title: Fort Ross, California

text: Fort Ross serves as the backdrop in the short story "Facts Relating to the Arrest of Dr. Kalugin," part of Kage Baker's series of science fiction stories concerning "The Company".


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Bill Graham (born Wulf Wolodia Grajonca; January 8, 1931 – October 25, 1991) was a German-American impresario and rock concert promoter from the 1960s until his death in 1991 in a helicopter crash. On July 4, 1939, he was sent from Germany to France due to political uncertainty in his home country. At age 10, he settled into a foster home in the Bronx, New York. Graham graduated from DeWitt Clinton High School and subsequently from City College with a business degree.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: In the early 1960s, Graham moved to San Francisco, and in 1965, began to manage the San Francisco Mime Troupe. He had teamed up with local Haight Ashbury promoter Chet Helms to organize a benefit concert, then promoted several free concerts. This eventually turned into a profitable full-time career and he assembled a talented staff. Graham had a profound influence around the world, sponsoring the musical renaissance of the '60s from the epicenter, San Francisco. Chet Helms and then Bill Graham made famous the Fillmore and Winterland Ballroom; these turned out to be a proving grounds for rock bands and acts of the San Francisco Bay area including the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, and Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin, who were first managed, and in some cases developed, by Chet Helms.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham was born on January 8, 1931, in Berlin, the youngest child and only son of Jewish lower middle-class parents, Frieda ("née" Sass) and Jacob "Yankel" Grajonca, who had emigrated from Russia before the rise of Nazism. There were six children in the Grajonca family. His father accidentally died two days after his son's birth. Graham's family nicknamed him "Wolfgang" early in life.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Due to the increasing peril to Jews in Germany and because of the death of Jacob Grajonca, Graham's mother placed her son and her youngest daughter, Tanya "Tolla", in a Berlin orphanage, which sent them to France in a pre-Holocaust exchange of Jewish children for Christian orphans. Graham's older sisters Sonja and Ester stayed behind with their mother. After the fall of France, Graham was among a group of Jewish orphans spirited out of France, some of whom finally reached the United States. Tolla Grajonca came down with pneumonia and did not survive the difficult journey. Graham was one of the One Thousand Children (OTC), those mainly Jewish children who managed to flee Hitler and Europe, and come directly to North America, but whose parents were forced to stay behind. Graham's mother was murdered at Auschwitz.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Once in the United States, Graham was placed in a foster home in The Bronx in New York City. After being taunted as an immigrant and being called a Nazi because of his German-accented English, Graham worked on his accent, eventually being able to speak in a perfect New York accent. He changed his name to sound more "American". (He found "Graham" in the phone book—it was the closest he could find to his birth surname, "Grajonca". According to Graham, both "Bill" and "Graham" were meaningless to him.) Graham graduated from DeWitt Clinton High School and then obtained a business degree from City College of New York. He was later quoted as describing his training as that of an "efficiency expert".


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham was drafted into the United States Army in 1951, and served in the Korean War, where he was awarded both the Bronze Star and Purple Heart. Upon his return to the States he worked as a waiter/maître d' in Catskill Mountain resorts in upstate New York during their heyday. He was quoted saying that his experience as a maître d' and with the poker games he hosted behind the scenes was good training for his eventual career as a promoter. Tito Puente, who played some of these resorts, went on record saying that Graham was avid to learn Spanish from him, but only cared about the curse words. He also mentions in his bio-pic "Last Days At The Fillmore" working for Minnesota Mining.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham moved from New York to San Francisco in the early 1960s to be closer to his sister Rita. He was invited to attend a free concert in Golden Gate Park, produced by Chet Helms and the Diggers, where he made contact with the San Francisco Mime Troupe, a radical theater group. After Mime Troupe leader R. G. Davis was arrested on obscenity charges during an outdoor performance, Graham organized a benefit concert to cover the troupe's legal fees. The concert was a success and Graham saw a business opportunity.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham began promoting more concerts with Chet Helms and Family Dog projects, which provided a vital function of the 1960s, promoting concerts that provided a social meeting place to network, where many ideologies were given a forum, sometimes even on stage, such as peace movements, civil rights, farm workers and others. Most of his shows were performed at rented venues, and Graham saw a need for more permanent locations of his own.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Charles Sullivan was a mid-20th-century entrepreneur and businessman in San Francisco who owned the master lease on the Fillmore Auditorium. Graham approached Sullivan to put on the Second Mime Troupe appeals concert at the Fillmore Auditorium on December 10, 1965, using Sullivan's dance hall permit for the show. Graham later secured a contract from Sullivan for the open dates at the Fillmore Auditorium in 1966. Graham credits Sullivan with giving him his break in the music concert hall business.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: The Fillmore trademark and franchise has defined music promotion in the United States for the last 50 years. From 2003 to 2013 auxiliary writers of the times surrounding the 1960s, and Graham family lawsuits, tell the narrative of the Fillmore phenomena and how the Black community there was disenfranchised. The best way to set the historic record straight concerning Charles Sullivan and Bill Graham is to review what Graham left in his own words. Historically the first time Graham mentioned Charles Sullivan, in print, was in a "Bay Area Music" article from 1988:


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Although Graham acknowledged Sullivan's part he historically has never revealed how he got the lease to the Fillmore Auditorium and how and when he trademarked the Fillmore brand, which by all historical accounts belonged to Sullivan. In a handbill from Graham's first show at the Fillmore Auditorium, "The Mime Troupe is holding another appeal party Friday night, December 10th, at the Fillmore Auditorium", Bill Graham gives a general impression of the Fillmore neighborhood:


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Mime Troupe leader R. G. Davis states that, "Graham... gets very excited about the success of the Fillmore Auditorium Show. He gets a contract with the black guy who owned the Fillmore. He nails it. Closed." On pages 150–156 of his autobiography, Graham outlined his battles with City Hall in getting a dance hall permit. By schmoozing with merchants and having criminologists and sociologists from U.C. Berkeley and U.C. Santa Cruz giving merit to the shows Graham managed to obtain a second permit hearing, but was again denied. He reported that Sullivan came to him sometime in March or April and announced he had to pull his dance hall permit. The morning of the next day, when Graham was returning to move out of his office in the Fillmore Auditorium, Sullivan met him on the steps. Graham claimed Sullivan poured out his life story, concluding with a pledge of support to Graham to beat City Hall. Graham added, "He was the guy, Charles. He was it. I don't know if I could have ever found another place. Why would I have even tried? That was the place."


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham was denied by the Board of Permit Appeals who refused to overrule the first denial. Graham then stated, "Then on April 21, 1966, a Thursday, the "Chronicle" ran an editorial, 'The Fillmore Auditorium Case' ... [I]t was a big turning point for me. In more ways than one"; he secured his permit. He later reported, "A few months later, Charles Sullivan got himself killed. He had a bad habit of always carrying a roll of money with him. He was proud of his work and proud of the fact that he earned a good living and always carried a roll. They jumped him and stabbed him to death. I went to his funeral in Colma, California. It was small, mostly family. Had that not happened, I think I would have done anything Charles wanted. Just out of gratitude."


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Charles Sullivan was found shot dead at 1:45 am on August 2, 1966, at 5th and Bluxome Streets, San Francisco (South of Market industrial area near the train station). Sullivan had just returned from Los Angeles, where he had presented a weekend concert starring soul singer James Brown. The police were unable to determine whether Sullivan's death was suicide or homicide.The homicide remains unsolved. Sullivan was laid to rest on August 8, 1966, according to the "Sun Reporter", which reported that "Last respects were paid Charles Sullivan Monday, Aug. 8, when hundreds crowded into Jones Memorial Methodist Church, 1975 Post St. from 11:30 a.m. to view Sullivan for the last time. An enormous crowd had gathered by 1 p.m. to hear the eulogy for a friend." The funeral announcement is accompanied by photographs of the actual funeral covering two pages in which police are stopping traffic to assist the motorcade to the cemetery in Colma.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Of note in the articles surrounding Sullivan's death is an interesting fact pointed out in "The Sun Reporter":


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham's struggle to get his dance hall permit in 1966 was described in an article in "Billboard Magazine", July 11, 1966. San Francisco music critic Ralph Gleason, in defense of Graham's Fillmore Auditorium scene, wrote that Graham got a three-year lease for the Fillmore Auditorium from Charles Sullivan and was still struggling to procure his dance hall permit, a fact never publicly revealed by Graham. Charles Sullivan's last show at the Fillmore Auditorium came a week before his death, on July 26, 1966, The Temptations Dance and Show. Graham must have gotten his permit in mid-July 1966, confirming his possession of the Fillmore brand.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: When and how did Bill Graham take possession of the Fillmore Auditorium lease? The answer came in 2004: Hendrik Hertzberg's "Politics Observations & Arguments (1966-2004)" contains an article, "The San Francisco Sound, New music, new subculture", at the end of which it stated, "Unpublished file for "Newsweek", October 28, 1966". This article contains the only published account of how Graham acquired the Fillmore. In the beginning, Hertzberg recounts familiar territory with the Mime Troupe, reducing the Fillmore Auditorium to a run-down ballroom in "SF's biggest negro ghetto." After the success of the Fillmore Auditorium Mime Troupe shows, Graham parts ways with the Troupe: "He went back to the Fillmore and found that eleven other promoters had already put in bids for it. Graham got forty-one prominent citizens to write letters to the auditorium's owner, a haberdasher named Harry Shifs, and Shifs gave him a three-year lease at five hundred dollars a month... [T]he hippie community ... has turned out to be something the man from Montgomery Street can point to with pride, in a left-handed way, and say 'these are our boys'"", stated Jerry Garcia.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: One of the early concerts Graham sponsored, with Chet Helms hired to promote it, featured the Paul Butterfield Blues Band. The concert was an overwhelming success and Graham saw an opportunity with the band. Early the next morning, Graham's secretary called the band's manager, Albert Grossman, and obtained exclusive rights to promote them. Shortly thereafter, Chet Helms arrived at Graham's office, asking how Graham could have cut him out of the deal. Graham pointed out that Helms would not have known about it unless he had tried to do the same thing to Graham. He advised Helms to "get up early" in the future. Graham produced shows attracting elements of America's now-legendary 1960s counterculture such as the Jefferson Airplane, Big Brother and the Holding Company, Country Joe and the Fish, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, the improv group The Committee, The Fugs, Allen Ginsberg, and a particular favorite of Graham's, the Grateful Dead. He was the manager of the Jefferson Airplane during 1967 and 1968. His staff's amount of resourcefulness, success, popularity, and personal contacts with artists and fans alike was one reason Graham became the top rock concert promoter in the San Francisco Bay Area.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham owned Fillmore Records, which was in operation from 1969 to 1976. Some of those who signed with Graham included Rod Stewart, Elvin Bishop, and Cold Blood, although of these it seems only Bishop actually issued albums on the Fillmore label. Tower of Power was signed to Bill Graham's San Francisco Records and their first album, "East Bay Grease", was recorded in 1970.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: By 1971, Graham citing financial reasons and changes he saw as unwelcome in the music industry, closed the Fillmore East and West, claiming a need to "find [himself]". The movie "Fillmore" and the album "" document the closing of the Fillmore West. Graham later returned to promoting. He began organizing concerts at smaller venues, like the Berkeley Community Theatre on the campus of Berkeley High School. He then reopened the Winterland Arena (San Francisco), along with the Fillmore West, and promoted shows at the Cow Palace Arena in Daly City and other venues.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: In 1973 he did the staging for Jimmy Koplic and Shelly Finkle's promotion of the largest outdoor concert at Watkins Glen, New York with The Band, Grateful Dead, and The Allman Brothers Band. Over 600,000 paying ticket-holders were in attendance. He continued promoting stadium-sized concerts at Kezar Stadium in San Francisco with Led Zeppelin in 1973 and 1977 and started a series of outdoor stadium concerts at the Oakland Coliseum each billed as "Day on the Green" in 1973 until 1992. These concerts featured billings such as the Grateful Dead and The Who on October 9, 1976, and the Grateful Dead and Bob Dylan in 1987.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: His first large-scale outdoor benefit concert, at Kezar Stadium, on Sunday, March 23, 1975, "SF SNACK", was organized to replace funds for after-school programs canceled by the San Francisco Unified School District, with performances by Bob Dylan, Neil Young, members of The Band and Grateful Dead, Jefferson Starship, Mimi Fariña, Joan Baez, Santana, Tower of Power, Jerry Garcia & Friends, The Doobie Brothers, Eddie Palmieri & His Orchestra, The Miracles, Graham Central Station, and appearing : Marlon Brando, Francis Ford Coppola, Frankie Albert, John Brodie, Rosie Casals, Werner Erhard, Cedric Hardman, Willie Mays, Jesse Owens, Gene Washington, Cecil Williams


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham as "Bill Graham Presents" booked the 1982 US Festival, funded by Steve Wozniak as "Unuson". In the mid-1980s, in conjunction with the city of Mountain View, California, and Apple Inc. cofounder Steve Wozniak, he masterminded the creation of the Shoreline Amphitheatre, which became the premier venue for outdoor concerts in Silicon Valley, complementing his booking of the East Bay Concord Pavilion. Throughout his career, Graham promoted benefit concerts. He went on to set the standard for well-produced large-scale rock concerts, such as the U.S. portion of Live Aid at JFK Stadium, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on July 13, 1985, as well as the 1986 A Conspiracy of Hope and 1988 Human Rights Now! tours for Amnesty International.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham purchased comedy club The Punch Line and The Old Waldorf on Battery Street in San Francisco from local promoter Jeffrey Pollack, with whom he remained close friends for the rest of his life, then Wolfgang's on Columbus Ave in San Francisco.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: After the smaller operations failed, the remaining one, Ticketmaster (formerly BASS), raised prices to unprecedented levels. Its only opposition came from a few bands, notably Pearl Jam, which protested that the company's high ticketing fees were unfair to music fans. Such practices were targeted by the California Senate in S.B. 815.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Bill Graham had five sisters, Rita Rose; Evelyn (or "Echa") Udray; Sonja (or "Sonia") Szobel; Ester Chichinsky; and Tanya (or "Tolla") Grajonca, however his youngest sister Tolla died of pneumonia while fleeing the Holocaust. Rita and Ester moved to the United States and were close to Graham in his later life. Evelyn and Sonja escaped the Holocaust, first to Shanghai, and later, after the war, to Europe. Graham's nephew and Sonia Szobel's son is musician Hermann Szobel.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham married Bonnie MacLean on June 11, 1967 and they had one child, David (born 1968); after many years of not living together the couple divorced in 1975. With Marcia Sult Godinez, Graham had another son; Alex Graham-Sult and a stepson, Thomas Sult.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: For many years Graham lived in Mill Valley, California, on a 11-acre estate with a ranch-style house he named "Masada". The house was replaced in the early 2000s, and later occupied by WeWork CEO, Adam Neumann.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham's status as a Holocaust survivor came into play in 1985, during the presidency of Ronald Reagan. When Graham learned that Reagan intended to lay a wreath at Bitburg's World War II cemetery where SS soldiers were also buried, he took out a full page ad in the San Francisco Chronicle newspaper in protest. During the same month that Reagan visited the cemetery, Graham's San Francisco office was firebombed by Neo-Nazis. Graham was in France at the time, meeting with Bob Geldof to organize the first Live Aid concert. When he was informed of the fire via telephone, he responded by asking immediately, "Was anybody hurt?" It was only after he was told that everyone was OK that he asked, "Is anything left?" Graham eventually led an effort to build a large menorah which is lit during every Hanukkah in downtown San Francisco.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham had long dreamed of being a character actor. He appeared in "Apocalypse Now" in a small role as a promoter. In 1990, he was cast as Charles "Lucky" Luciano in the film "Bugsy". During one scene, he is shown in a Latin dance number, a style of dancing Graham had embraced as a teenager in New York. He also appears as a promoter in the 1991 Oliver Stone film "The Doors", which he also co-produced. He had a small part in "Gardens of Stone" as Don Brubaker, a hippie anti-war protester.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Graham was killed in a helicopter crash west of Vallejo, California, on October 25, 1991, while returning home from a Huey Lewis and the News concert at the Concord Pavilion. Graham had attended the event to discuss promoting a benefit concert for the victims of the 1991 Oakland hills firestorm. Once he had obtained a commitment from Huey Lewis to perform, he returned to his helicopter. Flying in severe weather, with rain and gusty winds, the aircraft flew off course and too low over the tidal marshland north of San Pablo Bay. The Bell Jet Ranger flew directly into a 223-foot (68-meter) high-voltage tower near where Highway 37, which runs between Vallejo, California, and Marin County, California, crosses Sonoma Creek. The helicopter burst into flames on impact, killing Graham, pilot and advance man Steve "Killer" Kahn, and Graham's girlfriend, Melissa Gold (née Dilworth), ex-wife of author Herbert Gold. The charred remains of the helicopter hung in the tower for more than a day.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Following his death, his company, Bill Graham Presents (BGP), was taken over by a group of employees. Graham's sons remained a core part of the new management team. The new owners sold the company to SFX Promotions, which in turn sold the company to Clear Channel Entertainment. The BGP staff did not embrace the Clear Channel name, and several members of the Graham staff eventually left the company. Former BGP President/CEO Gregg Perloff and former Senior Vice President Sherry Wasserman left and started their own company, Another Planet Entertainment. Eventually Clear Channel separated itself from concert promotion and formed Live Nation, which is managed by many former Clear Channel executives.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Live Nation is now the world's largest concert production/promotion company and is no longer legally affiliated with Clear Channel or the names Winterland or Winterland Productions.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: In tribute, the San Francisco Civic Auditorium was renamed the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium. On November 3, 1991, a free concert called "Laughter, Love and Music" was held at Golden Gate Park to honor Graham, Gold and Kahn. An estimated 300,000 people attended to view many of the entertainment acts Graham had supported including Santana, the Grateful Dead, John Fogerty, Robin Williams, Journey (reunited), and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young (reunited). The video for "I'll Get By" from Eddie Money's album "Right Here" was dedicated to Graham. Graham's images and poster artwork still adorn the office walls at Live Nation's new San Francisco office. With the band Hardline, Neal Schon of Journey composed a piece entitled "31–91" in 1992 in Graham's honor.


title: Bill Graham (promoter)

text: Bill Graham was inducted into the "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame" in 1992 in the "Non-Performer" category. Graham was inducted into the Rock Radio Hall of Fame in the "Without Whom" category in 2014.


title: Monument

text: A monument is a type of structure that was explicitly created to commemorate a person or event, or which has become relevant to a social group as a part of their remembrance of historic times or cultural heritage, due to its artistic, historical, political, technical or architectural importance. Some of the first monuments were dolmens or menhirs, megalithic constructions built for religious or funerary purposes. Examples of monuments include statues, (war) memorials, historical buildings, archaeological sites, and cultural assets. If there is a public interest in its preservation, a monument can for example be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Monument

text: It is believed that the origin of the word "monument" comes from the Greek "mnemosynon" and the Latin "moneo", "monere", which means 'to remind', 'to advise' or 'to warn', however, it is also believed that the word monument originates from an Albanian word 'mani men' which in Albanian language means 'remember', suggesting a monument allows us to see the past thus helping us visualize what is to come in the future. In English the word "monumental" is often used in reference to something of extraordinary size and power, as in monumental sculpture, but also to mean simply anything made to commemorate the dead, as a funerary monument or other example of funerary art.


title: Monument

text: Monuments have been created for thousands of years, and they are often the most durable and famous symbols of ancient civilizations. Prehistoric tumuli, dolmens, and similar structures have been created in a large number of prehistoric cultures across the world, and the many forms of monumental tombs of the more wealthy and powerful members of a society are often the source of much of our information and art from those cultures. As societies became organized on a larger scale, so monuments so large as to be difficult to destroy like the Egyptian Pyramids, the Greek Parthenon, the Great Wall of China, Indian Taj Mahal or the Moai of Easter Island have become symbols of their civilizations. In more recent times, monumental structures such as the Statue of Liberty and Eiffel Tower have become iconic emblems of modern nation-states. The term "monumentality" relates to the symbolic status and physical presence of a monument. In this context, German art historian Helmut Scharf states that “A monument exists in the form of an object and also as symbol thereof. As a language symbol, a monument usually refers to something concrete, in some rare cases it is also used metaphorically ... A monument can be a language symbol for a unity of several monuments ... or only for a single one, but in a broader sense it can also be used in nearly all knowable planes of being. ... What is considered a monument always depends on the importance it attributes to the prevailing or traditional consciousness of a specific historical and social situation.”


title: Monument

text: Basically, the definition framework of the term monument depends on the current historical frame conditions. Aspects of the Culture of Remembrance and cultural memory are also linked to it, as well as questions about the concepts of public sphere and durability (of the one memorized) and the form and content of the monument (work-like monument). From an art historical point of view, the dichotomy of content and form opens up the problem of the “linguistic ability” of the monument. It becomes clear that language is an eminent part of a monument and it is often represented in “non-objective” or “architectural monuments”, at least with a plaque. In this connection, the debate touches on the social mechanisms that combine with Remembrance. These are acceptance of the monument as an object, the conveyed contents and the impact of these contents.


title: Monument

text: Monuments are frequently used to improve the appearance of a city or location. Planned cities such as Washington, D.C., New Delhi and Brasília are often built around monuments. For example, the Washington Monument's location was conceived by L'Enfant to help organize public space in the city, before it was designed or constructed. Older cities have monuments placed at locations that are already important or are sometimes redesigned to focus on one. As Shelley suggested in his famous poem "Ozymandias" (""Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!""), the purpose of monuments is very often to impress or awe.


title: Monument

text: Structures created for other purposes that have been made notable by their age, size or historic significance may also be regarded as monuments. This can happen because of great age and size, as in the case of the Great Wall of China, or because an event of great importance occurred there such as the village of Oradour-sur-Glane in France. Many countries use 'ancient monument' or similar terms for the official designation of protected structures or archeological sites which may originally have been ordinary domestic houses or other buildings.


title: Monument

text: Monuments are also often designed to convey historical or political information, and they can thus develop an active socio-political potency. They can be used to reinforce the primacy of contemporary political power, such as the column of Trajan or the numerous statues of Lenin in the Soviet Union. They can be used to educate the populace about important events or figures from the past, such as in the renaming of the old General Post Office Building in New York City to the James A. Farley Building, after James Farley, former Postmaster General of the United States. To fulfill its informative and educative functions a monument needs to be open to the public, which means that its spatial dimension, as well as its content can be experienced by the public, and be sustainable. The former may be achieved either by situating the monument in public space or by a public discussion about the monument and its meaning, the latter by the materiality of the monument or if its content immediately becomes part of the collective or cultural memory.


title: Monument

text: The social meanings of monuments are rarely fixed and certain and are frequently 'contested' by different social groups. As an example: whilst the former East German socialist state may have seen the Berlin Wall as a means of 'protection' from the ideological impurity of the west, dissidents and others would often argue that it was symbolic of the inherent repression and paranoia of that state. This contention of meaning is a central theme of modern 'post processual' archaeological discourse.


title: Monument

text: While many ancient monuments still exist today, there are notable incidents of monuments being intentionally or accidentally destroyed and many monuments are likely to have disappeared through the passage of time and natural forces such as erosion. In 772 during the Saxon Wars, Charlemagne intentionally destroyed an Irminsul monument in order to desecrate the pagan religion. In 1687 the Parthenon in Athens was partially destroyed and looted by a Venetian soldier who shot a reserve of gunpowder stored there. A recent archeological dig in central France uncovered the remains of a Megalithic monument that had been previously destroyed "Like some monuments, including Belz in Morbihan, the menhirs of Veyre-Monton were knocked down in order to make them disappear from the landscape. Pushed into large pits, sometimes mutilated or covered with earth, these monoliths have been destroyed. 'object of iconoclastic gestures, a sort of condemnation perhaps linked to some change of community or beliefs "


title: Monument

text: The term is often used to describe any structure that is a significant and legally protected historic work, and many countries have equivalents of what is called in United Kingdom legislation a Scheduled Monument, which often include relatively recent buildings constructed for residential or industrial purposes, with no thought at the time that they would come to be regarded as "monuments".


title: Monument

text: Until recently, it was customary for archaeologists to study large monuments and pay less attention to the everyday lives of the societies that created them. New ideas about what constitutes the archaeological record have revealed that certain legislative and theoretical approaches to the subject are too focused on earlier definitions of monuments. An example has been the United Kingdom's Scheduled Ancient Monument laws.


title: Monument

text: Other than municipal or national government that protecting the monuments in their jurisdiction, there are institutions dedicated on the efforts to protect and preserve monuments that considered to possess special natural or cultural significance for the world, such as UNESCO's World Heritage Site programme and World Monuments Fund.


title: Monument

text: Cultural monuments are also considered to be the memory of a community and are therefore particularly at risk in the context of modern asymmetrical warfare. The enemy's cultural heritage is to be sustainably damaged or even destroyed. In addition to the national protection of cultural monuments, international organizations (cf. UNESCO World Heritage, Blue Shield International) therefore try to protect cultural monuments.


title: Monument

text: Recently, more and more monuments are being preserved digitally (in 3D models) through organisations as CyArk.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: 2 Unlimited are a Belgian/Dutch dance music act, founded by Belgian producers/songwriters Jean-Paul De Coster and Phil Wilde in 1991 in Antwerp, Belgium. From 1991 to 1996, Dutch rapper Ray Slijngaard and Dutch vocalist Anita Doth fronted the act. During these five years, 2 Unlimited enjoyed worldwide mainstream success. They scored a total of sixteen international chart hits, including "Get Ready for This", "Twilight Zone", "No Limit", and "Tribal Dance". The act has sold eighteen million records worldwide. Although they enjoyed less mainstream recognition in the United States, several of their tracks became popular themes in American sporting series, mainly in the NBA and NHL.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: Jean-Paul De Coster and Phil Wilde met in their hometown of Antwerp, Belgium, and created 2 Unlimited in their studio, initially without any performers or vocalists. Their first collaboration under the name of Bizz Nizz resulted in a single called "Don't Miss The Party Line" which entered the top 10 in the UK. The two then decided to continue to work together.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: De Coster and Wilde had initially created an instrumental track called "Get Ready for This" in May 1991, but they wanted to try out some rap vocals on it. De Coster recalls:


title: 2 Unlimited

text: They were so pleased with the result that they agreed to work with them as a duo, and so 2 Unlimited was born.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: 2 Unlimited were signed to Byte Records (Belgium) and licensed to many other record labels worldwide, including PWL Continental in the UK, ZYX in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, Scorpio in France, etc. Their first single, "Get Ready for This", was well received in their home markets, peaking at No. 8 in Belgium, and No. 10 in the Netherlands. It became a No. 2 hit record in both Australia and the UK. The single worked its way up to No. 38 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, three years after its original release.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: A follow-up single, "Twilight Zone", followed in January 1992, topping the charts in the Netherlands and performing well in many other markets, reaching No. 2 in the UK. In the United States, it only reached #49 on the Hot 100 but got to No. 5 on the Hot Dance Club Play chart). To capitalize on this success, the album "Get Ready!" was released on 24 February 1992, featuring the first two singles and seven more new tracks, including two ballads. Two further singles were released from the album: "Workaholic" and "The Magic Friend". In the US, the album received a Gold certification for sales of 500,000 units in 1995.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: 2 Unlimited's lead single from their second album, the similarly-titled "No Limit", was released in January 1993. The repetitive nature of the song helped it become their most successful single to date and by far the best remembered by the general public. It topped the charts in Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK. In Germany, it was certified Platinum for sales of 500,000 units. The track received modest airplay on North American radio stations, reaching the top 25 in the US dance charts. By 1996, worldwide sales had reached 2.3 million units.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: "Tribal Dance" was released as a single shortly before the album "No Limits!" hit stores in May 1993. It became a top 5 hit in Austria, Australia, Belgium, France, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK. In Germany, "Tribal Dance" was certified Gold for sales of over 250,000 units. Three further singles were issued from the second album: "Faces", which was considerably different in pace to previous releases; "Maximum Overdrive"; and a re-recorded version of "Let the Beat Control Your Body". In France, this title was changed to "Let the Bass Control Your Body" to avoid any confusion with the slang word "" (meaning "penis").


title: 2 Unlimited

text: 2 Unlimited's second album proved more successful than their first, entering the top five of album charts in Austria, Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. In the UK, the album reached the top of the album chart. By 1996, its total sales had reached three million units, including 592,000 units in the GSA region (Germany, Switzerland, Austria).


title: 2 Unlimited

text: Despite the phenomenal success the duo were enjoying in the UK, they were criticised heavily by the music industry, and the British press dubbed them "2 Untalented".


title: 2 Unlimited

text: In May 1994, the duo's tenth single, "The Real Thing", was released, and it proved that their fans were still interested, as they sent the single to No. 1 in the Netherlands, as well as the top 5 in Belgium, Germany, and Norway.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: While the duo's third album, "Real Things", shot to No. 1 in the Netherlands and the UK, it also managed to land in the top 5 in Austria, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. The record was certified Gold in the UK for sales of over 100,000 units.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: The second single from "Real Things", "No One", despite being a straightforward pop song, didn't prevent it from reaching No. 2 in the Netherlands' sales chart.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: In March 1995, while the follow-up single, "Here I Go", was another top 5 hit in the Netherlands, the band's commercial success seemed to be declining elsewhere—the song only made it to the top 20 in Austria, Belgium, and Sweden. The fourth and final single, the ballad "Nothing Like the Rain", was not as successful and was not released in many territories, including the UK.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: In October 1995, 2 Unlimited released their first compilation album, "Hits Unlimited", prompting rumours that they were about to split up. The first single, "Do What's Good for Me", entered the top 5 in Finland, and the top 20 in the Netherlands and the UK. Despite their insistence that they were planning a world tour, in April 1996, shortly after the release of the single "Jump for Joy", both Slijngaard and Doth decided not to extend their five-year contract and left 2 Unlimited.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: It later emerged that after having spent so much time together, they were no longer getting on as well as they once had, and there was disagreement about the future sound of band. They had asked for more creative input and they also felt that they were not getting a fair share of the huge amount of money being earned by the project. As no agreement was reached, they each went their separate ways before a final single, "Spread Your Love", was released in June 1996.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: As they still owned the rights to the name 2 Unlimited, De Coster and Wilde recruited two new (again Dutch) singers, Romy van Ooijen (b. 18 November 1971) and Marjon van Iwaarden (b. 18 June 1974), in order to capitalise on previous success. The first single released under the new lineup, "Wanna Get Up", did well in the Netherlands, reaching No. 10. A remix by Sash!, for UK release, reached No. 38.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: The album "II" was released in April 1998. It was not as successful as previous studio albums, nor were the subsequent singles, "Edge of Heaven" and "Never Surrender". In 1999, both van Ooijen and van Iwaarden left 2 Unlimited.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: In 2000, Byte Records released the remix singles "No Limit" and "Twilight Zone". A remix album was to be released that year, but some master tapes were stolen from Byte and taken to Russia, where they were released as a bootleg compilation. Also that year, 2 Unlimited made their first appearance on the Eurodance compilation "Dancemania" series, specifically its "Speed" sub-series, with their song "Twilight Zone", 'B4 Za Beat Mix'.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: In 2001, Byte finally released "Greatest Hits Remixes", featuring many new remixes. Some of the tracks from the stolen master tapes released in Russia were not included. The album was released solely in Japan. In 2002, "Trance Remixes: Special Edition" was released in Japan, featuring many more new remixes not included in the previous compilation.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: In the following years, many "best of" compilations have been released in various territories, often with new remixes. Most notably, ZYX Records released "No Limit 2.3" in 2003 and it was a moderate hit, reaching no. 41 in the German singles chart. It was promoted by a new duo, Débora Remagen and James Giscombe. They were being lined up as a 2 Unlimited "version 3". They still perform, mainly in Eastern Europe, but are not allowed to use their own voices. This is due to copyright issues.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: A new CD and DVD set containing all 2 Unlimited music videos, called "The Complete History", was released in 2004, along with a single, "Tribal Dance 2.4" (originally released on 12" vinyl in November 2003 as "Tribal Dance 2.3"). 2005 saw the release of "The Refreshed Album" in Mexico, featuring stunning artwork, but the same remixes found on previous remix albums. In 2006, the DVD was re-packaged with a different CD, "Greatest Remix Hits", and released in Australia. The following years saw this package re-released in Argentina, Denmark, Sweden, Asia, and South Africa.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: Having both continued to perform their old hits separately in nightclubs and university student unions around the world, the original performers Slijngaard and Doth reunited on 11 April 2009, to perform together for the first time in 13 years at the "I Love the 90s" concert in Hasselt, Belgium. According to a radio interview with Slijngaard, Jean-Paul De Coster did not give permission for the duo to perform under the name 2 Unlimited; however, Phil Wilde attended the gig and provided help with preparing backing tracks.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: On 30 April 2009, Slijngaard and Doth performed five songs at the Radio 538 Queen's Day concert at Museumplein in Amsterdam. On 8 June, they were awarded "Most Popular Act of the 1990s", based on the number of weeks in the Dutch Top 40; on 25 September, they performed as a support act for Milk Inc. at the Sportpaleis in Antwerp.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: On 29 December 2009, it was announced that the duo would release a new single in 2010, called "In Da Name of Love", as Ray & Anita. It was released as a CD single in the Netherlands through Spinnin' Records on 22 January 2010. It reached No. 6 on the Dutch Top 40 sales chart. On 30 April 2010, a new single was presented during the Dutch Queen's Day, called "Still Unlimited".


title: 2 Unlimited

text: In July 2011, Ray & Anita invited fans to be part of the video for "Nothing 2 Lose" in Amsterdam. Fans applied via email and were selected randomly. The video with the fans was shot on 28 July. The single was released at the end of August 2011. The single is also the lead track for the soundtrack of the film "Amsterdam Heavy". In the same month, Ray & Anita headlined the "I Love the 90's" stage at Tomorrowland in Belgium.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: On 11 July 2012, it was announced that Ray & Anita would be working again with Belgian producer De Coster under the name 2 Unlimited.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: On 30 March 2013, Slijngaard and Doth performed their first full concert as 2 Unlimited with their band in Belgium at Antwerps Sportpaleis.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: The duo released a remixed version of their very first single, "Get Ready for This", on 28 October 2013. The song was remixed by DJ Steve Aoki and was included on their "Greatest Hits" album.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: In 2014, 2 Unlimited gave concerts at ten festivals that together made up Acceleration 2014, which combined top class car and bike racing with music and entertainment.


title: 2 Unlimited

text: On 20 April 2016, 2 Unlimited announced that Doth was leaving the band at the end of 2016 to embark on a solo career. Doth was to be replaced by another singer, whose identity was not revealed right away.


title: Peter Friedman

text: Born in New York City, Friedman graduated from Hofstra University before making his Broadway debut in "The Great God Brown" in 1972. Friedman is Jewish.


title: Peter Friedman

text: Friedman has appeared in thirteen Broadway productions, starting in 1972 with a revival of "The Great God Brown". He appeared in a Broadway revival of "The Visit" in 1973, as the Carpenter. He appeared in "Piaf" in 1981 on Broadway, and "A Soldier's Play" Off-Broadway, also in 1981.


title: Peter Friedman

text: He played the role of Humphrey Taylor in the Off-Broadway production of "The Common Pursuit", from October 1986 to August 1987, receiving a nomination for the Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play. In his review for "The New York Times", Frank Rich commented "The always impressive Mr. Friedman, as the embittered Wagnerian...allow us to empathize with characters who might otherwise be merely obnoxious or colorless."


title: Peter Friedman

text: He appeared in both the Off-Broadway and Broadway productions of "The Heidi Chronicles" in 1988 and 1989 in the role of Scoop Rosenbaum. He received a nomination for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play for "The Heidi Chronicles".


title: Peter Friedman

text: He appeared Off-Broadway in the Manhattan Theatre Club production of the Donald Margulies play "The Loman Family Picnic", from October 1993 to January 1994. The "Best Plays of 1993-1994" commented "...Friedman inverting his usual dynamism to play the beleaguered father..."


title: Peter Friedman

text: He played the role of Jewish immigrant "Tateh" in the musical "Ragtime" in the pre-Broadway tryout (1996) and on Broadway (1998). He was nominated for the 1998 Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Musical for his role in "Ragtime".


title: Peter Friedman

text: He appeared on Broadway in the Roundabout Theatre Company production of "Twelve Angry Men" from October 2004 to March 2005. For his role as "Frank" in "Body Awareness", which ran Off-Broadway in 2008, Friedman received a nomination for the Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play. The "talkinbroadway.com" reviewer noted that "...Friedman milks Frank’s own self-imposed, question-mark callousness for all it’s worth." He appeared in the Williamstown Theatre Festival production of Amy Herzog's "After the Revolution" in July and August 2010 as "Ben", and reprised his role in the Off-Broadway production at Playwrights Horizons from October to November 2010. "The New York Times" reviewer wrote: "Mr. Friedman burrows deeply into Ben’s anguish at being cut off by the daughter he raised to carry on the family tradition, the wound smarting all the more because he knows his own mistakes have caused the fissure."


title: Peter Friedman

text: He played the role of "Doug" in the Off-Broadway play "The Great God Pan" from December 2012 to January 2013, and received a nomination for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play. The "New York Times" reviewer commented: "The recollections of his parents, small roles incisively portrayed by the reliable Becky Ann Baker and Peter Friedman..." From August 2013 to September 2013 he played the role of "Meckel" in the Off-Broadway production (and New York premiere) of Lauren Yee's "The Hatmaker's Wife". Ben Brantley, in his review for "The New York Times" wrote: "Mr. Friedman brings unblushing good will and vivacity to assignments that include walking around with a clothespin on his nose..."


title: Peter Friedman

text: He appeared Off-Broadway in the world premiere of "The Treasurer" at Playwrights Horizons as The Son, for which he was nominated for a 2018 Lucille Lortel Award for Best Actor.


title: Peter Friedman

text: On television, Friedman starred as George Silver in "Brooklyn Bridge" (1991–1993) and has made numerous guest appearances in such series as "Miami Vice", "NYPD Blue", "Without a Trace", "Ghost Whisperer", "The Affair" and "Damages", and the miniseries "Perfect Murder, Perfect Town: JonBenét and the City of Boulder". He appeared in a "Law & Order" episode titled "Attorney Client" as defense lawyer Harold Jensen, broadcast on May 8, 2002.


title: Peter Friedman

text: Early in his career he performed in several episodes of "The Muppet Show" in its first and third seasons, and spent a brief time on "Sesame Street". He has appeared in several HBO series such as "High" "Maintenance" and "Succession", being a series regular in the latter.


title: Peter Friedman

text: Friedman's many feature film credits include "Prince of the City" (1981), "Daniel" (1983), "The Seventh Sign" (1988), "Single White Female" (1992), "Blink" (1994), "I'm Not Rappaport" (1996), "I Shot Andy Warhol" (1996),"Paycheck" (2003), "Freedomland" (2006), "The Savages" (2007), "I'm Not There" (2007), and "Breaking Upwards" (2009). Of his role in "Safe", the "All Movie Guide" reviewer wrote: Avid filmgoers and adherents to the indie film movement that swept through America in the early to mid-'90s will invariably remember Peter Friedman as the sneaky, underhanded, New Age-espousing "self-help guru" who supposedly attempts to offer ailing Julianne Moore a hand up -- but only succeeds in draining her wallet -- in Todd Haynes' harrowing drama "Safe" (1995). In truth, that role represented just one of many memorable cinematic contributions for the prolific, highly versatile character actor, whose resumé reads like a best-of list of both independent film and Hollywood product.


title: Peter Friedman

text: In 1990, Friedman married Joan Allen. Though they divorced in 2002, they chose to live close to one another in order to share time with their daughter, Sadie (born February 1994).


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia is a census-designated place in Howard County, Maryland. It is one of the principal communities of the Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area. It is a planned community consisting of 10 self-contained villages.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia began with the idea that a city could enhance its residents' quality of life. Creator and developer James W. Rouse saw the new community in terms of human values, rather than merely economics and engineering. Opened in 1967, Columbia was intended to not only eliminate the inconveniences of then-current subdivision design, but also eliminate racial, religious and class segregation.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia proper consists only of that territory governed by the Columbia Association, but larger areas are included under its name by the U.S. Postal Service and the Census Bureau. These include several other communities which predate Columbia, including Simpsonville, Atholton, and in the case of the census, part of Clarksville. The census-designated place had a population of 104,681 at the 2020 United States Census. It is the second most populous community in Maryland after Baltimore.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia was founded by James W. Rouse (1914-1996), a native of Easton, Maryland. In 1935, Rouse obtained a job in Baltimore with the Federal Housing Administration, a New Deal agency whose purpose was to promote home ownership and home construction. This position exposed Rouse to all phases of the housing industry. Later in the 1930s he co-founded a Baltimore mortgage banking business, the Moss-Rouse Company. In the 1950s his company, by then known as James W. Rouse and Company, branched out into developing shopping centers and malls. In 1957, Rouse formed Community Research and Development, Inc. (CRD) for the purpose of building, owning and operating shopping centers throughout the country. Community Research and Development, Inc., which was managed by James W. Rouse and Company, became a publicly traded company in 1961. In 1966, Community Research and Development, Inc. changed its name to The Rouse Company, after it had acquired James W. Rouse and Company in exchange for company stock.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: By the early 1950s Rouse was also active in organizations whose goals were to combat blight and promote urban renewal. Along the way, he came to recognize the importance of comprehensive planning and action to address housing issues. A talented public speaker, Rouse's speeches on housing matters attracted media attention. By the mid-1950s he was espousing his belief that in order to be successful, cities had to be places where people succeeded. In a 1959 speech he declared that the purpose of cities is for people, and that the objective of city planning should be to make a city into neighborhoods where men, women, and their families can live and work, and, most importantly, grow in character, personality, religious fulfillment, brotherhood, and the capacity for joyous living.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: In the early 1960s, Rouse decided to develop a new model city. Rouse's ideas about what a new model city should be like were informed by a number of factors, including his personal Christian faith as well as the goal for his company to earn a profit, influences that he did not consider to be incompatible with one another. After exploring possible new city locations near Atlanta, Georgia, and Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina, Rouse focused his attention between Baltimore and Washington, D.C., in Howard County, Maryland.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: In April 1962, Mel Berman, a longtime Howard County resident who was also a member of the CRD's Board of Directors, saw a sign on Cedar Lane in Howard County advertising for sale. Berman reported the option to the CRD and a decision was made to purchase the land. This was the first of 165 land purchases made by Rouse over the next year-and-a-half. In order to keep land costs low, Jack Jones, an attorney from Rouse's firm of Piper Marbury, set up a grid system to secretly buy land through dummy corporations like the "Alaska Iron Mines Company". Some of these straw purchasers included Columbia Industrial Development Corporation, 95-32 Corporation, 95-216 Corporation, Premble, Inc., Columbia Mall, Inc., Oakland Ridge Industrial Development Corporation, and Columbia Development Corporation. Robert Moxley's firm Security Realty Company (now Security Development Group Inc), negotiated many of the land deals for Jones, becoming his best client. CRD accumulated , 10 percent of Howard County, from 140 separate owners. Rouse was turned down in financing from David Rockefeller, who had recently cancelled a planned Rouse "Village" concept called Pocantico Hills. The $19,122,622 acquisition was then funded by Rouse's former employer Connecticut General Life Insurance in October 1962 at an average price of $1,500 per acre ($0.37/m). The town center land of Oakland Manor was purchased from Isadore Guldesky who was turned down from building high-rises on the site by Rob Moxley's brother, County Commissioner and land developer Norman E. Moxley. Sensing that he had a key property, he requested $5 million for his , signing an agreement by hand on a land plat. The competition between Rouse and Guldesky carried over to the competing Tysons Corner Center and Tysons Galleria projects, with each hiring their competitor's employees.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: By late 1962, citizens had elected an all-Republican three-member council. J. Hubert Black, Charles E. Miller, and David W. Force who campaigned on a low-density growth ballot, but later approved the Columbia project. The Howard County Planning Commission Chairman Wilmer Sanner declared, "if this adds to the orderly development of the county, that's what we are looking for." That July, Sanner sold the majority of his Simpsonville farm to Howard Research prior to the public announcement. In October 1963, the acquisition was revealed to the residents of Howard County, putting to rest rumors about the mysterious purchases. These had included theories that the site was to become a medical research laboratory or a giant compost heap. Despite the moniker of being a "planned city", the planning for the city occupied Rouse officials for most of 1964 after the announcement while marketing director Scott Ditch was brought from Baltimore's Cross Keys development to promote the project to community groups.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: In December 1964 the zoning was rejected by planning director Tom Harris Jr. for handing nearly all planning control to the developer. A media push was instituted to approve the zoning by Dorris Thompson of "The Howard County Times", Seymour Barondes of the Howard County Civic Association, and Anita Iribe of the League of Women Voters. In June 1965 zoning was approved for the project, and Howard Research and Development entered into a $37.5 million construction deed backed by the property. Development was temporarily stalled in October 1965 when James and Anna Hepding of Simpsonville sued the planning board, stating New Town zoning was a form of spot zoning benefiting a sole property owner. The case was dropped when developer Homer Gudelsky purchased the estate. Ten years later, former Councilman Charles E. Miller stated that if he could do it over again, he wouldn't have voted to approve Columbia. He felt exploited and felt the subsidized housing would become a problem for the rest of the county. Miller had been defeated in the November 1974 Howard County Council elections, in part as a result of the changed political landscape that Columbia's development brought. In early 1976, a "Columbia Flier" editorial charged that Miller was a fear-mongering reactionary who had a personal vendetta against Columbia, Rouse and Columbia residents.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: At the unveiling on June 21, 1967, James Rouse described Columbia as a planned new city which would avoid the leap-frog and spot-zoning development threatening the county. The new city would be complete with jobs, schools, shopping, and medical services, and a range of housing choices. Property taxes from commercial development would cover the additional services with which housing would burden the county. The urban planning process for Columbia included not only planners, but also a convened panel of nationally recognized experts in the social sciences, known as the Work Group. The fourteen member group of men and one woman, Antonia Handler Chayes, met for two days, twice a month, for half a year starting in 1963. The Work Group suggested innovations for planners in education, recreation, religion, and health care, as well as ways of improving social interactions. Columbia's open classrooms, interfaith centers, and the then-novel idea of a health maintenance organization (HMO) with a group practice of medical doctors (the Columbia Medical Plan) sprung from these meetings. The community's physical plan, with neighborhood and village centers, was also decided. Columbia's "New Town District" zoning ordinance gave developers great flexibility about what to put where, without requiring county approval for each specific project.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: In 1968, vice-presidential candidate Spiro Agnew referenced Columbia to reporters, saying, "Government should act as a catalyst to encourage the local governments to encourage industry and business to move next to a planned community," and "I want to lessen the density in the ghettos, and concurrently rebuild the ghetto areas." In 1969, County Executive Omar J. Jones felt that the increase in tax base was lagging behind the need for infrastructure as the operating budget doubled to $15 million in three years. Crime rates shot up around the county by 30-50% a year, with hot spots around the development. By 1970, the project required additional financing to continue, borrowing $30 million from Connecticut General, Manufacturers Hanover Trust, and Morgan Guaranty. In 1972, amendments to New Town zoning proposing to place a maximum height for buildings and maintain the original density limit of 2.2 units per acre were opposed by Rouse allies including the Columbia Association, the Ellicott City Businessman's Association and the Columbia Democratic Club. By 1974, the amount owed reached $100,000 million, prompting partner Connecticut General to consider bankruptcy. An effort to create a special taxing district in 1978 and an effort to incorporate with a mayor in 1979 failed. In 1985 Cigna (Connecticut General) divested itself of the project for $120 million. By 1990 Howard Research and Development owed $125,162,689. In 2004 the project was sold to General Growth Properties, which went bankrupt in 2008. General Growth Properties submitted a plan for increasing density throughout Columbia in 2004 which was unanimously voted down. Ownership of the project fell to the previous Rouse subsidiary the Howard Hughes Corporation. Howard Hughes submitted a new plan to increase density in 2010 under the Ulman administration that passed unanimously.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia has never incorporated; some governance, however, is provided by the non-profit Columbia Association, which manages common areas and functions as a homeowner association with regard to private property. The first boards were filled entirely with Rouse Company appointees. The first manager of the Columbia Association was John Estabrook Slayton (d. 1967). For Slayton's contributions to the early planning of Columbia, the community center in the Wilde Lake village, Slayton House, was named for him. Wilde Lake was the first village area to be developed in Columbia; accordingly, the town's first high school was Wilde Lake High School, which opened in 1971 as a "model school for the nation". Constructed in the open classroom style, it was razed in 1994 but reconstructed on the same site in 1996.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: To achieve the goals set forth by the Work Group, Columbia's Master Plan called for a series of ten self-contained villages, around which day-to-day life would revolve. The centerpiece of Columbia would be The Mall in Columbia and man-made Lake Kittamaqundi.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: The village concept aimed to provide Columbia a small-town feel (like Easton, Maryland, where James Rouse grew up). Each village comprises several neighborhoods. The village center may contain middle and high schools. All villages have a shopping center, recreational facilities, a community center, a system of bike/walking paths, and homes. Four of the villages have interfaith centers, common worship facilities which are owned and jointly operated by a variety of religious congregations working together.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Most of Columbia's neighborhoods contain single-family homes, townhomes, condominiums and apartments, though some are more exclusive than others. The original plan, following the neighborhood concept of Clarence Perry, would have had all the children of a neighborhood attend the same school, melding neighborhoods into a community and ensuring that all of Columbia's children get the same high-quality education. Rouse marketed the city as being "color blind" as a proponent of Senator Clark's fair housing legislation. If a neighborhood was filled with too many purchasers of a single race, houses would be blocked until the desired ratio was met.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia takes its street names from famous works of art and literature: for example, the neighborhood of Hobbit's Glen takes its street names from the work of J. R. R. Tolkien; Running Brook, from the poetry of Robert Frost; and Clemens Crossing, from the work of Mark Twain. The book "Oh, You Must Live in Columbia!" chronicles the artistic, poetic, and historical origins of the street and place names in Columbia.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: "The Downtown Columbia Plan" is a 2010 amendment to the county's General Plan of expansion. It is a framework for the revitalization of Downtown Columbia over the next thirty years. Development plans for downtown projects in the years ahead will include details for that project such as neighborhood design guidelines, environmental restoration, public amenities and infrastructure. These development plans must adhere to the framework of the Downtown Columbia Plan as required by the zoning legislation. Over the life of the Downtown Columbia development project, as much as 13 million square feet of retail, commercial, residential, hotel and cultural development is planned.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: To be accomplished in three phases, the plan calls for the formation of the non-profit Columbia Downtown Housing Corporation to build an additional 5,500 units of low income housing placed downtown in exchange for increased zoning density for other projects. Additional development includes 4.3 million square feet of commercial office space, 1.25 million square feet of retail space, 640 hotel rooms, Merriweather Post Pavilion redevelopment and a multi-modal transportation system.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: The Downtown Columbia Plan also has sustainability features, including goals for saving water and energy, and for ecology and livability.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia's master developer, the Howard Hughes Corporation, is heading up the expansion project. The project is projected to cost $90 million and will outline development in the community for the next 40 years.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Because Columbia is unincorporated, there is confusion over its exact boundaries. In the strictest definition, Columbia comprises only the land governed under covenants by the Columbia Association. This is a considerably smaller area than the census-designated place (CDP) as defined by the United States Census Bureau. The CDP has a total area of , of which are land and , or 0.80%, are water. The CDP includes a number of older communities which do not lie within the CA's purview, including the Holiday Hills, Diamondback, and Allview subdivisions and the former town of Simpsonville, as well as some land on the east side of Clarksville. These areas are not part of the "new town", and are not directly served by its amenities. Some of these areas are included in Columbia ZIP codes by the post office, and some are not.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia is located in central Maryland, southwest of Baltimore, northeast of Washington, D.C., and northwest of Annapolis. The community lies in the Piedmont region of Maryland, with its eastern edge at the fall line. The climate tends to hot, humid summers and cool to cold and wet winters. There are occasional large amounts of snowfall that happen every year.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: The primary landforms in Columbia are rolling hills and stream valleys; Columbia's road network is laid out to follow the terrain, with many winding streets and cul-de-sacs. Elevations range from about above sea level. Most of Columbia is drained by the Middle Patuxent and Little Patuxent rivers. There are three artificial lakes, created by damming of tributary streams during community construction. In 1965, the Rouse Company leased of farmland staged for development, and earmarked of oak forest for timber harvesting. The company developed a sapling planter to replant sections of cleared land that would use Columbia's W.R. Grace-developed fertilizers. An outer ring of greenspace was abandoned early in the project because the combination with the already required river buffers would have reduced profitable land available for building. Along with Symphony Woods, many other stands of mature trees have been temporarily maintained in Columbia, including the large Middle Patuxent Environmental Area in the western part of the community between Harper's Choice and River Hill villages, protecting much of the river valley from development.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: As of July 2019, Columbia is a majority minority community, with non-Hispanic whites constituting 47.3% of the population.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: The 2009-2013 census estimates report the median income for a household in the CDP was $99,877. The per capita income for the CDP was $46,374. About 4.1% of families and 6.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.8% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those age 65 or over.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 88,254 people, 34,199 households, and 23,118 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 3,202.0 people per square mile (1,236.4/km). There were 35,281 housing units at an average density of 1,280.0 per square mile (494.3/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 66.52% White, 21.47% Black or African American, 0.26% Native American, 7.30% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.63% from other races, and 2.76% from two or more races. 4.12% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 14% of Columbia's residents were German, 11% Irish, 10% English, 5% Italian, 4% Polish, 2% Russian, 2% Scottish, 2% Indian, 2% Chinese, 2% Korean, 2% Sub-Saharan African, 2% French, and 2% West Indian.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: There were 34,199 households, out of which 35.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.4% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.4% were non-families. 25.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.09.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 26.3% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 34.1% from 25 to 44, 25.5% from 45 to 64, and 7.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.7 males.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: James Rouse conceived of a city, not a suburban bedroom community, and a large area on the eastern edge was allocated for industrial purposes. The centerpiece of this aspect of the development was a General Electric appliance plant on a site previously operated as a cattle farm. After an injunction attempt was blocked in 1969, the plant began operations in 1972, peaking at 2,300 of the predicted 12,000 jobs. It was closed in 1990, with all but of the property being sold back to Howard Research and Development. One section of the property was subsequently redeveloped for big box retail; the remainder became the large Gateway Commerce office complex, still being expanded. In 1968, Bendix Field Engineering moved to a new facility on the historic Woodlawn Plantation where it was used for engineering activity. Howard County purchased the vacant facility creating the Maryland Center for Entrepreneurship in 2011, which relocated to the vacant Patuxent Publishing building in 2014. There is still a smaller industrial area to the south of this, but by and large East Columbia is dominated by commercial real estate—office, retail, and wholesale—in contrast to the original plan, which saw the Town Center area as the commercial center of Columbia.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: The U.S. federal government is the source of many jobs for Columbians. Several large U.S. Department of Defense installations and R&D facilities surround Columbia, the largest being the National Security Agency at Fort George G. Meade, and the Applied Physics Laboratory south of Columbia, both pre-dating the establishment of Columbia. Companies which have had research facilities in the area include W.R. Grace and Company. Further afield, many Columbians commute to government and government contractor jobs in the Baltimore and Washington, D.C. area.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Companies based in Columbia include W.R. Grace and Company, Sourcefire, PetMeds, MICROS Systems, Martek Biosciences, Integral Systems, GP Strategies Corporation, Corporate Office Properties Trust, and the consumer research company Nielsen Audio (formerly Arbitron). When MaggieMoo's was an independent company, its headquarters was in Columbia.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: The Mall in Columbia, located in Town Center, is a large regional shopping mall with three anchor department stores (Nordstrom, Macy's, and JCPenney), a multiplex movie theater, and more than 200 stores and restaurants.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: There are several other major competing shopping centers in East Columbia, including Dobbin Center strip mall opened in 1983, Snowden Square big box retail on the remainder of the GE industrial site, Columbia Crossing I and II big box retail started in 1997, and Gateway Overlook.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia's nine "village centers" provide residents with nearby shopping as well, often including supermarkets, gas stations, liquor stores, dry cleaners, restaurants, and hair salons. The village centers are laid out so that individual stores are not visible from the road, unlike traditional strip malls. The arrangement is criticized because it makes it difficult for newcomers and non-residents to know what shopping is available; it is praised for eliminating much of the garishness of roadside America.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: The village centers have evolved over time. The Oakland Mills Village Center had a traditional Village Center layout—stores located off a central corridor—until its demolition in the late 1990s. It has since been replaced with a more traditional strip mall managed by Cedar Realty Trust. The Rouse Company abandoned the village center concept in 2002, selling off the assets to Kimco Realty for $120 million. The Kings Contrivance Village Center underwent major construction in 2007 and 2008 when a new Harris Teeter supermarket was added to the center, but maintained the original character of stores around a central corridor and plaza. Owen Brown village center is now managed by GFS Realty, and the Long Reach Village center was declared blighted and purchased by Howard County for resale in 2014.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: In the absence of nightclubs, Columbia relies on local bars to bring in bands. Sonoma's (in Owen Brown) and Nottingham's Tavern and The Green Turtle (near Dobbin Center) regularly bring in groups to perform.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Merriweather Post Pavilion, a well-known outdoor concert venue, attracts many prominent performers. In addition, there are several performing arts organizations that present professional theater, including Toby's Dinner Theatre, Columbia Center for Theatrical Arts and the Young Columbians which have produced the area premieres of several musicals.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia also offers chamber music concerts, children's programs, community outreach programs, master classes, and pre-concert lectures and discussions through the Candlelight Concert Society, a non-profit organization formed by Columbia residents to provide chamber music concerts since 1972.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Howard County Library System (HCLS) is consistently top rated among the nation's public library systems according to Hennen's American Public Library Ratings (HAPLR). Two of the six branches of the Howard County Library System are in Columbia, including the Central Branch in Town Center and the East Columbia Branch in Owen Brown.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Two historic buildings in Columbia, Dorsey Hall and Woodlawn, were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. Both were once homes of prominent Howard County citizens. Most historic buildings, mills and plantations within Columbia that qualified for the register, such as Oakland Manor, were not submitted by Rouse company affiliates.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Rouse believed that individual churches were a waste of developable land. Dr. Stanley Hallet advised the 1964 work group to economically abandon "The extravagance of church life" in favor of ecumenical establishments that focused resources on retreat centers and non-profit religious corporations. The Rouse Company discouraged individual congregations from purchasing land from the company. In 1966 the Columbia Religious Facilities Corporation was founded to lease interfaith centers to congregations. On June 22, 1969, $2.5 million in church donations applied to the CFRC to purchase Columbia land and build an interfaith facility in the village of Wilde Lake. The organization formed the Interfaith Housing Corporation (now the Columbia Housing Corporation) to purchase 300 units of low and moderate income housing in the development with Federal Housing Authority funding.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Recreation has always been an important part of the Columbia concept. The homeowners association, the Columbia Association, known to many in Howard County as "CA", builds, operates and maintains most of these facilities. CA operates a variety of recreational facilities, including 23 outdoor swimming pools, five indoor pools, two water slides, ice and roller skating rinks, an equestrian center, a sports park with miniature golf, a skateboard park, batting cages, picnic pavilions, clubhouse and playground, three athletic clubs including the 24/7 Supreme Sports Club, numerous indoor and outdoor tennis, basketball, volleyball, squash, pickleball, and racquetball courts, and running tracks. In February 2006 LifeTime Fitness (a Minnesota company) opened a 24/7 health club at the edge of the Columbia Gateway industrial park. This facility includes one outdoor and two indoor pools (with water slides), racquetball courts, basketball courts, fitness equipment, and pilates and yoga facilities.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: There are three lakes (Lake Kittamaqundi, Lake Elkhorn, and Wilde Lake) surrounded by parkland for sailing, fishing, and boating; of paths for jogging, strolling and biking; and 148 tot lots and play areas.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Nine village centers, 15 neighborhood centers, and four senior centers provide space for a large variety of community activities. There are a variety of fairs and celebrations throughout the year, including entertainment on the lakefront of Lake Kittamaqundi during the summer and the Columbia Festival of the Arts.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia also has garden plots for rent, under the guidance of the Columbia Gardeners, which has been in existence since the 1970s. There are about 350 garden plots at three sites in Columbia, with each garden rented for a nominal fee (at one time $30 per year).


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Chiara D'Amore's Community Ecology Institute's Freetown Farm, founded in 2016, uses hands-on gardening to educate people and cultivates communities where people thrive together. Freetown farm was built on the site of Columbia's last working farm. The name "Freetown farm" refers to the area's historical name and its ties to the Underground Railroad. It features a NAACP garden and donates the much of the food that is raise to local food banks.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: In 2017, Columbia FC, a soccer club based in Columbia was founded. Consisting of former Howard County students and transfer players, the sports club made their debut in Maryland's Major Soccer League Division I on September 8, 2019.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia's public schools are operated by the Howard County Public School System. As of the 2007–2008 school year, the following high schools served some part of Columbia:


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Most of these schools also serve students from outside Columbia, as is also the case with some middle and elementary schools.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: There are no conventional four-year colleges or universities in Columbia, but several other college-level programs have facilities there. Howard Community College is located near the town center, while the University of Phoenix, American Career Institute, Lincoln College of Technology, Loyola University Maryland, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Maryland University of Integrative Health, and Johns Hopkins University have facilities on the east side of town at Columbia Gateway Business Park.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: In 1966, Howard Community College (HCC) was founded by the Board of Education in Howard County and formally authorized by the Howard County Commissioners Charles E. Miller, J. Hubert Black, and David W. Force. In addition to its original campus in Columbia, it now has satellite campuses in Mount Airy, Laurel, and East Columbia, in the Columbia Gateway Business Park.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia's initial plan called for a minibus system connecting the village centers on a distinct right-of-way that allowed denser development along the route. The routes were not constructed, though minibuses were operated by the Columbia Association under the name "ColumBus". These were eventually taken over by Howard County. Six Howard Transit bus routes served Columbia and connected it with its neighboring areas (such as Ellicott City and BWI Airport) until they were replaced by Regional Transportation Agency of Central Maryland (RTA) in 2014. Several Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) routes provide access to and from both Washington and Baltimore; MTA weekday commuter bus service connects Columbia to the Washington Metro system. There are no rail stations within Columbia, although the Dorsey MARC Train station is served by RTA buses.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: RTA provides local bus service as well as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority and Maryland Transit Administration. RTA Bus Routes include: 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 501, and 503.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia has a number of roadways that serve the community (see below). All of these highways allow Columbia access to nearby Baltimore, Washington, D.C. and Annapolis.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Medical care is available at Howard County General Hospital, affiliated with Baltimore's Johns Hopkins Hospital. The Columbia Medical Plan was founded in 1967 as a health maintenance organization (HMO) available to citizens of Columbia. In more recent years, however, this plan has divided into separate medical groups that simply share the Twin Knolls buildings. Today, there is a Kaiser Permanente facility located in the Columbia Gateway industrial park. There are also a number of clinics, such as the Righttime Medical Care center and Patient First.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: Columbia is a sister city to the planned cities of Cergy-Pontoise, France, and Tres Cantos, Spain. The Columbia Association International and Multicultural Programs Advisory Committee organizes a summer exchange program for French and Spanish students enrolled in Howard County Public Schools. In 2013, CA announced its new sister city relationship with Tema, a port city in Ghana. The official celebration was marked with a Ghana Fest on November 17, 2013. An advisory committee planned to sign the official SCI agreement by 2015. In 2016, Cap-Haïtien, Haiti became a sister city followed by Liyang, China in 2018.


title: Columbia, Maryland

text: The Rouse Company, now owned by the Howard Hughes Corporation, owns and operates multiple HUD Title VII-New Town planned community developments along with Columbia. These include The Woodlands, Texas, Bridgeland Community, Texas, and Summerlin, Nevada.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: Ohio Stadium is an American football stadium in Columbus, Ohio, on the campus of Ohio State University. It primarily serves as the home venue of the Ohio State Buckeyes football team and is also the site for the university's Spring Commencement ceremonies each May. Common nicknames for the stadium include "the Horseshoe", "the Shoe", and "the House That Harley Built".


title: Ohio Stadium

text: From 1996 to 1998, Ohio Stadium was the home venue for the Columbus Crew of Major League Soccer prior to the opening of Columbus Crew Stadium in 1999. The stadium also was the home venue for the OSU track and field teams from 1923 to 2001. In addition to athletics, Ohio Stadium is also a concert venue, with U2, Taylor Swift, The Rolling Stones, Genesis, Pink Floyd, and Metallica among the many acts to have played at the venue.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: The stadium opened in 1922 as a replacement for Ohio Field and had a seating capacity of 66,210. In 1923, a cinder running track was added that was later upgraded to an all-weather track. Seating capacity gradually increased over the years and reached a total of 91,470 possible spectators in 1991. Beginning in 2000, the stadium was renovated and expanded in several phases, removing the track and adding additional seating, which raised the capacity to 101,568 by 2001 and to 102,329 in 2007. In 2014, additional seating was added in the end zone, raising the official capacity to 104,944. Another renovation to add more luxury suites began in 2017 and will eventually lead to a decrease of 2,600 seats. It is the largest stadium by capacity in the state of Ohio, and the third largest on-campus football stadium in the United States. Ohio Stadium was added to the National Register of Historic Places by the National Park Service on March 22, 1974.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: As early as 1913, Ohio Field at High Street and Woodruff Avenue was unable to contain the crowds attracted to many Buckeye home football games. This led to faculty discussion of moving the site elsewhere and building a new facility. The growing popularity of football in Ohio led to the design of a horseshoe-shaped stadium, conceptualized and designed by architect Howard Dwight Smith in 1918. A public-subscription Stadium Campaign to fund the project began in October 1920 and raised over $1.1 million in pledges by January 1921, of which $975,001 were actually honored.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: The stadium was built in 1922 by E. H. Latham Company of Columbus, with materials and labor from the Marble Cliff Quarry Co. at a construction cost of $1.34 million and a total cost of $1.49 million. The stadium's original capacity was 66,210. Upon completion, it was the largest poured concrete structure in the world. Many university officials feared that the stadium would never be filled to capacity.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: Smith employed numerous revolutionary architectural techniques while building the stadium. At the base is a slurry wall to keep out the waters from the Olentangy River; the stadium rests on the flood plain. Instead of building a large bowl like the previously constructed Yale Bowl, Ohio Stadium was designed to have an upper deck that would hang over part of the lower deck, giving Ohio Stadium its "A", "B", and "C" decks. Instead of employing numerous columns like those at Harvard Stadium, Smith designed double columns that allow for more space between columns. The rotunda at the north end of the stadium, which is now adorned with stained glass murals of the offensive and defensive squads that comprise the Buckeye football team, was designed to look like the dome at the Pantheon in Rome.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: The first game in the stadium was against Ohio Wesleyan University on October 7, 1922, and brought a crowd of around 25,000, which left people concerned because the stadium was half empty. This concern was put to rest at the stadium's formal dedication against Michigan on October 21, which the Wolverines won, 19–0. The crowd was announced at the game to be 72,000, but no one is really sure how many people made it into the stadium. This attendance mark was broken in a game against Michigan in 1926 when 90,411 came out to support the Buckeyes; this is also the last time standing-room-only tickets were sold for a game.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: The stadium did not regularly sell out until after World War II, and in the 1920s and 1930s most games only drew in 20,000 or 30,000 fans with many more attending the annual game against Michigan. The 1935 contest with Notre Dame was a sellout, with over 81,000 in attendance.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: In 1923, a cinder track was built around the football field, which would later be named after Olympian and Ohio State athlete Jesse Owens. The stadium was home to the OSU track and field teams until the opening of Jesse Owens Memorial Stadium in 2001.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: As time passed, minor adjustments raised the seating capacity to more than 90,000. In 1984, a new $2.1 million scoreboard was installed. The stadium was heavily renovated from 1998 to 2001. The press box was replaced, additional seating was installed, and 81 luxury suites and 2,500 club seats were added. The south end zone scoreboard was also replaced by a video board that is able to show replays, highlights, animations, graphics and statistical information. Additionally, a smaller version of the south end scoreboard was added to the north end and a new LED ribbon board that runs end-zone to end-zone was added to the balcony prior to the 2009 season. In 1998, the track was removed and a slurry wall was built underneath the field to allow it to be lowered , which places it below the water table. After the 1999 season, the field of play was lowered to add seating closer to the field. The temporary bleachers in the south end zone were replaced with permanent seating. However, the south end of the stadium remains partially open, thus allowing the stadium to maintain its notable horseshoe configuration. General improvements were made in the seating and concourse areas. The result of the $194 million renovation was a capacity that rose to 101,568. 80% of the cost of the renovation was funded by the sale of leases on the suites and club seats, with the remaining 20% funded by donations and the sale of naming rights for portions of the stadium. No public or university money was spent in the renovation process.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: In 1971, the natural grass field was removed, and AstroTurf was installed, compliments of a donation by Lou Fisher in dedication to fellow football player Joseph Campanella. A plaque was placed on the southeast corner in memory of Campanella. In 1979, the surface was replaced with SuperTurf. In 1990, natural grass made its return to the Horseshoe, in the form of a special grass called "Prescription Athletic Turf." New field designs were put in place for the 1992 season and existed through the 2006 season. During the 2006 season, problems with the natural grass began to arise. After serious damage to the field during use in the spring of 2006, the field never recovered and had to be re-sodded. That grass never took root because of bad weather, and the university was forced to re-sod the field again only three weeks after the old sod was laid. The university spent approximately $150,000 to perform both soddings. In response to this, OSU replaced the natural grass with FieldTurf for the 2007 season. This new artificial turf looks and feels like real grass but requires minimal upkeep.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: In March 2012 the university announced a $7 million renovation to the scoreboard installed during the 2000–01 renovation. The project began April 23 and was completed in time for the 2012 season opener on September 1. The current scoreboard includes a Panasonic HD screen, stretching , and incorporates upgrades to the audio system and the LED running boards (which are the smaller screens underneath the larger screen that usually display score updates and advertisements). A Pro Sound audio system with 25 different speakers flank the scoreboard. Older speakers throughout the Horseshoe received improvements and will eventually be replaced by new speakers fitted into the existing framework.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: Prior to the 2014 season, 2,500 seats were added to the south stands. These seats were built over the entrance tunnels and raised the official capacity of the stadium to 104,851, making it the third largest stadium in the country and the fourth largest stadium in the world. The renovations also included permanent lights added to the northeast and southeast corners of the stadium, as well as atop the press box, and the playing surface was replaced.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: The playing surface at Ohio Stadium is known as Safelite Field, named for Columbus-based Safelite, a glass repair company. The naming rights deal was announced August 26, 2022, and allows the company’s logos to be displayed on the field. The name of the facility, however, did not change.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: Before the 2014 renovations, Ohio Stadium did not have permanent lights at the stadium, thus night games were rare. Ohio State's first night game in the stadium was played on September 14, 1985, when the #9 Buckeyes defeated the Pittsburgh Panthers, 10–7. Ohio State did not play another night game at Ohio Stadium until September 11, 1993, when the 16th-ranked Buckeyes defeated #12 Washington 21–12. Ohio State played a total of 12 more night games before permanent lighting was installed, nine of which were against ranked opponents. The Buckeyes are 16-5 (.762) overall and 9-1 (.900) in the Big Ten in night games through September 18, 2017. Ohio State's most recent night game was a 52-21 win versus Wisconsin on September 24, 2022.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: The largest crowd in stadium history is 110,045, set November 26, 2016, in a game against Michigan. The attendance broke the previous record of 108,975 set the previous year for the game against Michigan State. Ohio State has ranked in the top five for attendance for many years, and was the national leader in attendance for the 2014 season, averaging 106,296 people per game. The school set the national spring game record on April 16, 2016, when they drew 100,189 fans for their 2016 spring game. This broke the previous record of 99,391 set by the Buckeyes in their 2015 spring game.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: Mel Kiper, Jr. ranked Ohio Stadium second in atmosphere in 2002, behind the Army–Navy Game, and quoted Beano Cook in saying "There is nothing that beats when the Ohio State Marching Band and the sousaphone player dots the 'i' for Script Ohio." The crowd attending these home games is known for creating harsh and difficult environments for opponents. University of Iowa coach Hayden Fry complained after a 1985 loss that the fans were too loud for his quarterback, Chuck Long, to call plays and suggested sound meters be used to gauge the noise level, penalizing home teams if there was too much noise. He said, "It's a realistic fact that happened. He became mentally disturbed for the first time since he's been a starter for us because of his inability to communicate."


title: Ohio Stadium

text: One famous chant by the Buckeye fans, usually starting with the students in the South Stands, is O-H-I-O. The entire South end yells O then the East stands follow with H, the North with I and the West with O. The chant loops around the stadium loudly sometimes for 5 to 10 minutes. Before kickoff the entire stadium screams O continuously until the ball is kicked; immediately following the kick the stadium shouts in unison O-H-I-O.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: Major League Soccer games were held at Ohio Stadium between 1996 and 1998. The home opener was held on April 13, 1996, against D.C. United before 25,266 fans. Brian McBride scored 2 goals and had an assist in a 4–0 rout. The field at Ohio Stadium was the smallest in the MLS, measuring only 62 yards wide by 106 yards long, limited by the track surrounding it. Because of the smaller market for soccer than Ohio State football, B Deck, C Deck, and the South end zone seats were closed, leading to a capacity of 25,243.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: Attendance stayed strong through the first season, seeing a record audience of 31,550 September 15, 1996 win over the MetroStars, 2–0. Despite the facility's size, problems like field dimensions and the lack of lighting pushed the Crew to find a new home. Jamey Rootes, Crew president and general manager stated, "We prefer a smaller, more intimate environment (than Ohio Stadium) … We've got to create a major league environment. Ohio Stadium is a great stadium, but we cannot create a major league environment in a facility that is way too big for us." The Crew finished their tenure at Ohio Stadium 30–18.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: On August 28, 2021, Ohio Stadium played host to the Classic For Columbus, which matched up two HBCUs, in Central State Marauders and Kentucky State Thorobreds. Kentucky State won 20–6 in front of approximately 20,000 fans.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: The stadium hosted the Ohio High School Athletic Association football championship games for all seven divisions from 2014 to 2016. The stadium had previously hosted the championships for Divisions I and III in 1982 and all divisions (five at the time) from 1983 to 1989.


title: Ohio Stadium

text: On July 27, 2016, a 2016 International Champions Cup match between Real Madrid and Paris Saint-Germain was held at Ohio Stadium. The match, won by Paris Saint-Germain 3–1, drew 86,641 fans, the largest crowd to ever see a soccer game in the state of Ohio.


title: Barbara Fried

text: Barbara Helen Fried () is an American lawyer who is currently the William W. and Gertrude H. Saunders Professor of Law at Stanford Law School.


title: Barbara Fried

text: She graduated from Harvard College with both a B.A. degree in English and American Literature magna cum laude in 1977 and an M.A. in Literature in 1980, as well as a J.D. degree magna cum laude in 1983 from Harvard Law School. Fried served from 1983 to 1984 as a judicial law clerk under J. Edward Lumbard, Senior Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.


title: Barbara Fried

text: Fried joined the Stanford Law School Faculty in 1987 after working as an associate attorney at the law firm Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison from 1984 to 1987. She has investigated such topics as contractualism, libertarianism, and utilitarianism.


title: Barbara Fried

text: She is a co-founder of the political fundraising organization Mind the Gap, which advocates for Democratic Party candidates and funds get-out-the-vote groups. In 2018, Fried donated $75,000 to Mind the Gap. Mind the Gap was described by Vox Media as "Silicon Valley's secretive donor group" in January 2020. In November 2022, Fried stepped down from her position with Mind the Gap.


title: Barbara Fried

text: Fried is married to fellow Stanford law professor Joseph Bankman. She is the mother of Sam Bankman-Fried, the indicted founder and former CEO of now-bankrupt crypto exchange FTX, and his younger brother, Gabe. Barbara and Joseph Bankman are signatories to a beach-front Bahamas residence, purchased as a “vacation home” for $16.4 million, that is part of the FTX bankruptcy.


title: Barbara Fried

text: Fried's sister Linda P. Fried is the Dean of the Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health.


title: Barbara Fried

text: Fried is the author of "Facing Up to Scarcity: The Logic and Limits of Nonconsequentialist Thought" (2020), and "Can Contractualism Save Us from Aggregation?"