, (N-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl or 2–(4–morpholinyl)ethyl, whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the adamantyl ring to any extent.


text: Any compound structurally derived from 3-(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropylcarbonyl)indole by substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring by alkyl, haloalkyl, alkenyl, cyanoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl, (N-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl or 2–(4–morpholinyl)ethyl, whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent.


text: (ca) any compound (not being clonitazene, etonitazene, acemetacin, atorvastatin, bazedoxifene, indometacin, losartan, olmesartan, proglumetacin, telmisartan, viminol, zafirlukast or a compound for the time being specified in sub-paragraph (c) above) structurally related to 1-pentyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-018), in that the four sub-structures, that is to say the indole ring, the pentyl substituent, the methanone linking group and the naphthyl ring, are linked together in a similar manner, whether or not any of the sub-structures have been modified, and whether or not substituted in any of the linked sub-structures with one or more univalent substituents and, where any of the sub-structures have been modified, the modifications of the sub-structures are limited to any of the following, that is to say—


text: (d) 1-Phenylcyclohexylamine or any compound (not being ketamine, tiletamine or a compound for the time being specified in paragraph 1(a) of Part 1 of this Schedule) structurally derived from 1-phenylcyclohexylamine or 2-amino-2-phenylcyclohexanone by modification in any of the following ways, that is to say,


text: (i) by substitution at the nitrogen atom to any extent by alkyl, alkenyl or hydroxyalkyl groups, or replacement of the amino group with a 1-piperidyl, 1-pyrrolidyl or 1-azepyl group, whether or not the nitrogen containing ring is further substituted by one or more alkyl groups;


text: (ii) by substitution in the phenyl ring to any extent by amino, alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy or halide substituents, whether or not further substituted in the phenyl ring to any extent;


text: (e) Any compound (not being a compound for the time being specified in paragraph 1(ba) of Part 1 of this Schedule) structurally derived from 1-benzofuran, 2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran, 1H-indole, indoline, 1H-indene, or indane by substitution in the 6-membered ring with a 2-ethylamino substituent whether or not further substituted in the ring system to any extent with alkyl, alkoxy, halide or haloalkyl substituents and whether or not substituted in the ethylamino side-chain with one or more alkyl substituents.


text: 2. Any stereoisomeric form of a substance for the time being specified in paragraph 1 of this Part of this Schedule.


text: 3. Any salt of a substance for the time being specified in paragraph 1 or 2 of this Part of this Schedule.


text: 4. Any preparation or other product containing a substance or product for the time being specified in any of paragraphs 1 to 3 of this Part of this Schedule, not being a preparation falling within paragraph 6 of Part I of this Schedule.


text: any compound (not being Trilostane or a compound for the time being specified in sub-paragraph (b) above) structurally derived from 17-hydroxyandrostan-3-one or from 17-hydroxyestran-3-one by modification in any of the following ways, that is to say,


text: (ii) by substitution to any extent at one or more of positions 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11 or 16, but at no other position;


text: (iii) by unsaturation in the carbocyclic ring system to any extent, provided that there are no more than two ethylenic bonds in any one carbocyclic ring;


text: any substance which is an ester or ether (or, where more than one hydroxyl function is available, both an ester and an ether) of a substance specified in sub-paragraph (b) or described in sub-paragraph (c) above;


text: 1–benzylpiperazine or any compound (not being 1–(3–chlorophenyl)piperazine or 1–(3–chlorophenyl)–4–(3–chloropropyl)piperazine) structurally derived from 1–benzylpiperazine or 1–phenylpiperazine by modification in any of the following ways


text: by substitution at the second nitrogen atom of the piperazine ring with alkyl, benzyl, haloalkyl or phenyl groups;


text: by substitution in the aromatic ring to any extent with alkyl, alkoxy, alkylenedioxy, halide or haloalkyl groups;


text: 2. Any stereoisomeric form of a substance for the time being specified in paragraph 1 of this Part of this Schedule [not being phenylpropanolamine.]


text: 4. Any preparation or other product containing a substance for the time being specified in any of paragraphs 1 to 3 of this Part of this Schedule.


text: The act contains several references to "derivatives" of compounds but the extent of this term is not fully clarified. Where unspecified it is thought to indicate derivatives which can be made from the specified compound in a single synthetic step, although such a definition would indicate that alkyllysergamide analogues would be uncontrolled. Where the derivatives are specified to be "structural derivatives" there is precedent that the statute applies whenever the structure could be converted to the "specified" derivatives in any number of synthetic steps.


title: Staining

text: Staining is a technique used to enhance contrast in samples, generally at the microscopic level. Stains and dyes are frequently used in histology (microscopic study of biological tissues), in cytology (microscopic study of cells), and in the medical fields of histopathology, hematology, and cytopathology that focus on the study and diagnoses of diseases at the microscopic level. Stains may be used to define biological tissues (highlighting, for example, muscle fibers or connective tissue), cell populations (classifying different blood cells), or organelles within individual cells.


title: Staining

text: In biochemistry, it involves adding a class-specific (DNA, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) dye to a substrate to qualify or quantify the presence of a specific compound. Staining and fluorescent tagging can serve similar purposes. Biological staining is also used to mark cells in flow cytometry, and to flag proteins or nucleic acids in gel electrophoresis. Light microscopes are used for viewing stained samples at high magnification, typically using bright-field or epi-fluorescence illumination.


title: Staining

text: Staining is not limited to only biological materials, since it can also be used to study the structure of other materials; for example, the lamellar structures of semi-crystalline polymers or the domain structures of block copolymers.


title: Staining

text: "In vivo staining" (also called vital staining or intravital staining) is the process of dyeing living tissues. By causing certain cells or structures to take on contrasting colours, their form (morphology) or position within a cell or tissue can be readily seen and studied. The usual purpose is to reveal cytological details that might otherwise not be apparent; however, staining can also reveal where certain chemicals or specific chemical reactions are taking place within cells or tissues.


title: Staining

text: "In vitro" staining involves colouring cells or structures that have been removed from their biological context. Certain stains are often combined to reveal more details and features than a single stain alone. Combined with specific protocols for fixation and sample preparation, scientists and physicians can use these standard techniques as consistent, repeatable diagnostic tools. A counterstain is stain that makes cells or structures more visible, when not completely visible with the principal stain.


title: Staining

text: While ex vivo, many cells continue to live and metabolize until they are "fixed". Some staining methods are based on this property. Those stains excluded by the living cells but taken up by the already dead cells are called vital stains (e.g. trypan blue or propidium iodide for eukaryotic cells). Those that enter and stain living cells are called supravital stains (e.g. New Methylene Blue and brilliant cresyl blue for reticulocyte staining). However, these stains are eventually toxic to the organism, some more so than others. Partly due to their toxic interaction inside a living cell, when supravital stains enter a living cell, they might produce a characteristic pattern of staining different from the staining of an already fixed cell (e.g. "reticulocyte" look versus diffuse "polychromasia"). To achieve desired effects, the stains are used in very dilute solutions ranging from to (Howey, 2000). Note that many stains may be used in both living and fixed cells.


title: Staining

text: The preparatory steps involved depend on the type of analysis planned. Some or all of the following procedures may be required.


title: Staining

text: Wet mounts are used to view live organisms and can be made using water and certain stains. The liquid is added to the slide before the addition of the organism and a coverslip is placed over the specimen in the water and stain to help contain it within the field of view.


title: Staining

text: Fixation, which may itself consist of several steps, aims to preserve the shape of the cells or tissue involved as much as possible. Sometimes heat fixation is used to kill, adhere, and alter the specimen so it accepts stains. Most chemical fixatives (chemicals causing fixation) generate chemical bonds between proteins and other substances within the sample, increasing their rigidity. Common fixatives include formaldehyde, ethanol, methanol, and/or picric acid. Pieces of tissue may be embedded in paraffin wax to increase their mechanical strength and stability and to make them easier to cut into thin slices.


title: Staining

text: Mordants are chemical agents which have power of making dyes to stain materials which otherwise are unstainable


title: Staining

text: Permeabilization involves treatment of cells with (usually) a mild surfactant. This treatment dissolves cell membranes, and allows larger dye molecules into the cell's interior.


title: Staining

text: Mounting usually involves attaching the samples to a glass microscope slide for observation and analysis. In some cases, cells may be grown directly on a slide. For samples of loose cells (as with a blood smear or a pap smear) the sample can be directly applied to a slide. For larger pieces of tissue, thin sections (slices) are made using a microtome; these slices can then be mounted and inspected.


title: Staining

text: Most of the dyes commonly used in microscopy are available as BSC-certified stains. This means that samples of the manufacturer's batch have been tested by an independent body, the Biological Stain Commission (BSC), and found to meet or exceed certain standards of purity, dye content and performance in staining techniques ensuring more accurately performed experiments and more reliable results. These standards are published in the commission's journal Biotechnic & Histochemistry. Many dyes are inconsistent in composition from one supplier to another. The use of BSC-certified stains eliminates a source of unexpected results.


title: Staining

text: Some vendors sell stains "certified" by themselves rather than by the Biological Stain Commission. Such products may or may not be suitable for diagnostic and other applications.


title: Staining

text: A simple staining method for bacteria that is usually successful, even when the positive staining methods fail, is to use a negative stain. This can be achieved by smearing the sample onto the slide and then applying nigrosin (a black synthetic dye) or India ink (an aqueous suspension of carbon particles). After drying, the microorganisms may be viewed in bright field microscopy as lighter inclusions well-contrasted against the dark environment surrounding them. Negative staining is able to stain the background instead of the organisms because the cell wall of microorganisms typically has a negative charge which repels the negatively charged stain. The dyes used in negative staining are acidic. Note: negative staining is a mild technique that may not destroy the microorganisms, and is therefore unsuitable for studying pathogens.


title: Staining

text: Unlike negative staining, positive staining uses basic dyes to color the specimen against a bright background. While chromophore is used for both negative and positive staining alike, the type of chromophore used in this technique is a positively charged ion instead of a negative one. The negatively charged cell wall of many microorganisms attracts the positively charged chromophore which causes the specimen to absorb the stain giving it the color of the stain being used. Positive staining is more commonly used than negative staining in microbiology. The different types of positive staining are listed below.


title: Staining

text: Simple Staining is a technique that only uses one type of stain on a slide at a time. Because only one stain is being used, the specimens (for positive stains) or background (for negative stains) will be one color. Therefore, simple stains are typically used for viewing only one organism per slide. Differential staining uses multiple stains per slide. Based on the stains being used, organisms with different properties will appear different colors allowing for categorization of multiple specimens. Differential staining can also be used to color different organelles within one organism which can be seen in endospore staining.


title: Staining

text: Gram staining is used to determine gram status to classifying bacteria broadly based on the composition of their cell wall. Gram staining uses crystal violet to stain cell walls, iodine (as a mordant), and a fuchsin or safranin counterstain to (mark all bacteria). Gram status, helps divide specimens of bacteria into two groups, generally representative of their underlying phylogeny. This characteristic, in combination with other techniques makes it a useful tool in clinical microbiology laboratories, where it can be important in early selection of appropriate antibiotics.


title: Staining

text: On most Gram-stained preparations, Gram-negative organisms appear red or pink due to their counterstain. Due to the presence of higher lipid content, after alcohol-treatment, the porosity of the cell wall increases, hence the CVI complex (crystal violet – iodine) can pass through. Thus, the primary stain is not retained. In addition, in contrast to most Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria have only a few layers of peptidoglycan and a secondary cell membrane made primarily of lipopolysaccharide.


title: Staining

text: Endospore staining is used to identify the presence or absence of endospores, which make bacteria very difficult to kill. Bacterial spores have proven to be difficult to stain as they are not permeable to aqueous dye reagents.  Endospore staining is particularly useful for identifying endospore-forming bacterial pathogens such as "Clostridium difficile". Prior to the development of more efficient methods, this stain was performed using the Wirtz method with heat fixation and counterstain. Through the use of malachite green and a diluted ratio of carbol fuchsin, fixing bacteria in osmic acid was a great way to ensure no blending of dyes. However, newly revised staining methods have significantly decreased the time it takes to create these stains. This revision included substitution of carbol fuchsin with aqueous Safranin paired with a newly diluted 5% formula of malachite green. This new and improved composition of stains was performed in the same way as before with the use of heat fixation, rinsing, and blotting dry for later examination. Upon examination, all endospore forming bacteria will be stained green accompanied by all other cells appearing red.


title: Staining

text: A Ziehl–Neelsen stain is an acid-fast stain used to stain species of "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" that do not stain with the standard laboratory staining procedures such as Gram staining.


title: Staining

text: This stain is performed through the use of both red coloured carbol fuchsin that stains the bacteria and a counter stain such as methylene blue.


title: Staining

text: Haematoxylin and eosin staining is frequently used in histology to examine thin tissue sections. Haematoxylin stains cell nuclei blue, while eosin stains cytoplasm, connective tissue and other extracellular substances pink or red. Eosin is strongly absorbed by red blood cells, colouring them bright red. In a skillfully made H&E preparation the red blood cells are almost orange, and collagen and cytoplasm (especially muscle) acquire different shades of pink.


title: Staining

text: Papanicolaou staining, or PAP staining, was developed to replace fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) in hopes of decreasing staining times and cost without compromising quality. This stain is a frequently used method for examining cell samples from a variety of tissue types in various organs. PAP staining has endured several modifications in order to become a “suitable alternative” for FNAC. This transition stemmed from the appreciation of wet fixed smears by scientists preserving the structures of the nuclei opposed to the opaque appearance of air dried Romanowsky smears. This led to the creation of a hybrid stain of wet fixed and air dried known as the ultrafast papanicolaou stain. This modification includes the use of nasal saline to rehydrate cells to increase cell transparency and is paired with the use of alcoholic formalin to enhance colors of the nuclei. The papanicolaou stain is now used in place of cytological staining in all organ types due to its increase in morphological quality, decreased staining time, and decreased cost. It is frequently used to stain Pap smear specimens. It uses a combination of haematoxylin, Orange G, eosin Y, Light Green SF yellowish, and sometimes Bismarck Brown Y.


title: Staining

text: Periodic acid-Schiff is a histology special stain used to mark carbohydrates (glycogen, glycoprotein, proteoglycans). PAS is commonly used on liver tissue where glycogen deposits are made which is done in efforts to distinguish different types of glycogen storage diseases. PAS is important because it can detect glycogen granules found in tumors of the ovaries and pancreas of the endocrine system, as well as in the bladder and kidneys of the renal system. Basement membranes can also show up in a PAS stain and can be important when diagnosing renal disease. Due to the high volume of carbohydrates within the cell wall of hyphae and yeast forms of fungi, the Periodic acid -Schiff stain can help locate these species inside tissue samples of the human body.


title: Staining

text: Masson's trichrome is (as the name implies) a three-colour staining protocol. The recipe has evolved from Masson's original technique for different specific applications, but all are well-suited to distinguish cells from surrounding connective tissue. Most recipes produce red keratin and muscle fibers, blue or green staining of collagen and bone, light red or pink staining of cytoplasm, and black cell nuclei.


title: Staining

text: The Romanowsky stains is considered a polychrome staining effect and is based on a combination of eosin plus (chemically reduced eosin) and demethylated methylene blue (containing its oxidation products azure A and azure B). This stain develops varying colors for all cell structures (“Romanowsky-Giemsa effect) and thus was used in staining neutrophil polymorphs and cell nuclei. Common variants include Wright's stain, Jenner's stain, May-Grunwald stain, Leishman stain and Giemsa stain.


title: Staining

text: All are used to examine blood or bone marrow samples. They are preferred over H&E for inspection of blood cells because different types of leukocytes (white blood cells) can be readily distinguished. All are also suited to examination of blood to detect blood-borne parasites such as malaria.


title: Staining

text: Silver staining is the use of silver to stain histologic sections. This kind of staining is important in the demonstration of proteins (for example type III collagen) and DNA. It is used to show both substances inside and outside cells. Silver staining is also used in temperature gradient gel electrophoresis.


title: Staining

text: "Argentaffin cells" reduce silver solution to metallic silver after formalin fixation. This method was discovered by Italian Camillo Golgi, by using a reaction between silver nitrate and potassium dichromate, thus precipitating silver chromate in some cells (see Golgi's method). A"rgyrophilic cells" reduce silver solution to metallic silver after being exposed to the stain that contains a reductant. An example of this would be hydroquinone or formalin.


title: Staining

text: Sudan staining utilizes Sudan dyes to stain sudanophilic substances, often including lipids. Sudan III, Sudan IV, Oil Red O, Osmium tetroxide, and Sudan Black B are often used. Sudan staining is often used to determine the level of fecal fat in diagnosing steatorrhea.


title: Staining

text: The Wirtz-Conklin stain is a special technique designed for staining true endospores with the use of malachite green dye as the primary stain and safranin as the counterstain. Once stained, they do not decolourize. The addition of heat during the staining process is a huge contributing factor. Heat helps open the spore's membrane so the dye can enter. The main purpose of this stain is to show germination of bacterial spores. If the process of germination is taking place, then the spore will turn green in color due to malachite green and the surrounding cell will be red from the safranin. This stain can also help determine the orientation of the spore within the bacterial cell; whether it being terminal (at the tip), subterminal (within the cell), or central (completely in the middle of the cell).


title: Staining

text: Collagen Hybridizing Peptide (CHP) staining allows for an easy, direct way to stain denatured collagens of any type (Type I, II, IV, etc.) regardless if they were damaged or degraded via enzymatic, mechanical, chemical, or thermal means. They work by refolding into the collagen triple helix with the available single strands in the tissue. CHPs can be visualized by a simple fluorescence microscope.


title: Staining

text: Different stains react or concentrate in different parts of a cell or tissue, and these properties are used to advantage to reveal specific parts or areas. Some of the most common biological stains are listed below. Unless otherwise marked, all of these dyes may be used with fixed cells and tissues; vital dyes (suitable for use with living organisms) are noted.


title: Staining

text: Acridine orange (AO) is a nucleic acid selective fluorescent cationic dye useful for cell cycle determination. It is cell-permeable, and interacts with DNA and RNA by intercalation or electrostatic attractions. When bound to DNA, it is very similar spectrally to fluorescein. Like fluorescein, it is also useful as a non-specific stain for backlighting conventionally stained cells on the surface of a solid sample of tissue (fluorescence backlighted staining).


title: Staining

text: Bismarck brown (also Bismarck brown Y or Manchester brown) imparts a yellow colour to acid mucins. and an intense brown color to mast cells. One default of this stain is that it blots out any other structure surrounding it and makes the quality of the contrast low. It has to be paired with other stains  in order to be useful. Some complementing stains used alongside Bismark brown are Hematoxylin and Toluidine blue which provide better contrast within the histology sample.


title: Staining

text: Carmine is an intensely red dye used to stain glycogen, while Carmine alum is a nuclear stain. Carmine stains require the use of a mordant, usually aluminum.


title: Staining

text: Coomassie blue (also brilliant blue) nonspecifically stains proteins a strong blue colour. It is often used in gel electrophoresis.


title: Staining

text: Cresyl violet stains the acidic components of the neuronal cytoplasm a violet colour, specifically nissl bodies. Often used in brain research.


title: Staining

text: Crystal violet, when combined with a suitable mordant, stains cell walls purple. Crystal violet is the stain used in Gram staining.


title: Staining

text: DAPI is a fluorescent nuclear stain, excited by ultraviolet light and showing strong blue fluorescence when bound to DNA. DAPI binds with A=T rich repeats of chromosomes. DAPI is also not visible with regular transmission microscopy. It may be used in living or fixed cells. DAPI-stained cells are especially appropriate for cell counting.


title: Staining

text: Eosin is most often used as a counterstain to haematoxylin, imparting a pink or red colour to cytoplasmic material, cell membranes, and some extracellular structures. It also imparts a strong red colour to red blood cells. Eosin may also be used as a counterstain in some variants of Gram staining, and in many other protocols. There are actually two very closely related compounds commonly referred to as eosin. Most often used is eosin Y (also known as eosin Y ws or eosin yellowish); it has a very slightly yellowish cast. The other eosin compound is eosin B (eosin bluish or imperial red); it has a very faint bluish cast. The two dyes are interchangeable, and the use of one or the other is more a matter of preference and tradition.


title: Staining

text: Ethidium bromide intercalates and stains DNA, providing a fluorescent red-orange stain. Although it will not stain healthy cells, it can be used to identify cells that are in the final stages of apoptosis – such cells have much more permeable membranes. Consequently, ethidium bromide is often used as a marker for apoptosis in cells populations and to locate bands of DNA in gel electrophoresis. The stain may also be used in conjunction with acridine orange (AO) in viable cell counting. This EB/AO combined stain causes live cells to fluoresce green whilst apoptotic cells retain the distinctive red-orange fluorescence.


title: Staining

text: Acid fuchsin is used as the nuclear and cytoplasmic stain in Mallory's trichrome method. Acid fuchsin stains cytoplasm in some variants of Masson's trichrome. In Van Gieson's picro-fuchsine, acid fuchsin imparts its red colour to collagen fibres. Acid fuchsin is also a traditional stain for mitochondria (Altmann's method).


title: Staining

text: Haematoxylin (hematoxylin in North America) is a nuclear stain. Used with a mordant, haematoxylin stains nuclei blue-violet or brown. It is most often used with eosin in the H&E stain (haematoxylin and eosin) staining, one of the most common procedures in histology.


title: Staining

text: Hoechst is a "bis"-benzimidazole derivative compound that binds to the "minor groove" of DNA. Often used in fluorescence microscopy for DNA staining, Hoechst stains appear yellow when dissolved in aqueous solutions and emit blue light under UV excitation. There are two major types of Hoechst: "Hoechst 33258" and "Hoechst 33342". The two compounds are functionally similar, but with a little difference in structure. Hoechst 33258 contains a terminal hydroxyl group and is thus more soluble in aqueous solution, however this characteristics reduces its ability to penetrate the plasma membrane. Hoechst 33342 contains an ethyl substitution on the terminal hydroxyl group (i.e. an ethylether group) making it more hydrophobic for easier plasma membrane passage


title: Staining

text: Iodine is used in chemistry as an indicator for starch. When starch is mixed with iodine in solution, an intensely dark blue colour develops, representing a starch/iodine complex. Starch is a substance common to most plant cells and so a weak iodine solution will stain starch present in the cells. Iodine is one component in the staining technique known as Gram staining, used in microbiology. Used as a mordant in Gram's staining, iodine enhances the entrance of the dye through the pores present in the cell wall/membrane.


title: Staining

text: Lugol's solution or Lugol's iodine (IKI) is a brown solution that turns black in the presence of starches and can be used as a cell stain, making the cell nuclei more visible.


title: Staining

text: Used with common vinegar (acetic acid), Lugol's solution is used to identify pre-cancerous and cancerous changes in cervical and vaginal tissues during "Pap smear" follow up examinations in preparation for biopsy. The acetic acid causes the abnormal cells to blanch white, while the normal tissues stain a mahogany brown from the iodine.


title: Staining

text: Malachite green (also known as diamond green B or victoria green B) can be used as a blue-green counterstain to safranin in the Gimenez staining technique for bacteria. It can also be used to directly stain spores.


title: Staining

text: Methyl green is used commonly with bright-field, as well as fluorescence microscopes to dye the chromatin of cells so that they are more easily viewed.


title: Staining

text: Methylene blue is used to stain animal cells, such as human cheek cells, to make their nuclei more observable. Also used to stain blood films in cytology.


title: Staining

text: Neutral red (or toluylene red) stains Nissl substance red. It is usually used as a counterstain in combination with other dyes.


title: Staining

text: Nile red (also known as Nile blue oxazone) is formed by boiling Nile blue with sulfuric acid. This produces a mix of Nile red and Nile blue. Nile red is a lipophilic stain; it will accumulate in lipid globules inside cells, staining them red. Nile red can be used with living cells. It fluoresces strongly when partitioned into lipids, but practically not at all in aqueous solution.


title: Staining

text: Osmium tetraoxide is used in optical microscopy to stain lipids. It dissolves in fats, and is reduced by organic materials to elemental osmium, an easily visible black substance.


title: Staining

text: Propidium iodide is a fluorescent intercalating agent that can be used to stain cells. Propidium iodide is used as a DNA stain in flow cytometry to evaluate cell viability or DNA content in cell cycle analysis, or in microscopy to visualise the nucleus and other DNA-containing organelles. Propidium Iodide cannot cross the membrane of live cells, making it useful to differentiate necrotic, apoptotic and healthy cells. PI also binds to RNA, necessitating treatment with nucleases to distinguish between RNA and DNA staining


title: Staining

text: Safranine (or Safranine O) is a red cationic dye. It binds to nuclei (DNA) and other tissue polyanions, including glycosaminoglycans in cartilage and mast cells, and components of lignin and plastids in plant tissues. Safranine should not be confused with saffron, an expensive natural dye that is used in some methods to impart a yellow colour to collagen, to contrast with blue and red colours imparted by other dyes to nuclei and cytoplasm in animal (including human) tissues.


title: Staining

text: The incorrect spelling "safranin" is in common use. The -ine ending is appropriate for safranine O because this dye is an amine.


title: Staining

text: Tissues which take up stains are called chromatic. Chromosomes were so named because of their ability to absorb a violet stain.


title: Staining

text: Positive affinity for a specific stain may be designated by the suffix "-philic". For example, tissues that stain with an azure stain may be referred to as azurophilic. This may also be used for more generalized staining properties, such as acidophilic for tissues that stain by acidic stains (most notably eosin), basophilic when staining in basic dyes, and "amphophilic" when staining with either acid or basic dyes. In contrast, chromophobic tissues do not take up coloured dye readily.


title: Staining

text: As in light microscopy, stains can be used to enhance contrast in transmission electron microscopy. Electron-dense compounds of heavy metals are typically used.


title: Staining

text: Phosphotungstic acid is a common negative stain for viruses, nerves, polysaccharides, and other biological tissue materials. It is mostly used in a .5-2% ph form making it neutral and is paired with water to make an aqueous solution. Phosphotungstic acid is filled with electron dense matter that stains the background surrounding the specimen dark and the specimen itself light. This process is not the normal positive technique for staining where the specimen is dark and the background remains light.


title: Staining

text: Osmium tetroxide is used in optical microscopy to stain lipids. It dissolves in fats, and is reduced by organic materials to elemental osmium, an easily visible black substance. Because it is a heavy metal that absorbs electrons, it is perhaps the most common stain used for morphology in biological electron microscopy. It is also used for the staining of various polymers for the study of their morphology by TEM. is very volatile and extremely toxic. It is a strong oxidizing agent as the osmium has an oxidation number of +8. It aggressively oxidizes many materials, leaving behind a deposit of non-volatile osmium in a lower oxidation state.


title: Staining

text: Ruthenium tetroxide is equally volatile and even more aggressive than osmium tetraoxide and able to stain even materials that resist the osmium stain, e.g. polyethylene.


title: Staining

text: ammonium molybdate, cadmium iodide, carbohydrazide, ferric chloride, hexamine, indium trichloride, lanthanum(III) nitrate, lead acetate, lead citrate, lead(II) nitrate, periodic acid, phosphomolybdic acid, potassium ferricyanide, potassium ferrocyanide, ruthenium red, silver nitrate, silver proteinate, sodium chloroaurate, thallium nitrate, thiosemicarbazide, uranyl acetate, uranyl nitrate, and vanadyl sulfate.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: Bamboo Airways JSC (), operating as Bamboo Airways, is a Vietnamese airline owned by the FLC Group, registered in Quy Nhơn, Vietnam, with a head office in Cầu Giấy District, Hanoi. Founded in 2017, the airline launched operations on 16 January 2019, declared that it would follow the "hybrid airline" model. It operates a mixed fleet of narrowbody and widebody aircraft, and has hubs at Noi Bai International Airport and Tan Son Nhat International Airport.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: The airline was founded in 2017. In March 2018, a memorandum of understanding with Airbus for up to 24 Airbus A321neos in a deal worth up to US$3.1 billion was signed; the event was witnessed by the General Secretary Nguyễn Phú Trọng and the French Parliamentary President François de Rugy. On 25 June 2018, with the presence of Deputy Prime Minister Vương Đình Huệ, the FLC Group officially signed an agreement with Boeing for an order of 20 new Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner aircraft worth $5.6 billion.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: In March 2019, Bamboo Airways completed an agreement to buy 26 more Airbus A321Neo aircraft with a total listing value of up to $6.3 billion, serving the plan to develop the fleet and open new international routes, the agreement will bring the total number of narrow-body Airbus A321Neo aircraft ordered by Bamboo Airways to 50, including 24 in the memorandum of understanding signed in March 2018.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: The airline aimed to hire up to 600 personnel when it began in April 2018, and additionally had goals to operate as a five-star airline. In July 2018, The FLC Group announced it would be increasing its charter capital to $56.52 million.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: The establishment of the carrier was approved by the Prime Minister of Vietnam in July 2018. The airline's AOC was granted on 9 July 2018, and Bamboo Airways subsequently passed the five stages for certification required by Vietnam's Civil Aviation Authority. After reviewing the airline's financial structure and business plan, the Ministry of Transport issued an aviation license in November 2018. The carrier inducted its first aircraft, an Airbus A319-100, in December 2018. The same month, Bamboo Airways took delivery of its first A321neo, on lease from GECAS.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: The airline started operations using aircraft acquired by lease from third party lessors, before taking delivery of aircraft from Airbus. Operations started on 16 January 2019, with a leased Airbus A320 linking Ho Chi Minh City with Hanoi. A firm order covering ten Boeing 787-9s was made public in early 2019. The carrier received its first A320neo in November 2019. The airline's first Boeing 787-9 was delivered a month later.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: In March 2022, Trịnh Văn Quyết - the founder and chairman of Bamboo Airways its parent group FLC - as well as many other FLC's key people were arrested over alleged market manipulation, fraud and appropriation of properties. Concerned that the crisis will negatively affect the operations of the carrier and damage the rights and safety of the customers, the Civil Aviation Authority of Vietnam announced that it will closely monitor and supervise Bamboo Airways in a certain period of time, while Bamboo Airways declared that it faced little disruption and its business was still running "smoothly".


title: Bamboo Airways

text: Followed by the authorities' investigations aiming at its parent company FLC Group, Bamboo Airways stated that it was needing a "strategic investor". Local media has reported that a new owner, that its accurate identity is yet to be confirmed, has already started its acquisition of Bamboo Airways by refreshing the board of directors of the enterprise, announcing restructure plans for Bamboo Airways as well as cutting connections between Bamboo Airways's operations and its "former" owner FLC Group.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: As of December 2022, the official website of Bamboo Airways has no more mentioned the names of its founders, including the "FLC Group" brand.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: , Duong Thi Mai Hoa held the vice-president and general manager positions. Dang Tat Thang held the CEO position from 2018 until July 2022. Nguyen Manh Quan is the current CEO of the carrier, as of July 30, 2022.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: Dang Tat Thang was also the Chairman of the carrier after the former Chairman Trinh Van Quyet was arrested at the end of March 2022 on stock manipulation charges. He held the position and also the aforementioned CEO position until July 27, 2022 when he resigned, citing "personal reasons".. After an extraordinary shareholders meeting on August 13, 2022, the carrier's shareholders has appointed Deputy Chairman Nguyen Ngoc Trong as the new Chairman of the Board for the carrier.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: Bamboo Airways is owned by FLC Group, a company that specializes property development, finance, and mining, among other activities.FLC Group is reportedly transferring Bamboo Airways to another "strategic investor" and effectively ending its influence in the carrier.


title: Bamboo Airways

text: According to the Chairman Nguyen Ngoc Trong, Bamboo Airways is aiming to boost the number of aircraft in the fleet to 35 by the end of 2022, 42 in 2023 and 100 in 2028.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: Billa is a 2007 Indian Tamil-language action thriller film directed by Vishnuvardhan. It is a remake of 1980 Tamil film "Billa" which itself was a remake of the 1978 Hindi film "Don". The film stars Ajith Kumar who plays a double role as an underworld don and his friendly look-alike alongside Nayanthara and Namitha, while Prabhu, Rahman, Adithya Menon, and Santhanam playing supporting roles. It is produced by L. Suresh and Abdurrahman M while featuring a score and soundtrack by Yuvan Shankar Raja, cinematography by Nirav Shah and editing by A. Sreekar Prasad.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: The project commenced in April 2007 and was released and distributed worldwide by Ayngaran International on 14 December 2007. The film, upon release, emerged successful, and was selected to be screened at the 61st Cannes Film Festival.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: David Billa is a crime boss featured on Interpol's criminal list, who is hiding and operating out of Malaysia. DSP Jayaprakash has spent the last few years looking for Billa, leaving behind a life in India. During a chase with the police, Billa is severely wounded after an accident and dies in front of Jayaprakash, who secretly holds a burial of Billa. Interpol officer Gokulnath is assigned to work with Jayaprakash to capture elusive Billa as no-one knows of Billa's death. Jayaprakash keeps Billa's death as a secret even from his fellow officers, and tracks down a look-alike called Saravana Venu, a hotel server and small-time petty thief. He asks Venu to infiltrate Billa's gang by pretending to be Billa. In return, he will make sure that the child Venu adopted, Karan gets a proper education.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: Jayaprakash trains Venu and sends him back to Billa's gang, disguised as an amnesiac Billa, who had been hiding at an apartment complex due to his injuries. Slowly, Venu starts to learn about Billa's gang and even speaks to Jagdish, Billa's boss on the phone. Venu provides a pen drive with the secret information of the crime network to Jayaprakash, but he is about to be killed by Sasha because her brother Rajesh as well as his fiancée Rhea were killed by Billa earlier. At this juncture, Jayaprakash arrives and tells her that he is Venu and not Billa. Later before a party, Venu secretly provides information to Jayaprakash about a meeting of Billa's network and C.J., Billa's girlfriend, overhears his conversation. She confronts Venu, but in the struggle, he accidentally kills her.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: A shootout occurs at the party, and Jayaprakash is killed by Jagdish, leaving his gun behind. Venu finds the Jayaprakash dead and the gun, but is taken into the custody of the police team, now headed by Gokulnath. He argues during interrogation that he is Venu and not Billa to Gokulnath. Venu mentions a piece of evidence – the pen drive, which may prove his innocence, but the pen drive is nowhere to be found. Unable to prove his innocence, Venu escapes from a police van and phones Gokulnath, where he asks him to meet at the Aero bridge, where it is revealed that Gokulnath is none other than Jagdish and was the one who killed Jayaprakash. Officer Anil Menon apparently had the pen drive all along and strikes a deal with Venu to get hold of Jagdish.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: Meanwhile, Sasha and Karan have been kidnapped by Jagdish and wants the pen drive in return for them. Venu meets Ranjith and gives him a second pen drive with the same data, but corrupted. When Ranjith tries to kill Venu, a scuffle ensues, making Ranjith fall from the top. In a final confrontation, Jagdish fights with Venu. Jagdish posing as Gokulnath, asks the police to arrest Venu as Billa but gets shot by the squad of police and dies as the police have wired the entire conversation between Jagdish and Venu, thus proving his innocence. Venu finally hands over the original pen drive to Officer Menon and joins Sasha and Karan.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: The entire production stage of the movie spanned about six months. Prior to "Billa", Vishnuvardhan had directed three films, "Kurumbu", "Arinthum Ariyamalum" and "Pattiyal", two of which were successful. "Billa" was started after a debacle surrounding his other venture, "Sarvam", which was eventually postponed to make way for "Billa".


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: In an interview, Vishnuvardhan said that he had "twice missed out on the chance to direct [Kumar]. The third time when I got a chance to direct him, I made sure that I would not miss it. I was all ready to write a good script for him, but he said, he wanted me to remake "Billa"", confirming it was Ajith's idea.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: The film was originally announced, provisionally after the release of the Bollywood film, "Don" – which was a remake of the 1978 film of the same name. Also from the 1978 version, a remake was made in 1980 in Tamil, called "Billa". 2007's "Billa" drew inspirations from these three versions. Suresh Balaji, who had acted in the earliest version of "Billa", acquired the rights to produce the film. It became the second Tamil film to be remade from the 1978 version, after "Naan Avanillai".


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: After the official announcement of the production company, the director and the cameraman, Vishnuvardhan and Nirav Shah began to select other members of the cast and the crew to be a part of the "Billa" team. Ajith could not assist in helping choose the other members. On 13 April 2007, the eve of Tamil New Year's Day, the launch of "Billa" took place at the AVM studios in Vadapalani, Chennai. Among the attendees were the stars of the old cast, Rajinikanth, Sripriya, Suresh Balaji as well as noted directors Mani Ratnam, Dharani, K. S. Ravikumar, and Saran. The confirmed cast until the date of the launch also were invited, among them Ajith along with his wife, Shalini, Nayanthara, Namitha and Prabhu.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: Apart from the casting of Ajith in the dual lead role, previously played by Rajinikanth, the rest of the cast took nearly four months to finalise. The role played by Sripriya in the original was given to Nayantara in early 2007, controversially after Bollywood actress, Isha Sharvani, who had been in contention to act in the last few movies of Kumar, was paid the advance. Vishnuvardhan reported that he was pleased with Nayanthara's role in "E" and subsequently opted for her. The other lead female role in the film was initially written for Shriya Saran, but due to her contract with "", she refused to accept the film. Despite other actresses such as Trisha, Reema Sen, Asin and Bhanu being considered, the role was eventually given to Pooja Umashankar. However, she refused the role, citing that she was reluctant to appear in a bikini, as the role required. Subsequently, Namitha was signed up for the role. Nayanthara was later finalized as the female lead.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: The remaining members of the cast were selected after the launch, which was held on 13 April 2007. Despite early reports of Prakash Raj playing the role enacted by K. Balaji of an inspector in the original, the role was eventually secured by Prabhu. The role of the comedian was tipped to go Vadivelu, after he received rave reviews for his comic chemistry in "Chandramukhi" with Rajinikanth. However, despite the reviews, Vishnuvardhan's regular pattern meant that the spotlight for a comedian would be limited. Santhanam replaced him. Another character artiste, Adithya, also signed up to be one of the members of the police troupe, as did Malayalam actor Rahman, who with "Billa" made his comeback into Tamil cinema. The item number danced by Helen in the original was originally given to Mumaith Khan, but was later changed to newcomer Rose Dawn, for unknown reasons.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: For his crew, Vishnuvardhan picked his preferred technicians, with Rajkannan as the dialogue writer, Nirav Shah as the cinematographer, William Ong as the stunt master, Thota Tharani as the art director, Pa. Vijay as the chief lyricist and A. Sreekar Prasad as the editor. Vishnuvardhan's orthodox music composer, Yuvan Shankar Raja, was chosen, creating great expectations for the project, while Vishnuvardhan's wife, Anu Vardhan, worked as a costume designer. Majority of the film was shot in Malaysia at locations including Langkawi, Kuala Lumpur overlooking the Petronas Towers and other parts, while a few scenes were shot at the Binny Mills in Chennai.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: For the film's music and soundtrack, Vishnuvardhan renewed his previous association ("Kurumbu", "Arinthum Ariyamalum" and "Pattiyal") with Yuvan Shankar Raja. The soundtrack has six songs, and the lyrics were penned by Pa. Vijay. Since the film was a remake, two songs from the original soundtrack, composed by M. S. Viswanathan, were remixed and included in the soundtrack. The formal release of the soundtrack was held on 21 November 2007 at Hotel Residence Towers in Chennai. Yuvan Shankar Raja reused some of the background music of his previous ventures "Kedi" and "Vallavan" in "Billa". The album achieved record audio sales. "Sify" reported that it took the "best ever audio opening" for an Ajith film and the second highest opening day sales recorded in 2007 after "Sivaji: The Boss". Nearly 22,000 CDs and cassettes were said to be sold out by the first day evening all over Tamil Nadu.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: The album received very positive reviews. Pavithra Srinivasan from "Rediff" noted that "Billa"s music "rocks" and gave it four out of five. The reviewer wrote: "Yuvan Shankar Raja has etched an intricate musical feast to complement the tale – and quite a feast it's turned out to be, a la the original". A reviewer from "Indiaglitz.com" wrote that the track was a "masterly work from young Yuvan... [which]... takes us to a different world", while a reviewer from Behindwoods wrote that it was the "soul of the film" which "stands out as the highlight of the album, giving that eerie feel required of a film about a don" and an "interesting composition with arrangements that spell international quality".


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: The film was released in over 200 screens in Tamil Nadu and 50 screens overseas. The film was made on a budget of ₹15 crore (worth ₹61 crore in 2021 prices) and sold to Ayngaran International for ₹25 crore. In its opening weekend, "Billa" collected about 3 crores. In Chennai alone it collected ₹5.2 crore. The film completed a 175-day run at theatres and was declared a blockbuster. It is reported to have sold 1 crore tickets in India. In Kerala, it collected more than the usual top Malayalam films of the year.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: "Billa" opened to primarily positive critical response. "Sify" lauded the film, writing: "Billa" delivers the goods with its great star cast, a designer look, technical glitz, perfect chemistry making it an entertainment extravaganza". The reviewer claimed that it was the "first designer-look Kollywood film with classy action cuts" and a "technically chic, racy, engrossing entertainer with a Hollywood look", going on to call it "racy & rocking". The critic also heaped praise on the lead actor: "Ajith looks sensational and clearly he is at home, playing dual roles of Billa and Velu. He is suave, dashing, and debonair and has a terrific screen presence which makes the film work big time. You just cannot think of any other actor in Tamil donning the role made memorable by Rajinikanth". "Behindwoods" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and wrote: "...where Vishnu Vardhan scores is in his crystal clear vision. He doesn’t want to challenge the original nor change its content. All he wants to do is to repackage it stylishly for today’s trend with some present avant-garde styles in film making. The deliberate attempts by the director not to follow the super star’s style are palpable in every frame, which has made "Billa" stand out tall and high". In regard of Ajith's presence, the reviewer said: "Ajith as the ruthless David Billa is a revelation. Stylish, menacing and electrifying, he seems to have thoroughly enjoyed the challenge and has completely lived up to it. Rajinikanth can definitely be proud of his successor he has chosen for the tough job".


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: Mythili Ramachandran of "Nowrunning.com" wrote: ""Billa" ... lives up to its hype and Ajith simply rocks", rating it 3 out of 5. Another reviewer from the same site, gave the same rating, citing: ""Billa" ... is slick and stylish in keeping with the present modern world...View the movie from a technical angle, and it is undoubtedly in par with Hollywood movies. What a pulsating thriller it has turned out to be". In contrast, TSV Hari from "Rediff" wrote that the film "disappoints" and gave it 2.5 out of 5, further claiming: "Director Vishnuvardhan seems to have been in a dilemma as to whether to focus on Ajith or give the film well-etched characters. There are too many diversions in the form of female cleavages in the rain forests of Malaysia and garish sets". Balaji, who portrayed the DSP in the 1980 film, praised the 2007 film for being "very stylish and looking grand", but expressed his dismay over the absence of the characters previously played by Thengai Srinivasan, S. A. Ashokan and Manorama.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: In 2008, reports claimed that, following the film's commercial success, Soundarya Rajinikanth was planning to make a sequel, to be produced by Ocher Studios in association with Warner Bros. However, the sequel did not materialise, and the idea was dropped, with Ajith Kumar, Vishnuvardhan and Soundarya getting busy with other projects.


title: Billa (2007 film)

text: In mid-2010, sources confirmed that Vishnuvardhan had finished penning the script for a prequel and that Ajith Kumar would reprise the titular character. The project became officially announced in late 2010, after Ajith Kumar signed up and first production poster were published to the media. Suresh Balaje, son of producer and actor K. Balaje, who produced the original "Billa" with Rajinikanth, and George Pius from Wide Angle Creations banner, were confirmed as the producer, who associated with Mumbai-based IN Entertainment Limited, a Hinduja group company. However, in a turn of events, Vishnuvardhan was replaced by Chakri Toleti, and a new script was written by Toleti and his assistants. The prequel was released at 13 July 2012 to underwhelming reviews, eventually being deemed as a box office failure.


title: Schuyler family

text: The Schuyler family (; Dutch pronunciation: ]) was a prominent Dutch family in New York and New Jersey in the 18th and 19th centuries, whose descendants played a critical role in the formation of the United States (especially New York City and northern New Jersey), in leading government and business in North America and served as leaders in business, military, politics, and society. The other two most influential New York dynasties of the 18th and 19th centuries were the Livingston family and the Clinton family.


title: Schuyler family

text: By 1650, Philip Pieterse Schuyler emigrated to New Netherland, settling in Beverwyck. His brother, David Pieterse Schuyler, also emigrated from The Dutch Republic.


title: Schuyler family

text: The Schuyler family ancestry and ties were factors in several major American families, including the Livingston family, the Oyster Bay branch of the Roosevelt family, the Bayard family, the Bush family and the Kean family, among others. Descendants also exist in some noble families in the United Kingdom (including the Gage family, the Kennedy family, the Bertie family, and the Fitzroy family, among others).


title: Schuyler family

text: On 25 March 2020, members of the Schuyler family formed the Schuyler Family Association, with a founding governing board including Charles Neuhauser (chair) and Katherine Rosman. The association periodically publishes items of interest to the family in a newsletter called "Kindred".


title: Martin Brest

text: Brest was born in the Bronx, New York, and graduated from Stuyvesant High School in 1969, from New York University's School of the Arts in 1973 and from the AFI Conservatory with an M.F.A. degree in 1977.


title: Martin Brest

text: His major studio debut was "Going in Style" (1979), which starred George Burns, Art Carney, and Lee Strasberg. Brest was then hired to direct "WarGames" (1983), which starred Matthew Broderick, but he was fired during production and replaced with John Badham.


title: Martin Brest

text: Brest then directed "Beverly Hills Cop" (1984), starring Eddie Murphy. The film grossed over $300 million worldwide and received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical, as well as an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay.


title: Martin Brest

text: Brest was involved in the development stages of "Rain Man" (1988), casting Tom Cruise in the role opposite Dustin Hoffman, before Barry Levinson eventually directed the film.


title: Martin Brest

text: Brest's next film was the action-comedy "Midnight Run" (1988), starring Robert De Niro and Charles Grodin. The film was another critical and commercial success, earning Brest another Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy as well as a Best Actor Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy nomination for De Niro.


title: Martin Brest

text: His work on "Scent of a Woman" (1992) earned him a Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama. The film also won Golden Globes for Al Pacino and screenwriter Bo Goldman. In addition, the film received four Academy Award nominations: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Screenplay (Adapted), and Best Actor, with Al Pacino winning Best Actor.


title: Martin Brest

text: Brest's next film, "Meet Joe Black" (1998), starring Brad Pitt and Anthony Hopkins, was a remake of 1934's "Death Takes a Holiday". The film had an American box office return of $44.6 million, though it fared much better overseas, taking in an additional $98.3 million for a worldwide total of $142.9 million.


title: Martin Brest

text: Brest wrote and directed "Gigli" (2003), starring Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez. During filming, production company Revolution Studios took creative control from him, resulting in a radically re-written and re-shot version of the original film being released. It became one of the most notorious films of its time, with a scathing critical reception, some critics calling it one of the worst films of all time and a disastrous box office performance. Brest has not directed or produced a film since. A 2014 article in "Playboy" observed that he appeared to have left public life entirely after "Gigli"s release, though in 2021, he appeared as a featured guest at a screening of "Beverly Hills Cop" and "Midnight Run" in Los Angeles, where he was interviewed by fellow filmmaker Paul Thomas Anderson.


title: Martin Brest

text: His 1972 New York University student film, "Hot Dogs for Gauguin", starring a then unknown Danny DeVito, was one of 25 films chosen in 2009 by the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress to "be preserved as cultural, artistic and/or historical treasures".


title: Attenuation

text: In physics, attenuation (in some contexts, extinction) is the gradual loss of flux intensity through a medium. For instance, dark glasses attenuate sunlight, lead attenuates X-rays, and water and air attenuate both light and sound at variable attenuation rates.


title: Attenuation

text: Hearing protectors help reduce acoustic flux from flowing into the ears. This phenomenon is called acoustic attenuation and is measured in decibels (dBs).


title: Attenuation

text: In electrical engineering and telecommunications, attenuation affects the propagation of waves and signals in electrical circuits, in optical fibers, and in air. Electrical attenuators and optical attenuators are commonly manufactured components in this field.


title: Attenuation

text: In many cases, attenuation is an exponential function of the path length through the medium. In optics and in chemical spectroscopy, this is known as the Beer–Lambert law. In engineering, attenuation is usually measured in units of decibels per unit length of medium (dB/cm, dB/km, etc.) and is represented by the attenuation coefficient of the medium in question. Attenuation also occurs in earthquakes; when the seismic waves move farther away from the hypocenter, they grow smaller as they are attenuated by the ground.