title: San Luis Potosí

text: Besides airports, the state has an extensive road network, like the rest of the country. Most of the roads are paved in urban areas and highways. Some small towns, however, have cobblestone streets.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Marcelo Hilario del Pilar y Gatmaitán (; ; August 30, 1850July 4, 1896), commonly known as Marcelo H. del Pilar and also known by his pen name Pláridel, was a Filipino writer, lawyer, journalist, and freemason. Del Pilar, along with José Rizal and Graciano López Jaena, became known as the leaders of the Reform Movement in Spain.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Del Pilar was born and brought up in Bulakan, Bulacan. He was suspended at the Universidad de Santo Tomás and imprisoned in 1869 after he and the parish priest quarreled over exorbitant baptismal fees. In the 1880s, he expanded his anti-friar movement from Malolos to Manila. He went to Spain in 1888 after an order of banishment was issued against him. Twelve months after his arrival in Barcelona, he succeeded López Jaena as editor of the "La Solidaridad" (Solidarity). Publication of the newspaper stopped in 1895 due to lack of funds. Losing hope in reforms, he grew favorable of a revolution against Spain. He was on his way home in 1896 when he contracted tuberculosis in Barcelona. He later died in a public hospital and was buried in a pauper's grave.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: On November 15, 1995, the Technical Committee of the National Heroes Committee, created through Executive Order No. 5 by former President Fidel V. Ramos, recommended del Pilar along with the eight Filipino historical figures to be National Heroes. The recommendations were submitted to Department of Education Secretary Ricardo T. Gloria on November 22, 1995. No action has been taken for these recommended historical figures. In 2009, this issue was revisited in one of the proceedings of the 14th Congress.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Marcelo H. del Pilar was born at his family's ancestral home in sitio Cupang, barrio San Nicolás, Bulacán, Bulacan, on August 30, 1850. He was baptized as "Marcelo" on September 4, 1850, at the "Iglesia Parroquial de Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion" in Bulacán. Fr. D. Tomas Yson, a Filipino secular priest, performed the baptism, and Lorenzo Alvir, a distant relative, acted as the godfather. "Hilario" was the original paternal surname of the family. The surname of Marcelo's paternal grandmother, "del Pilar", was added to comply with the naming reforms of Governor-General Narciso Clavería in 1849.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Marcelo's parents belonged to the "principalía". Both owned vast tracks of rice and sugarcane farms, fish ponds, and an animal-powered mill. Marcelo's father, Julián Hilario del Pilar (1812-1906), was the son of José Hilario del Pilar and María Roqueza. Don Julián was a famous Tagalog grammarian, writer, and speaker. In the municipality of Bulacán, he served as a "three-time" "gobernadorcillo" of the town's "pueblo" (1831, 1854, 1864-1865) and later held the position of "oficial de mesa" of the "alcalde mayor". In the early 1830s, Julián met and married Blasa Gatmaitán (1814-1872?), a descendant of an ancient Tagalog nobility. Known as "Doña Blasica", she was the daughter of Nicolas Gatmaitan and Cerapia De Torres. Don Julián and Doña Blasica had ten children: Toribio (priest, deported to the Mariana Islands in 1872), Fernando (father of Gregorio del Pilar), Andrea, Dorotea, Estanislao, Juan, Hilaria (married to Deodato Arellano), Valentín, Marcelo, and María.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: From an early age, del Pilar learned the violin, the piano, and the flute. He also mastered the "palasan" or rattan cane. In the mid-1850s, del Pilar received early education from his paternal uncle Alejo del Pilar. He pursued his "segunda enseñanza" at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran under the tutelage of Sr. Mamerto Natividad. The subjects he took there were: Poetry, "Doctrina Christiana", Spanish grammar, Latin grammar, Elements of Rhetoric, and Principles of "Urbanidad". From July 8, 1865 to January 12, 1866, del Pilar studied under Sr. José Flores in Binondo. Afterward, he enrolled at the Universidad de Santo Tomás to study Philosophy. There, del Pilar earned: (1867-1868) Psychology, "Fair"; Logic, "Fair"; Moral Philosophy, "Fair"; Natural History, "Good"; Arithmetic, "Notablemente"; Algebra, "Very Good"; (1868-1869) Metaphysics 1, "Very Good"; (1869-1870) Metaphysics 2, "Very Good"; (1870-1871) Physics, "Good".


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In 1869, del Pilar acted as a godfather at a baptism in San Miguel, Manila. Surprised by the high rates of baptismal fees in the parish, he argued with the parish priest in the area. The judge, Sr. Félix García Gavieres, favored the parish priest over del Pilar; after the trial, the latter was immediately sent to the "Carcel y Presidio Correccional". Del Pilar was pardoned and released from prison thirty days later. Afterward, he resumed his studies at the Universidad de Santo Tomás. He obtained his "Bachiller en Filosofía" on February 16, 1871. Four and a half months later, on July 2, 1871, del Pilar pursued law.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: On January 20, 1872, the Cavite Mutiny broke out. Del Pilar was living with Fr. Mariano V. Sevilla, a Filipino priest who supported the secularization movement in the 1860s and early 1870s. Del Pilar knew that Fr. Sevilla was associated with the Gomburza. To protect Fr. Sevilla from possible arrest and deportation, del Pilar burned all the letters of the former in his quarters. However, some of Fr. Sevilla and Fr. Toribio's letters were found in the quarters of Fr. José Burgos. This resulted in the arrest of both priests on February 21, 1872. As a punishment, Fr. Toribio was tortured and dragged from Malolos to Bulacán. Del Pilar begged the authorities to allow his brother to see their sick mother. As expected, they ignored del Pilar and continued with their barbaric actions. On March 14, 1872, Fr. Toribio and Fr. Sevilla were deported to the Mariana Islands along with other Filipino patriots.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Out of school, del Pilar worked as "oficial de mesa" in Pampanga (1874–1875) and Quiapo (1878–1879). In 1876, he resumed his law studies at the Universidad de Santo Tomás. He obtained his "licenciado en jurisprudencia", equivalent to a Bachelor of Laws, on March 4, 1881. In law school, del Pilar earned: (1871-1872) Canon Law 1, "Fair"; Roman Law 1, "Very Good"; (1873-1874) Canon Law 2, "Fair"; Roman Law 2, "Excellent"; (1876-1877) Civil and Mercantile Law, "Very Good"; (1877-1878) Extension of Civil Law and Spanish Civil Codes, "Very Good"; Penal Law, "Very Good"; (1878-1879) Public Law, "Fair"; Administrative Law, "Fair"; Colonial Legislation, "Fair"; Economics, "Fair"; Political and Statistics, "Fair"; (1879-1880) Judicial Procedures, "Excellent"; Practice and Oratory Forensics 1, "Excellent"; Elements of General Literature and Spanish Literature, "Excellent". No grades were recorded for the years 1880-1881 as del Pilar took six months leave.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: From 1882 to 1887, del Pilar worked as a defense counselor for the "Real Audiencia de Manila". During this time he became active in exposing the existing conditions of the Philippines. Del Pilar attended many events such as funeral wakes, baptismal parties, weddings, town fiestas, and cockfights in the cockpits. Using the Tagalog language, he would talk to different kinds of people like laborers, farmers, fishermen, professionals, and businessmen. In his house in Trozo, Tondo, del Pilar preached nationalistic and patriotic ideas to the young students of Manila. Mariano Ponce, a high school student at the time, was one of his active listeners. Other listeners who would later become his disciples were Briccio Pantas, Numeriano Adriano, and Apolinario Mabini.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Del Pilar was one of the active anti-friar personalities in the Philippines before the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution in 1896. After the deportation of his brother and the death of his mother in 1872, he worked to destroy the friars' authority and influence on the country's affairs. In "La Soberanía Monacal en Filipinas" (Monastic Supremacy in the Philippines), del Pilar explained how the friars dominated the country:


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Del Pilar, together with Basilio Teodoro Morán and Pascual H. Poblete, founded the short-lived "Diariong Tagalog" (Tagalog Newspaper) on June 1, 1882. "Diariong Tagalog" was the first bilingual newspaper in the Philippines and was financed by the wealthy Spanish liberal Francisco Calvo y Múñoz. Del Pilar became the editor of the Tagalog section. José Rizal's essay, "El Amor Patrio", was featured in the "Diariong Tagalog" on August 20, 1882. Del Pilar translated it into Tagalog language, "Ang Pagibig sa Tinubúang Lupà" (Love for the Native Land). "Diariong Tagalog" later experienced financial difficulties and on October 31, 1882, the newspaper ceased publication.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In 1884, an election for the "gobernadorcillo" position was held in the city of Malolos. There were two candidates at the time: one was supported by the friar-curate of the town, and the other one, Mariano Crisóstomo, was supported by del Pilar and his associates. After the election result was released, Crisóstomo was proclaimed as the new "gobernadorcillo" of Malolos. Del Pilar considered the event a victory: a first step towards the destruction of the friars' influence in the country. On March 6 of the same year, a Royal Decree regarding the collection of taxes was issued. This was taken advantage of by the intendant of finance, Sr. Chinchilla, who proposed a set of regulations on June 30, 1884. Articles 52 and 53 of the regulations prohibited the friars from altering the tax lists of the "cabezas de barangay". Sr. Chinchilla's measure, however, did not last long; he was later replaced by Sr. Luna, a pro-friar. The citizens of Malolos, particularly del Pilar, denounced Sr. Luna's measures, and shortly after the latter canceled Sr. Chinchilla's order, the whole townsfolk protested. Not much later, del Pilar and the "cabezas de barangay" of Bulacan confronted a parish priest on the list of taxpayers. The "cabezas" interpreted the term "asesorar" / "confrontar" as "cotejar"; that is, to compare their tax lists with the parish priest's parochial list. Fr. Felipe García, another friar, did not agree with their interpretation; he declared "asesorar" / "confrontar" as "copiar" (to copy). Refusing to "copy" the parochial lists, the "cabezas" pleaded to Vicente Pardo y Bonanza, the "alcalde mayor". Sr. Pardo rejected their plea, and like Sr. Luna, took the side of the friars. According to del Pilar, a friar's stipend was based on a percentage of the total taxes collected, which was 12.50%. To increase this percentage, the friars bloated the parochial lists with the deceased, overaged, and fictitious individuals. The friars' alteration of the tax lists unfortunately brought suffering to the "cabezas" in a long run. Whatever the amount of the taxes collected, the "cabezas" were obliged to pay for the excess individuals in the parochial lists.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In 1887, during the upcoming fiesta of Our Lady of the Rosary in Binondo, a conflict arose between the "gremio de naturales" (Native guild), the "gremio de chinos" (Chinese guild), and the "gremio de mestizos de sangley" (Chinese mestizo guild). The "gobernadorcillo de naturales" (native governor) of Binondo, Timoteo Lanuza, wanted the friar-curate of Binondo, Fr. , to prioritize the natives over the Chinese in the fiesta. Fr. Hevía, who sided with the Chinese, did not allow Lanuza's request. According to Fr. Hevía, the Chinese and the mestizos should lead the fiesta, because of their past contributions to the construction of the Binondo Church. On September 30, 1887, Lanuza and del Pilar wrote a petition to Governor-General Emilio Terrero, demanding the natives' right to manage the fiesta. Terrero, a liberal and anti-clerical, approved their request. He decreed that the "gobernadorcillos de naturales" should lead all public functions in the country. Embittered by Terrero's decision, Fr. Hevía did not attend the celebration. Most of the attendees of the fiesta were the natives and the "gobernadorcillos de naturales" of Manila. Insulted by Fr. Hevía's action, Terrero removed him as friar-curate of Binondo. All the "gobernadorcillos" of the Chinese and the mestizos were also removed. The organizer of the fiesta, Juan Zulueta, relied on the instructions of del Pilar.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In October 1887, during a deadly cholera epidemic, another tension arose between del Pilar's group and the friars. To limit the spread of the epidemic, had issued a ban against the entry of cadavers into the churches. The ban took effect on October 18, 1887. In Malolos, "gobernadorcillo" Manuel Crisóstomo announced Quiroga's decree by means of a bellman. Fr. Felipe García, the friar-curate of Malolos, violated the ban, purportedly because of the fees which the church earned from the funeral wakes. In protest, he paraded through the streets of Malolos the corpse of a cholera victim. The authorities and citizens of Malolos were displeased by Fr. García's action; shortly after the parade, a riot almost broke out. To control the situation, Crisóstomo sought advice from del Pilar. Afterward, Crisóstomo reported to the office of Manuel Gómez Florio, the Spanish governor of Bulacan. Gómez Florio, an ally of del Pilar and the Malolos reformists, ordered the arrest of Fr. García.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In early 1888, the friars' power was again challenged by the anti-friar forces. On January 21 that year, a memorial to establish a school of "Arts, Trades, and Agriculture" was forwarded by del Pilar to the "gobernador civil" of Bulacan. Signed by the residents of the "pueblos" of the province, this was supported by liberal officials like Terrero, Quiroga, Centeno, Gómez Florio, and Julio Galindo (the captain of the "Guardia Civil"). In 1883, the original plan was to establish an orphan asylum managed by the Augustinian friars and financed by the government. When the plan was revised to a school of "Arts, Trades, and Agriculture", the Augustinians protested. Quiroga then warned the Augustinians that the project will be managed by the government and not by the church. This angered the Augustinians and the archbishop of Manila even more and they planned to boycott the school's establishment. Despite their efforts, the school of agriculture opened in Manila the following year. This incident was another victory for del Pilar and his group.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In 1887 and 1888, del Pilar wrote a series of anti-friar petitions to the colonial authorities and the Queen Regent. On November 20 and 21, 1887, he wrote the complaints of two Navotas residents, that of Mateo Mariano and the "gobernadorcillo de naturales" of Navotas, to the civil governor. Del Pilar also prepared, on February 20, 1888, the petition of the "gobernadorcillos" and residents of Manila to the Governor-General. On March 1, 1888, the residents of the districts of Manila and the nearby provinces, led by Doroteo Cortés and José Anacleto Ramos, marched to the office of the civil governor of Manila, José Centeno García. They presented a manifesto addressed to the Queen Regent. This manifesto, entitled "Viva España! Viva el Rey! Viva el Ejército! Fuera los Frailes!" (Long live Spain! Long live the King! Long live the Army! Throw the friars out!), was believed to be written by Cortés and del Pilar. It demanded the friars' expulsion from the Philippines including Manila Archbishop Pedro P. Payo. A few days later, Centeno resigned as civil governor of Manila. Governor-General Terrero's term also ended the following month. General Antonio Moltó, Terrero's successor, ordered the arrest of the organizers of the anti-friar demonstration, abolished Quiroga's decree on funerals, and pardoned Fr. Hevía for his previous offenses. These measures, however, did not affect del Pilar and his group. They continued their anti-friar activities in Malolos where they managed to elect Vicente Gatmaitán as Manuel Crisóstomo's successor.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Fr. José Rodríguez, an Augustinian parish priest, authored a pamphlet entitled "¡Caiñgat Cayó!: Sa mañga masasamang libro,t, casulatan" (Beware!: of bad books and writings, 1888). The friar warned the Filipinos that in reading Rizal's "Noli Me Tángere" (Touch Me Not) they commit "mortal sin". On August 3 of the same year, del Pilar wrote "Caiigat Cayó" (Be as Slippery as an Eel) under the pen name "Dolores Manapat". It was a reply to Fr. Rodríguez's "¡Caiñgat Cayó!".


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Valeriano Weyler succeeded Moltó as the Governor-General of the Philippines. Known as The Butcher, Weyler ordered the arrest and deportation of the participants of the anti-friar demonstration. Even Spanish officials were not spared. A few days after Weyler's arrival, Manuel Gómez Florio, the Spanish governor of Bulacan, was removed from his position. An arrest warrant was issued against del Pilar, accusing him of being a "filibustero" and heretic. Upon the advice of his friends and relatives, del Pilar left Manila for Spain on October 28, 1888.The night before he left the country, del Pilar stayed at the house of his fellow Bulaqueño, . Together with Rafael Enriquez, they wrote the "" (Prayers and Mockeries), a mock-prayer book satirizing the Spanish friars. They also wrote the "Pasióng Dapat Ipag-alab nang Puso nang Tauong Babasa sa Calupitán nang Fraile" (The Passion that Should Inflame the Hearts of Those Who Read About the Cruelty of the Friars). Gregorio del Pilar, del Pilar's nephew, helped distribute these pamphlets in the churches. There was one incident in Malolos, where Gregorio stole copies of Fr. José Rodríguez's "Cuestiones de Sumo Interes" (Questions of Supreme Interest) from Fr. Felipe García, who had a habit of distributing counter-revolutionary materials after mass. These books were set to be distributed after the mass. Gregorio removed the book covers of "Cuestiones de Sumo Interes" and pasted Marcelo's pamphlets inside before distributing them after.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Shortly before his departure, del Pilar formed the "Caja de Jesús, María y José". Its objective was to continue propaganda and provide education to indigent children. He managed it with the help of compatriots Mariano Ponce, Gregorio Santillán, Mariano Crisóstomo, Pedro Serrano y Lactao, José Gatmaitán, Briccio Pantas, Teodoro Sandiko, Apolinario Mabini, Numeriano Adriano, Doroteo Cortés, Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Domingo Franco, Mamerto Natividad, Mariano Alejandrino, Marcelino Santos, Modesto Español, Juan Zulueta, Graciano Bautista, Pedro Dandan, and Fr. Rafael Canlapán (the coadjutor of Malolos from 1885 to 1893). "Caja de Jesús, María y José" was later discontinued and replaced by "Comité de Propaganda" (Committee of Propaganda) in Manila.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Del Pilar arrived in Barcelona on January 1, 1889. He headed the political section of the "Asociación Hispano-Filipina de Madrid" (Hispanic Filipino Association of Madrid), an organization of Filipino and Spanish liberals. On February 17, 1889, del Pilar wrote a letter to Rizal, praising the young women of Malolos for their bravery. These twenty-one young women asked the permission of Governor-General Weyler to allow them to open a night school where they could learn to read and write Spanish. With Weyler's approval and over the objections of Fr. Felipe García, the night school opened in 1889. Del Pilar urged Rizal to write a letter in Tagalog to ""las muchachas de Malolos"," adding that it would be "a help for our champions there and in Manila." In his reply to del Pilar, Rizal shared the handwritten manuscript of the letter he wrote to ""las malolesas"."


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: On April 16, 1889, del Pilar met in Barcelona. Morayta, an anticlerical and follower of Emilio Castelar, was one of the Spanish liberals who supported the Filipino cause. He was the History Professor of Rizal at the Universidad Central de Madrid and Grand Master of Masons of the "Gran Oriente Español". On April 25, 1889, a banquet honoring Morayta was held by del Pilar and other Filipinos in Spain.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In the mid-1889, to further damage the friars' influence and authority in the Philippines, del Pilar and his associates sponsored Fr. Nicolás Manrique Alonso Lallave, an ex-Dominican friar (now a Protestant pastor) assigned in Urdaneta, Pangasinan. Governor-General Rafael Izquierdo deported Lallave to Spain after the latter supported the 1870 decree of Segismundo Moret. In 1872, Lallave wrote an inflammatory pamphlet, entitled "Los Frailes en Filipinas" (The Friars in the Philippines), wherein he exposed the atrocities of the friars and asked for the termination of the religious orders. He returned to the Philippines in 1889 to establish a Protestant chapel in Manila. Del Pilar wanted to help Lallave through Serrano y Lactao and Sandiko, but before help arrived, the priest died of an illness on June 5, 1889. Some scholars believed that the friars poisoned Lallave.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: On December 15, 1889, del Pilar succeeded Graciano López Jaena as editor of the "La Solidaridad". Under his editorship, the aims of the newspaper expanded. Using propaganda, it pursued the desires for: assimilation of the Philippines as a province of Spain; removal of the friars and the secularization of the parishes; freedom of assembly and speech; equality before the law; and Philippine representation in the Cortes, the legislature of Spain. A tireless editor, del Pilar wrote under several pseudonyms: "Pláridel", "Dolores Manapat", "Piping Dilat", "Siling Labuyo", "Cupang", "Maytiyaga", "Patos", "Carmelo", "D.A. Murgas", "L.O. Crame", "Selong", "M. Calero", "Felipeno", "Hilario", "Pudpoh", "Gregoria de Luna", "Dolores Manaksak", "M. Dati", and "VZKKQJC".


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In February 1890, del Pilar met a former "Diariong Tagalog" colleague, Francisco Calvo y Múñoz. Calvo y Múñoz was one of the Spanish liberals who helped del Pilar in the campaign for the Philippine representation. Calvo y Múñoz's first efforts were on March 3, 1890. At the time he presented to the members of the Cortes an amendment to Article 25 of the Spanish Universal Suffrage Bill. Signed by six deputies, Calvo y Múñoz's amendment called for the restoration of the Philippine parliamentary representation and the election of three deputies from the Philippines. Famous Spanish politicians and liberals were present during Calvo y Múñoz's presentation: Manuel Becerra, the overseas minister under Práxedes Mateo Sagasta; and Antonio Ramos Calderón, a member of Sagasta's Liberal Party. Both spoke after Calvo y Múñoz's presentation. They praised Calvo y Múñoz's intention to restore the Philippine parliamentary representation; however, the two rejected the amendment's early implementation. Despite their statements and judgements, del Pilar, with the help of the "Asociación Hispano-Filipina de Madrid", held banquets in honor of Calvo y Múñoz, Becerra, and Ramos Calderón. Del Pilar also featured their speeches in the next issue of "La Solidaridad". In a letter dated April 29, 1890, del Pilar said that if Agustín de Burgos y Llamas will succeed Weyler as Governor-General, he may appoint Calvo y Múñoz as the new Director-General of Civil Administration but first the latter should introduce the bill on Philippine representation to the Cortes. Calvo y Múñoz agreed with del Pilar's advice and proposed a more considerate bill the next month. While Calvo y Múñoz was away, del Pilar talked to many deputies to assist in the approval of the bill. Del Pilar and Calvo y Múñoz's plans, however, did not materialize; on July 3, 1890, the liberal Sagasta was replaced by the conservative Antonio Cánovas del Castillo as Prime Minister of Spain. Del Pilar maintained good relations with the Liberals despite the fell of Sagasta.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In the late 1890, a rivalry developed between del Pilar and Rizal. This was mainly due to the difference between del Pilar's editorial policy and Rizal's political beliefs. On January 1, 1891, about 90 Filipinos gathered in Madrid. They agreed that a "Responsable" (leader) be elected. Camps were drawn into two, the "Pilaristas" and the "Rizalistas". The first voting for the "Responsable" started on the first week of February 1891. Rizal won the first two elections but the votes counted for him did not reach the needed two-thirds vote fraction. After Mariano Ponce, instructed by del Pilar, pleaded to the "Pilaristas", Rizal was elected "Responsable". Rizal, knowing the "Pilaristas" did not like his political beliefs, respectfully declined the position and transferred it to del Pilar. He then packed up his bags and boarded a train leaving for Biarritz, France. Inactive in the Reform Movement, Rizal ceased his contribution of articles on "La Solidaridad".


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: After the incident, del Pilar wrote a letter of apology to Rizal. Rizal responded and said that he stopped writing for "La Solidaridad" for reasons: first, he needed time to work on his second novel "El filibusterismo" (The Reign of Greed); second, he wanted other Filipinos in Spain to work also; and lastly, he could not lead an organization without solidarity in work. Del Pilar and Rizal continued to correspond until the latter's exile to Dapitan in July 1892.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In his later years, del Pilar rejected the assimilationist stand. Writing to his brother-in-law Deodato Arellano on March 31, 1891, he explained his ultimate goal:


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: On December 11, 1892, Sagasta returned as Prime Minister of Spain with Antonio Maura as the new overseas minister. On December 15, 1892, and January 15, 1893, del Pilar published two articles on "La Solidaridad", entitled "Ya es tiempo" (Is it About Time!) and "Insistimos" (We Insist), wherein he reminisced the Liberals' pledges and the amendment introduced by Calvo y Múñoz in 1890. Months later, Maura passed two decrees in the Philippines, all put into effect in 1895. The first decree, "The Royal Decree of May 19, 1893", was a law that laid the basic foundations for municipal government in the Philippines. It established "tribunales", "municipales" and "juntas provinciales". The second decree, "The Royal Decree of February 13, 1894", was known as the "Maura Act" and grew out of a proposal made in the 1820s by Manuel Bernaldez, a long-serving colonial official. Its preamble declared that it would "insure to the natives, in the future, whenever it may be possible, the necessary land for cultivation, in accordance with traditional usages." Despite the passage of these laws, talks regarding the Philippine representation were not entertained. In March 1894, Maura resigned as overseas minister and was replaced by Becerra. Becerra, however, became less sympathetic on the representation of the Philippines and the reforms he proposed. Knowing this, del Pilar approached , a friendly deputy and editor-in-chief of "La Publicidad". On February 21, 1895, Junoy presented to the Cortes a petition bearing seven thousand signatures. Two weeks later, on March 8, 1895, Junoy delivered a speech to the Spanish Congress wherein he discussed a proposed bill representing the Philippines. The bill, however, did not materialize and on March 23, 1895, Cánovas del Castillo replaced Sagasta again as Prime Minister of Spain.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: After years of publication from 1889 to 1895, funding of the "La Solidaridad" became scarce. "Comité de Propaganda's" contribution to the newspaper stopped and del Pilar funded the newspaper almost on his own. Advised by Mabini, del Pilar stopped the publication of "La Solidaridad" on November 15, 1895, with 7 volumes and 160 issues. In del Pilar's farewell editorial, he said:


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Del Pilar contracted tuberculosis in November 1895. The following year, he decided to return to the Philippines to lead a revolution. His illness worsened that he had to cancel his journey. On June 20, 1896, he was taken to the Hospital de la Santa Cruz in Barcelona. Del Pilar died at 1:15 a.m. on July 4, 1896, over a month before the "Cry of Pugad Lawin". According to Mariano Ponce's account of his death, his last words were: "Please tell my family that I was not able to say goodbye, but that I died with my true friends around me… Pray to God for the good fortune of our country. Continue with your work to attain the happiness and freedom of our beloved country." He was buried the following day in a borrowed grave at the "Cementerio del Sub-Oeste" (Southwest Cemetery). Before dying, del Pilar retracted from Masonry and received the sacraments of the church.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In 1920, Norberto Romuáldez was commissioned to locate del Pilar's remains. With the help of , the body was exhumed and placed in an urn. "Alicante", the ship carrying del Pilar's remains, arrived in Manila on December 3, 1920. From Pier 3 the body was transferred to the "Funeraria Nacional". It was taken to Malolos, Bulacan on December 6, 1920. The following day, it was transferred to del Pilar's birthplace in Bulakan, Bulacan. On December 11, 1920, the body lay in state at the Manila Grand Opera House. A necrological service was held at the "Salon de Marmol" on December 12, 1920. Filipino officials who attended the service were: Manuel C. Briones, representative from Cebu's 1st District; Rafael Palma, senator of the Philippines from the 4th Senatorial District; Teodoro M. Kalaw, secretary of the interior and local government; del Pilar's colleagues in Barcelona and Madrid, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera and Dominador Gómez; Victorino M. Mapa, 2nd Chief Justice of the Philippines; Manuel L. Quezon, senate president of the Philippines; and Sergio Osmeña, 1st Speaker of the Philippine House of Representatives. Del Pilar's wife and two daughters were present during the ceremony. After the service, del Pilar was interred at the "Mousoleo de los Veteranos de la Revolución" in the Manila North Cemetery.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Del Pilar's remains were transferred to his birthplace on August 30, 1984. His remains were laid to rest under his monument.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In February 1878, del Pilar married his second cousin Marciana (Chanay) in Tondo. The couple had seven children, five girls and two boys: Sofía, José, María Rosario, María Consolación, María Concepción, José Mariano Leon, and Ana (Anita). Sofía and Anita, the oldest and youngest child, survived to adulthood. On March 12, 1912, Anita married Vicente Marasigan Sr., a businessman from Taal, Batangas. She and her husband had six children: Leticia, Vicente, Benita, Josefina, Antonia, and Marcelo.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Del Pilar's last years in Spain saw his descent into extreme poverty. In a letter to his wife Marciana on August 17, 1892, he wrote: "For my meals, I have to approach friends for loans, day after day. To be able to smoke, I have gone to the extreme of picking up cigarette butts in the streets." In another letter to his wife on August 3, 1893, he told her about his frequent nightmares: "I always dream that I have Anita on my lap and Sofía by her side; that I kiss them by turns and that both tell me: 'Remain with us, papá, and don't return to Madrid'. I awake soaked in tears, and at this very moment that I write this, I cannot contain the tears that drop from my eyes." In June 1893, del Pilar's relatives were able to send money so that he could return to the Philippines. However, his friends (, Torres, Blumentritt, Morayta, and Quiroga) advised him to stay in Spain. In a letter to his wife on December 21, 1893, he said: "I am afraid of being too hasty, because in view of my present situation, a wrong step on my part will injure many persons, and even if I should pass out of this life, my compatriots would continue to accuse me of imprudence. Note that an error of Rizal's did harm to many (the 1887 Calamba trouble)."


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Del Pilar's health was declining before contracting tuberculosis in 1895. He suffered from insomnia, dengue, influenza, rheumatism, and neck tumor.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Some historians believe that del Pilar had a direct hand in the Katipunan and its organization because of his role in the Propaganda Movement and his eminent position in Philippine Masonry; most of the Katipunan's founders and members were freemasons. The Katipunan had initiation ceremonies that were copied from masonic rites. It also had a hierarchy of rank that was similar to that of freemasonry.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Rizal's Spanish biographer Wenceslao Retana and Filipino biographer Juan Raymundo Lumawag saw the formation of the Katipunan as del Pilar's victory over Rizal:


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: In the "Revista Filipina", Epifanio de los Santos explained del Pilar's role in the validation of the Katipunan statutes:


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Bonifacio was also guided by the letters of del Pilar, considering them as "sacred relics" of the revolution.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Some Katipuneros have testified that del Pilar instigated the Katipunan. Dr. Jim Richardson, however, questioned the validity of their declarations.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: On September 3, 1896, Pío Valenzuela said that del Pilar had been the President of the Associates of the Katipunan living in Spain.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: When the Katipunan was uncovered, José Dizon was among the hundreds who were arrested for rebellion. On September 23, 1896, Dizon was interrogated by Spanish authorities. When asked who carried the instructions for the establishment of the Katipunan, Dizon replied, "Moisés Salvador, he carried with him the instructions of Marcelo H. del Pilar from Madrid... Salvador forwarded the instructions to Deodato Arellano and Andrés Bonifacio".


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: On June 28, 1908, Águedo del Rosario said that del Pilar had initiated the formation of the Katipunan. Del Pilar, at the time of the Katipunan's founding, was living in Barcelona.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: For his 150 essays and 66 editorials mostly published in "La Solidaridad" and various anti-friar pamphlets, del Pilar is widely regarded as the "Father of Philippine Journalism."


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: "Samahang Plaridel", an organization of veteran journalists and communicators, was founded in October 2003 to honor del Pilar's ideals. It also promotes mutual help, cooperation, and understanding among Filipino journalists.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Del Pilar was initiated into Freemasonry in 1889. He became an active member of the lodge "Revolución" in Barcelona. Other members of the lodge were Celso Mir Deas, Ponce, José María Panganiban, López Jaena, Justo Argudin, and Juan José Cañarte. On December 10, 1889, del Pilar joined the revived lodge "Solidaridad" No. 53 in Madrid. He became its second venerable master, replacing Julio A. Llorente.


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: Del Pilar worked for the establishment of Filipino Masonic lodges. In 1891, he sent Serrano y Lactao to the Philippines to establish "Nilad", the first Filipino Masonic lodge. In 1893, del Pilar also formed the "Gran Consejo Regional de Filipinas", the first national organization of Filipino Masons. With these, he earned recognition as the "Father of Philippine Masonry."


title: Marcelo H. del Pilar

text: The Masonic Grand Lodge of the Philippines, located at 1440 San Marcelino Street in Ermita, Manila, is named Plaridel Masonic Temple.


title: Ahmed III

text: Ahmed III (, "Aḥmed-i sālis") (30 December 16731 July 1736) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a son of Sultan Mehmed IV (r. 1648–1687). His mother was Gülnuş Sultan, originally named Evmania Voria, who was an ethnic Greek. He was born at Hacıoğlu Pazarcık, in Dobruja. He succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his brother Mustafa II (1695–1703). Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha and the Sultan's daughter, Fatma Sultan (wife of the former) directed the government from 1718 to 1730, a period referred to as the "Tulip Era".


title: Ahmed III

text: The first days of Ahmed III's reign passed with efforts to appease the janissaries who were completely disciplined. However, he was not effective against the janissaries who made him sultan. Çorlulu Ali Pasha, who Ahmed brought to the Grand Vizier, tried to help him in administrative matters, made new arrangements for the treasury and Sultan. He supported Ahmed in his fight with his rivals.


title: Ahmed III

text: Sultan Ahmed was born on 30 December 1673. His father was Sultan Mehmed IV, and his mother was Gülnuş Sultan, originally named Evmenia. His birth occurred in Hacıoğlupazarı, where Mehmed stayed to hunt on his return from Poland in 1673, while Gülnuş was pregnant at that time. In 1675, He and his brother, Prince Mustafa (future Mustafa II) were circumcised. During the same ceremony their sisters Hatice Sultan and Fatma Sultan were married to Musahip Mustafa Pasha and Kara Mustafa Pasha respectively. The celebrations lasted 20 days.


title: Ahmed III

text: He grew up in the Edirne Palace. His schooling began during one of the sporadic visits of the court to Istanbul, following a courtly ceremony called "bad-i basmala", which took place on 9 August 1679 in the Istavroz Palace. He was brought up in the imperial harem in Edirne with a traditional princely education, studying the Qur’an, the hadiths (traditions of Prophet Muhammad), and the fundamentals of Islamic sciences, history, poetry and music under the supervision of private tutors. One of his tutors was chief mufti Feyzullah Efendi.


title: Ahmed III

text: Ahmed was apparently curious and intellectual in nature, spending most of his time reading and practising calligraphy. The poems that he wrote manifest his profound knowledge of poetry, history, Islamic theology and philosophy. He was also interested in calligraphy, which he had studied with the leading court calligraphers, primarily with Hafız


title: Ahmed III

text: Osman Efendi (died 1698), who influenced his art immensely, and, therefore, practiced it because of the influence of his elder brother, the future Sultan Mustafa II, who also became a notable calligrapher.


title: Ahmed III

text: with a bright officer-scribe, Ibrahim, from the city of Nevşehir, who was to become one of the outstanding Grand Viziers of his future reign. From 1687, following the deposition of his father, he lived in isolation for sixteen years in the palaces of Edirne and Istanbul. During this period he dedicated


title: Ahmed III

text: The Edirne succession occurred between 19 August to 23 August. Under Mustafa, Istanbul had been out of control for a long time. As arrests and executions mounted, theft and robbery incidents became common. The people were dissatisfied with the poor governing of the Empire. Mustafa was deposed by the Janissaries and Ahmed, who succeeded him to the throne on 22 August 1703. The first Friday salute was held in Bayezid Mosque.


title: Ahmed III

text: Fındıklılı Mehmed Ağa welcomed the new sultan at the Harem gate on the Hasoda side, entered the arm, brought him to the Cardigan-i Saadet Department and placed them on the throne, and were among the first to pay tribute to him.


title: Ahmed III

text: As part of the fief system, Ahmed reorganized the land law in 1705. Bringing order to land ownership reduced the crime wave and brought peace to the troubled Empire. Due to his ardent support of the new laws, Ahmed was given the title 'law-giver', a title given to only three sultans earlier, Bayezid II (r.1481-1512), Selim I (r.1512-1520) and Suleyman the Magnificent (r.1520-1566). In the first three years of his reign, Ahmed appointed four separate Grand Viziers. However, the government only gained stability after the appointment of Çorlulu Ali Pasha in May 1706.


title: Ahmed III

text: Ahmed III cultivated good relations with France, doubtless in view of Russia's menacing attitude. He afforded refuge in Ottoman territory to Charles XII of Sweden (1682–1718) after the Swedish defeat at the hands of Peter I of Russia (1672–1725) in the Battle of Poltava of 1709. In 1710 Charles XII convinced Sultan Ahmed III to declare war against Russia, and the Ottoman forces under Baltacı Mehmet Pasha won a major victory at the Battle of Prut. In the aftermath, Russia returned Azov back to the Ottomans, agreed to demolish the fortress of Taganrog and others in the area, and to stop interfering in the affairs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.


title: Ahmed III

text: Forced against his will into war with Russia, Ahmed III came nearer than any Ottoman sovereign before or since to breaking the power of his northern rival, whose armies his grand vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha succeeded in completely surrounding at the Pruth River Campaign in 1711. The subsequent Ottoman victories against Russia enabled the Ottoman Empire to advance to Moscow, had the Sultan wished. However, this was halted as a report reached Istanbul that the Safavids were invading the Ottoman Empire, causing a period of panic, turning the Sultan's attention away from Russia.


title: Ahmed III

text: On 9 December 1714, war was declared on Venice, and an army under Silahdar Damat Ali Pasha's command, the Ottomans managed to recover the whole Morea (Peloponnese) from Venice through coordinated operations of the army and navy.


title: Ahmed III

text: This success alarmed Austria and in April 1716, Emperor Charles VI provoked the Porte into a declaration of war. The unsuccessful battle, also


title: Ahmed III

text: commanded by Silahdar Ali Pasha, ended with the treaty of Passarovitz, signed on 21 July 1718, according to which Belgrade, Banat, and little Wallachia were ceded to Austria. This failure was a real disappointment for Ahmed and after the bad conditions imposed by this treaty, Istanbul's economy suffered from increased inflation and all of its attendant evils.


title: Ahmed III

text: Ibrahim Pasha who was the second leading figure of the empire after Ahmed had joined the Morea campaign in 1715, and was appointed as the city of Nish's minister of finance the following year. This post helped him realize the downturn of the state's finances and, due to his insight of this sensitive financial situation he avoided war as much as possible during his vizierate. Ibrahim Pasha's policy of peace suited Ahmed as well since he had no wish to lead any military campaigns, in addition to the fact that his interest in art and culture made him reluctant to leave his Istanbul.


title: Ahmed III

text: While shooting competitions were held in Okmeydanı with the idea of increasing the morale of the soldiers and the people, a new warship was launched in Tersane-i Amir. He tried three grand viziers at short intervals. Instead of Hasan Pasha, he appointed Kalaylikoz Ahmed Pasha on 24 September 1704, and Baltacı Mehmed Pasha on 25 December 1704. It was a great pleasure that the ambassadors of Iran and Austria, who came from 1706 to 1707. In 1707, the conspiracy led by Eyüplü Ali Ağa was unearthed to bring the sultan off the throne. Necks were cut in front of the Bab-I-Hümayun. Ahmed III left the finances of the Ottoman Empire in a flourishing condition, which had remarkably been obtained without excessive taxation or extortion procedures. He was a cultivated patron of literature and art, and it was in his time that the first printing press authorized to use the Arabic or Turkish languages was set up in Istanbul, operated by Ibrahim Muteferrika (while the printing press had been introduced to Constantinople in 1480, all works published before 1729 were in Greek, Armenian, or Hebrew).


title: Ahmed III

text: It was in this reign that an important change in the government of the Danubian Principalities was introduced: previously, the Porte had appointed Hospodars, usually native Moldavian and Wallachian boyars, to administer those provinces; after the Russian campaign of 1711, during which Peter the Great found an ally in Moldavia Prince Dimitrie Cantemir, the Porte began overtly deputizing Phanariote Greeks in that region, and extended the system to Wallachia after Prince Stefan Cantacuzino established links with Eugene of Savoy. The Phanariotes constituted a kind of "Dhimmi" nobility, which supplied the Porte with functionaries in many important departments of the state.


title: Ahmed III

text: In the year 1712, the Mughal Emperor Jahandar Shah, the grandson of Aurangzeb sent gifts to the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III and referred to himself as the Ottoman Sultan's devoted admirer.


title: Ahmed III

text: The Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar a grandson of Aurangzeb, is also known to have sent a letter to the Ottomans but this time it was received by the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha providing a graphic description of the efforts of the Mughal commander Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha against the Rajput and Maratha rebellion.


title: Ahmed III

text: Sultan Ahmed III had become unpopular by reason of the excessive pomp and costly luxury in which he and his principal officers indulged; on 20 September 1730, a mutinous riot of seventeen Janissaries, led by the Albanian Patrona Halil, was aided by the citizens as well as the military until it swelled into an insurrection in front of which the Sultan was forced to give up the throne.


title: Ahmed III

text: Ahmed voluntarily led his nephew Mahmud I (1730–54) to the seat of sovereignty and paid allegiance to him as Sultan of the Empire. He then retired to the Kafes previously occupied by Mahmud and died at Topkapı Palace after six years of confinement.


title: Ahmed III

text: Ahmed III built water claps, fountain and park waterfalls. Ahmed, who built three libraries, one inside the Topkapı Palace, and one of the famous lines of his period. Ahmed was a master in the writings on plates. Some plates and inscriptions have survived. The “Basmala” at the Topkapi Palace apartment door with its plates in the


title: Ahmed III

text: Topkapı Palace and its buildings have been the subject of many researches and publications. Among these researches, many different scope studies are also noticed together with postgraduate theses. Consequently, they provide rich information about the palace, which provides a long list of highly qualified scientific articles and books, guides and brochures promoting the palace and museum. However, Topkapi Palace and its units still have aspects to be explored and details to be discussed. Among them Ahmed III library can also be counted.


title: Ahmed III

text: A library was built by Ahmed in 1724–25 to the right of the porch in front of the tomb. The structure, which has stone-brick alternate meshed walls, is square-shaped and covered with a flattened dome with an octagonal rim, which is provided with pendants. There are original pen works left in the pendants and dome of the library.


title: Ahmed III

text: In 1714, an Egyptian galleon standing near the Gümrük (Eminönü) Pier caught fire and burned, and two hundred people died.


title: Ahmed III

text: While Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha continued his preparations for return to Istanbul, a fire broke out in Istanbul. Unkapanı, Azapkapı, Zeyrek, Fatih, Saraçhane, Horhor, Etmeydanı, Molla Gürani, Altımermer, Ayazma Gate, Kantarcılar, Vefa, Vez Neciler, Old Rooms, Acemioğlanlar Barracks, Çukur Çeşme, Langa, Davudpaşa districts were burned from the fire.


title: Ahmed III

text: However, this festivity went astringent as it came just after the three-minute big earthquake on 14 May 1719. While the city walls of Istanbul were destroyed in the earthquake, 4000 people died in Izmit and Yalova was destroyed. After the earthquake, reconstruction work started in Istanbul. The most meaningful element that reflects the cultural aspect or weight of these works until today is the Topkapı Palace Enderun Library, which was built that year. A rich foundation was established for this institution, which is also known as Sultan Ahmed-i Salis Library, which has a face-to-face with its architectural and valuable manuscripts.


title: Ahmed III

text: Ahmed III is known to be the Sultan with the largest family of the Ottoman dynasty. The hostess of his harem was Dilhayat Kalfa, known to be one of the greatest Turkish composeress of the early modern period.


title: Ahmed III

text: Ahmed III had at least twenty-one sons, all buried, apart from the two who became Sultan, in the Yeni Cami:


title: Ahmed III

text: Ahmed lived in Kafes of the Topkapi Palace for six years following his deposition, where he fell ill and died on 1 July 1736. He was buried in his grandmother's tomb in Turhan Sultan Mausoleum in New Mosque, at Eminönü in Istanbul.


title: Ahmed III

text: In Voltaire's "Candide", the eponymous main character meets the deposed Ahmed III on a ship from Venice to Constantinople. The Sultan is in the company of five other deposed European monarchs, and he tells Candide, who initially doubts his credentials:


title: Ahmed III

text: I am not jesting, my name is Achmet III. For several years I was Sultan; I dethroned my brother; my nephew dethroned me; they cut off the heads of my viziers; I am ending my days in the old seraglio; my nephew, Sultan Mahmoud, sometimes allows me to travel for my health, and I have come to spend the Carnival at Venice."


title: Ahmed III

text: This episode was taken up by the modern Turkish writer Nedim Gürsel as the setting of his 2001 novel "Le voyage de Candide à Istanbul".


title: Ahmed III

text: In fact, there is no evidence of the deposed Sultan being allowed to make such foreign travels, nor did Voltaire (or Gürsel) assert that it had any actual historical foundation.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: The Volvo 900 Series is a range of executive cars produced by the Swedish manufacturer Volvo Cars from 1990 to 1998. The 900 Series was introduced in 1990 to replace the 700 Series from which it derived. Prior to the end of its production, the 960 was renamed as the Volvo S90 (saloon) and Volvo V90 (estate), and the 940 was renamed 940 Classic, becoming the last rear-wheel-drive cars from Volvo.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: Visible differences between the 700 and the 900 Series included redesigned rear styling of the saloon models (late 700 estates and early 900 estates are visually identical). The 960 was introduced in 1991 along with a new family of modular engines, and then was substantially revised for the 1995 model year, improving the handling. The range was augmented by the new Volvo 850 in 1991. The last of the 900s was sold in 1998. Some 900 Series were built as chassis for ambulances and hearses after the main production run had been completed.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: Introduced in September 1990, the 940 was essentially a cosmetic reskin of the 740 aside from the completely redesigned rear from the C pillar back on the sedan. All drivetrains, and most options available in the 940 had been available in the 740, with the exception of the 780 Coupé. The 940 was more closely related to the 740 than the 760, sharing the same dashboard, drivetrain choices, and sheet metal from the A-pillar forward. In contrast, the 960 was an evolution of the 760. The 760 / 960 front sheet metal, independent rear suspension, dashboard, and other interior features were all exclusive to the two upscale models. The 940 estate, introduced in May 1991, was almost identical to its 740 estate predecessor.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: The engines options were carried over from the 740, with 8-valve 2-litre (B200) and 2.3-litre (B230) four cylinder gasoline engines, either naturally aspirated or turbocharged, as well as the familiar 2.4-litre Volkswagen six-cylinder diesel and turbodiesels being fitted. There were also 16-valve versions of the gasoline engines fitted on some 1991 and 1992 models (B204, B234, naturally aspirated). In 1994, gasoline engine range was limited to 2.3 engines, but the 2.0 turbocharged remained available in some markets with tight tax limits, such as Italy, Belgium, and Portugal. A low-pressure turbocharged version of the B230, the B230FK, debuted in 1994 – maximum power was only up slightly over the B230FB, from , but torque increased throughout the range and there was virtually no turbo lag due to the small size of the charger. The turbocharged 2.0 was first presented in February 1991, originally intended for Italy and other such markets it was later also installed in the British market 940 SE. The most commonly found engines on 940s were the naturally aspirated B230FB/131PS (all markets but US), B230FD/115PS (mainly for the US market), the turbocharged B230FK/135PS, B230FT/165PS, B200FT/155PS (for some markets) and the D24TIC/122PS diesel engine.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: Engines were fitted with either a 5-speed (M47) or 4-speed+overdrive (M46) manual gearbox or an automatic transmission, either Aisin-Warner AW70/71/72 (3-speed+overdrive) or ZF 4HP22 (4-speed) for some B230FB (or E) and diesel engines. In 1995, the manual gearbox was replaced with a full 5-speed (M90), and the ZF was abandoned for gasoline engines and fitted only on diesels.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: The SE emblem denoted very different trim and engine levels in different countries. In Sweden, the 940 SE was an ordinary non-turbo 940 with some optional extras as standard, most notably painted mirrors and bumpers. In the UK it was a high trim level available with all engines (from 2.0 to 2.3 turbo). In Australia, the 940 SE was a high trim level with only the 2.3 Turbo B230FT with some extras as standard and featured, rather unusually, full painted bumpers. In Thailand the 940 SE was a Turbo (LPT) model with leather seats, ABS brakes and SRS Airbag. In the US, the 940 SE utilised the body from the 960 (different dashboard, firewall, hood, recessed windscreen wipers etc) with the four-cylinder B230FT engine, the 940 SE badge presumably chosen by Volvo in order to maintain the link between name and number of cylinders.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: From MY 1993 on, in Italy all 940 estates were badged "Polar" (engine B200F) or "Super Polar" (engine B200FT). Towards the end of the model cycle, certain countries (as Sweden, Germany and Switzerland) had a well equipped special series badged "Classic". Production of the 940 series extended from 1990 to 5 February 1998.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: In the United States, the 1991 940 was offered in three versions: the 940 GLE used a DOHC 16-valve version of the 2.3-litre engine (B234) with a 6000 rpm redline. The 940 Turbo used a turbocharged 2.3-litre engine (B230FT), and the top-end 940 SE (also turbocharged) included body-coloured trim, and the premium features (leather, power seats/moonroof, etc.) as standard equipment.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: This is one of the Volvo vehicles that was produced at Volvo's former manufacturing facility in Halifax, Nova Scotia. In 1993, 940s built at that plant were affixed with roundels at the rear window, to celebrate the plant's 30th anniversary.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: For the 1992 model year the 940 GLE was downgraded with a 114 bhp version of the 2.3-litre four-cylinder engine and sold as the 940 GL. The 940 SE was in actuality a 960 Turbo sold as the 940 SE, while the 940 Turbo remained largely unchanged. US-sales ended in 1995 in favour of the Volvo 850 and Volvo 960 series.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: Autumn of 1990 marked the launch of the Volvo 960 in time for the 1991 model year. This was the replacement for the 760. The 1991 960 was an evolutionary progression of the 1990 760, but it was also one of the first cars to feature the work of British designer Peter Horbury.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: The most significant change was that, in most markets, the 960 was offered with an all-new aluminium 24-valve DOHC inline six-cylinder engine, often referred to as "white block" in the Volvo community due to its bare aluminium block. Maximum power was at 6,000 rpm. Some markets, such as Australia and Japan, saw 1991 960s equipped with the same B280E/F V6 engine ( at 5,100 rpm) that had powered the 1990 760. The 1992 model year saw the U.S. introduction of the DOHC inline six-cylinder engine. For the Italian and Portuguese markets, the 960 was available with the 16v 2-litre turbo (190/200 PS, 140/147 kW) from September 1990 until September 1993 along with the inline sixes. Certain markets also received the 2.3-litre turbo 'Redblock' four with , and the Volkswagen built D24TIC with .


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: The 960 received incremental changes for the 1992, 1993, and 1994 model years. Most visible were the new more shapely seats, and redesigned seat-belts with hydraulic pretensioners for 1992. 1993 saw a new more ergonomic shifter, and in 1994 dual front airbags were introduced in some markets. The opaque sunroof was replaced by a sliding sunshade and glass window. In 1994, the US version of the 3-litre six was tuned for more torque and a less peaky power delivery in favor of U.S. emissions regulations, with at 5,200 rpm and at 4,100 rpm (as opposed to at 4,300 rpm for the rest of the world).


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: Nilsson, a small coachbuilder in Laholm, Sweden, worked under contract with Volvo to supply the stretched 960 Executive (and the later Royal model, with Hermès leather interior). Nilsson offered a number of different lengths and sealed the window in the C-pillar for more privacy in the rear. The Executive had longer rear doors, longer versions had inserts behind the B-pillar.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: For North America, the 1992–1994 Volvo 960s were built in Kalmar, Sweden. The very first Volvo 960 for the US-market rolled off the assembly line on August 12, 1991 as a 1992 model. The 1995 to 1998 960s were built in Göteborg, Sweden. The first 1995 model year (facelift) 960 was built on June 27, 1994.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: In 1994 (for the 1995 model year) the 960 received a facelift, including changes to the grille and body-coloured panels. A smaller 2.5 version of the six-cylinder (2,473 cc) was also added to the lineup, with for the B6244FS version. The new 960 was the first car offered with standard daytime running lights in North America.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: Only the modular six-cylinder engines were available from model year 1995 on. The front suspension was redesigned to more closely match that of the 850. The rear suspension received a completely redesigned multi-link independent system with a single fibreglass transverse leaf spring. The 1995 estate received independent rear suspension. Volvo reported that the single composite leaf spring used in the rear suspension of the 960 estate had the same mass as just one of the two springs it replaced. Boge's Nivomat self-leveling rear suspension system became an option rather than standard equipment.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: From 1996, Volvo renamed the 960 in select markets as "Volvo S90" (saloon) and "Volvo V90" (estate) in alignment with the letter-and-number naming scheme used on their other models. This renaming applied to several European countries in late 1996, in North America from late 1996 for the 1997 model year, and in Australia from March 1997. The new name coincided with an improved air conditioning system.


title: Volvo 900 Series

text: All US cars were equipped with an electronically controlled Aisin AW-series automatic transmission. Beginning in the 1995 model year, European cars with the 2.5 L engines were also available with a manual transmission, the so-called M90, a strong new design that was derived from the Volvo 850's transmission. With the demise of the 2.5 L engine, the M90 was paired with a detuned version () of the 3.0 L engine.


title: Chanson

text: A (, , , ; ) is generally any lyric-driven French song, though it most often refers to the secular polyphonic French songs of late medieval and Renaissance music. The genre had origins in the monophonic songs of troubadours and trouvères, though the only polyphonic precedents were 16 works by Adam de la Halle and one by Jehan de Lescurel. Not until the "ars nova" composer Guillaume de Machaut did any composer write a significant number of polyphonic chansons.


title: Chanson

text: A broad term, the word "chanson" literally means "song" in French and can thus less commonly refers to a variety of (usually secular) French genres throughout history. This includes the songs of chansonnier, "chanson de geste" and Grand chant; court songs of the late Renaissance and early Baroque music periods, "air de cour"; popular songs from the 17th to 19th century, "bergerette", "brunette", "chanson pour boire", "pastourelle", and vaudeville; art song of the romantic era, "mélodie"; and folk music, "". Since the 1990s, the term may be used for Nouvelle Chanson, a French song that often contains poetic or political content.


title: Chanson

text: The earliest "chansons" were the epic poems performed to simple monophonic melodies by a professional class of "jongleurs" or "ménestrels". These usually recounted the famous deeds ("geste") of past heroes, legendary and semi-historical. The "Song of Roland" is the most famous of these, but in general the "chansons de geste" are studied as literature since very little of their music survives.


title: Chanson

text: The "chanson courtoise" or "grand chant" was an early form of monophonic "chanson", the chief lyric poetic genre of the trouvères. It was an adaptation to Old French of the Occitan "canso". It was practised in the 12th and 13th centuries. Thematically, as its name implies, it was a song of courtly love, written usually by a man to his noble lover. Some later "chansons" were polyphonic and some had refrains and were called "chansons avec des refrains".


title: Chanson

text: In its typical specialized usage, the word "chanson" refers to a polyphonic French song of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Early "chansons" tended to be in one of the "formes fixes"—ballade, rondeau or virelai (formerly the "chanson baladée")—though some composers later set popular poetry in a variety of forms. The earliest chansons were for two, three or four voices, with first three becoming the norm, expanding to four voices by the 16th century. Sometimes, the singers were accompanied by instruments.


title: Chanson

text: The first important composer of "chansons" was Guillaume de Machaut, who composed three-voice works in the "formes fixes" during the 14th century.


title: Chanson

text: Two composers from Burgundy, Guillaume Du Fay and Gilles Binchois, who wrote so-called Burgundian "chansons", dominated the subsequent generation of chanson composers (). Their chansons, while somewhat simple in style, are also generally in three voices with a structural tenor. These works are typically still 3 voices, with an active upper voice (discantus) pitched above two lower voices (tenor and altus) usually sharing the same range. Musicologist David Fallows includes the Burgundian repertoire in "A Catalogue of Polyphonic Songs 1415–1480."


title: Chanson

text: Later 15th- and early 16th-century figures in the genre included Johannes Ockeghem and Josquin des Prez, whose works cease to be constrained by "formes fixes" and begin to feature a pervading imitation (all voices sharing material and moving at similar speeds), similar to that found in contemporary motets and liturgical music. The first book of music printed from movable type was "Harmonice Musices Odhecaton", a collection of ninety-six chansons by many composers, published in Venice in 1501 by Ottaviano Petrucci.


title: Chanson

text: Beginning in the late 1520s through mid-century, Claudin de Sermisy, Pierre Certon, Clément Janequin, and Philippe Verdelot were composers of so-called Parisian "chansons", which also abandoned the "formes fixes", often featured four voices, and were in a simpler, more homophonic style. This genre sometimes featured music that was meant to be evocative of certain imagery such as birds or the marketplace. Many of these Parisian works were published by Pierre Attaingnant. Composers of their generation, as well as later composers, such as Orlando de Lassus, were influenced by the Italian madrigal.


title: Chanson

text: French solo song developed in the late 16th century, probably from the aforementioned Parisian works. During the 17th century, the "air de cour", "chanson pour boire" and other like genres, generally accompanied by lute or keyboard, flourished, with contributions by such composers as Antoine Boesset, Denis Gaultier, Michel Lambert and Michel-Richard de Lalande. This still affects today's Chanson as many French musicians still follow this instrument pattern of Harp and Keyboard.


title: Chanson

text: During the 18th century, vocal music in France was dominated by opera, but solo song underwent a renaissance in the 19th century, first with salon melodies and then by mid-century with highly sophisticated works influenced by the German Lieder, which had been introduced into the country. Louis Niedermeyer, under the particular spell of Schubert, was a pivotal figure in this movement, followed by Édouard Lalo, Felicien David and many others.


title: Chanson

text: Another offshoot of "chanson", called "chanson réaliste" (realist song), was a popular musical genre in France, primarily from the 1880s until the end of World War II. Born of the "cafés-concerts" and cabarets of the Montmartre district of Paris and influenced by literary realism and the naturalist movements in literature and theatre, "chanson réaliste" was a musical style which was mainly performed by women and dealt with the lives of Paris's poor and working class. Among the better-known performers of the genre are Damia, Fréhel, and Édith Piaf.


title: Chanson

text: Later 19th-century composers of French art songs, known as mélodie and not chanson, included Ernest Chausson, Emmanuel Chabrier, Gabriel Fauré, and Claude Debussy, while many 20th-century and current French composers have continued this strong tradition.


title: Chanson

text: In the 20th century, French composers revived the genre. Claude Debussy composed Trois Chansons for choir a capella, completed in 1908. Maurice Ravel wrote "Trois Chansons" for choir a cappella after the outbreak of World War I as a return to French tradition, published in 1916.


title: Chanson

text: In France today "chanson" or "chanson française" is distinguished from the rest of French "pop" music by following the rhythms of French language, rather than those of English, and a higher standard for lyrics.


title: Chanson

text: In La Planche, Loire-Atlantique, the Musée de la chanson française was established in 1992. The museum has the goal to remember the artists that have established the heritage of the "chanson".


title: Polder

text: A polder () is a low-lying tract of land that forms an artificial hydrological entity, enclosed by embankments known as dikes. The three types of polder are:


title: Polder

text: The ground level in drained marshes subsides over time. All polders will eventually be below the surrounding water level some or all of the time. Water enters the low-lying polder through infiltration and water pressure of groundwater, or rainfall, or transport of water by rivers and canals. This usually means that the polder has an excess of water, which is pumped out or drained by opening sluices at low tide. Care must be taken not to set the internal water level too low. Polder land made up of peat (former marshland) will sink in relation to its previous level, because of peat decomposing when exposed to oxygen from the air.


title: Polder

text: Polders are at risk from flooding at all times, and care must be taken to protect the surrounding dikes. Dikes are typically built with locally available materials, and each material has its own risks: sand is prone to collapse owing to saturation by water; dry peat is lighter than water and potentially unable to retain water in very dry seasons. Some animals dig tunnels in the barrier, allowing water to infiltrate the structure; the muskrat is known for this activity and hunted in certain European countries because of it. Polders are most commonly, though not exclusively, found in river deltas, former fenlands, and coastal areas.


title: Polder

text: Flooding of polders has also been used as a military tactic in the past. One example is the flooding of the polders along the Yser River during World War I. Opening the sluices at high tide and closing them at low tide turned the polders into an inaccessible swamp, which allowed the Allied armies to stop the German army.


title: Polder

text: Netherlands has a large area of polders: as much as 20% of the land area has at some point in the past been reclaimed from the sea, thus contributing to the development of the country. IJsselmeer is the most famous polder project of the Netherlands. Some other countries which have polders are Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada and China. Some examples of Dutch polder projects are Beemster, Schermer, Flevopolder and Noordoostpolder.


title: Polder

text: The Dutch word "polder" derives successively from Middle Dutch "polre", from Old Dutch "polra", and ultimately from "pol-", a piece of land elevated above its surroundings, with the augmentative suffix "-er" and epenthetical " -d-". The word has been adopted in thirty-six languages.


title: Polder

text: The Netherlands is frequently associated with polders, as its engineers became noted for developing techniques to drain wetlands and make them usable for agriculture and other development. This is illustrated by the saying "God created the world, but the Dutch created the Netherlands".


title: Polder

text: The Dutch have a long history of reclamation of marshes and fenland, resulting in some 3,000 "polders" nationwide. By 1961, about half of the country's land, , was reclaimed from the sea. About half the total surface area of "polders" in north-west Europe is in the Netherlands. The first embankments in Europe were constructed in Roman times. The first polders were constructed in the 11th century. The oldest extant polder is the Achtermeer polder, from 1533.


title: Polder

text: As a result of flooding disasters, water boards called "waterschap" (when situated more inland) or "hoogheemraadschap" (near the sea, mainly used in the Holland region) were set up to maintain the integrity of the water defences around polders, maintain the waterways inside a polder, and control the various water levels inside and outside the polder. Water boards hold separate elections, levy taxes, and function independently from other government bodies. Their function is basically unchanged even today. As such, they are the oldest democratic institutions in the country. The necessary cooperation among all ranks to maintain polder integrity gave its name to the Dutch version of third-way politics—the "Polder Model".


title: Polder

text: The 1953 flood disaster prompted a new approach to the design of dikes and other water-retaining structures, based on an acceptable probability of overflowing. Risk is defined as the product of probability and consequences. The potential damage in lives, property, and rebuilding costs is compared with the potential cost of water defences. From these calculations follows an acceptable flood risk from the sea at one in 4,000–10,000 years, while it is one in 100–2,500 years for a river flood. The particular established policy guides the Dutch government to improve flood defences as new data on threat levels become available.


title: Polder

text: Major Dutch polders and the years they were laid dry include Beemster (1609–1612), Schermer (1633–1635), and Haarlemmermeerpolder (1852). Polders created as part of the Zuiderzee Works include Wieringermeerpolder (1930), Noordoostpolder (1942) and Flevopolder (1956–1968)


title: Polder

text: Bangladesh has 139 polders, of which 49 are sea-facing, while the rest are along the numerous distributaries of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River delta. These were constructed in the 1960s to protect the coast from tidal flooding and reduce salinity incursion. They reduce long-term flooding and waterlogging following storm surges from tropical cyclones. They are also cultivated for agriculture.


title: Polder

text: The Jiangnan region, at the Yangtze River Delta, has a long history of constructing polders. Most of these projects were performed between the 10th and 13th centuries. The Chinese government also assisted local communities in constructing dikes for swampland water drainage. The Lijia (里甲) self-monitoring system of 110 households under a "lizhang" (里长) headman was used for the purposes of service administration and tax collection in the polder, with a "liangzhang" (粮长, grain chief) responsible for maintaining the water system and a "tangzhang" (塘长, dike chief）for polder maintenance.


title: Polder

text: In Germany, land reclaimed by diking is called a "koog". The German "Deichgraf" system was similar to the Dutch and is widely known from Theodor Storm's novella "The Rider on the White Horse".


title: Polder

text: In southern Germany, the term "polder" is used for retention basins recreated by opening dikes during river floodplain restoration, a meaning somewhat opposite to that in coastal context.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The St. Louis Rams were a professional American football team of the National Football League (NFL). They played in St. Louis from 1995 to the 2015 season, before relocating back to Los Angeles, where the team had played from 1946 to 1994.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The relocation was the second for the franchise, who previously played in Cleveland until moving to Los Angeles in 1946. The Rams' relocation to St. Louis gave the city a professional football team for the first time since 1987 following the departure of the St. Louis Cardinals to Arizona.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The Rams played their home games at what is now known as The Dome at America's Center in downtown St. Louis, which the city had been constructing for the previous few years in the hopes of gaining an NFL team. The Rams' new stadium was not ready when they initially arrived, so they temporarily shared Busch Memorial Stadium with the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball (MLB). Their first game in St. Louis against the New Orleans Saints was played on September 10, 1995, with the Rams winning 17–13. Their stadium opened on November 12, 1995, as the Trans World Dome and the Rams defeated the Carolina Panthers 28–17.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The Rams' last game played in St. Louis, in what was then called the Edward Jones Dome, was on December 17, 2015, and the Rams defeated the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 31–23. Their last game as a St. Louis-based franchise was on January 3, 2016, against the San Francisco 49ers at Levi's Stadium, which they lost 19–16. After the 2015 NFL season, the team returned to Los Angeles.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: During the Rams' tenure in St. Louis, the franchise won its first Super Bowl title in Super Bowl XXXIV. The Rams did not have any winning seasons or playoff appearances in St. Louis prior to the Super Bowl victory, but enjoyed their greatest period of success from 1999 to 2003 under The Greatest Show on Turf offense. They also had a franchise-best 14–2 record in 2001 en route to a Super Bowl XXXVI appearance. However, the Rams struggled throughout their remaining years in St. Louis. By the time they moved back to Los Angeles, the Rams had gone 12 seasons without obtaining a winning record and 11 seasons without qualifying for the postseason.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: For 22 of their 28 years the St. Louis Cardinals called Busch Memorial Stadium home after it opened in 1966, after spending their first six seasons in St. Louis at Sportsman's Park; they shared both stadiums with the baseball team of the same name. However, the overall mediocrity of the Cardinals, combined with stadium issues, caused attendance to dwindle. Consequently, the Bidwill family, owners of the Cardinals, decided to move the team for a second time after having relocated the franchise from Chicago to St. Louis in 1960. The cities the Bidwills considered included Baltimore, Phoenix, New York City, and Jacksonville, whilst Columbus and Oakland also made overtures without Bidwell considering them. Nonetheless, Cardinals fans were unhappy at losing their team, and Bill Bidwill, fearing for his safety, stayed away from several of the 1987 home games. The Cardinals’ final home game in St. Louis was on December 13, 1987, which they won 27–24 over the New York Giants in front of 29,623 fans on a late Sunday afternoon.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: Not long after the 1987 season, Bidwill agreed to move to the Phoenix area on a handshake deal with state and local officials, and the team became the Phoenix Cardinals. They planned to play at Arizona State University’s Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe on a temporary basis while a new stadium was being built. Unfortunately for the Cardinals, the savings and loan crisis derailed financing for the stadium, forcing the Cardinals to play at Arizona State for 18 years. The team changed its name to the Arizona Cardinals for the 1994 season.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: Before the Rams’ 1979 Super Bowl season, the team's owner Carroll Rosenbloom drowned in an accident. His widow, Georgia Frontiere, inherited 70% ownership of the team. Frontiere fired her stepson, Steve Rosenbloom, and assumed total control of the franchise. As had been planned before Carroll Rosenbloom's death, the Rams moved from their longtime home at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum to Anaheim Stadium in nearby Orange County in 1980. The move was necessitated in part by the fact that the Los Angeles Coliseum was difficult to sell out because of its abnormally large seating capacity of 100,000, which often subjected the team to the league's local-market TV blackout rule. At the same time, Southern California's population patterns were changing; there was rapid growth in L.A.’s affluent suburbs (e.g. greater Orange County) and a decline in the city of Los Angeles’s population and income. Anaheim Stadium was originally built in 1966 as the home of the California Angels Major League Baseball franchise. To accommodate the Rams’ move, the ballpark was reconfigured with luxury suites and enclosed to accommodate crowds of about 65,000 for football.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: In 1982, the Coliseum was also occupied by the Los Angeles Raiders. The combined effect of these two factors was to split the loyalties of the Rams’ traditional fan base between two teams. Making matters even worse, the Rams were unsuccessful on the field at this time, while the Raiders were thriving — winning Super Bowl XVIII in 1983. Meanwhile, the Los Angeles Lakers won championships in 1980 and 1982 (they would win a total of five titles in that decade); the Los Angeles Dodgers won the World Series in 1981 and 1988; and the Los Angeles Kings, buoyed by the acquisition of Wayne Gretzky in August 1988, advanced to the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: Although it was not apparent at the time, the Rams’ loss in the marked the end of an era. The Rams would not have another winning season in Los Angeles before their relocation. The first half of the 1990s featured four straight 10-loss (or worse) seasons, no playoff appearances and waning fan interest. The return of Chuck Knox as head coach after successful stints as head coach of the Buffalo Bills and the Seattle Seahawks would not boost the Rams’ fortunes. Knox's run-oriented offense brought about the end of offensive coordinator Ernie Zampese’s tenure in 1993. General manager John Shaw was perceived by some to continually squander NFL draft picks on sub-standard talent. The offensive scheme was not only unspectacular to watch, but dull by 1990s standards, further alienating fans. One bright spot for the offense during this time would be running back Jerome Bettis, a bruising running back from Notre Dame. Bettis flourished in Knox’s offense, running for 1,429 yards as a rookie and 1,025 in his sophomore effort.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: As early as the close of the 1992 season, Georgia Frontiere announced she wanted to break the Rams’ lease of Anaheim Stadium. After the 1993 season, Frontiere attempted to move the Rams to Baltimore, but her fellow owners turned that proposal down. Frontiere then sought to relocate the team to St. Louis. This move was initially voted down as well, with 21 opposed, 3 in favor (the Rams, Cincinnati Bengals and Tampa Bay Buccaneers), and 6 abstaining. The other owners (led by Buffalo's Ralph Wilson, the Jets’ Leon Hess, the Giants’ Wellington Mara, Washington's Jack Kent Cooke, Arizona's Bill Bidwill and Minnesota's John Skoglund) believed that the Rams’ financial problems were caused by the Frontieres’ mismanagement. When Frontiere threatened to sue the league, commissioner Paul Tagliabue acquiesced to Frontiere's demands. As part of the relocation deal, the city of St. Louis agreed to build a taxpayer-financed stadium, the Trans World Dome, and guaranteed that the stadium's amenities would be maintained in the top 25% of all NFL stadiums. Frontiere waived the clause after a 10-year threshold period passed, as the city implemented a later plan to improve the stadium.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The move left many in the Los Angeles area embittered toward the NFL. That sentiment was best expressed by actor and ex-Ram Fred Dryer, who at the time said “I hate these people [the organization and its owner] for what they did, taking the Rams logo with them when they moved to St. Louis. That logo belonged to Southern California.” Steve Rosenbloom, general manager of the team during his father's tenure as owner, opined that teams come and go, but for a team to leave Los Angeles — the second largest media market in America — for St. Louis (approximately the 18th-largest) was simply irresponsible and foolish, in spite of the notoriously fickle support of Los Angeles fans. With the Raiders moving from L.A. back to Oakland only a few months later, the NFL would have no franchise in Los Angeles for two decades, although the Coliseum was used for professional football in 2001 by the Los Angeles Xtreme of the now-defunct XFL.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: While the Rams dealt with stadium concerns in Los Angeles, efforts were under way to regain an NFL franchise in St. Louis to play in a new domed stadium slated to open in 1995. First, Anheuser-Busch scion Jim Orthwein tried, and ultimately failed, to move the New England Patriots to St. Louis. Then, despite being heavily favored along with Charlotte to win an expansion team, St. Louis lost to a group from Jacksonville, Florida. So certain, in fact, did it appear that St. Louis would gain an expansion franchise, that the team had a name selected – the Stallions – and T-shirts with the team's logo were made very briefly available for sale at a number of St. Louis area sports shops.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: Just before moving to St. Louis, the Rams fired Knox and hired Rich Brooks, longtime successful football coach at the University of Oregon, to replace him. The team played its first several games in St. Louis at Busch Stadium (the home of the NFL's St. Louis Cardinals from 1966 until 1987) as work finished on their new home, the Trans World Dome. Brooks jettisoned Knox's run-oriented scheme in favor of a powerful air attack. Bettis all but disappeared from the offense, rushing for only 637 yards. Despite this, the Rams started off well, getting off to a 5–1 start. However, a 44–10 loss to the 49ers in the last game at Busch Stadium sent the team into a downward spiral, and they ultimately finished 7–9 — still the franchise's closest to contention since 1989. Perhaps the most memorable aspect was that veteran offensive lineman and future Hall of Famer Jackie Slater played his 20th and final season with the team in its new St. Louis location.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The next three seasons would largely be a repeat of the Rams’ last five seasons in Los Angeles. The team drafted highly touted Nebraska running back Lawrence Phillips with the sixth overall pick in the 1996 NFL Draft, making Bettis expendable. Bettis would be traded to the Pittsburgh Steelers in exchange for draft picks, a move now seen as one of the most lopsided trades in professional sports history, strongly favoring the Steelers. After regressing to 6–10 in 1996, Brooks was replaced by Dick Vermeil. Vermeil had enjoyed success as the head coach of UCLA (where he won a Rose Bowl) and the Philadelphia Eagles, whom he had led to Super Bowl XV. However, Vermeil left the Eagles after an unsuccessful 1982 season, claiming burnout, and proceeded to spend much of the next decade and a half as a college football commentator for ABC Sports.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: Vermeil's first two seasons as Rams coach were as unsuccessful as many of the preceding seasons. Phillips was cut from the team mid-season in 1997 after showing up for a game with alcohol on his breath, cementing his status as a draft bust.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The Rams’ struggles continued in 1998. At the close of that season, the franchise had suffered a nine-season streak in which the team compiled a dismal record of 45–99, the worst in the NFL for the period and rivaled only by the Cincinnati Bengals, who went 49–97 over the same span.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: Finally, in 1999, there appeared to be reason for hope. The Rams obtained running back Marshall Faulk from Indianapolis in a trade. The Rams also signed former-Redskin quarterback Trent Green as a free agent in February 1999 to a 4-year $17.5 million contract that included a $4.5 million signing bonus. Additionally, the Rams drafted wide receiver Torry Holt with the sixth overall pick in the 1999 NFL Draft.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: However, in a preseason game against the San Diego Chargers, Green blew out his anterior cruciate ligament and missed the entire season, prompting Green's backup, a 28-year-old former Arena Football League Iowa Barnstormers and NFL Europe Amsterdam Admirals player named Kurt Warner, to enter the game. During postgame press conferences, a tearful Vermeil vowed that the Rams would "rally around" Warner and “play good football” with him. Most observers believed Green's injury set up the Rams for another long season of failure; in fact, ESPN Magazine predicted that the Rams would finish with the worst record in the league (even below that of the recently reactivated Cleveland Browns).


title: St. Louis Rams

text: However, Warner would have one of the most explosive starts to a career in football history, throwing for over 4000 yards and 41 touchdowns. His quarterback rating of 109.2 was the highest in the NFL that year. He proved to be the catalyst that sparked an explosive offense nicknamed “The Greatest Show on Turf”, which would lead the NFL in points. Warner captured the NFL MVP award at season's end, while the 1999 NFL Offensive Player of the Year Award went to Faulk.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The Rams were also noted for a colorful celebration conducted by their offensive players in the end zone after scoring a touchdown. The celebration, which involved a group of players standing in a circle and swaying their arms as a football spun like a top in the center of the circle, was known as the “Bob 'N Weave.” This type of “premeditated and prolonged” display was shortly thereafter subject to “excessive celebration” penalties installed by the league.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: After finishing the 1999 season 13–3 (the franchise's second-best regular season record to date), the Rams started out the playoffs by defeating the Minnesota Vikings 49–37 to achieve their first NFC championship game since 1989. Their opponent was the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who proved successful in shutting down the Rams’ vaunted offense. Still, the Rams managed to win the game 11–6, with the one touchdown coming on Warner's 30-yard touchdown pass to Ricky Proehl, who made an amazing one-handed catch. Proehl, a 10-year NFL veteran who was in the playoffs for the first time in his NFL career, said after the game “There are a lot of people who say there are 500 Ricky Proehls out there. I beg to differ.”


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The Rams’ opponent in Super Bowl XXXIV was the Tennessee Titans, who, like the Rams, had recently relocated cities. In a game that many consider the best Super Bowl ever, Tennessee played the Rams tough throughout, achieving a 16–16 tie with 2:12 left on an Al Del Greco field goal. On the next drive, Warner, who had been a clutch performer all season long, came through once again, connecting with Isaac Bruce for a 73-yard touchdown pass on the first play of the drive to give the Rams a 23–16 lead with 1:53 to play.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: Tennessee then mounted a desperate, last-minute drive, reaching the St. Louis 10-yard line with six seconds left and no timeouts. Titans quarterback Steve McNair threw to Kevin Dyson on a slant. Dyson caught the pass at the 3-yard line but was stopped in a play known as “The Tackle”; Rams linebacker Mike Jones brought Dyson down just 18 inches shy of the goal line, ending the game and giving the Rams and coach Dick Vermeil their first Super Bowl victory. Warner was named Super Bowl MVP.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: Following the Rams’ Super Bowl victory, Vermeil retired from football (though he came back in 2001 as head coach of the Kansas City Chiefs) and was replaced by offensive coordinator (and apprentice) Mike Martz.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: In Mike Martz’ first year as Rams head coach, the defending-champion Rams started the season by winning their first six games as they went 7–1 in the first half of the season. However, their season started getting ugly. They went 3–5 during the last half of the season, including a three-game losing streak. They still managed to get into the playoffs with a 10–6 record and the NFC's #6 seed, and faced the NFC West champion New Orleans Saints, the #3 seed, in the Wild Card round. Playing at the Louisiana Superdome, the Rams’ 24th-ranked defense yielded New Orleans a 31–7 lead, but the Rams valiantly fought back, scoring three straight touchdowns. However, the comeback fell short as the Saints triumphed 31–28, the first playoff win in New Orleans franchise history.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: In 2001, the “Max Q” Rams went 14–2 (including a spectacular 8–0 on the road), led not only by a sensational offense (their third straight year of scoring 500 or more points), but a good defense as well, coached by Lovie Smith and led by Adam Archuleta. After handling the Green Bay Packers in the divisional playoffs, the Rams fought off the Philadelphia Eagles in the NFC Championship Game 29–24 to reach their second Super Bowl in three seasons. Their opponents in Super Bowl XXXVI would be the New England Patriots who, much as the Rams had had two years previous, had enjoyed a Cinderella playoff run, highlighted by a dramatic and controversial 16–13 divisional playoff win against the Oakland Raiders.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The talent-laden Rams appeared to be primed to become the first professional football dynasty of the 21st century. It was however, the Patriots who began their dynasty that night. They went on to win three Super Bowls in a four-year span, and have played in nine since the 2001 season as of 2020. Despite being a 14-point favorite, the Rams were dominated by the Patriots for most of the game. The Patriots chipped the Rams wideouts and running backs, disrupting their precision passing patterns. They also beat up Kurt Warner, forcing him into uncharacteristic mistakes, including a 47-yard touchdown interception return by Ty Law.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: In the fourth quarter, the Rams mounted a comeback attempt. Two plays after an apparent game-clinching 95-yard fumble return by the Patriots was reversed on a penalty, Kurt Warner scored on a two-yard keeper to bring the Rams to within seven points, 17–10. After holding the Patriots on the next drive, the Rams were in much the same situation as they had been against Tennessee. Warner came through once again, quickly leading the Rams on a dramatic drive culminating in a 26-yard touchdown pass to Ricky Proehl. The extra point by Jeff Wilkins tied the game at 17 with 90 seconds left.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: With the Patriots holding no timeouts and the Rams having seized the momentum, overtime seemed assured. Fox Sports commentator John Madden opined that the Patriots should run out the clock to end regulation time. Nevertheless, quarterback Tom Brady led the Patriots down the field, completing all but one pass (an intentional spike to stop the clock) before Adam Vinatieri’s last-second 48-yard field goal defeated the Rams 20–17.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: Super Bowl XXXVI later became part of the wider 2007 National Football League videotaping controversy, also known as “Spygate". The "Boston Herald" reported, citing an unnamed source, that the Patriots had taped the Rams’ walkthrough practice prior to the game. After further investigation, the league determined that no tape of the Rams’ Super Bowl walkthrough was made, and the "Herald" later issued an apology in 2008 for the article.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: In 2002, the Rams had a very disappointing 7–9 final record (after starting out 0–5). The silver lining was the emergence of young quarterback Marc Bulger, from West Virginia University, who, after Kurt Warner was injured, won every game in which he both started and finished. Bulger's emergence was a highlight of the Rams’ 2002 NFL season, demonstrating Martz's knack for developing lightly regarded or overlooked players into top-quality, productive quarterbacks. The Rams also gained two new divisional rivals in the NFC West thanks to a league-wide realignment that created eight new divisions of four teams each. One of these new rivals, the Arizona Cardinals, played in St. Louis from 1960 until the end of the 1987 season, and the other, the Seattle Seahawks, returned to the NFC for the first time since their inaugural 1976 season.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: In 2003, Warner lost the starting job to Bulger after suffering six fumbles in the season opener against the New York Giants. Warner was released by the Rams in June 2004 and quickly signed a free agent contract with the Giants, effectively ending the “Greatest Show on Turf” era.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The 2003 season saw the Rams go 12–4, winning the NFC West again. However, the Rams lost a crushing divisional-round defeat to the Carolina Panthers (29–23 in double overtime), who went on to become NFC champions.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: During the 2004 NFL Draft, the Rams used their first pick (24th overall) to select running back Steven Jackson from Oregon State.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: The Rams began their 10th year in St. Louis at home, winning their home opener over the Arizona Cardinals 17–10. They then lost the next two games: to the eventual NFC South champion Atlanta Falcons 34–17, and to the New Orleans Saints at home 28–25 in overtime. The Rams got to 2–2 start on the season with a 24–14 road victory over the San Francisco 49ers. In Week 5, they defeated the Seattle Seahawks 33–27 on the road, as Bulger connected with Shaun McDonald for the 52-yard winning score in overtime. Next came a home win over Tampa Bay, 28–21 before a road loss to the hapless Miami Dolphins, 31–14. Following a Week 8 bye, the Rams lost to the defending champion Patriots at home 40–22. The Rams then downed the Seahawks 23–12 but then lost their next games on the road, losing to the Buffalo Bills 37–17 and to the eventual NFC North champion Green Bay Packers 45–17. The team rebounded with a 16–6 home win over the 49ers, but their playoff hopes continued to shrink with two more road losses, falling to the Carolina Panthers 20–7 and to the Cardinals 31–7. At 6–8, the Rams rallied for home wins against the Philadelphia Eagles (20–7) and the New York Jets (32–29 in overtime), snatching the NFC's #5 seed despite finishing with an 8–8 record.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: For the Wild Card round, the Rams faced the Seahawks for the third time. The visiting Rams took the lead on a 17-yard Bulger touchdown pass to Cam Cleeland with just 2:11 left in regulation time and then held off the Seahawks on 4th and goal to earn a 27–20 victory. The Rams made NFL history by becoming the first team to go .500 (8–8) in the regular season and then win a playoff game. However, St. Louis was thrashed in the divisional round by the Atlanta Falcons 47–17.


title: St. Louis Rams

text: During the 2005 NFL Draft, the Rams used their first pick on offensive tackle Alex Barron from Florida State. They lost on the road in Week 1 to the 49ers, 28–25, but rebounded with a 17–12 road win over Arizona and former Rams quarterback Kurt Warner. The Rams won their Week 3 home opener against the Titans 31–27 before dropping three straight games. In Week 5, Martz was diagnosed with an infection in his heart, and Joe Vitt was named interim head coach. In Vitt's first game at the helm, Bulger sprained an AC joint in a loss to Indianapolis. Replacement quarterback Jamie Martin then led the team to home victories against the Saints (28–17) and Jaguars (24–21). After a Week 9 bye, Bulger returned but the Rams fell in Seattle 31–16. The Rams next lost a rematch to the Cardinals, with Bulger suffering another shoulder injury. Against Houston, Martin was knocked out of the game with a concussion, giving rookie Ryan Fitzpatrick his first playing time in the NFL. Fitzpatrick would become a long-time journeyman playing for teams like the Bills, Jets, Buccaneers, and Dolphins. The Rams won 33–27 in overtime on a 56-yard touchdown strike from Fitzpatrick to receiver Kevin Curtis. However, they lost their next four games. Martin and the Rams managed to end their disastrous season on a positive note, beating Dallas on the road in ESPN’s final Sunday night game. Martz was fired at season’s end.