title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: Originally designed for human–robot interaction, Audio-Visual SLAM is a framework that provides the fusion of landmark features obtained from both the acoustic and visual modalities within an environment. Human interaction is characterized by features perceived in not only the visual modality, but the acoustic modality as well; as such, SLAM algorithms for human-centered robots and machines must account for both sets of features. An Audio-Visual framework estimates and maps positions of human landmarks through use of visual features like human pose, and audio features like human speech, and fuses the beliefs for a more robust map of the environment. For applications in mobile robotics (ex. drones, service robots), it is valuable to use low-power, lightweight equipment such as monocular cameras, or microelectronic microphone arrays. Audio-Visual SLAM can also allow for complimentary function of such sensors, by compensating the narrow field-of-view, feature occlusions, and optical degradations common to lightweight visual sensors with the full field-of-view, and unobstructed feature representations inherent to audio sensors. The susceptibility of audio sensors to reverberation, sound source inactivity, and noise can also be accordingly compensated through fusion of landmark beliefs from the visual modality. Complimentary function between the audio and visual modalities in an environment can prove valuable for the creation of robotics and machines that fully interact with human speech and human movement.


title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: Non-static environments, such as those containing other vehicles or pedestrians, continue to present research challenges. SLAM with DATMO is a model which tracks moving objects in a similar way to the agent itself.


title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: Loop closure is the problem of recognizing a previously-visited location and updating beliefs accordingly. This can be a problem because model or algorithm errors can assign low priors to the location. Typical loop closure methods apply a second algorithm to compute some type of sensor measure similarity, and re-set the location priors when a match is detected. For example, this can be done by storing and comparing bag of words vectors of SIFT features from each previously visited location.


title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: "Active SLAM" studies the combined problem of SLAM with deciding where to move next in order to build the map as efficiently as possible. The need for active exploration is especially pronounced in sparse sensing regimes such as tactile SLAM. Active SLAM is generally performed by approximating the entropy of the map under hypothetical actions. "Multi agent SLAM" extends this problem to the case of multiple robots coordinating themselves to explore optimally.


title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: In neuroscience, the hippocampus appears to be involved in SLAM-like computations, giving rise to place cells, and has formed the basis for bio-inspired SLAM systems such as RatSLAM.


title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: Various SLAM algorithms are implemented in the open-source robot operating system (ROS) libraries, often used together with the Point Cloud Library for 3D maps or visual features from OpenCV.


title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: In robotics, EKF SLAM is a class of algorithms which utilizes the extended Kalman filter (EKF) for SLAM. Typically, EKF SLAM algorithms are feature based, and use the maximum likelihood algorithm for data association. In the 1990s and 2000s, EKF SLAM had been the de facto method for SLAM, until the introduction of FastSLAM.


title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: Associated with the EKF is the gaussian noise assumption, which significantly impairs EKF SLAM's ability to deal with uncertainty. With greater amount of uncertainty in the posterior, the linearization in the EKF fails.


title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: In robotics, GraphSLAM is a SLAM algorithm which uses sparse information matrices produced by generating a factor graph of observation interdependencies (two observations are related if they contain data about the same landmark).


title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: A seminal work in SLAM is the research of R.C. Smith and P. Cheeseman on the representation and estimation of spatial uncertainty in 1986. Other pioneering work in this field was conducted by the research group of Hugh F. Durrant-Whyte in the early 1990s. which showed that solutions to SLAM exist in the infinite data limit. This finding motivates the search for algorithms which are computationally tractable and approximate the solution. The acronym SLAM was coined within the paper, "Localization of Autonomous Guided Vehicles" which first appeared in ISR in 1995.


title: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: The self-driving STANLEY and JUNIOR cars, led by Sebastian Thrun, won the DARPA Grand Challenge and came second in the DARPA Urban Challenge in the 2000s, and included SLAM systems, bringing SLAM to worldwide attention. Mass-market SLAM implementations can now be found in consumer robot vacuum cleaners.


title: Accident

text: An accident is an unintended, normally unwanted event that was not directly caused by humans. The term "accident" implies that nobody should be blamed, but the event may have been caused by unrecognized or unaddressed risks. Most researchers who study unintentional injury avoid using the term "accident" and focus on factors that increase risk of severe injury and that reduce injury incidence and severity. For example, when a tree falls down during a wind storm, its fall may not have been caused by humans, but the tree's type, size, health, location, or improper maintenance may have contributed to the result. Most car wrecks are not true accidents; however English speakers started using that word in the mid-20th century as a result of media manipulation by the US automobile industry.


title: Accident

text: Physical examples of accidents include unintended motor vehicle collisions, falls, being injured by touching something sharp or hot, or bumping into something while walking.


title: Accident

text: Non-physical examples are unintentionally revealing a secret or otherwise saying something incorrectly, accidental deletion of data, or forgetting an appointment.


title: Accident

text: Vehicle collisions are not usually accidents; they are mostly caused by preventable causes such as drunk driving and intentionally driving too fast. The use of the word "accident" to describe car wrecks was promoted by the US National Automobile Chamber of Commerce in the middle of the 20th century, as a way to make vehicle-related deaths and injuries seem like an unavoidable matter of fate, rather than a problem that could be addressed. The automobile industry accomplished this by writing customized articles as a free service for newspapers that used the industry's preferred language. Since 1994, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has asked media and the public to not use the word "accident" to describe vehicle collisions.


title: Accident

text: In the process industry, a primary accident may propagate to nearby units, resulting in a chain of accidents, which is called domino effect accident.


title: Accident

text: Poisons, vehicle collisions and falls are the most common causes of fatal injuries. According to a 2005 survey of injuries sustained at home, which used data from the National Vital Statistics System of the United States National Center for Health Statistics, falls, poisoning, and fire/burn injuries are the most common causes of death.


title: Accident

text: The United States also collects statistically valid injury data (sampled from 100 hospitals) through the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System administered by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. This program was revised in 2000 to include all injuries rather than just injuries involving products. Data on emergency department visits is also collected through the National Health Interview Survey. In The U.S. the Bureau of Labor Statistics has available on their website extensive statistics on workplace accidents.


title: Accident

text: Many models to characterize and analyze accidents have been proposed, which can be classified by type. No single model is the sole correct approach. Notable types and models include:


title: Gavan O'Herlihy

text: Gavan John O'Herlihy (29 July 1951 – 15 September 2021) was an American-born Irish actor. He was known for playing Chuck Cunningham in the first episodes of "Happy Days", as well as his appearances in films such as "Never Say Never Again", "Death Wish 3", "Willow", and "Superman III".


title: Gavan O'Herlihy

text: O'Herlihy was born 29 July 1951 in Malibu, California, the son of Irish parents, actor Dan O'Herlihy and his wife, Sandymount native Elsie Bennett.


title: Gavan O'Herlihy

text: After graduating from Phillips Academy in Massachusetts, he attended Trinity College, Dublin and as an avid tennis player, he became Irish National Tennis Champion.


title: Gavan O'Herlihy

text: He has over thirty screen credits to his name, most of them in villainous or antagonistic roles such as "Never Say Never Again", "Superman III", "Death Wish 3" and "The Last Outlaw". His role as Airk Thaughbaer in the 1988 fantasy "Willow" is one of the few heroic roles that he has portrayed, as well as that of the dashing American Loyalist officer from Virginia Captain Leroy in "Sharpe's Eagle".


title: Gavan O'Herlihy

text: He appeared in "Rich Man, Poor Man" and "Tales From The Crypt". In 1994, he starred as John Garrideb in "The Mazarin Stone" from Granada TV's "Sherlock Holmes" series. The events of the story were rewritten and merged with "The Adventure of the Three Garridebs".


title: Gavan O'Herlihy

text: He was cast as the eldest sibling, Chuck Cunningham, on "Happy Days". He played Chuck during season 1 until the episode "Give the Band a Hand" and was replaced for season 2 by Randolph Roberts until the episode "Guess Who's Coming to Christmas". Chuck was not seen again but was later mentioned in a few other episodes ending with "Fish and the Fins". After that, Chuck was written off the show completely with later episodes depicting the Cunningham family with only two children with Richie as the elder. The character gave rise to the pejorative term "Chuck Cunningham Syndrome", referring to characters who disappear from TV shows without an In-Universe explanation and are later retconned to have never existed. O'Herlihy did not want to become stuck in television roles, preferring films. He played a warrior in the George Lucas production "Willow", directed by his "Happy Days" brother, Ron Howard. He also appeared in the pilot episode of "", "Caretaker", as the Kazon First Mage, Jabin. He also appeared in "The Six Million Dollar Man" and "The Bionic Woman" television series.


title: Gavan O'Herlihy

text: By the 1990s, O'Herlihy had permanently relocated to the UK, where he preferred to work in the theatre and on television, with roles on British television, including "Coded Hostile", "Sharpe", "Jonathan Creek", and "Midsomer Murders".


title: Gavan O'Herlihy

text: In 2009, O'Herlihy returned to the big screen as Sheriff Vaines in the follow up to Neil Marshall's cult horror film, "The Descent Part 2", and over a decade later returned to the screen again to play the leading role of writer John Anderson for director Nic Saunders in "Queen of the Redwood Mountains", a film inspired by the authors of the Beat Generation, and due for release in 2021.


title: Gavan O'Herlihy

text: O'Herlihy had four children. He died in Bath, Somerset, on September 15, 2021, at the age of 70 of undisclosed causes.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Arteriovenous malformation is an abnormal connection between arteries and veins, bypassing the capillary system. This vascular anomaly is widely known because of its occurrence in the central nervous system (usually cerebral AVM), but can appear in any location. Although many AVMs are asymptomatic, they can cause intense pain or bleeding or lead to other serious medical problems.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: The genetic transmission patterns of AVMs are incomplete, but there are known genetic mutations (for instance in the epithelial line, tumor suppressor PTEN gene) which can lead to an increased occurrence throughout the body.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Symptoms of AVM vary according to the location of the malformation. Roughly 88% of people with an AVM are asymptomatic; often the malformation is discovered as part of an autopsy or during treatment of an unrelated disorder (called in medicine an "incidental finding"); in rare cases, its expansion or a micro-bleed from an AVM in the brain can cause epilepsy, neurological deficit, or pain.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: The most general symptoms of a cerebral AVM include headaches and epileptic seizures, with more specific symptoms occurring that normally depend on the location of the malformation and the individual. Such possible symptoms include:


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations are abnormal communications between the veins and arteries of the pulmonary circulation, leading to a right-to-left blood shunt.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: They have no symptoms in up to 29% of all cases, however they can give rise to serious complications including hemorrhage, and infection. They are most commonly associated with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Arteries and veins are part of the vascular system. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the lungs or the rest of the body, where the blood passes through capillaries, and veins return the blood to the heart. An AVM interferes with this process by forming a direct connection of the arteries and veins. AVMs can cause intense pain and lead to serious medical problems. Although AVMs are often associated with the brain and spinal cord, they can develop in other parts of the body.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Normally, the arteries in the vascular system carry oxygen-rich blood, except in the case of the pulmonary artery. Structurally, arteries divide and sub-divide repeatedly, eventually forming a sponge-like capillary bed. Blood moves through the capillaries, giving up oxygen and taking up waste products, including , from the surrounding cells. Capillaries in turn successively join to form veins that carry blood away. The heart acts to pump blood through arteries and uptake the venous blood.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: As an AVM lacks the dampening effect of capillaries on the blood flow, the AVM can get progressively larger over time as the amount of blood flowing through it increases, forcing the heart to work harder to keep up with the extra blood flow. It also causes the surrounding area to be deprived of the functions of the capillaries—removal of and delivery of nutrients to the cells. The resulting tangle of blood vessels, often called a "nidus" (Latin for "nest"), has no capillaries. It can be extremely fragile and prone to bleeding because of the abnormally direct connections between high-pressure arteries and low-pressure veins. The resultant sign, audible via stethoscope, is a rhythmic, whooshing sound caused by excessively rapid blood flow through the arteries and veins. It has been given the term "bruit", French for noise. On some occasions, a patient with a brain AVM may become aware of the noise, which can compromise hearing and interfere with sleep in addition to causing psychological distress.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: AVMs may occur in isolation or as a part of another disease (for example, Von Hippel–Lindau disease or hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia).


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Bleeding from an AVM can be relatively mild or devastating. It can cause severe and less often fatal strokes. If a cerebral AVM is detected before a stroke occurs, usually the arteries feeding blood into the nidus can be closed off to avert the danger. However, interventional therapy may also be relatively risky.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Treatment for brain AVMs can be symptomatic, and patients should be followed by a neurologist for any seizures, headaches, or focal neurologic deficits. AVM-specific treatment may also involve endovascular embolization, neurosurgery or radiosurgery.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Embolization, that is, cutting off the blood supply to the AVM with coils, particles, acrylates, or polymers introduced by a radiographically guided catheter, may be used in addition to neurosurgery or radiosurgery, but is rarely successful in isolation except in smaller AVMs. Gamma knife may also be used.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Treatment of lung AVMs is typically performed with endovascular embolization alone, which is considered the standard of care.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: The estimated detection rate of AVM in the US general population is 1.4/100,000 per year. This is approximately one fifth to one seventh the incidence of intracranial aneurysms. An estimated 300,000 Americans have AVMs, of whom 12% (approximately 36,000) will exhibit symptoms of greatly varying severity.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Luschka (1820–1875) and Virchow (1821–1902) first described arteriovenous malformations in the mid-1800s. Olivecrona (1891–1980) performed the first surgical excision of an intracranial AVM in 1932.


title: Arteriovenous malformation

text: Despite many years of research, the central question of whether to treat AVMs has not been answered. All treatments, whether involving surgery, radiation, or drugs, have risks and side-effects. Therefore, it might be better in some cases to avoid treatment altogether and simply accept a small risk of coming to harm from the AVM itself. This question is currently being addressed in clinical trials.


title: Lao Gan Ma

text: Lao Gan Ma (; also called Laoganma) or Old Godmother is a brand of chili sauces made in China. The product is sold in China and over 30 other countries. Lao Gan Ma is credited with popularizing Chinese chili oil and chili crisp condiments in the western world, and have inspired many Chinese-American chili-based condiments and sauces.


title: Lao Gan Ma

text: Tao Huabi is said to have invented the sauce in 1984 and in 1989, she set up a noodle restaurant in Guiyang, Guizhou; when she noticed the popularity of her hot sauces, she converted the restaurant into a specialty shop to sell her sauces, particularly chili oil sauce. In 1994, she borrowed two houses of the CPC Yunguan Village Committee in the Nanming District and employed 40 people to work in her new sauce factory.


title: Lao Gan Ma

text: Despite the brand's success upon launch, it struggled with counterfeits with similar packaging in China. They proliferated due the Chinese government turning down Lao Gan Ma's application to trademark the product. After the trademark request was denied, over counterfeit Lao Gan Ma came to prominence. Tao countered these competitors by utilizing a branch of third-party private enterprises to target them. In 2001, the high court Beijing ruled that other similar products could not use the "Lao Gan Ma" name nor imitate its packaging; Tao received 400,000 RMB in compensation. The trademark application was later approved in 2003 after a lengthy lawsuit against a counterfeiter based in Hunan.


title: Lao Gan Ma

text: Tao Huabi is the owner of the company, and her son Li Guishan became the first president of the company. "Women of China" magazine reported in January 2011 that the company's assets were 1.3 billion RMB ($190 million USD) and that the company had 2,000 employees at that time. The sauce is produced commercially by Laoganma Special Flavour Foodstuffs Company, which was established in 1997. By 2022, the condiment became more common in locations outside of China.


title: Lao Gan Ma

text: After 2016, Lao Gan Ma's sales in China declined for two years in a row. According to reports, Lao Gan Ma's annual income reached 4.549 billion RMB in 2016, 4.447 billion RMB in 2017, and 4.389 billion RMB in 2018. It was speculated that this was due to a change in the recipe in 2011, where after the company was taken over by Tao's son, the pepper variety was changed from Guizhou Chili to Henan Chili.


title: Lao Gan Ma

text: The Chili of Guizhou are large in size, full in body, and contain more water, making it more suitable for making hot sauce, lending the sauce an aroma other than the spicy flavor. According to some, Lao Gan Ma lost its unique flavor after this change. In 2019, Tao Huabi became the manager of the company again, and Lao Gan Ma switched back to Guizhou chili.


title: Lao Gan Ma

text: A variety of flavors are produced such as Spicy Chili Crisp, Chili Oil with Black Bean, Fried Chili in Oil, Hot Chile Sauce, and Spicy Bean Paste, among others. The Lao Gan Ma products are based on traditional chili sauces found in Guizhou cuisine.


title: Lao Gan Ma

text: The town of Changmingzhen, Guiding County, Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, has a Lao Gan Ma factory that opened during the COVID-19 pandemic in China.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: The company's namesake Philip Morris was born in Whitechapel, United Kingdom in 1835, the son of a recent immigrant from Germany who had taken the name Bernard Morris. In 1847, the family opened a shop in London. The first cigarettes that Philip Morris made were in 1854 and were known as "Philip Morris English Ovals," a non-filter brand of oval-shaped cigarettes that were manufactured in very limited quantities until discontinuation in 2017.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In 1902, Philip Morris & Co. Ltd. was incorporated in New York City. George J. Whelan bought the American division of the company in 1919 and created Philip Morris & Co. Ltd., Inc., along with fellow shareholders Reuben M. Ellis and Leonard B. McKitterick.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In 1929, the company made its first cigarettes in Richmond, using an existing factory the company purchased. In 1933, this factory was racially integrated more than 30 years before the law required it. In 1938, the company offered preferred stock to ordinary buyers.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In 1924, Philip Morris began advertising Marlboros specifically to women. The cigarettes had "new cork-tip filters housed in a flip-top box with a red roof design."


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In 1933, the company and its advertising agency, Milton Biow, searched for a "living trademark" to represent their brand, and chose Johnny Roventini, a midget bellhop at the Hotel New Yorker. Roventini called out the catchphrase "Call for Philip Morris!" in live appearances, and on the radio. The Philip Morris-backed radio programs, including, "It Pays to Be Ignorant", "The Kate Smith Hour" and "This Is Your Life", all began with the phrase "Johnny presents", and Roventini's "Call for Philip Morris!"


title: Philip Morris USA

text: From 1951 to 1955, Philip Morris sponsored the CBS sitcom "I Love Lucy", with Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz pitching the product often, and Philip Morris controlling the content of the program. In 1955, Philip Morris became an alternate sponsor with Procter & Gamble, eventually bowing out altogether by the end of that year.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In 1970, Philip Morris made the first of several acquisitions with the purchase of Miller Brewing Company. In 1985, Philip Morris Companies Inc. became a holding company and the parent of Philip Morris Inc. and bought General Foods. The acquisition of Kraft Foods came in 1988, after which Kraft and General Foods became Kraft General Foods.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: Although it had begun investing in the homebuilder by 1969, Philip Morris purchased Southern California's Mission Viejo Company in its entirety for $52 million during 1972. Philip Morris continued to hold on to this investment until 1997, finally selling the division off to J.F. Shea Company.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In the 1970s, in response to smokers’ health concerns, Philip Morris introduced the “Light” cigarette - which was later found to be no safer than any others.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In 1976, Marlboro became the leading brand in the U.S.; Morris operated as the largest seller of tobacco in the U.S. and the second-largest in the world.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In 2001, Kraft Foods launched an initial public offering (IPO) for 11.1% of the company that took in $8.7 billion, making it the second-largest IPO in American history at the time.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In 2002, Miller Brewing and South African Breweries became SABMiller, the second-largest maker of beer in the world, though Philip Morris kept an interest in the merged company.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: On January 27, 2003, Philip Morris Companies Inc. changed its name to Altria Group, Inc. Even under this new name, Altria continues to own 100% of Philip Morris USA (abbreviated PM USA).


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In the fall of 2003, Philip Morris USA moved its headquarters from New York City to Richmond, Virginia. On March 30, 2007, the remaining 88.9% stake in Kraft Foods was spun off to shareholders. Philip Morris International was split from Philip Morris USA in March 2008. This has caused a drop in the needed cigarette production due to no need for export product. Philip Morris shut down its Concord, North Carolina, manufacturing facility in 2010 and moved all domestic production to Richmond, which now contains the largest Philip Morris plant in the world, producing 146 billion cigarettes in 2010.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: In 2010, the FDA banned the use of “Light” for ventilated cigarettes because it misrepresented the products as a healthier cigarette, and Philip Morris switched to using colors to brand them to circumvent the rule.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: Philip Morris USA brands include Marlboro, Virginia Slims, Benson & Hedges, Merit, Parliament, Alpine, Basic, Cambridge, Bucks, Dave's, Chesterfield, Collector's Choice, Commander, Lark, L&M, Players. As of the 27 of December, 2018, Philip Morris also owns a minority stake in JUUL.


title: Philip Morris USA

text: At the completion of the Philip Morris review, about 30% of the company's revenue is currently consumed from "smokeless" products such as the IQOS tobacco warmer. The company's management claims that by 2025 this figure will reach 50%


title: Saint Michael, Barbados

text: The parish of St. Michael is one of eleven parishes of Barbados. It has a land area of and is found at the southwest portion of the island. Saint Michael has survived by name as one of the original six parishes created in 1629 by Governor Sir William Tufton.


title: Saint Michael, Barbados

text: The parish is home to Bridgetown, the capital of Barbados. Bridgetown is the centre of commercial activity in Barbados, as well as a central hub for the public transport network. Other major infrastructure in St. Michael is the international seaport of Barbados—the Deep Water Harbour. Therein, a number of cruise ships arrive and depart including various lines such as Royal Caribbean and Cunard. The harbour features several sugar towers for loading locally produced sugar into transport ships, and a tower for loading flour for transport.


title: Saint Michael, Barbados

text: Under Barbados's historical vestry system, the main parish church (St Michael's Cathedral) is sited in St Michael's Row in Bridgetown. The cathedral replaced the former parish church that was located at the site of St Mary's Church. St Michael's Cathedral was elevated to cathedral status under Bishop Coleridge, who arrived in Barbados in 1825 to head the newly created Diocese of Barbados and the Leeward Islands.


title: Saint Michael, Barbados

text: with Christ Church: – Starts from the meeting point of the parishes of St. George, St. Michael, and Christ Church and proceeds southerly along the plantation track and the boundary between the residential developments called Fort George Heights and Kent House to the boundary junction with public road called Highway R. Then it moves westerly along Highway R to its junction at Wildey with the Airport to West Coast Highway. Then it goes southerly along the Highway to merge at Clapham with the public road called Highway 6, then go north-westerly along Highway 6 to its junction with the public Observatory Road, then moves southerly along Observatory Road to its junction with the public Fordes Road. Then moving south-westerly, north-westerly and northerly along Fordes Road, Bonnett’s Road and Brittons New Road to its junction with Dalkeith Hill, then westerly along Dalkeith Hill to its junction with Deighton Road; then in a generally northern direction along Deighton Road to its junction with Dayrells Road. Along Dayrells Road in a south-westerly, north-westerly and westerly direction to its junction with Dalkeith Road at the Garrison, then continuing along Dalkeith Road generally south-westerly to its junction with the public road Highway 7; then directly across Highway 7 and continuing in a south-westerly direction along the road leading to Gravesend Beach and directly to the sea.


title: Saint Michael, Barbados

text: with St. George: – Starting from the meeting point of the parishes of St. George, St. Michael, and Christ Church and proceeding in a westerly and northerly direction along the plantation track to its junction at Lower Burney with the public road Highway 5; then westerly along Highway 5 to its junction at Mapp Hill and the public road Haynes Hill.


title: Saint Michael, Barbados

text: Then northerly along Haynes Hill and Pasture Road to its junction with Monroe Road; then in a westerly direction along Monroe Road to its junction with Salters Tenantry Road, moving along it in a northerly, then westerly then northerly direction to its junction at Salters with the public road Highway 4; then south-westerly along Highway 4 to its junction with a public road called Highway X; moving north-easterlyalong Highway X to its junction with an unclassified road; then in a generally north-westerly then northerly direction along to its junction with the public road leading from the Belle Road to Charles Rowe Bridge; then in a westerly direction to its junction with the unclassified road leading to Lower Estate; then in a generally north-easterly direction along this road (so as to pass to the east of the factory yard) to its junction with a track to the north of the factory yard; then in a north-westerly direction along this track to join an unclassified road and along this road to its junction at Dayrells with the public road called Highway 3; then in a north-easterly direction along Highway 3 to its junction with Cole Road at Bourne; then in a northerly direction along this road to the culvert where it crosses a gully; then along this gully in a south-westerly, north-westerly and north-easterly to a point opposite Applewhaites Tenantry Road; then along the line joining this point to the road junction and north-westerly along Applewhaites Tenantry Road to its junction with a public road called Highway E. This is the meeting point of the parishes of St. George, St. Michael, and St. Thomas.


title: Saint Michael, Barbados

text: with St. James: – Starting from the meeting point of the parishes of St. James, St. Thomas, and St. Michael and proceeding generally westwards along the public road called Clermont Road to its junction with the public road called Husbands Road; then in a southerly direction along this road to its junction with University Drive; then in a westerly and southerly direction along University Drive to the centre of the roundabout at the intersection of this road and Highway 1; then in a north-westerly direction along Highway 1 to a point just south of its junction with an unclassified road called Batt's Rock Road; then from this point in a straight line (bearing 263°07'21") through a monument (B. 18) to the sea.


title: Saint Michael, Barbados

text: with St. Thomas: – Starting from the meeting point of the parishes of St. Thomas, St. George, and St. Michael and proceeding along Highway E in a south-westerly direction to the junction with the public road running from Canewood to Jackson; then in a westerly, northerly and north-westerly direction to the junction at Jackson with the public road called Highway 2; then in a south-westerly direction along this road to the centre of the roundabout at its junction at Warrens with the Airport to West Coast Highway; then in a north-westerly direction along this Highway to the centre of the roundabout which is its junction with the public road called Highway 2A; then in a northerly direction along this road to the meeting point of the parishes of St. Thomas, St. James, and St. Michael.


title: Saint Michael, Barbados

text: Kayla Foods Int'l (Barbados) Inc., an international division of Yogen Früz, is located in Saint Michael.


title: Bazaar

text: A bazaar () or souk (; also transliterated as souq) is a marketplace consisting of multiple small stalls or shops, especially in the Middle East, the Balkans, North Africa and India. However, temporary open markets elsewhere, such as in the West, might also designate themselves as bazaars. The ones in the Middle East were traditionally located in vaulted or covered streets that had doors on each end and served as a city's central marketplace. Street markets are the European and North American equivalents.


title: Bazaar

text: The term "bazaar" originates from Persian, where it referred to a town's public market district. The term bazaar is sometimes also used to refer to the "network of merchants, bankers and craftsmen" who work in that area.


title: Bazaar

text: Evidence for the existence of bazaars or souks dates to around 3,000 BCE. Although the lack of archaeological evidence has limited detailed studies of the evolution of bazaars, indications suggest that they initially developed outside city walls where they were often associated with servicing the needs of caravanserai. As towns and cities became more populous, these bazaars moved into the city center and developed in a linear pattern along streets stretching from one city gate to another gate on the opposite side of the city. Souks became covered walkways. Over time, these bazaars formed a network of trading centres which allowed for the exchange of produce and information. The rise of large bazaars and stock trading centres in the Muslim world allowed the creation of new capitals and eventually new empires. New and wealthy cities such as Isfahan, Vijaynagara, Surat, Cairo, Agra, and Timbuktu were founded along trade routes and bazaars.


title: Bazaar

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, Western interest in oriental culture led to the publication of many books about daily life in Middle Eastern countries. Souks, bazaars and the trappings of trade feature prominently in paintings and engravings, works of fiction and travel writing.


title: Bazaar

text: Shopping at a bazaar or market-place remains a central feature of daily life in many Middle-Eastern and South Asian cities and towns and the bazaar remains the "beating heart" of West Asian and South Asian life; in the Middle East, souks tend to be found in a city's medina (old quarter). Bazaars and souks are often important tourist attractions. A number of bazaar districts have been listed as World Heritage sites due to their historical and/or architectural significance.


title: Bazaar

text: In general a souk is synonymous with a bazaar or marketplace, and the term "souk" is used in Arabic-speaking countries.


title: Bazaar

text: The origin of the word "bazaar" comes from Persian "bāzār", from Middle Persian "wāzār", from Old Persian "vāčar", from Proto-Indo-Iranian "*wahā-čarana". The term, bazaar, spread from Persia into Arabia and ultimately throughout the Middle East.


title: Bazaar

text: In North America, the United Kingdom and some other European countries, the term charity bazaar can be used as a synonym for a "rummage sale", to describe charity fundraising events held by churches or other community organisations in which either donated used goods (such as books, clothes and household items) or new and handcrafted (or home-baked) goods are sold for low prices, as at a church or other organisation's Christmas bazaar, for example.


title: Bazaar

text: Although Turkey offers many famous markets known as "bazaars" in English, the Turkish word "pazar" refers to an outdoor market held at regular intervals, not a permanent structure containing shops. English place names usually translate "çarşı" (shopping district in a downtown or downtown itself) as "bazaar" when they refer to an area with covered streets or passages. For example, the Turkish name for the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul is "Kapalıçarşı" (gated shopping area), while the Spice Bazaar is the "Mısır Çarşısı" (Egyptian shopping area).


title: Bazaar

text: In Czech, the word "bazar" means second-hand shop. "Autobazar" is a shop which purchases and sells pre-owned cars.


title: Bazaar

text: In Indonesian, the word "pasar" means "market." The capital of Bali province, in Indonesia, is Denpasar, which means "north market."


title: Bazaar

text: The Arabic word is a loan from Aramaic "šūqā" ("street, market"), itself a loanword from the Akkadian "sūqu" ("street"). The spelling souk entered European languages likely through French during the French occupation of the Arab countries Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia in the 19th and 20th centuries. Thus, the word "souk" mostly refers to Arabic and North African traditional markets. Other spellings of this word involving the letter "Q" (sooq, souq, and so'oq) were likely developed using English and thus refer to Western Asian or Arab traditional markets, as there were several British colonies there during the 19th and 20th centuries.


title: Bazaar

text: In Modern Standard Arabic the term "al-sooq" refers to markets in both the physical sense and the abstract economic sense (e.g., an Arabic-speaker would speak of the "sooq" in the old city as well as the "sooq" for oil, and would call the concept of the free market السوق الحرّ "as-sūq al-ḥurr").


title: Bazaar

text: In northern Morocco, the Spanish corruption "socco" is often used as in the Grand Socco and Petit Socco of Tangiers.


title: Bazaar

text: In the Indian subcontinent the 'chowk' is often used to name a place with four-way crossroad, and comes from Sanskrit चतवार, meaning four. In Western Asia(Middle east), this term is used generally to designate the market, but may also be used in Western cities, particularly those with a Muslim community.


title: Bazaar

text: In the United States, especially in Southern California and Nevada, an indoor swap meet is a type of bazaar, i.e. a permanent, indoor shopping center open during normal retail hours, with fixed "booths" or counters for the vendors.


title: Bazaar

text: Historical records document the concept of a bazaar existing in Iran as early as 3000 BC, where some large cities contained districts dedicated to trade and commerce. Archeological data also suggests the existence of market districts in ancient Mesopotamia. Markets centers must have existed in Egypt to conduct international trade, but no archeological evidence for them has been found. In Achaemenid Persia (550-330 BCE), documents indicate that crafts were sold in markets close to Persepolis. A network of bazaars had sprung up alongside ancient caravan trade routes. Bazaars located along these trade routes, formed networks, linking major cities with each other and in which goods, culture, people and information could be exchanged. Sources from around the same era also indicate that ancient Greeks regulated trade in areas at the center of their cities around "stoa" buildings. The ideas of Greek city planning were spread to the Middle East during the Seleucid period, following the conquests of Alexander the Great.


title: Bazaar

text: The Greek historian, Herodotus, noted that in Egypt, roles were reversed compared with other cultures and Egyptian women frequented the market and carried on trade, while the men remain at home weaving cloth. He also described The Babylonian Marriage Market.


title: Bazaar

text: Sassanid rule in Iran was an important period for the development of urbanization and commerce. In Sassanid Iran the bazaar was usually the heart of a town or city, where it spread outwards and affected the development of other neighbourhoods. The bazaar usually contained, or was adjoined by, an open-air plaza that served as a forum of socio-economic activity.


title: Bazaar

text: Historically, souks were also held outside cities at locations where incoming caravans stopped and merchants displayed their goods for sale. Souks were established at caravanserai, places where a caravan or caravans arrived and remained for rest and refreshments. Since this might be infrequent, souks often extended beyond buying and selling goods to include major festivals involving various cultural and social activities. Any souk may serve a social function as being a place for people to meet in, in addition to its commercial function.


title: Bazaar

text: During the Islamic period, bazaars in Iran developed along the same lines as those of the Sassanid period. Bazaars were typically situated in close proximity to ruling palaces, citadels or mosques, not only because the city afforded traders some protection, but also because palaces and cities generated substantial demand for goods and services.


title: Bazaar

text: From around the 10th century, as major cities increased in size, the souk or marketplace shifted to the center of urban cities where it spread out along the city streets, typically in a linear pattern. Around this time, permanent souks also became covered marketplaces.


title: Bazaar

text: City bazaars occupied a series of alleys along the length of the city, typically stretching from one city gate to a different gate on the other side of the city. The Bazaar of Tabriz, for example, stretches along 1.5 kilometres of street and is the longest vaulted bazaar in the world. Moosavi argues that the Middle-Eastern bazaar evolved in a linear pattern, whereas the market places of the West were more centralised.


title: Bazaar

text: In pre-Islamic Arabia, two types of bazaar existed: permanent urban markets and temporary seasonal markets. The temporary seasonal markets were held at specific times of the year and became associated with particular types of produce. Suq Hijr in Bahrain was noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. In spite of the centrality of the Middle East in the history of bazaars, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence. However, documentary sources point to permanent marketplaces in cities from as early as 550 BCE.


title: Bazaar

text: Nejad has made a detailed study of early bazaars in Iran and identifies two distinct types, based on their place within the economy, namely:


title: Bazaar

text: In the Middle East, the bazaar is considered to be "the beating heart of the city and a symbol of Islamic architecture and culture of high significance." Today, bazaars are popular sites for tourists and some of these ancient bazaars have been listed as world heritage sites or national monuments on the basis of their historical, cultural or architectural value.


title: Bazaar

text: The Medina of Fez, Morocco, with its labyrinthine covered market streets was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981. Al-Madina Souq is part of the ancient city of Aleppo in Syria, another UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1986. The Bazaar complex at Tabriz, Iran was listed in 2010 and Kemeraltı Bazaar of İzmir in 2020. The Bazaar of Qaisiyariye in Lar, Iran is on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.


title: Bazaar

text: A temporary, seasonal souk is held at a set time that might be yearly, monthly or weekly. The oldest souks were set up annually, and were typically general festivals held outside cities. For example, Souk Ukadh was held yearly in pre-Islamic times in an area between Mecca and Ta’if during the sacred month of Dhu al-Qi'dah. While a busy market, it was more famous for its poetry competitions, judged by prominent poets such as Al-Khansa and Al-Nabigha. An example of an Islamic annual souk is Al Mirbid just outside Basra, also famed for its poetry competitions in addition to its storytelling activities. Temporary souks tended to become known for specific types of produce. For example, Suq Hijr in Bahrain was noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. Political, economic and social changes have left only the small seasonal souks outside villages and small towns, primarily selling livestock and agricultural products.


title: Bazaar

text: Weekly markets have continued to function throughout the Arab world. Most of them are named from the day of the week on which they are held. They usually have open spaces specifically designated for their use inside cities. Examples of surviving markets are the Wednesday Market in Amman that specializes in the sale of used products, the Ghazl market held every Friday in Baghdad specializing in pets; the Fina’ Market in Marrakech offers performance acts such as singing, music, acrobats and circus activities.


title: Bazaar

text: In tribal areas, where seasonal souks operated, neutrality from tribal conflicts was usually declared for the period of operation of a souk to permit the unhampered exchange of surplus goods. Some of the seasonal markets were held at specific times of the year and became associated with particular types of produce such as Suq Hijr in Bahrain, noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. In spite of the centrality of the Middle Eastern market place, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence.


title: Bazaar

text: Permanent souks are more commonly occurring, but less renowned as they focus on commercial activity, and not entertainment. Until the Umayyad era, permanent souks were merely an open space where merchants would bring in their movable stalls during the day and remove them at night; no one had a right to specific pitch and it was usually first-come first-served. During the Umayyad era the governments started leasing, and then selling, sites to merchants. Merchants then built shops on their sites to store their goods at night. Finally, the area comprising a souk might be roofed over. With its long and narrow alleys, al-Madina Souk is the largest covered historic market in the world, with an approximate length of 13 kilometers. Al-Madina Souk is part of the Ancient City of Aleppo, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1986 in Syria.


title: Bazaar

text: Gharipour has pointed out that in spite of the centrality of souks and bazaars in Middle Eastern history, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence. Souks are traditionally divided into specialized sections dealing in specific types of product, in the case of permanent souks each usually housed in a few narrow streets and named after the product it specializes in such as the gold souk, the fabric souk, the spice souk, the leather souk, the copy souk (for books), etc. This promotes competition among sellers and helps buyers easily compare prices.


title: Bazaar

text: At the same time the whole assembly is collectively called a souk. Some of the prominent examples are Souk Al-Melh in Sana'a, Manama Souk in Bahrain, Bizouriyya Souk in Damascus, Saray Souk in Baghdad, Khan Al-Zeit in Jerusalem, and Zanqat Al-Niswaan in Alexandria.


title: Bazaar

text: Though each neighbourhood within the city would have a local Souk selling food and other essentials, the main souk was one of the central structures of a large city, selling durable goods, luxuries and providing services such as money exchange. Workshops where goods for sale are produced (in the case of a merchant selling locally-made products) are typically located away from the souk itself. The souk was a level of municipal administration. The Muhtasib was responsible for supervising business practices and collecting taxes for a given souk while the Arif are the overseers for a specific trade.


title: Bazaar

text: Shopping at a souk or market place is part of daily life throughout much of the Middle East. Prices are commonly set by bargaining, also known as haggling, between buyers and sellers.


title: Bazaar

text: During the 18th and 19th centuries, Europeans conquered and excavated parts of North Africa and the Levant. These regions now make up what is called the Middle East, but in the past were known as the "Orient." Europeans sharply divided peoples into two broad groups – the "European West" and the "East or Orient"; "us" and the "other." Europeans often saw Orientals as the opposite of Western civilization; the peoples could be threatening- they were "despotic, static and irrational whereas Europe was viewed as democratic, dynamic and rational." At the same time, the Orient was seen as exotic, mysterious, a place of fables and beauty. This fascination with the other gave rise to a genre of painting known as Orientalism. A proliferation of both Oriental fiction and travel writing occurred during the early modern period.


title: Bazaar

text: Many of these works were lavishly illustrated with engravings of every day scenes of Oriental lifestyles, including scenes of market places and market trade. Artists focused on the exotic beauty of the land – the markets, caravans and snake charmers. Islamic architecture also became favorite subject matter. Some of these works were propaganda designed to justify European imperialism in the East, however many artists relied heavily on their everyday experiences for inspiration in their artworks. For example, Charles D'Oyly, who was born in India, published the "Antiquities of Dacca" featuring a series of 15 engraved plates of Dacca [now Dhaka, Bangladesh] featuring scenes of markets, commerce, buildings and streetscapes. European society generally frowned on nude painting – but harems, concubines and slave markets, presented as quasi-documentary works, satisfied European desires for pornographic art. The Oriental female wearing a veil was a particularly tempting subject because she was hidden from view, adding to her mysterious allure.


title: Bazaar

text: Notable artists in the Orientalist genre include: Jean-Léon Gérôme Delacroix (1824–1904), Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860), Frederic Leighton (1830-1896), Eugène Alexis Girardet 1853-1907 and William Holman Hunt (1827–1910) who all found inspiration in Oriental street scenes, trading and commerce. French painter Jean-Étienne Liotard visited Istanbul in the 17th century and painted pastels of Turkish domestic scenes. British painter John Frederick Lewis who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life. Edwin Lord Weeks was a notable American example of a 19th-century artist and author in the Orientalism genre. His parents were wealthy tea and spice merchants who were able to fund his travels and interest in painting. In 1895 Weeks wrote and illustrated a book of travels titled "From the Black Sea through Persia and India." Other notable painters in the Orientalist genre who included scenes of street life and market-based trade in their work are Jean-Léon Gérôme Delacroix (1824–1904), Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860), Frederic Leighton (1830–1896), Eugène Alexis Girardet 1853–1907 and William Holman Hunt (1827–1910), who all found inspiration in Oriental street scenes, trading and commerce.


title: Bazaar

text: Many English visitors to the Orient wrote narratives around their travels. British Romantic literature in the Orientalism tradition has its origins in the early eighteenth century, with the first translations of "The Arabian Nights" (translated into English from the French in 1705–08). The popularity of this work inspired authors to develop a new genre, the Oriental tale. Samuel Johnson's "History of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia," (1759) is mid-century example of the genre. Byron's "Oriental Tales," is another example of the Romantic Orientalism genre.


title: Bazaar

text: Although these works were purportedly non-fiction, they were notoriously unreliable. Many of these accounts provided detailed descriptions of market places, trading and commerce. Examples of travel writing include: "Les Mysteres de L'Egypte Devoiles" by Olympe Audouard published in 1865 and Jacques Majorelle's "Road Trip Diary of a Painter in the Atlas and the Anti-Atlas" published in 1922


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: The Mausoleum of Augustus () is a large tomb built by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 28 BC on the Campus Martius in Rome, Italy. The mausoleum is located on the Piazza Augusto Imperatore, near the corner with Via di Ripetta as it runs along the Tiber. The grounds cover an area equivalent to a few city blocks nestled between the church of San Carlo al Corso and the Museum of the Ara Pacis. The mausoleum has been restored and reopened to the public in March 2021, after fourteen years of closure.


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: The mausoleum was one of the first projects initiated by Augustus in the city of Rome following his victory at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The mausoleum was circular in plan, consisting of several concentric rings of earth and brick, faced with travertine on the exterior, and planted with cypresses on the top tier. The whole structure was capped (possibly, as reconstructions are unsure at best) by a conical roof and a huge bronze statue of Augustus.


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: Vaults held up the roof and opened up the burial spaces below. Twin pink granite obelisks flanked the arched entryway; these have been removed; one now stands at the Piazza dell'Esquilino (on the north-west side of the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore) and the other at the Quirinal fountain. The completed mausoleum measured 90 m (295 ft) in diameter by 42 m (137 ft) in height.


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: A corridor ran from the entryway into the heart of the mausoleum, where there was a chamber with three niches to hold the golden urns enshrining the ashes of the Imperial Family. Two pillars flanking the entrance were mounted with bronze plaques inscribed with the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, the document describing Augustus' accomplishments and victories. Surrounding the mausoleum was landscaped parkland akin to modern public parks, affording a place of retreat at the heart of Rome's heavily urbanized Campus Martius.


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: The traditional story is that in 410, during the sack of Rome by Alaric, the pillaging Visigoths rifled the vaults, stole the urns and scattered the ashes, without damaging the structure of the building. Platner and Ashby, however, posited that "The story of its plundering by Alaric in 410 has no historical foundation, and we know nothing of its destruction".


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: By the end of the 10th century, the mausoleum had become largely buried under earth and overgrown with trees, to the point where it was referred to as the "Mons Augustus". A legend of the time referred to a supposed decree by Augustus who ordered that a basketful of earth from every province of the empire was to be thrown upon his tomb, so that he could rest on the soil of the whole world over which he ruled. Atop the Mausoleum stood a chapel built to the Archangel Michael, while alongside was the Church of Santa Maria (or perhaps Martina) in Augusto (later transformed into San Giacomo degli Incurabili).


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: By the 12th century, the tumulus was fortified as a castleas was the mausoleum of Hadrian, which was turned into the Castel Sant'Angeloand occupied by the Colonna family. After the disastrous defeat of the Commune of Rome at the hands of the Count of Tusculum in 1167, the Colonna were disgraced and banished, and their fortification in the Campo was dismantled. Throughout the Renaissance it passed through the ownership of several major Roman families, who used it as a garden; at the beginning of the 19th century it was in use as a circus.


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: In the early 20th century, the interior of the Mausoleum was used as a concert hall called the "Augusteo", until Benito Mussolini ordered it closed in the 1930s and restored it to the status of an archaeological site. The restoration of the Mausoleum of Augustus to a place of prominence featured in Mussolini's ambitious reordering of the city of Rome which strove to connect the aspirations of Italian Fascism with the former glories of the Roman Empire. Mussolini viewed himself especially connected to the achievements of Augustus, seeing himself as a 'reborn Augustus' ready to usher in a new age of Italian dominance.


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: In January 2017, Italian authorities announced a €6 million grant from Telecom Italia for a comprehensive restoration of the Mausoleum of Augustus, allowing it to open to the public for the first time since the 1970s. The Mausoleum would be fully restored and incorporate a multi-media exhibition to project images of modern and ancient Rome onto the interior walls of the structure. Although it was announced in 2017 that the full restoration would be completed by April 2019, the Mausoleum was still not open to the public at the end of 2019.


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: An earlier intention to restore the Mausoleum in time to commemorate the 2,000th anniversary of Augustus' death in 2014 failed due to funding shortfalls. The neglect of the Mausoleum, closed to the public, overgrown with vegetation and used as a dumping ground for litter, had long attracted criticism, especially after the opening of the Ara Pacis museum across the street in 2006. Following the renovations the press reported that the Mausoleum was due to reopen to the public in the spring of 2021. The cost of the restoration work was 11 million euros. It was sponsored by the foundation of TIM Group, formerly Telecom Italia.


title: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: The Mausoleum opened to visitors in 2021, and the final restoration work, including the central cylinder housing Augustus' burial chamber, is scheduled to be completed in 2022.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Max Fleischer (born Majer Fleischer ; July 19, 1883 – September 25, 1972) was an American animator, inventor, film director and producer, and studio founder and owner. Born in Kraków, Fleischer immigrated to the United States where he became a pioneer in the development of the animated cartoon and served as the head of Fleischer Studios, which he co-founded with his younger brother Dave. He brought such comic characters as Koko the Clown, Betty Boop, Popeye, and Superman to the movie screen, and was responsible for several technological innovations, including the rotoscope, the "follow the bouncing ball" technique pioneered in the "Ko-Ko Song Car-Tunes" films, and the "stereoptical process". Film director Richard Fleischer was his son.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Majer Fleischer was born July 19, 1883, to a Jewish family in Kraków, (then part of Austria-Hungary: Austrian Partition). He was the second of six children of a tailor from Dąbrowa Tarnowska, Aaron Fleischer, who later changed his name to William in the United States, and Malka "Amelia" Pałasz. His family immigrated to the United States in March 1887, settling in New York City, where he attended public school. During his early formative years, he enjoyed a middle-class lifestyle, the result of his father's success as an exclusive tailor to high society clients. This changed drastically after his father lost his business ten years later. His teens were spent in Brownsville, a poor Jewish neighborhood in Brooklyn. He continued his education at evening high school. He received commercial art training at Cooper Union and formal art instruction at the Art Students League of New York, studying under George Bridgman. He also attended the Mechanics and Tradesman's School in midtown Manhattan.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Fleischer began his career at "The Brooklyn Daily Eagle". Beginning as an errand boy, he advanced to photographer, photoengraver, and eventually, staff cartoonist. At first, he drew single-panel editorial cartoons, but then graduated to the full strips "Little Algie" and "S.K. Sposher, the Camera Fiend". These satirical strips reflected his life in Brownsville and his fascination with technology and photography, respectively—both displaying his sense of irony and fatalism. It was during this period he met newspaper cartoonist and early animator, John Randolph Bray, who would later give him his start in the animation field.


title: Max Fleischer

text: On December 25, 1905, Fleischer married his childhood sweetheart, Ethel (Essie) Goldstein. On the recommendation of Bray, Fleischer was hired as a technical illustrator for the Electro-Light Engraving Company in Boston. In 1909 he moved to Syracuse, New York, working as a catalog illustrator for the Crouse-Hinds Company, and a year later returned to New York as art editor for "Popular Science" magazine under editor Waldemar Kaempffert.


title: Max Fleischer

text: By 1914, the first commercially produced animated cartoons began to appear in movie theaters. They tended to be stiff and jerky. Fleischer devised an improvement in animation through a combined projector and easel for tracing images from a live-action film. This device, known as the rotoscope, enabled Fleischer to produce the first realistic animation since the initial works of Winsor McCay. Although his patent was granted in 1917, Max and his brothers Joe and Dave Fleischer made their first series of tests between 1914 and 1916.


title: Max Fleischer

text: The Pathé Film exchange offered Max his first opportunity as a producer due in part to the fact that Dave had been working there as a film cutter since 1914. Max chose a political satire of a hunting trip by Theodore Roosevelt. After several months of labor, the film was rejected, and Max was making the rounds again when he was reunited with John R. Bray at Paramount. Bray had a distribution contract with Paramount at the time and hired Max as production supervisor for his studio. With the outbreak of World War I, Max was sent to Fort Sill, Oklahoma to produce the first Army training films on subjects that included "Contour Map Reading", "Operating the Stokes Mortar", "Firing the Lewis Machine Gun", and "Submarine Mine Laying". Following the Armistice, Fleischer returned to Bray and the production of theatrical and educational films.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Fleischer produced his "Out of the Inkwell" films featuring "The Clown" character, which his brother Dave originated; he had worked as a sideshow clown at Coney Island. It was one of the later tests made from footage of Dave as a clown that interested Bray.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Fleischer's initial series was first produced at the Bray Studios and released as a monthly installment in the "Bray-Goldwyn Pictograph Screen Magazine" from 1919 to 1921. In addition to producing "Out of the Inkwell", Max's position at Bray was primarily production manager, and supervisor of several educational and technical films such as "The Electric Bell", "All Aboard for the Moon", and "Hello, Mars". And it was as production manager that Fleischer hired his first animator, Roland Crandall, who remained with him throughout the active years of Fleischer's studio.


title: Max Fleischer

text: "Out of the Inkwell" featured the novelty of combining live action and animation and served as semi-documentaries with the appearance of Max Fleischer as the artist who dipped his pen into the ink bottle to produce the clown figure on his drawing board. While the technique of combining animation with live action was already established by others at the Bray Studio, it was Fleischer's clever use of it combined with Fleischer's realistic animation that made his series unique.


title: Max Fleischer

text: In 1921, Max and Dave established Out of the Inkwell Films, Incorporated, and continued production of "Out of the Inkwell" through various states-rights distributors. "The Clown" had no name until 1924, when Dick Huemer came aboard after animating on the early "Mutt and Jeff" cartoons. He set the style for the series, redesigning "The Clown", and named him "Ko-Ko". Huemer created Ko-Ko's canine companion, known as Fitz, and moved the Fleischers away from their dependency on the Rotoscope for fluid animation, leaving it for special uses and reference points where compositing was involved. Because Max valued Huemer's work, he instructed Huemer to make just the key poses and have an assistant fill in the remaining drawings. Max assigned Art Davis as Huemer's assistant and this was the beginning of the animation position of "inbetweener", which was essentially another Fleischer "invention" that resulted in efficient production and was adopted by the entire industry by the 1930s.


title: Max Fleischer

text: It was during this time that Max developed rotoscoping, a means of photographing live action film footage with animation cels for a composited image. This was an improvement over the method used by Bray where a series of 8" x 10" stills were made from motion picture film and used as backgrounds behind animation cels. The Rotograph technique went into more general use as "aerial image photography" and was a staple in animation and optical effects companies for making titles and various forms of matte composites.


title: Max Fleischer

text: In addition to the theatrical comedy films, Fleischer produced technical and educational films including "That Little Big Fellow" and "Now You're Talking" for A.T.&T. In 1923, he made two 20-minute features explaining Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity and Charles Darwin's "Evolution" using animated special effects and live action.


title: Max Fleischer

text: In 1924, Fleischer partnered with Edwin Miles Fadiman, Hugo Riesenfeld and Lee de Forest to form Red Seal Pictures Corporation, which owned 36 theaters on the East Coast, extending as far west as Cleveland, Ohio. During this period, Fleischer invented the "Follow the Bouncing Ball" technique in his "Ko-Ko Song Car-Tunes" series of animated sing-along shorts. In these films, the lyrics of a song appear on screen and theater patrons are encouraged to sing along with the characters. An animated ball bounces across the top of the lyrics to indicate when words should be sung.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Of the 36 "Song Car-Tunes" 12 used the De Forest Phonofilm sound-on-film process, the first of which was "My Old Kentucky Home" in 1926. This preceded Walt Disney's "Steamboat Willie" (1928), which has been erroneously cited for decades as the first cartoon to synchronize sound with animation. The "Song Car-Tunes" series lasted until early 1927 and was interrupted by the bankruptcy of the Red Seal company—just five months before the start of the sound era.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Alfred Weiss, owner of Artcraft Pictures, approached Fleischer with a contract to produce cartoons for Paramount. Due to legal complications of the bankruptcy, the "Out of the Inkwell" series was renamed "The Inkwell Imps" and ran from 1927 to 1929. This was the start of Fleischer's relationship with the huge Paramount organization, which lasted for the next 15 years. After a year, the Fleischer brothers started experiencing mismanagement under Weiss and left the company in late 1928. Inkwell Films, Inc. filed for bankruptcy in January 1929, and Fleischer formed Fleischer Studios, Inc. in March 1929.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Fleischer first set up operations at Carpenter-Goldman Laboratories in Queens with a small staff (see Fleischer Studios). After eight months, his new company was solvent enough to move back to its former location at 1600 Broadway, where it remained until 1938. At Carpenter-Goldman, Fleischer began producing industrial films including "Finding His Voice" (1929), a demonstration film illustrating the Western Electric Variable Density sound recording and reproduction method. Despite the conflicts with Weiss, Fleischer managed to negotiate a new contract with Paramount to produce a revised version of the "Song Car-tunes", produced with sound and renamed" Screen Songs", beginning with "The Sidewalks of New York".


title: Max Fleischer

text: At this early stage in the sound era, Fleischer produced many technically advanced films that were the result of his continued research and development that perfected the post-production method of sound recording. Several of these devices provided visual cues for the musical conductor to follow. As dialogue and songs became major elements, more precise analysis of soundtracks was possible through other inventions from Fleischer such as "The Cue Meter".


title: Max Fleischer

text: Max Fleischer's Betty Boop character was born out of a cameo caricature in the early "Talkartoon", "Dizzy Dishes" (1930). Fashioned after popular singer Helen Kane, she originated as a hybrid poodle/canine figure and was such a sensation in the New York preview that Paramount encouraged Fleischer to develop her into a continuing character. While she originated under animator Myron "Grim" Natwick, she was transformed into a human female under Seymour Kneitel and Berny Wolf and became Fleischer's most famous character.


title: Max Fleischer

text: The "Betty Boop" series began in 1932 and became a big success for Fleischer. That same year, Helen Kane filed a lawsuit against Fleischer, Fleischer Studios, and Paramount claiming that the cartoons were a deliberate caricature of her, created unfair competition, and had ruined her career. The suit went to trial in 1934. An early-sound test film of an obscure Black performer, "Baby Esther" Jones, was shown as key evidence—disproving Kane's claims as originator of the singing style. Judge Edward J. McGoldrick ruled, "The plaintiff has failed to sustain either cause of action by proof of sufficient probative force." In his opinion, the "baby" technique of singing did not originate with Kane.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Fleischer's greatest business decision came with his licensing of the comic strip character Popeye the Sailor, who was introduced to audiences in the Betty Boop cartoon short, "Popeye the Sailor" (1933). Popeye became one of the most successful screen adaptations of a comic strip in cinema history. Much of this success was due to the perfect match of the Fleischer Studio style combined with its unique use of music. By the late 1930s, a survey indicated that Popeye had eclipsed Mickey Mouse in popularity, challenging Disney's preeminence in the market.


title: Max Fleischer

text: During its zenith by the mid-1930s, Fleischer Studios was producing four series, "Betty Boop", "Popeye", "Screen Songs", and "Color Classics", resulting in 52 releases each year. From the very beginning, Fleischer's business relationship with Paramount was a joint financial and distribution arrangement, making his studio a service company supplying products for the company's theaters. During the Great Depression, Paramount went through four bankruptcy reorganizations, which affected their operational expenses.


title: Max Fleischer

text: As a founding member of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, Fleischer was aware of the technical advancements of the industry, particularly in the development of color cinematography. Due to Paramount's financial restructuring, he was unable to acquire the three-color Technicolor process from the start. This created the opportunity for Walt Disney, who was then a small fledgling producer, to acquire a four-year exclusivity. With this, he created a new market for color cartoons beginning with "Flowers and Trees" (1932). In 1934 Paramount approved color production for Fleischer, but he was left with the limited two-color processes of Cinecolor (red and blue) and Two-Color Technicolor (red and green) for the first year of his "Color Classics". The first entry, "Poor Cinderella" (1934) was made in the two-emulsion/two-color Cinecolor Process and starred Betty Boop in her only color appearance. By 1936, Disney's exclusivity had expired, and Fleischer had the benefit of the three-color Technicolor Process beginning with "Somewhere in Dreamland".


title: Max Fleischer

text: These color cartoons were often augmented with Fleischer's patented three-dimensional effects promoted as the "Stereoptical Process", a precursor to Disney's Multiplane animation. This technique used 3-D model sets replacing flat pan backgrounds, with the animation cels photographed in front. This technique was used to the greatest degree in the two-reel "Popeye Features" "Popeye the Sailor Meets Sinbad the Sailor" (1936) and "Popeye the Sailor Meets Ali Baba's Forty Thieves" (1937). These double-length cartoons demonstrated Fleischer's interest in animated feature films. While Fleischer petitioned for this for three years, it was not until the New York opening at Radio City of Disney's "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" (February 1938) that Paramount executives realized the value of animated features and ordered one for a 1939 Christmas release.


title: Max Fleischer

text: The popularity of the Popeye cartoons created a demand for more. To meet Paramount's demands, the studio was challenged with rapid expansion, production speed-ups, and crowded working conditions. Finally, in May 1937, Fleischer Studios was affected by a five-month strike, resulting in a boycott that kept the studio's releases off theater screens until November. Having a paternal attitude towards his employees, Max took it personally, as if he had been betrayed, and thus developed an ulcer. Following the strike, Max and Dave Fleischer decided to move the studio for more space and to escape further labor agitation.


title: Max Fleischer

text: In March 1938, Paramount approved Max's proposal to produce a feature just when he was preparing to move the studio from New York City to Miami, Florida. Once in Miami relations between Max and Dave began deteriorating, beginning with the pressures to deliver their first feature, complicated further by Dave's adulterous affair with his secretary, Mae Schwartz.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Jonathan Swift's classic novel "Gulliver's Travels" was a favorite of Max's and was pressed into production. Fleischer and Paramount originally budgeted the film "Gulliver's Travels" at $500,000—the same miscalculation made by Disney with "Snow White". The final cost for "Gulliver's Travels" was three times budget, or $1.5 million. It played limited engagements in only 30 theaters during the 1939 Christmas season, but grossed more than $3 million, giving Paramount a profit of $1.5 million before going into foreign release. But Fleischer Studios was penalized $350,000 for going over budget, and the contract did not allow Max and Fleischer Studios participation in the foreign earnings. This was the beginning of the financial difficulties of Fleischer Studios with reduced royalties due to this debt to Paramount.


title: Max Fleischer

text: In 1940, Max was relegated to business affairs and continued technical development. His efforts resulted in a reflex camera viewfinder and line transfer methods to replace the time-consuming and tedious process of cel inking. That same year Fleischer and Paramount experienced lost revenues due to the failure of the new series "Gabby", "Animated Antics", and "Stone Age", all launched under the leadership of Dave. After Republic Studios allegedly failed to develop Superman as a live-action serial, Max acquired the license that fall and initiated development.


title: Max Fleischer

text: The cost for the "Superman" series has been grossly overstated for decades, based on Dave Fleischer's 1968 interview. The actual figure stated in Fleischer's contract was in the $30,000 range, twice the cost of a Popeye cartoon. "Superman" was a reflection of the type of "serious" cartoons that were not being made by rival studios. Their science fiction/fantasy elements appealed to Max's interests, finally leading the studio into maturity and relevance for the 1940s.


title: Max Fleischer

text: The early returns on "Gulliver" prompted Paramount President, Barney Balaban, to order a second feature for their 1941 Christmas release. This second feature, "Mr. Bug Goes to Town", was unique, having a contemporary setting. It was technically superior to "Gulliver's Travels". Paramount had high hopes for its Christmas 1941 release, which was well-received by critics during its December 5 preview. However, the exhibitors rejected it, fearing that it would not do business, and with the bombing of Pearl Harbor two days after the preview, the original Christmas release was cancelled.


title: Max Fleischer

text: With the cancellation of the release of "Mr. Bug Goes to Town", Max was called to a meeting with Balaban in New York, where Max was asked for his resignation. Dave had resigned the month before, following the completion of post-production on the film. Paramount finished out the remaining five months of the 1941 Fleischer contract with the absence of both Max and Dave Fleischer, and the name change to Famous Studios became official on May 27, 1942. Paramount installed new management, among them Max's son-in-law, Seymour Kneitel.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Unable to form a studio due to the demand for military training films, Fleischer was brought in as head of the Animation Department for the industrial film company, The Jam Handy Organization in Detroit, Michigan. While there he supervised the technical and cartoon animation departments, producing training films for the Army and Navy. Fleischer was also involved with top-secret research and development for the war effort including an aircraft bomber sighting system. In 1944, he published "Noah's Shoes", a metaphoric account of the building and loss of his studio, casting himself as Noah.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Following the war, he supervised the production of the animated adaptation of "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" (1948), sponsored by Montgomery Ward. Fleischer left Handy in 1953 and returned as Production Manager for the Bray Studios in New York, where he developed an educational television pilot about unusual birds and animals titled, "Imagine That!"


title: Max Fleischer

text: In 1954, Max's son, Richard Fleischer, was directing "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" for Walt Disney. This brought about the honorary luncheon that united Max with his former competitor and reunited him with several former Fleischer animators who were then employed by Disney. This meeting of the former rivals seemed cordial, and Max remarked that he was very happy making educational films at this point in his career. However, in his collection of memoirs entitled "Just Tell Me When to Cry", Richard relates how, at the mere mention of Disney's name, Max would mutter, "that son-of-a-bitch".


title: Max Fleischer

text: Fleischer won a lawsuit against Paramount in 1955 over the removal of his name from the credits of his films. While Fleischer had issues over the breach of contract, he had avoided suing for a decade to protect his son-in-law, Seymour Kneitel, who was a lead director at Paramount's Famous Studios. In 1958, Fleischer revived Out of the Inkwell Films, Inc. and partnered with his former animator Hal Seeger, to produce 100 color "Out of the Inkwell" (1960–1961) cartoons for television. Actor Larry Storch performed the voices for Koko the Clown and supporting characters Kokonut and Mean Moe. While Max appeared in the un-aired pilot, he became too ill to appear in the series, and, in poor health, he spent the rest of his life attempting to regain ownership of Betty Boop.


title: Max Fleischer

text: Fleischer and wife Essie moved to the Motion Picture Country House in 1967. Fleischer died from arterial sclerosis of the brain on September 25, 1972, two months after his 89th birthday, and in announcing his passing the press labeled him "dean of animated cartoons". His death preceded the reclaiming of his star character, Betty Boop, and a national retrospective.


title: Max Fleischer

text: The anthology film "The Betty Boop Scandals of 1974" started the Fleischer Renaissance with new 35mm prints of a selection of the best Fleischer cartoons made between 1928 and 1934. This was followed by "The Popeye Follies". These special theatrical programs generated interest in Max Fleischer as the alternative to Walt Disney, spawning a new wave of film research devoted to an expanded interest in animation beyond trivial entertainment.


title: Christopher G. Cavoli

text: Christopher Gerard Cavoli is a United States Army general who serves as the commander of United States European Command since 1 July 2022 and Supreme Allied Commander Europe since 4 July 2022. He previously served as the commanding general of United States Army Europe and Africa from October 2020 to June 2022, and before that as the commanding general of United States Army Europe from January 2018 to September 2020.


title: Christopher G. Cavoli

text: Commissioned into the infantry from the Reserve Officers' Training Corps, Cavoli served in the War in Afghanistan and commanded a brigade of the 1st Armored Division, the 7th Army Joint Multinational Training Command, and the 25th Infantry Division before assuming command of USAREUR in January 2018.


title: Christopher G. Cavoli

text: Born to an Italian-American army officer during the Cold War in Würzburg, West Germany, Cavoli grew up in Rome, Verona, Vicenza, and Giessen. He graduated from Princeton University with an A.B. in biology in 1987 and was commissioned into the Infantry from the Reserve Officers' Training Corps. As part of his undergraduate degree, Cavoli completed a 22-page senior thesis titled "The Effect of Earthworms on the Vertical Distribution of Slime Molds in the Soil." Cavoli was first assigned as a second lieutenant to the 3rd Battalion, 325th Airborne at Vicenza from 1988 to 1991. He was promoted to captain and served as an instructor at Ranger School between 1992 and 1994. He entered the Russian Foreign Area Officer program in 1995, and graduated from Yale University with a Master of Arts in Russian and East European Studies in 1997. In 1999, he became chief of future operations for the 10th Mountain Division as a major and deployed to Bosnia with Implementation Force, before serving as an infantry battalion operations officer between 2000 and 2001. As a lieutenant colonel, Cavoli served successively as Director for Russia on the Joint Staff Strategic Plans and Policy Directorate from 2001, as deputy executive assistant for the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 2003, and became a senior fellow at the National Defense University in 2004.


title: Christopher G. Cavoli

text: Cavoli became commander of the 1st Battalion, 32nd Infantry Regiment of the 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division in 2005. The battalion deployed to Kunar Province during the War in Afghanistan with the brigade in 2006. He then commanded the 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 1st Armored Division, in addition to serving as the deputy commander of Regional Command West in Herat during the War in Afghanistan. Cavoli also served as the director of the Coordination Group of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army. Cavoli held fellowships at the National Defense University, the George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and the Strategic Studies Group of the Army Chief of Staff.


title: Christopher G. Cavoli

text: After serving as deputy commanding general for operations of the 82nd Airborne Division, Cavoli became commander of the 7th Army Joint Multionational Training Command at Grafenwoehr Training Area in July 2014. He was assigned to command the 25th Infantry Division on 25 March 2016, and officially assumed command in a ceremony on 4 August. He was confirmed by the Senate for promotion to major general on 26 May 2016. He assumed command of United States Army Europe in a ceremony on 18 January 2018 after being confirmed by the Senate for promotion to lieutenant general on 20 December 2017.


title: Christopher G. Cavoli

text: On 1 July 2020, Cavoli was nominated and confirmed by the Senate on 30 September 2020, for appointment to the rank of general, and assignment as the commanding general of United States Army Europe and Africa, combining the originally separate Army commands. He assumed his new command in Germany on 1 October 2020 and was formally promoted by Army Vice Chief of Staff Joseph M. Martin at the Pentagon on 7 October, with an effective date-of-rank on 1 October.


title: Christopher G. Cavoli

text: Defender-Europe 21, one of the largest U.S.-Army, NATO-led military exercises in Europe in decades, began in mid-March 2021 and lasted until June 2021. It included "nearly simultaneous operations across more than 30 training areas" in Estonia, Bulgaria, Romania, Kosovo and other countries. Cavoli said that "While we are closely monitoring the COVID situation, we’ve proven we have the capability to train safely despite the pandemic."


title: Christopher G. Cavoli

text: In May 2022, he was nominated to succeed General Tod Wolters as commander of United States European Command and Supreme Allied Commander Europe.


title: Christopher G. Cavoli

text: Cavoli is married to Christina (née Dacey) of Fairfax, Virginia, and have two sons, Alex and Nick. A speaker of French, Italian, and Russian, he is a Foreign Area Officer with a concentration on Eurasia.


title: Shakespearean tragedy

text: Shakespearean tragedy is the designation given to most tragedies written by playwright William Shakespeare. Many of his history plays share the qualifiers of a Shakespearean tragedy, but because they are based on real figures throughout the history of England, they were classified as "histories" in the First Folio. The Roman tragedies—"Julius Caesar", "Antony and Cleopatra" and "Coriolanus"—are also based on historical figures, but because their sources were foreign and ancient they are almost always classified as tragedies rather than histories. Shakespeare's romances (tragicomic plays) were written late in his career and published originally as either tragedy or comedy. They share some elements of tragedy, insofar as they feature a high-status central character, but they end happily like Shakespearean comedies. Almost three centuries after Shakespeare's death, the scholar F. S. Boas also coined a fifth category, the "problem play," for plays that do not fit neatly into a single classification because of their subject matter, setting, or ending. The classifications of certain Shakespeare plays are still debated among scholars.


title: Shakespearean tragedy

text: Below is the list of Shakespeare's plays listed as tragedies in the First Folio, along with the date range in which each play is believed to have been written.


title: Shakespearean tragedy

text: The English Renaissance, when Shakespeare was writing, was fueled by a renewed interest in Roman and Greek classics and neighboring renaissance literature written years earlier in Italy, France, and Spain. Shakespeare wrote the majority of his tragedies under the rule of James I, and their darker contents may reflect the general mood of the country following the death of Elizabeth I, as well as James' theatrical preferences. Shakespeare, as was customary for other playwrights in his day, used history, other plays, and non-dramatic literature as sources for his plays. In Elizabethan England there were no copyright or protections against plagiarism, so characters, plots, and even whole phrases of poetry were considered common property. The majority of Shakespeare's tragedies are based on historical figures, with the exception of "Measure for Measure" and "Othello", which are based on narrative fictions by Giraldi Cintio. The historical basis for Shakespeare's Roman plays comes from "The Lives of Noble Grecians and Romans" by Plutarch, whereas the source of Shakespeare's Britain based plays and "Hamlet" (based on the Danish Prince Amleth) derive from "Holinshed's Chronicles". Furthermore, the French author Belleforest published "The Hystorie of Hamblet, Prince of Denmarke" in 1582 which includes specifics from how the prince counterfeited to be mad, to how the prince stabbed and killed the King's counsellor who was eavesdropping on Hamlet and his mother behind the arras in the Queen's chamber. The story of Lear appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth's "Historia regium Britanniae" , and then in John Higgins' poem "The Mirror for Magistrates" in 1574, as well as appearing in Holinshed's "Chronicles" in 1587. Some events that happen in Shakespeare's "King Lear" were inspired by various episodes of Philip Sidney's "Arcadia" from 1590, while the nonsensical musings of Edgar's "poor Tom" heavily reference Samuel Harsnett's 1603 book, "A Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures".


title: Shakespearean tragedy

text: Tragedies from these eras traced their philosophical essence back to Senecan tragedy, grounded in nobles who have a tragic flaw or commit a grave error ("hamartia") which leads to their reversal of fortune ("peripeteia"). (However, some critics have argued that the "pseudo-Aristotelian" concept of the tragic flaw does not apply to Shakespeare's tragic figures.) Revenge tragedy was also of increasing popularity in this age; Shakespeare's "Hamlet" is one example of this. Plays of this age were also decidedly secular, in contrast to the religious morality plays which by this time were outlawed by Elizabeth I. One marked difference between English renaissance tragedies and the classics that inspired them, was the use and popularity of violence and murder on stage.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: Trans-Saharan trade requires travel across the Sahara between sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa. While existing from prehistoric times, the peak of trade extended from the 8th century until the early 17th century.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: The Sahara once had a very different environment. In Libya and Algeria, from at least 7000 BC, there was pastoralism, the herding of sheep, goats, large settlements, and pottery. Cattle were introduced to the Central Sahara (Ahaggar) from 4000 to 3500 BC. Remarkable rock paintings (dated 3500 to 2500 BC) in places that are currently very dry, portray flora and fauna that are not present in the modern desert environment.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: As a desert, Sahara is now a hostile expanse that separates the Mediterranean economy from the economy of the Niger basin. As Fernand Braudel points out, crossing such a zone, especially without mechanized transport, is worthwhile only when exceptional circumstances cause the expected gain to outweigh the cost and the danger. Trade was conducted by caravans of camels. According to Ibn Battuta, the explorer who accompanied one of the caravans, the average size per caravan was 1,000 camels, but some caravans were as large as 12,000. The caravans would be guided by highly-paid Berbers, who knew the desert and could ensure safe passage from their fellow desert nomads. The survival of a caravan was precarious and would rely on careful co-ordination. Runners would be sent ahead to oases so that water could be shipped out to the caravan when it was still several days away, as the caravans could not easily carry enough with them to make the full journey. In the mid-14th century, Ibn Battuta crossed the desert from Sijilmasa via the salt mines at Taghaza to the oasis of Oualata. A guide was sent ahead and water was brought on a journey of four days from Oualata to meet the caravan.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: Culture and religion were also exchanged on the Trans-Saharan Trade Route. Many West African states eventually adopted Arabic writing and the religion of North Africa, resulting in them being absorbed into the Muslim world.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: Ancient trade spanned the northeastern corner of the Sahara in the Naqadan era. Predynastic Egyptians in the Naqada I period traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the Western Desert to the west, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean to the east. Many trading routes went from oasis to oasis to resupply on both food and water. These oases were very important. They also imported obsidian from Senegal to shape blades and other objects.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: The overland route through the Wadi Hammamat from the Nile to the Red Sea was known as early as predynastic times; drawings depicting Egyptian reed boats have been found along the path dating to 4000 BC. Ancient cities dating to the First Dynasty of Egypt arose along both its Nile and Red Sea junctions, testifying to the route's ancient popularity. It became a major route from Thebes to the Red Sea port of Elim, where travelers then moved on to either Asia, Arabia or the Horn of Africa. Records exist documenting knowledge of the route among Senusret I, Seti, Ramesses IV and also, later, the Roman Empire, especially for mining.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: The Darb al-Arbaʿīn trade route, passing through Kharga in the south and Asyut in the north, was used from as early as the Old Kingdom for the transport and trade of gold, ivory, spices, wheat, animals and plants. Later, Ancient Romans would protect the route by lining it with varied forts and small outposts, some guarding large settlements complete with cultivation. Described by Herodotus as a road "traversed ... in forty days", it became by his time an important land route facilitating trade between Nubia and Egypt, and subsequently became known as the Forty Days Road. From Kobbei, north of al-Fashir, the route passed through the desert to Bir Natrum, another oasis and salt mine, to Wadi Howar before proceeding to Egypt. The Darb el-Arbain trade route was the easternmost of the central routes.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: The westernmost of the three central routes was the Ghadames Road, which ran from the Niger River at Gao north to Ghat and Ghadames before terminating at Tripoli.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: Next was the easiest of the three routes: the Garamantean Road, named after the former rulers of the land it passed through and also called the Bilma Trail. The Garamantean Road passed south of the desert near Murzuk before turning north to pass between the Alhaggar and Tibesti Mountains before reaching the oasis at Kawar. From Kawar, caravans would pass over the great sand dunes of Bilma, where rock salt was mined in great quantities for trade, before reaching the savanna north of Lake Chad. This was the shortest of the routes, and the primary exchanges were slaves and ivory from the south for salt. One early 20th century researcher wrote of the Tripoli-Murzuk-Lake Chad route, “Most of the [trans-Saharan] traffic from the Mediterranean coast during the last 2,000 years has passed along this road.”


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: Another Libyan route was Benghazi to Kufra to the lands of the Wadai Empire between Lake Chad and Darfur.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: The western routes were the Walata Road, from the Sénégal River, and the Taghaza Trail, from the Niger River, which had their northern termini at the great trading center of Sijilmasa, situated in Morocco just north of the desert. The growth of the city of Aoudaghost, founded in the 5th century BCE, was stimulated by its position at the southern end of a trans Saharan trade route.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: To the east, three ancient routes connected the south to the Mediterranean. The herdsmen of the Fezzan of Libya, known as the Garamantes, controlled these routes as early as 1500 BC. From their capital of Germa in the Wadi Ajal, the Garamantean Empire raided north to the sea and south into the Sahel. By the 4th century BC, the independent city-states of Phoenicia had expanded their control to the territory and routes once held by the Garamantes. Shillington states that existing contact with the Mediterranean received added incentive with the growth of the port city of Carthage. Founded c. 800 BCE, Carthage became one terminus for West African gold, ivory, and slaves. West Africa received salt, cloth, beads, and metal goods. Shillington proceeds to identify this trade route as the source for West African iron smelting. Trade continued into Roman times. Although there are Classical references to direct travel from the Mediterranean to West Africa (Daniels, p. 22f), most of this trade was conducted through middlemen, inhabiting the area and aware of passages through the drying lands. The Legio III Augusta subsequently secured these routes on behalf of Rome by the 1st century AD, safeguarding the southern border of the empire for two and half centuries.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: The Garamantes also engaged in the trans-Saharan slave trade. The Garamantes used slaves in their own communities to construct and maintain underground irrigation systems known as the "foggara". Early records of trans-Saharan slave trade come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC, who records the Garementes enslaving cave-dwelling Egyptians in Sudan. Two records of Romans accompanying the Garamentes on slave raiding expeditions are recorded - the first in 86 CE and the second a few years later to Lake Chad. Initial sources of slaves were the Toubou people, but by the 1st century CE, the Garmentes were obtaining slaves from modern day Niger and Chad.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: In the early Roman Empire, the city of Lepcis established a slave market to buy and sell slaves from the African interior. The empire imposed customs tax on the trade of slaves.


title: Trans-Saharan trade

text: In 5th century AD, Roman Carthage was trading in black slaves brought across the Sahara. Black slaves seem to have been valued in the Mediterranean as household slaves for their exotic appearance. Some historians argue that the scale of slave trade in this period may have been higher than medieval times due to high demand of slaves in the Roman Empire.