title: IS-2

text: The IS-122 prototype replaced the IS-85 and began mass production as the IS-2. The 85 mm guns could be reserved for the new T-34-85 medium tank and some of the IS-1s built were rearmed before leaving the factory and issued as IS-2s. It was slightly lighter and faster than the heaviest KV model 1942 tank, with thicker front armor and a much-improved turret design. The tank could carry thicker armor than the KV series, while remaining lighter, due to the better layout of the armor envelope. The KV's armor was less well-shaped and featured heavy armor even on the rear, while the IS series concentrated its armor at the front. The IS-2 was slightly heavier than the Panther, much lighter than the Tiger I and Tiger II and had a lower silhouette than both. Western observers tended to criticize Soviet tanks for their lack of finish and crude construction. The Soviets argued that it was warranted, considering the need for wartime expediency and the typically short battlefield life of their tanks.


title: IS-2

text: Early IS-2s can be identified by the 'stepped' front hull casting with its small, opening driver's visor. The early tanks lacked gun tube travel locks or anti-aircraft-capable machine guns and had narrow mantlets.


title: IS-2

text: In late 1944, the stepped hull front was replaced with an improved single casting of 120 mm thickness angled at 60 degrees. This new nose lacked the opening driver's visor. It is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the IS-2M, but that designation actually refers to a much later modernization program from the 1950s. Other minor upgrades included the addition of a travel lock on the hull rear, wider mantlet and, on very late models, an anti-aircraft machine gun. However, the model 1944 did not fully replace the model 1943.


title: IS-2

text: In comparison to the Tiger I, the IS-2 had modest advantages in armour, even though it was 10 tons lighter. In 1944, the latter was the only large-scale Allied tank whose armor provided some protection from the well-known Tiger 88mm long-barreled guns and Panther 75mm L/70 guns.


title: IS-2

text: In the mid-1950s, the remaining IS-2 tanks (mostly model 1944 variants although several model 1943 variants) were upgraded to the IS-2M standard, which introduced fittings such as external fuel tanks on the rear hull (the basic IS-2 had these only on the hull sides), stowage bins on both sides of the hull and protective skirting along the top edges of the tracks.


title: IS-2

text: The IS-2 tank first saw combat in early 1944, equipping elite Guards Heavy Tank Regiments of the Red Army. A regiment had 21 IS-2 tanks in four companies of five tanks each and one being used by the regimental commander. The special tank regiments were reserved for important attacks, often to spearhead attempts to break through fortified German positions like anti-tank defence lines and bunkers. The tanks supported infantry in the assault by destroying bunkers, buildings, dug-in weapons and engaging German armoured vehicles. Once a breakthrough was achieved, lighter and more mobile tanks were used for exploitation and mopping-up. The IS-2 tank first saw action in Ukraine in early 1944 and claimed to have destroyed more than forty Tigers and Elefants for the loss of only eight tanks. While the German heavy tanks could knock out the IS-2, they had no real answer to its gun, which easily outgunned them.


title: IS-2

text: On the morning of 11 August 1944, the 16th Panzer Division attacked the 53rd Guards Tank Brigade reinforced by the 71st Independent Guards Heavy Tank Regiment in the town of Oględów, toward Staszów. The extremely sandy terrain forced the eleven King Tigers to keep to the roads, whilst the defending Soviet forces positioned their tanks and assault guns in ambush positions and concentrated on the known German avenues of approach. When the attack started, three Tiger IIs were destroyed by fire from Soviet IS-2 tanks and one more Tiger II was knocked out a few hours later by a T-34/76 at a range of less than . Later in the day, Soviet forces counter-attacked and seized the town of Oględów and found three abandoned Tiger IIs. The capture of these tanks allowed the Soviets to conduct tests at Kubinka and to evaluate its strengths and weaknesses.


title: IS-2

text: Over the next two days the Red Army advanced on Staszów and in several counter-attacks, 501st Heavy Panzer Battalion lost seven more Tiger IIs. Virtually all of these were destroyed by Soviet tanks occupying a defensive position. In three days of fighting, Soviet forces destroyed or captured 14 of 30 Tiger IIs for about the same number of Soviet IS-2s and T-34s.


title: IS-2

text: By the 1950s, the emergence of the main battle tank concept—combining medium-tank mobility with the firepower and armor of the heavy tank—had rendered heavy tanks obsolete. In the late 1960s the remaining Soviet heavy tanks were transferred to Red Army reserve service and storage. The IS-2 Model 1944 remained in service much longer in the armies of Cuba, China and North Korea. A regiment of Chinese IS-2s was available for use in the Korean War but saw no service there.


title: IS-2

text: After the Korean War, China attempted to reverse-engineer the IS-2/IS-3 as the Type 122 medium tank. The project was cancelled in favor of the Type 59, a copy of the Soviet T-54A.


title: Joanne Dru

text: Joanne Dru (born Joan Letitia LaCock; January 31, 1922 – September 10, 1996) was an American film and television actress, known for such films as "Red River", "She Wore a Yellow Ribbon", "All the King's Men", and "Wagon Master".


title: Joanne Dru

text: Born in Logan, West Virginia, Dru moved to New York City in 1940 at the age of eighteen. After finding employment as a model, she was chosen by Al Jolson to appear in the cast of his Broadway show "Hold On to Your Hats". When she moved to Hollywood, she found work in the theater. Dru was spotted by a talent scout and made her first film appearance in "Abie's Irish Rose" (1946). Over the next decade, Dru appeared frequently in films and on television. She was often cast in western films such as Howard Hawks's "Red River" (1948), John Ford's "She Wore a Yellow Ribbon" (1949), and "Wagon Master" (1950).


title: Joanne Dru

text: She gave a well-received performance in the dramatic film "All the King's Men" (1949), which went on to win the Academy Award for Best Picture, played a college graduate turned gangster's unhappy moll opposite Edmund O'Brien in the crime noir 711 Ocean Drive (1950), and co-starred with Dan Dailey in "The Pride of St. Louis" (1952), about major-league baseball pitcher Jerome "Dizzy" Dean. She appeared in the James Stewart drama "Thunder Bay" in 1953 and then the Martin and Lewis comedy "3 Ring Circus" (1954). Her film career petered out by the end of the 1950s, but she continued working frequently in television, most notably as Babs Hooten on the 1960–61 ABC sitcom, "Guestward, Ho!".


title: Joanne Dru

text: After "Guestward, Ho!", she appeared sporadically for the rest of the 1960s and the first half of the 1970s, with one feature film appearance, in "Sylvia" (1965), and eight television appearances.


title: Joanne Dru

text: For her contribution to the television industry, Dru was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.


title: Joanne Dru

text: She was the elder sister of Peter Marshall, an actor and singer best known as the original host of the American game show "Hollywood Squares". Dru married popular vocalist and actor Dick Haymes in 1941. The couple had three children. Divorced from Haymes in 1949, Dru married "Red River" and "All the King's Men" co-star John Ireland less than a month later. The pair divorced in 1957. She had no children from her marriage to Ireland, or subsequent two marriages.


title: Joanne Dru

text: She was a staunch Republican, supporting Barry Goldwater in the 1964 United States presidential election


title: Joanne Dru

text: Dru died in Los Angeles, California on September 10, 1996, aged 74, from a respiratory ailment that developed from lymphedema, a result of chemotherapy she had received over her lifetime, according to her brother. Her ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: A glycosidic bond or glycosidic linkage is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: A glycosidic bond is formed between the hemiacetal or hemiketal group of a saccharide (or a molecule derived from a saccharide) and the hydroxyl group of some compound such as an alcohol. A substance containing a glycosidic bond is a glycoside.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: The term 'glycoside' is now extended to also cover compounds with bonds formed between hemiacetal (or hemiketal) groups of sugars and several chemical groups other than hydroxyls, such as -SR (thioglycosides), -SeR (selenoglycosides), -NRR (N-glycosides), or even -CRRR (C-glycosides).


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Particularly in naturally occurring glycosides, the compound ROH from which the carbohydrate residue has been removed is often termed the aglycone, and the carbohydrate residue itself is sometimes referred to as the 'glycone'.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Glycosidic bonds of the form discussed above are known as O-glycosidic bonds, in reference to the glycosidic oxygen that links the glycoside to the aglycone or reducing end sugar. In analogy, one also considers S-glycosidic bonds (which form thioglycosides), where the oxygen of the glycosidic bond is replaced with a sulfur atom. In the same way, N-glycosidic bonds, have the glycosidic bond oxygen replaced with nitrogen. Substances containing N-glycosidic bonds are also known as glycosylamines. C-glycosyl bonds have the glycosidic oxygen replaced by a carbon; the term "C-glycoside" is considered a misnomer by IUPAC and is discouraged. All of these modified glycosidic bonds have different susceptibility to hydrolysis, and in the case of C-glycosyl structures, they are typically more resistant to hydrolysis.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: When an anomeric center is involved in a glycosidic bond (as is common in nature) then one can distinguish between α- and β-glycosidic bonds by the relative stereochemistry of the anomeric position and the stereocenter furthest from C1 in the saccharide.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Pharmacologists often join substances to glucuronic acid via glycosidic bonds in order to increase their water solubility; this is known as glucuronidation. Many other glycosides have important physiological functions.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Nüchter "et al." (2001) have shown a new approach to Fischer glycosidation. Employing a microwave oven equipped with refluxing apparatus in a rotor reactor with pressure bombs, Nüchter "et al." (2001) were able to achieve 100% yield of α- and β-D-glucosides. This method can be performed on a multi-kilogram scale.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Joshi "et al." (2006) propose the Koenigs-Knorr method in the stereoselective synthesis of alkyl D-glucopyranosides via glycosylation, with the exception of using lithium carbonate which is less expensive and toxic than the conventional method of using silver or mercury salts. D-glucose is first protected by forming the peracetate by addition of acetic anhydride in acetic acid, and then addition of hydrogen bromide which brominates at the 5-position. On addition of the alcohol ROH and lithium carbonate, the OR replaces the bromine and on deprotecting the acetylated hydroxyls the product is synthesized in relatively high purity. It was suggested by Joshi "et al." (2001) that lithium acts as the nucleophile that attacks the carbon at the 5-position and through a transition state the alcohol is substituted for the bromine group. Advantages of this method as well as its stereoselectivity and low cost of the lithium salt include that it can be done at room temperature and its yield compares relatively well with the conventional Koenigs-Knorr method.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Glycoside hydrolases (or glycosidases), are enzymes that break glycosidic bonds. Glycoside hydrolases typically can act either on α- or on β-glycosidic bonds, but not on both. This specificity allows researchers to obtain glycosides in high epimeric excess, one example being Wen-Ya Lu's conversion of D-Glucose to Ethyl β-D-glucopyranoside using naturally-derived glucosidase. It is worth noting that Wen-Ya Lu utilized glucosidase in a reverse manner opposite to the enzyme's biological functionality:


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Before monosaccharide units are incorporated into glycoproteins, polysaccharides, or lipids in living organisms, they are typically first "activated" by being joined via a glycosidic bond to the phosphate group of a nucleotide such as uridine diphosphate (UDP), guanosine diphosphate (GDP), thymidine diphosphate (TDP), or cytidine monophosphate (CMP). These activated biochemical intermediates are known as sugar nucleotides or sugar donors. Many biosynthetic pathways use mono- or oligosaccharides activated by a diphosphate linkage to lipids, such as dolichol. These activated donors are then substrates for enzymes known as glycosyltransferases, which transfer the sugar unit from the activated donor to an accepting nucleophile (the acceptor substrate).


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Different biocatalytic approaches have been developed toward the synthesis of glycosides in the past decades, which using “glycosyltransferases” and “glycoside hydrolases” are among the most common catalysis. The former often needs expensive materials and the later often shows low yields, De Winter et al.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: investigated use of cellobiose phosphorylase (CP) toward synthesis of alpha-glycosides in ionic liquids. The best condition for use of CP was found to be in the presence of IL AMMOENG 101 and ethyl acetate.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Multiple chemical approaches exist to encourage selectivity of α- and β-glycosidic bonds. The highly substrate specific nature of the selectivity and the overall activity of the pyranoside can provide major synthetic difficulties. The overall specificity of the glycosylation can be improved by utilizing approaches which take into account the relative transition states that the anomeric carbon can undergo during a typical glycosylation. Most notably, recognition and incorporation of Felkin-Ahn-Eisenstein models into rationale chemical design can generally provide reliable results provided the transformation can undergo this type of conformational control in the transition state.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Fluorine directed glycosylations represent an encouraging handle for both B selectivity and introduction of a non-natural biomimetic C2 functionality on the carbohydrate. One innovative example provided by Bucher et al. provides a way to utilize a fluoro oxonium ion and the trichloroacetimidate to encourage B stereoselectivity through the gauche effect. This reasonable stereoselectivity is clear through visualization of the Felkin-Ahn models of the possible chair forms.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: This method represents an encouraging way to selectivity incorporate B-ethyl, isopropyl and other glycosides with typical trichloroacetimidate chemistry.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: O-linked glycopeptides recently have been shown to exhibit excellent CNS permeability and efficacy in multiple animal models with disease states. In addition one of the most intriguing aspects thereof is the capability of O-glycosylation to extend half life, decrease clearance, and improve PK/PD thereof the active peptide beyond increasing CNS penetration. The innate utilization of sugars as solubilizing moieties in Phase II and III metabolism (glucuronic acids) has remarkably allowed an evolutionary advantage in that mammalian enzymes are not directly evolved to degrade O glycosylated products on larger moieties.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: The peculiar nature of O-linked glycopeptides is that there are numerous examples which are CNS penetrant. The fundamental basis of this effect is thought to involve "membrane hopping" or "hop diffusion". The non-brownian motion driven "hop diffusion" process is thought to occur due to discontinuity of the plasma membrane. "Hop diffusion" notably combines free diffusion and intercomparmental transitions. Recent examples notably include high permeability of met-enkephalin analogs amongst other peptides. The full mOR agonist pentapeptide DAMGO is also CNS penetrant upon introduction of glycosylation.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: DNA molecules contain 5-membered carbon rings called riboses that are directly attached to two phosphate groups and a nucleobase that contains amino groups. The nitrogen atoms from the amino group in the nucleotides are covalently linked to the anomeric carbon of the ribose sugar structure through an N-glycosidic bond. Occasionally, the nucleobases attached to the ribose undergo deamination, alkylation, or oxidation which results in cytotoxic lesions along the DNA backbone. These modifications severely threaten the cohesiveness of the DNA molecule, leading to the development of diseases such as cancer. DNA glycosylases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis the N-glycosidic bond to free the damaged or modified nucleobase from the DNA, by cleaving the carbon-nitrogen glycosidic bond at the 2' carbon, subsequently initiating the base excision repair (BER) pathway.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: Monofunctional glycosylases catalyze the hydrolysis of the N-glycosidic bond via either a stepwise, S1 like mechanism, or a concerted, S2 like mechanism. The stepwise function, the nucleobase acts as a leaving group before the anomeric carbon gets attacked by the water molecule, producing a short-lived unstable oxacarbenium ion intermediate. This intermediate rapidly reacts with the nearby water molecule to substitute the N-glycosidic bond of the ribose and the nucleobase with an O-glycosidic bond with a hydroxy group. The concerted mechanism, the water acts as a nucleophile and attacks at the anomeric carbon before the nucelobase gets to act like a leaving group. The intermediate produced is a similar oxacarbenium ion where both the hydroxy groups and the nucleobase are still attached to the anomeric carbon. Both mechanisms theoretically yield the same product. Most ribonucleotides are hydrolyzed via the concerted S2 like mechanism, while most deoxyribonucleotides proceed through the stepwise like mechanism.


title: Glycosidic bond

text: These reactions are practically irreversible. Due to the fact that the cleavage of the N-glycosidic bond from the DNA backbone can lead to detrimental mutagenic and cytotoxic responses in an organism, have the ability to also catalyze the synthesis of N-glycosidic bonds by way of an abasic DNA site and a specific nucleobase.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: 7 Khoon Maaf (; read as ""Saat Khoon Maaf""), released internationally as Seven Sins Forgiven, is a 2011 Indian Hindi-language black comedy film directed, co-written and co-produced by Vishal Bhardwaj. The film stars Priyanka Chopra in the lead role, with Vivaan Shah, John Abraham, Neil Nitin Mukesh, Irrfan Khan, Alexander Dyachenko, Annu Kapoor, Naseeruddin Shah and Usha Uthup in supporting roles. The film tells the story of a femme fatale, Susanna Anna-Marie Johannes, an Anglo-Indian woman who causes six deaths in an unending quest for love.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: "7 Khoon Maaf" is an adaptation of the short story "Susanna's Seven Husbands" by Ruskin Bond. After Bhardwaj saw the possibility of a script in the short story, he requested Bond to develop the story for a film adaptation. Bond expanded his 4-page short story into an 80-page novella, and later Bhardwaj co-wrote the script with Matthew Robbins. The film's musical score was composed by Bhardwaj, and Gulzar wrote the lyrics. Principal photography started in Kashmir before moving to Coorg, where extensive filming was done.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: "7 Khoon Maaf" released on 18 February 2011 to widespread critical acclaim, with particular praise directed towards Chopra's performance. The film earned for its box-office run and television-music-home-video rights against a production budget of . It premiered at the 61st Berlin International Film Festival, receiving several accolades at award ceremonies across India.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: At the 57th Filmfare Awards, "7 Khoon Maaf" received 4 nominations, and won 2 awards – Best Actress (Critics) (Chopra) and Best Female Playback Singer (Usha Uthup and Rekha Bhardwaj for "Darling").


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: "7 Khoon Maaf" tells the story of an Anglo-Indian woman, Susanna Anna-Marie Johannes (Priyanka Chopra), who murders all her husbands. Susanna tries to find love, but each time of the six of seven times, her husband's flaws prove fatal. The story is narrated by Arun Kumar (Vivaan Shah), a forensic pathologist to his wife, Nandini (Konkona Sen Sharma). Arun has known Susanna, who was his rich benefactor, since his childhood, and had a secret crush on her. Susanna had lost her mother as an infant and her father some years later. Her parents had left her with a large inheritance and it was her father's last wish that she marry Major Edwin Rodriques.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Susanna's first husband, Edwin Rodriques (Neil Nitin Mukesh), is an army major, who is jealous, and possessive. Disabled after losing a leg, he suspects that the beautiful Susanna will be unfaithful and takes out his anger on her. Although Susanna tolerates Edwin's cruelty, she cannot forgive him for blinding her faithful, mute stableboy, Goonga Chacha (Shashi Malviya) with a whip. Edwin ends up becoming the animal's meal during a panther-hunting trip when Susanna pushes him over with the help of her faithful maid Maggie Aunty (Usha Uthup), butler Galib Khan (Harish Khanna), and the stableboy Goonga Chacha.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Susanna's second husband, Jamshed Singh Rathod (John Abraham), who renames himself Jimmy Stetson after their marriage, is a singer whose flaw is his gluttony. Jimmy becomes successful and misuses his fame – stealing songs, dalliances with other women, and drugs. Susanna tries to wean him from his addiction, but when he continues in secret, he is disposed of with a heroin overdose by one of Susanna's faithful servants. Police investigators find footprints near his body, indicating that a person with six toes is the murderer but Susanna uses her charm to deflect suspicion.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Susanna's third husband, Mohammed Wasiullah Khan (also known as Musafir) (Irrfan Khan), is a soft-spoken, thoughtful poet by day and a sado-masochist by night, who tortures Susanna in bed. Susanna tries to cover her bruises; but her servants cannot bear to see her mistreated. One fateful night, Susanna seduces Khan and leads him out into the snow where he is ultimately buried alive in a snowy Kashmiri grave by Maggie and Khan.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Her 4th husband, Nikolai Vronsky (Alexander Dyachenko), is a Russian spy leading a double life, who is enchanted by her. Even though she initially declines his desire to marry and says that she just wants to stay in love, she decides to test her luck once more and agrees to marry him. She sends Arun to a medical university in Russia to complete his studies. Alas, Arun finds Nikolai in Russia with his first wife and 2 daughters and sends secretly captured pictures of them to Susanna, which he regrets later as he holds himself responsible for Nikolai's imminent death. Susanna also discovers a document which confirms her suspicion that he is a spy, something he had denied earlier. When she confronts him, he tries to cover it up by saying that the woman he was with in Russia was his fellow agent. Susanna refuses to believe him. She then proceeds to throw the document in a well in which she houses her pet snakes. Nikolai unknowingly enters the well in the hope of recovering the document, and meets his inevitable death.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Her fifth husband, Keemat Lal (Annu Kapoor), is a police inspector who has shielded her from prosecution in exchange for sexual favors. Keemat Lal had protected her from being prosecuted for the murder of Nik in exchange for Nik's document and a sexual favour but he continued to come to Susanna for sexual intercourse. Susanna then marries him after his first wife gives him a divorce, but only with the intention of disposing off of him for good. His dependence on Viagra then proves his undoing; one fateful night, Susanna mixes an overdose of the drug into Lal's drink, killing him. At this point, Arun returns from Russia as a doctor. When Susanna tries to seduce him, Arun leaves her, taking Goonga with him. It is the last straw for Susanna when she learns that Arun is now married to Nandini and has a son; and attempts to commit suicide with an overdose of sleeping pills.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Modhusudhon Tarafdar (Naseeruddin Shah) is a Bengali doctor who rescues Susanna from her suicide attempt and puts her on a mushroom-only diet. Although she does not want to marry him, he persuades her with a promise that she will be the sole heir of his property as he does not want his ex-wife and daughter to be able to claim it in the case of his death. Actually bankrupt, he tries to poison her, in his greed for her inheritance. When her butler, Galib dies of the poison mushrooms instead, Susanna shoots Tarafdar during a game of Russian roulette.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: In despair, Susanna then sets the house ablaze in another suicide attempt as sleeping pills had already failed her once, she had forgotten the bullets downstairs and did not approve of a death by hanging. But as the fire reaches her bedroom, she changes her mind and flees the burning mansion. Her maid, Maggie Aunty dies in the attempt to rescue Susanna.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Some time later, Arun's wife Nandini finds out that Arun lied about his whereabouts and suspects that he is cheating on her with Susanna. In the forensics laboratory, Arun discovers that the body is Maggie Aunty's and not Susanna's but declares her dead to return her favour of educating him. He goes to Pondicherry, looking for Susanna. They drink together and Susanna tells him that she is getting married once more and invites him to the wedding the next day. It is later revealed that Susanna decided to become a nun, in effect making Jesus Christ - representation of love and kindness – her seventh and final husband. She then confesses her seven sins to the church father (Ruskin Bond) and feels at peace.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Meanwhile, Nandini panics when Arun doesn't return in 2 days as he had promised and alerts the police. They set out on a search for him. Nandini finally reunites with Arun and he assures her that Susanna is dead and that the feelings he had for her are long gone and promises never to leave Nandini again.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: The idea for "7 Khoon Maaf" came when Ruskin Bond sent his book consisting of a collection of short stories to Vishal Bhardwaj. He was intrigued by a 4-page story's title named "Susanna's Seven Husbands", and thought it had potential for a novel and a film. Bhardwaj said, "I told myself why would a woman have seven husbands and then I came to know that she also kills them! I was immediately hooked to it. It reminded me of a very old film, "Bluebeard's Seven Wives" (1926)". Bhardwaj suggested the story to a fellow director, who was looking for a good story. However, after reading the short story, the director dismissed it saying it has no film potential. After reading the story twice, he became even more confident about possibility of a film. Bhardwaj who had previously adapted Bond's novel "The Blue Umbrella" into a film, decided to adapt the short story for the screen. Bhardwaj later requested Bond to turn the story into a novella, noting that only Bond could flesh out the characters well, to which he agreed. Bond expanded the story into an 80-page novella, which later became a 200-page full-length Hindi script. Bhardwaj co-wrote the script with Matthew Robbins.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Bhardwaj noted that he retained Bond's theme, but incorporated his own elements to make the film a dark comedy. He said, "I had previously taken liberties with Shakespeare. Naturally, when you adapt a story, your vision also comes in it. But I have remained honest to its essence". He included Keemat Lal (who plays a police officer in all Bond's stories), although the character is not in the original story. Bhardwaj decided to include him in the film as an homage to Bond, explaining that he took liberties with characters' names and traits. Bond also had to devise Indian methods of killing the husbands, which he found challenging: "The challenge was devising seven ingenious ways in which she could kill her husbands without being suspected. And she does it successfully, until towards the end".


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Priyanka Chopra was Bhardwaj's original choice for the role of Susanna after he worked with the actress in "Kaminey" (2009): He said that Chopra "is the finest actor of her generation right now... As a director I had so much trust on her that I felt that no one else can essay this role as brilliantly as she would do". Mohanlal was cast as one of Susanna's husbands in the film; however, he left the project to concentrate on Malayalam films. The actor was replaced by Annu Kapoor in the role of Inspector Keemat Lal. Pakistani actor Shamoon Abbasi offered to play one of the husband's role. However, he refused to do so due to the shooting of his film "Waar" (2013). John Abraham, Naseeruddin Shah, Neil Nitin Mukesh and Vivaan Shah were also cast in pivotal supporting roles. Directors Karan Johar and Imtiaz Ali were approached to play 2 of the seven husbands, but they reportedly turned down the offer. Usha Uthup was cast as Susanna's maid in the film. Konkona Sen Sharma was confirmed for a cameo appearance.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: During production, the film underwent 2 name changes. The project was initially titled "Seven", which became "Ek Bataa Saat", and finally "7 Khoon Maaf". In the film, Chopra's character ages from 20 to 65, and prosthetic makeup was used for her looks at different ages. Bhardwaj hired Hollywood special makeup effects artist Greg Cannom, who did the makeup for "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button" (2008) to create seven looks for the character. Chopra found the most challenging period was that of the 65-year-old woman. The actress said, "prosthetics had to play a heavy part but I’m happy that I pushed myself as the result is really fab. I had to be very careful of not doing things that would damage the make-up". To make Chopra look authentic, the makeup team used Chopra's mother's and grandmother's photos to create her look. She had to gain 5 kg weight to fit her aging character.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Principal photography began in March 2010 with Chopra and Irrfan Khan in Kashmir. Locations included Shalimar Bagh and Dal Lake in Srinagar. The cast and crew were provided with 2-tier security coverage by the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) and the Jammu & Kashmir Police, due to unrest in the valley. The film was also shot in Gulmarg, Delhi and Coorg, which included extensive shooting in the forests. Other locations were Puducherry, Mumbai, Hyderabad and in Russia. During filming Chopra was restricted from eating and drinking while donning the prosthetic makeup (which took 5 hours to apply).


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: The film's score and songs were composed by Vishal Bhardwaj, with lyrics by Gulzar. Its soundtrack contains seven songs and 2 reprise versions. The soundtrack was digitally released via Ovi (Nokia) internet service on 24 January 2011, and via CD on 25 January 2011. The song "Darling" is based on the Russian folk song "Kalinka", and contains several Russian words (one of Susanna's husbands was Russian). "Kalinka" is credited on the album cover. "Tere Liye", sung by Suresh Wadkar, was not used in the film.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: The soundtrack received positive reviews from music critics. The "Indo-Asian News Service" gave the album 3.5 stars (out of 5): "Bharadwaj has composed a wonderful album that is not a clone of his previous work. It exudes freshness and is worth listening. However, the songs would not have achieved zenith without Gulzar's lovely lyrics. The team has done it again". "Bollywood Hungama" rated the album a 3 (out of 5): "7 Khoon Maaf is a good album with a couple of definite hits, couple of skip worthy ones and the remaining have the potential to grow. Since "7 Khoon Maaf" is not a routine Bollywood affair, it can't be expecting a quick pick at the stands from Day One". The "Hindustan Times" noted that the soundtrack takes the listener through a variety of moods: "Bhardwaj has certainly succeeded in adding new sounds to his catalogue. He continues to evade Bollywood monotony with this soundtrack [...] an innovative effort."


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: The film's preview and trailer were released on 24 December 2010 to a positive response from critics, who praised the whole presentation and Chopra's dialogues particularly: ""Duniya ki har biwi ne kabhie na kabhie toh yeh zarur socha hoga, ki main apne pati se hamesha hamesha ke liye chutkara kaise paun"" ("Every wife in the entire world must have once in her lifetime thought of how to get rid of her husband forever"). Following the preview-trailer launches, Chopra promoted the film by appearing with seven men (dressed as bridegrooms) at the Radio Mirchi FM studio. The succession of marriages and funerals was illustrated at a promotional event for the film, where Chopra appeared as a Catholic bride in a wedding gown holding a bouquet. A short time later she reappeared as a widow in mourning, for her husbands' funerals.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Emphasizing the film's theme, Chopra introduced a "seven ways to lose your Valentine" press kit for reporters at a Valentines Day promotion. The kit contained a rope, a syringe, a knife, a bottle of poison, a sachet of potassium cyanide, an ice pick and a blister pack of Viagra, which was based on Susanna's way to kill her husbands in the film. In February 2011, a book entitled "Susanna's Seven Husbands" was released by Penguin Books as a collector's edition including the novella, the short story and the film's screenplay.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: The film was screened at the 61st Berlin International Film Festival as part of its world premiere in the festival's Panorama section. At the Friedrichstadt Palace (a Berlin theatre) an audience of some 2,500 people watched the film on the festival's final evening, giving the director and the nine cast and crew members present a standing ovation when they appeared onstage. "7 Khoon Maaf" was originally scheduled for release on 21 January 2011, but was postponed a month to avoid conflicting with the Aamir Khan-starrer "Dhobi Ghat". The film was released on 18 February 2011 on about 700 screens across India. Reliance Home Entertainment released "7 Khoon Maaf" on DVD in March 2011 across all regions in a one-disc NTSC format. The Blu-ray and Video CD versions were released at the same time.


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: "7 Khoon Maaf" received widespread critical acclaim upon release, with particular praise directed towards Chopra's performance, with many reviewers describing it as "a role of a lifetime". Aniruddha Guha of the "Daily News and Analysis" rated the film a 4 (out of 5) and wrote, "For a filmmaker who has long established his hold over the craft, 7 Khoon Maaf is the only way forward – it pushes the envelope and takes you on a cinematic journey you may not experience in a Hindi film for a long time to come". She praised Chopra's performance: "Priyanka Chopra takes on a character that most of her contemporaries would shy away from and enacts it in a way that only she possibly can. For a woman with as many shades as Susanna, Chopra gets a crack at a role of a lifetime. And Bhardwaj ensures she sparkles like never before". The Indo-Asian News Service described the film as a "winner" by Vishal Bhardwaj, rating it 4 out of 5: "Chalk up an absolute winner for the Vishal Bhardwaj-Priyanka Chopra team. They make a coherent vision out of an inconceivable marital crises." Zee News also rated the film 4 out of 5: "Vishal Bhardwaj does it again. The maverick filmmaker has once again woven magic with his latest blockbuster Saat Khoon Maaf, which presents Priyanka Chopra in a never before character".


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: Nikhat Kazmi of the "Times of India" gave the film a 3.5 (out of 5) rating, describing it as "serious, sensitive and stirring", "a whole new cinematic experience" and praising Chopra's performance: ""7 Khoon Maaf" would undoubtedly end up as a milestone in Priyanka Chopra's career graph. The actor displays exquisite command over a complex character that is definitely a first in Indian cinema. She renders a subtle and restrained portrayal of a lonely and wronged woman who wanted love and only love from life". Mayank Shekhar of the "Hindustan Times" gave "7 Khoon Maaf" 3 out of 5 stars noting that the film was crafted around strong, effective scenes alone: a lot of them, cleanly cut and clinical, a whole lot immediately compelling, and recommended not to miss the partly captivating film Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" gave the film 3 stars, saying that ""7 Khoon Maaf" is a dark film that has its share of positives and negatives. However, the film will meet with diverse reactions – some will fancy it, while some will abhor it. The film will appeal more to the critics/columnists and the festival circuit".


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: At the box office, the film opened to weak ticket sales across India (its release coincided with the 2011 Cricket World Cup). It grossed during its first week. By the end of its domestic box office run, the film earned approximately , an underperformance compared to its production budget of . It made an additional from the pre-release sale of music, television, and home video rights. Its producers reported that the venture was commercially successful. Siddharth Roy Kapur (CEO of UTV Motion Pictures) said, ""7 Khoon Maaf" has worked well for us commercially due to a combination of tight production budgeting, optimized spending on prints and publicity and a pre-sales strategy that helped us to de-risk the film via sales of home video, music, satellite and theatrical rights even before the release".


title: 7 Khoon Maaf

text: "7 Khoon Maaf" received a number of nominations and won several awards, with Chopra winning most of her Best Actress nominations. It received 4 nominations at the 57th Filmfare Awards, and won 2 awards: Best Actress (Critics) (Chopra) and Best Female Playback Singer (Usha Uthup and Rekha Bhardwaj for "Darling"). At the 2012 Screen Awards, the film received 5 nominations, and Chopra won Best Actor in a Negative Role. At the 2012 Producers Guild Film Awards, "7 Khoon Maaf" received 6 nominations, and won 3 awards: Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design.


title: Lil Nas X discography

text: American rapper and singer-songwriter Lil Nas X has released one studio album, two extended plays (EP), one mixtape and ten singles. The release of his country rap single "Old Town Road", achieved viral popularity in early 2019 and climbed the music charts internationally and became diamond certified by November of that same year. Lil Nas X released his second EP, titled "7" in 2019 through Columbia Records. Two more singles were released from the EP "Panini" and "Rodeo". His debut studio album, "Montero" was released in 2021 through Columbia Records. The album was preceded by the chart-topping singles "Montero (Call Me by Your Name)" and "Industry Baby", as well as "Sun Goes Down".


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: The R211 is a new technology train (NTT) New York City Subway car being built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries for the B Division and the Staten Island Railway (SIR). They will replace two aging subway car models: all R44 cars on the Staten Island Railway and all R46 subway cars. The order is split into three parts: R211A and R211T cars for the subway and R211S cars for the SIR. The R211Ts employ open gangways between cars, a feature not present on current rolling stock. The base order consists of 535 cars, with options for up to 1,077 additional cars.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: Planning for the R211 order started in 2011. The design process started in 2012, at which time the order was supposed to consist of cars. The cars' lengths were changed to by 2015, and the first request for proposals was solicited in July 2016. After several changes to the proposal, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) awarded a contract to Kawasaki in January 2018. Delivery of the pilot cars began at the end of June 2021. They contain new features such as wider doors, information displays, Wi-Fi, LED-lit doorways, open gangways, and LED interior lighting.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: With all options exercised, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) plans to spend $3.686 billion in the order. The contract is split into three parts: R211A, R211S, and R211T. The majority of the 535-car base order will comprise 440 R211A cars that will partially replace the aging 748-car R46 fleet. There will also be 20 R211T open gangway prototype cars, and 75 R211S cars which are expected to replace the remaining 61-car R44 fleet on the Staten Island Railway. The R44s and R46s are long, and the R211s are only . As a result, the 752 R46s would need to be replaced by 940 R211s.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: There will be two options for additional cars: the first for 640 R211A cars and the second for 437 R211A or R211T cars. Both options are designed to accommodate either standard cars or open gangway cars, depending on the test results from the 20 pilot cars. If all options are exercised, the order would total 1,612 cars. Any additional cars that do not replace existing rolling stock will be used to expand the system's fleet.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: The R211 order would provide 1,015 new cars to replace existing fleet, as well as up to 597 cars for fleet expansions following the extension of the Second Avenue Subway and the automation of the New York City Subway. The R211Ts would also increase capacity and allow passengers to walk seamlessly from one car to the next.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: The doors on the R211s are wide, compared to current MTA standard of , thereby projected to reduce station dwell time by 25 to 30 percent. This door width will also promote accessibility on the cars, making them the first fully accessible subway car in New York City. This design change partially incorporates a design feature of the R110A prototype subway cars, which had doors that are wide.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: The new cars have Wi-Fi installed, USB chargers, digital advertisements, digital customer information displays, illuminated door opening alerts, and security cameras, unlike the current New Technology Trains, which lack these features. Each car contains an on-board computer system that could detect breakdowns in critical systems such as braking and door-opening.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: It was announced in July 2016 that some of the cars would have open gangways that allowed passengers to move between cars during train movement. To test out the curve radius and gangway flex in the existing 60-foot-long cars, an R143 test train was equipped with measuring gauges and was operated on most parts of the B Division.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: Compared to previous New Tech train orders, the R211s have seen vast changes. On the exterior, the subway cars have a blue front with large windows, LED headlights, and a blue strip with gold accents on the sides, similar to the new MTA Regional Bus Operations livery released in 2016. To designate the route, a large LED screen with the route bullet is displayed at the ends of the train, a feature similar to trains with rollsigns (R40 to R68A). The route's destination is displayed above the door on the front, similar to the overhead rollsign arrangement last used on the R38 order from 1966, which displayed both the route and destination. On the sides, there is a screen that displays both the route bullet and the route's destination, also similar to rollsign-equipped trains.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: There are also several changes in interior appearance. Updated FIND displays are installed over doors. The seating on the inside is blue and gold, and flip seats are installed to allow for space for wheelchairs. There are also looped stanchions, a feature found in some R46, R62A, and R160 cars, as well as on all R179 cars. As part of an action plan to fix the subway's state of emergency of 2017, many of the R211's features were implemented on several R160s assigned to the E, F, and L routes.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: In addition to various screens throughout the train, touch screen displays are present throughout the subway cars, allowing people to zoom in and out of the map.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: All R211A and R211T cars are equipped for communications-based train control (CBTC) in conjunction with the ongoing automation of B Division lines. All R211S cars are equipped with cab signaling.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: The R211 Design Master Plan was approved by the MTA in December 2011, and design planning began in December 2012. An R211 solicitation was posted in the classified section of "Metro Magazine"'s May 9, 2013, issue, stating the proposal to acquire these cars in the near future. At the time, the order was planned to be in length, the same length as the R46 cars. Open-gangways, which would allow passengers to seamlessly walk throughout the train or units, and other alternate configurations were also initially considered for the entire order.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: By the release of the MTA's 2015-2019 Capital Program in October 2015, the order specified cars, which has been the standard length of new B Division cars since the R143 order. , open-gangways will be tested on ten cars (now designated as the R211T). Additionally, the order was broken up into a base order of 565 R211A cars and two option orders: the first for 375 R211A cars, and a second for up to 520 R211As.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: The Request for Proposal (RFP) was issued on July 22, 2016, and the contract was to be put out for bidding. With the RFP, the breakup of the order was changed. The base order consisted of 285 cars, with 10 R211T cars, 75 R211S cars, and 200 R211A cars. There were still two option orders; the first option order contained 740 cars (either R211As or R211Ts, depending on the success of the R211Ts in the base order), and the second base order contained 520 cars. The RFP closed in December 2016, and the contract was expected to be awarded in early 2017, at which time the existing R46 fleet would be 42 years old, making the oldest cars years old, in 2022. However, in January 2017, the contract was pushed back to mid-2017.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: On April 24, 2017, at the New York City Transit Board Meeting, the breakdown of the order was changed once again. The base order now includes 535 cars (an increase of 250 cars), with 10 R211T cars, 75 R211S cars, and 450 R211A cars. The option order now consisted of between 490 and 640 R211T cars. This change was made to allow for faster deliveries of the R211 cars. The R211As, with their standard configuration, would be delivered in 2021, earlier than the open-gangway R211T cars, which would not be delivered until at least 2023.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: In May 2017, the MTA quietly built a mockup of the R211 in a sparsely-used section of the 34th Street–Hudson Yards station's mezzanine, hidden behind a construction wall. The "New York Daily News" first reported on the mockup's existence in September of that year. The mockup contains features such as the open-gangway designs, digital screens showing next stops and their station layouts, multicolor lights next to the doors to indicate which set of doors will open, and a blue-and-gold-stripe paint design on its exterior. The model was completed and was made publicly accessible from November 30 to December 6, 2017, so riders could review it.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: In August 2017, Bombardier Transportation, who was manufacturing the R179s at the time, was banned from bidding on the R211 contract due to various delays and problems associated with the R179 contract. Shortly afterward, it was reported that CRRC had also opted out of contention for the R211 contract, leaving Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Alstom Transport as two of the likely bidders for the contract.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: On January 19, 2018, the MTA Board suggested that Kawasaki Rail Car, Inc, a subsidiary of Kawasaki Heavy Industries of Kobe, Japan, be awarded the $1.4 billion base order for the first 535 new R211 cars. The cars are anticipated to be delivered from 2020 to 2023, with the option orders to be delivered by 2025. The R211 base order includes 20 R211T cars with open gangways; 75 R211S cars for the Staten Island Railway, to be delivered near the end of the base order; and 440 R211A cars similar to the R143/R160 series. All cars in the base order will operate in five-car units. The first test train was then expected to be delivered in July 2020, with the production cars being delivered between 2021 and 2023. The cars are being assembled at Kawasaki's factories in the U.S. at Lincoln, Nebraska, and Yonkers, New York, as well as in Japan at Kobe, Hyōgo Prefecture.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: In October 2018, it was confirmed that the second option order would consist of 89 sets, and in September 2019, it was confirmed that the 89 sets would be formed from 437 cars. The MTA also confirmed in September 2019 that the first option order would also consist of 640 cars. The entire order will consist of 1,612 cars with both options exercised. The delivery of the base order is scheduled to be completed by August 2023, with option 1 and option 2 completed by December 2024 and October 2025 respectively.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: In October 2022, the MTA Board voted to exercise the first option order for 640 cars at a cost of US $1.7 billion. All cars in the first option order would be R211A cars. The cars in the option order would be delivered from February 2025 to December 2026.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: By January 2019, the first R211A train was scheduled to be delivered in July 2020, but was delayed to January 2021. Thereafter, new R211 cars would have been produced and delivered at a rate of 30 to 40 cars per month. The first two test trains of ten R211T open-gangway cars would have been delivered in May 2021, followed by the first 5-car set of R211S cars for the Staten Island Railway in December 2021. Under the schedule outlined in January 2019, the base order of R211 cars would begin delivery in October 2021 and continue to be delivered through mid-2023. If the two option orders of 1,077 cars were exercised, deliveries would have continued through late 2025. A decision on whether to make the first option order as open-gangway or standard trainsets was needed to be decided by late 2022; by late October 2022, the first option order was confirmed to comprise standard trainsets. It was also announced in January 2019 that Kawasaki had made a full-car mock-up of the R211 fleet.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: In late November 2020, the MTA announced that delivery of the first cars was delayed to the first quarter of 2021. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic had impacted global supply chains and the delivery of the first cars was delayed by between 9 and 14 months. By January 2021, the first cars were scheduled to arrive in April. The R211T open-gangway test trains were delayed to April 2022, while the R211S Staten Island Railway test train was delayed to August 2022. Deliveries of the base order of R211As were scheduled for September 2022 to September 2024, while deliveries of the R211S cars were scheduled for October 2023 to June 2024. Kawasaki planned to deliver 22 cars per month, a rate that an independent engineering consultant for the MTA described as "aggressive".


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: In late March 2021, TV station NY1 reported that delivery of the first cars had slipped further, with the arrival of the first cars delayed to June 2021. At its June 2021 meeting, the MTA's Capital Program Oversight Committee announced the R211A pilot had been delayed to July 2021 and the R211T test train had been delayed to June 2022. The production of the R211A base order, the R211S test train, and the rest of the R211S order had the same timeline as was outlined in January 2021. Some of the other issues with the test train, such as cracks in the HVAC frame, had been identified in previous months and fixed. The base order of R211As had to be underway by November 2023 so there would be enough cars to test a communications-based train control (CBTC) system being installed on the IND Eighth Avenue Line. By July 2022, full delivery of the R211A base order and the R211S order had been delayed to 2025 due to labor issues at Kawasaki's Nebraska factory. Kawasaki was obligated to construct 40 cars per month in Nebraska as part of its contract with the MTA.


title: R211 (New York City Subway car)

text: Starting on June 29, 2021, the first set of R211As (4060–4064) was delivered to the New York City Transit Authority. The next five cars (4065–4069) were delivered starting on July 12, 2021, forming a complete pilot ten-car train for acceptance testing and evaluation. The test train was delivered despite a lack of staff in Nebraska and a shortage of important parts, which prompted an independent engineering consultant to predict that delivery of the test train could be delayed past July 2021. The pilot train was prepared at Coney Island Yard for several weeks before being tested without passengers starting in August 2021. Passenger service for the pilot train is expected to begin by spring 2023. The first of the R211Ts were delivered on October 31, 2022.


title: All Souls' Day

text: All Souls' Day, also called "The Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed", is a day of prayer and remembrance for the faithful departed, observed by certain Christian denominations on 2 November. Through prayer, intercessions, alms and visits to cemeteries, people commemorate the poor souls in purgatory and gain them indulgences.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In Western Christianity, including the Roman Catholicism and certain parts of Lutheranism and Anglicanism, All Souls' Day is the third day of Allhallowtide, after All Saints' Day (1 November) and All Hallows' Eve (October 31). Before the standardization of Western Christian observance on 2 November by St. Odilo of Cluny in the 10th century, many Catholic congregations celebrated All Souls Day on various dates during the Easter season as it is still observed in some Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran churches. Churches of the East Syriac Rite (Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Ancient Church of the East) commemorate all the faithful departed on the Friday before Lent.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the Catholic Church, "the faithful" refers essentially to baptized Catholics; "all souls" commemorates the church penitent of souls in purgatory, whereas "all saints" commemorates the church triumphant of saints in heaven. In the liturgical books of the Latin Church it is called the "Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed" ().


title: All Souls' Day

text: The Catholic Church teaches that the purification of the souls in purgatory can be assisted by the actions of the faithful on earth. Its teaching is based also on the practice of prayer for the dead mentioned as far back as 2 Maccabees 12:42–46. The theological basis for the feast is the doctrine that the souls which, on departing from the body, are not perfectly cleansed from venial sins, or have not fully atoned for past transgressions, are debarred from the Beatific vision, and that the faithful on earth can help them by prayers, alms, deeds, and especially by the sacrifice of the Holy Mass.


title: All Souls' Day

text: Saturday of Souls (or Soul Saturday) is a day set aside for the commemoration of the dead within the liturgical year of the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches. Saturday is a traditional day of prayer for the dead, because Christ lay dead in the Tomb on Saturday.


title: All Souls' Day

text: These days are devoted to prayer for departed relatives and others among the faithful who would not be commemorated specifically as saints. The Divine Services on these days have special hymns added to them to commemorate the departed. There is often a Panikhida (Memorial Service) either after the Divine Liturgy on Saturday morning or after Vespers on Friday evening, for which Koliva (a dish made of boiled wheatberries or rice and honey) is prepared and placed on the Panikhida table. After the Service, the priest blesses the Koliva. It is then eaten as a memorial by all present.


title: All Souls' Day

text: Another Memorial Day in the East, Radonitsa, does not fall on a Saturday, but on either Monday or Tuesday of the second week after Pascha (Easter). Radonitsa does not have special hymns for the dead at the Divine Services. Instead a Panikhida will follow the Divine Liturgy, and then all will bring paschal foods to the cemeteries to greet the departed with the joy of the Resurrection.


title: All Souls' Day

text: East Syriac churches including the Syro Malabar Church and Chaldean Catholic Church commemorates the feast of departed faithful on the last Friday of Epiphany season (which means Friday just before start of Great Lent). The season of Epiphany remembers the revelation of Christ to the world. Each Friday of Epiphany season, the church remembers important evangelistic figures.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the Syro Malabar Church, the Friday before the parish festival is also celebrated as feast of departed faithful when the parish remembers the activities of forebearers who worked for the parish and faithful. They also request the intercession of all departed souls for the faithful celebration of parish festival. In East Syriac liturgy, the church remembers departed souls including saints on every Friday throughout the year since the Christ was crucified and died on Friday.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the West there is ample evidence of the custom of praying for the dead in the inscriptions of the catacombs, with their constant prayers for the peace of the souls of the departed and in the early liturgies, which commonly contain commemorations of the dead. Tertullian, Cyprian and other early Western Fathers witness to the regular practice of praying for the dead among the early Christians.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the sixth century, it was customary in Benedictine monasteries to hold a commemoration of the deceased members at Whitsuntide. In the time of St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) who lived in what is today Spain, the Monday after Pentecost was designated to remember the deceased. At the beginning of the ninth century, Abbot Eigil of Fulda set 17 December as commemoration of all deceased in part of what is today Germany.


title: All Souls' Day

text: According to Widukind of Corvey (c. 975), there also existed a ceremony praying for the dead on 1 October in Saxony. But it was the day after All Saints' Day that Saint Odilo of Cluny chose when in the 11th century he instituted for all the monasteries dependent on the Abbey of Cluny an annual commemoration of all the faithful departed, to be observed with alms, prayers, and sacrifices for the relief of the suffering souls in purgatory. Odilo decreed that those requesting a Mass be offered for the departed should make an offering for the poor, thus linking almsgiving with fasting and prayer for the dead.


title: All Souls' Day

text: The 2 November date and customs spread from the Cluniac monasteries to other Benedictine monasteries and thence to the Western Church in general. The Diocese of Liège was the first diocese to adopt the practice under Bishop Notger (d. 1008). 2 November was adopted in Italy and Rome in the thirteenth century.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the 15th century the Dominicans instituted a custom of each priest offering three Masses on the Feast of All Souls. During World War I, given the great number of war dead and the many destroyed churches where Mass could no longer be said, Pope Benedict XV, granted all priests the privilege of offering three Masses on All Souls Day.


title: All Souls' Day

text: If 2 November falls on a Sunday, All Souls' Day is observed on that day. In the Liturgy of the hours of All Souls' day the sequence "Dies irae" can be used ad libitum. Every priest is allowed to celebrate three holy masses on All Souls' Day.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the minor propers (Introit, Gradual, Tract, Sequence, Offertory, and Communion) are those used for Renaissance and Classical musical requiem settings, including the Dies Irae. This permits the performance of traditional requiem settings in the context of the Divine Worship Form of the Roman Rite on All Souls Day as well as at funerals, votive celebrations of all faithful departed, and anniversaries of deaths.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the ordinary form of the Roman Rite, as well as in the Personal Ordinariates established by Benedict XVI for former Anglicans, it remains on 2 November if this date falls on a Sunday; in the 1962–1969 form of the Roman Rite, use of which is still authorized, it is transferred to Monday, 3 November.


title: All Souls' Day

text: According to the "Enchiridion of Indulgences", an indulgence applicable only to the souls in purgatory (commonly called the poor souls) is granted to the faithful who devoutly visit on All souls Day a church or chapel and pray the Our Father and the Credo or the Lauds or Vespers of the Office of the Dead and the eternal rest prayer for the dead. The indulgence can be gained from noon of All Saints' Day on as well as a plenary indulgence is each day from the first to the eighth of November; a partial indulgence is granted on other days of the year.


title: All Souls' Day

text: Among continental Protestants its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained. During Luther's lifetime, All Souls' Day was widely observed in Saxony although the Roman Catholic meaning of the day was discarded; ecclesiastically in the Lutheran Church, the day was merged with, and is often seen as an extension of All Saints' Day, with many Lutherans still visiting and decorating graves on all the days of Allhallowtide, including All Souls' Day. Just as it is the custom of French people, of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the graves of their dead on the "jour des morts", so German, Polish and Hungarian people stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of flowers and special grave lights. Among Czech people the custom of visiting and tidying graves of relatives on the day is quite common. In 1816, Prussia introduced a new date for the remembrance of the Dead among its Lutheran citizens: Totensonntag, the last Sunday before Advent. This custom was later also adopted by the non-Prussian Lutherans in Germany, but it has not spread much beyond the Protestant areas of Germany.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the Church of England it is called The Commemoration of the Faithful Departed and is an optional celebration; Anglicans view All Souls' Day as an extension of the observance of All Saints' Day and it serves to "remember those who have died", in connection with the theological doctrines of the resurrection of the body and the Communion of Saints.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the Anglican Communion, All Souls' Day is known liturgically as the Commemoration of All Faithful Departed, and is an optional observance seen as "an extension of All Saints' Day", the latter of which marks the second day of Allhallowtide. Historically and at present, several Anglican churches are dedicated to All Souls. During the English Reformation, the observance of All Souls' Day lapsed, although a new Anglican theological understanding of the day has "led to a widespread acceptance of this commemoration among Anglicans". Patricia Bays, with regard to the Anglican view of All Souls' Day, wrote that:


title: All Souls' Day

text: As such, Anglican parishes "now commemorate all the faithful departed in the context of the All Saints' Day celebration", in keeping with this fresh perspective. Contributing to the revival was the need "to help Anglicans mourn the deaths of millions of soldiers in World War I". Members of the Guild of All Souls, an Anglican devotional society founded in 1873, "are encouraged to pray for the dying and the dead, to participate in a requiem of All Souls' Day and say a Litany of the Faithful Departed at least once a month".


title: All Souls' Day

text: At the Reformation the celebration of All Souls' Day was fused with All Saints' Day in the Church of England or, in the judgement of some, it was "deservedly abrogated". It was reinstated in certain parishes in connection with the Oxford Movement of the 19th century and is acknowledged in United States Anglicanism in the "Holy Women, Holy Men" calendar and in the Church of England with the 1980 "Alternative Service Book". It features in "Common Worship" as a Lesser Festival called "Commemoration of the Faithful Departed (All Souls' Day)".


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the Methodist Church, saints refer to all Christians and therefore, on All Saint's Day, the Church Universal, as well as the deceased members of a local congregation are honoured and remembered. In Methodist congregations that celebrate the liturgy on All Souls Day, the observance, as with Anglicanism and Lutheranism, is viewed as an extension of All Saints' Day and as such, Methodists "remember our loved ones who had died" in their observance of this feast.


title: All Souls' Day

text: Many All Souls' Day traditions are associated with popular notions about purgatory. Bell tolling is meant to comfort those being cleansed. Lighting candles serves to kindle a light for the poor souls languishing in the darkness. Soul cakes are given to children coming to sing or pray for the dead (cf. trick-or-treating), giving rise to the traditions of "going souling" and the baking of special types of bread or cakes (cf. Pão-por-Deus).


title: All Souls' Day

text: All Souls' Day is celebrated in many European countries with vigils, candles, the decoration of graves, and special prayers as well as many regional customs. Examples of regional customs include leaving cakes for departed loved ones on the table and keeping the room warm for their comfort in Tirol and the custom in Brittany, where people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel, bareheaded, at the graves of their loved ones and anoint the hollow of the tombstone with holy water or to pour libations of milk on it. At bedtime, supper is left on the table for the souls. All Souls' Day is known in Maltese as "Jum il-Mejtin", and is accompanied a traditional supper including roasted pig, based on a custom of letting a pig loose on the streets with a bell around its neck, to be fed by the entire neighborhood and cooked on that day to feed the poor. In Linz, funereal musical pieces known as aequales were played from tower tops on All Souls' Day and the evening before. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia All Souls' Day is called Dušičky, or "little souls". Traditionally, candles are left on graves on Dušičky. In Sicily and other regions of southern Italy, All Souls' Day is celebrated as the "Festa dei Morti" or "U juornu rii morti", the "Commemoration of the Dead" or the "Day of the Dead", which according to Joshua Nicolosi of the "Sicilian Post" could be seen "halfway between Christian and pagan traditions". Families visit and clean grave sites, home altars are decorated with family photos and votive candles, and children are gifted a special basket or "cannistru" of chocolates, pomegranate, and other gifts from their ancestors. Because of the gifting of sugary sweets and the emphasis on sugar puppet decorations, the Commemoration Day has spurred local Sicilian events such as the "Notte di Zucchero" ("Night of Sugar") in which communities celebrate the dead.


title: All Souls' Day

text: In the Philippines, Hallow mas is variously called ""Undás"", ""Todos los Santos"" (Spanish, "All Saints"), and sometimes ""Araw ng mga Patay / Yumao"" (Tagalog, "Day of the dead / those who have passed away"), which incorporates All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day. Filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting the family dead to clean and repair their tombs. Offerings of prayers, flowers, candles, and food. Chinese Filipinos additionally burn incense and "kim". Many also spend the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the cemetery with feasts and merriment.


title: Cabinet of Pakistan

text: The Cabinet of Pakistan (, "Kābīnā-e-Pākistān") is a formal body composed of senior government officials chosen and led by the Prime Minister. All cabinet members sworn in are designated "Minister", and are seated at their respective ministries located in the Pakistan Secretariat.


title: Cabinet of Pakistan

text: The Cabinet Secretary of Pakistan serves as the administrative head of the Cabinet Division and reports directly to the Prime Minister. According to the Constitution of Pakistan, the Prime Minister may dismiss members of the cabinet, but must do so in writing, and new appointees must again be approved by the Parliament. The cabinet meets weekly in Islamabad. The cabinet is granted constitutional power under "Article 81D of the Constitution of Pakistan". The existence of the cabinet dates back to Prime Minister Liaqat Ali Khan, who appointed civil servants and statesmen to his . On April 10, 2022 Shehbaz Sharif's ministry was formed after Sharif was elected as Prime Minister by the National Assembly of Pakistan.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Carnal Knowledge is a 1971 American erotic coming-of-age romantic comedy-drama film directed by Mike Nichols and written by Jules Feiffer. It stars Jack Nicholson, Art Garfunkel, Ann-Margret, Candice Bergen, and Rita Moreno.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: The story follows the sexual exploits of two Amherst College roommates over a 25-year period, from the late 1940s to the early 1970s. Sandy (Art Garfunkel) is gentle and passive, while Jonathan Fuerst (Jack Nicholson) is tough and aggressive. Sandy idolizes women, while Jonathan objectifies them. Jonathan frequently uses the term "ballbuster" to describe women as emasculating teases whose main pleasure is to deny pleasure to men; he extends this term to mean women who want to get married instead of accepting that men mostly want unattached sex. Since each man's perspective on womanhood is extreme and self-serving, neither is able to sustain a relationship with a woman.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: The film has three parts. Part I occurs when Sandy and Jonathan are college roommates. Part II follows the men several years after college. In the final part, the men have become middle-aged.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: In the beginning, Sandy and Jonathan are discussing women, and what kind appeals to each. Sandy wants a woman who is intellectual. Jonathan is more interested in a woman's physical attributes.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Sandy shyly meets Susan (Candice Bergen) at an on-campus event and they begin dating. Although they enjoy each other's company, Susan is reluctant to enter into a physical relationship. Unbeknownst to Sandy, she is also pursued by Jonathan, who feels a physical attraction for her. They have sex. Jonathan tries to persuade Susan not to have sex with Sandy, but after some delays, Susan is also having sex with Sandy. Part I ends with Susan and Jonathan breaking up.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Part II finds Sandy married to Susan, while Jonathan is still searching for his "perfect woman." Jonathan now defines perfection by a woman's bust size and figure. Jonathan begins a relationship with Bobbie (Ann-Margret Olsson), a beautiful woman who fulfills all of his physical requirements. However, Jonathan constantly berates Bobbie for being shallow. Jonathan finds that this purely physical relationship is no more satisfying than his previous relationship with Susan. Bobbie leaves her job at Jonathan's suggestion. She then becomes depressed, spending long hours doing nothing but sleeping in the apartment she shares with Jonathan. The relationship deteriorates. Jonathan berates Bobbie for not cleaning up the apartment while he is out working all day at a nine-to-five job. He claims that he doesn't understand why breakups always have to end with "poison."


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Sandy's relationship with Susan is faring no better. Sandy is dissatisfied and bored with the physical part of their relationship, even though he and Susan "do all the right things." He relates how they are "patient with each other" and concludes with a statement that perhaps sex is not "meant to be enjoyable with the person you love."


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Sandy and Susan end their relationship. Sandy begins dating Cindy (Cynthia O'Neal). Sandy, Cindy, Jonathan, and Bobbie find themselves together at Jonathan's apartment, where Sandy complains privately to Jonathan that Cindy gets so busy handing out instructions in bed that it's like a close-order drill. Jonathan suggests to Sandy that they trade partners, to "liven things up a bit." Sandy goes to the bedroom looking for Bobbie. Cindy dances with Jonathan and reprimands him for attempting to bed her with Sandy nearby, but indicates she is open to seeing him on his own, saying he should contact her at a more appropriate time. In the meantime, upset by an earlier fight with Jonathan about her desire to get married, Bobbie has attempted suicide. She is found by Sandy, who calls the hospital to have her taken to intensive care.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Part III opens with now-middle-aged Jonathan presenting a slideshow entitled "Ballbusters on Parade" to Sandy (also middle-aged) and Sandy's 18-year-old girlfriend, Jennifer (Carol Kane). The slideshow consists of pictures of Jonathan's various loves throughout his life. He skips awkwardly over a slide of Susan, but not before Sandy notices. He also shows an image of Bobbie, saying they are divorced and had one child together, and he is paying her alimony. Jennifer leaves in tears. Sandy idolizes his new lover, explaining that "she knows worlds which I cannot begin to touch yet." Jonathan believes his friend is deluding himself.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Time passes. Jonathan remains successful, but is alone. A prostitute (Rita Moreno) is with him, and they go through a ritual dialogue about male/female relationships which is apparently a script written by Jonathan. At the end, the prostitute recites a monologue (again scripted by Jonathan) praising his power and "perfection," which apparently has become the only way Jonathan can now get an erection.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: The script was originally written as a play. Jules Feiffer sent it to Mike Nichols, who thought it would work better as a film. The script contains numerous curse words, some of which were rarely heard on the screen before this time.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: The $5 million budget was provided by Joseph E. Levine of which $1 million went to Nichols. The movie was shot in Vancouver.


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: The changes in the morals of American society of the 1960s and 1970s and the general receptiveness by the public to frank discussion of sexual issues was sometimes at odds with local community standards. A theatre in Albany, Georgia, showed the film; on January 13, 1972, the local police served a search warrant on the theatre, and seized the film. In March 1972, the theatre manager, Mr. Jenkins, was convicted of the crime of "distributing obscene material". His conviction was upheld by the Supreme Court of Georgia. On June 24, 1974, the U.S. Supreme Court found that the State of Georgia had gone too far in classifying material as obscene in view of its prior decision in "Miller v. California", (the "Miller" standard), and overturned the conviction in "Jenkins v. Georgia", . The court also said that,


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Avco Embassy re-released the film to theaters after the Supreme Court ruling, using the tagline "The United States Supreme Court has ruled that 'Carnal Knowledge' is See it now!"


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film four stars out of four and called it "clearly Mike Nichols' best film. It sets out to tell us certain things about these few characters and their sexual crucifixions, and it succeeds. It doesn't go for cheap or facile laughs, or inappropriate symbolism, or a phony kind of contemporary feeling ... Nicholson, who is possibly the most interesting new movie actor since James Dean, carries the film, and his scenes with Ann-Margret are masterfully played." Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" was also positive, calling it "a nearly ideal collaboration of directorial and writing talents" that was "not only very funny, but in a casual way—in the way of something observed in a half-light—more profound than much more ambitious films." Writing in "Film Quarterly", Ernest Callenbach called it "a solid and interesting achievement—as was [Nichols'] "Virginia Woolf". It is a cold and merciless film, but then artists are not required to stand in for the Red Cross. They document disasters, and it is we the viewers who must clean them up, in our own lives." Gavin Millar of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote, "Though not the last word on the subject, it's still a telling and unhysterical assault on male chauvinism; and if that's fashionable, it's not unwelcome."


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" was less enthused, calling the film "the iciest, most merciless and most repellent major (and seriously intended) motion picture in a very long time." Champlin thought that Nicholson had "some powerful moments" but his character "is never comprehensible as anything but a clinical study, although the study offers no clues to how he got that way." Arthur D. Murphy of "Variety" called it "a rather superficial and limited probe of American male sexual hypocrisies." Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" wrote, "I wouldn't mind having a nickel for every moviegoer who walks out of 'Carnal Knowledge' feeling cheated and despondent. The basic problem with the film is that it's the artistic equivalent of the sort of thing it purports to be satirizing and abhorring: it's a cold, calculating, unfeeling view of cold, calculating, unfeeling relationships." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four and called it "basically a one-note story ... The characters do not change or learn; they do not even repeat their mistakes in very interesting ways." Pauline Kael of "The New Yorker" wrote, "This movie says not merely that there are some people like these, but that this is "it"—that is, that this movie, in its own satirical terms, presents a more accurate view of men and women than conventional movies do. That may be the case, but the movie isn't convincing."


title: Carnal Knowledge (film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively gives the film a score of 88% based on reviews from 32 critics, with an average rating of 7.70/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Although it comes lopsidedly from the male gaze, "Carnal Knowledge" is a sexually frank and ferociously well-acted battle between the sexes."


title: Halogen lamp

text: A halogen lamp (also called tungsten halogen, quartz-halogen, and quartz iodine lamp) is an incandescent lamp consisting of a tungsten filament sealed in a compact transparent envelope that is filled with a mixture of an inert gas and a small amount of a halogen, such as iodine or bromine. The combination of the halogen gas and the tungsten filament produces a halogen-cycle chemical reaction, which redeposits evaporated tungsten on the filament, increasing its life and maintaining the clarity of the envelope. This allows the filament to operate at a higher temperature than a standard incandescent lamp of similar power and operating life; this also produces light with higher luminous efficacy and color temperature. The small size of halogen lamps permits their use in compact optical systems for projectors and illumination. The small glass envelope may be enclosed in a much larger outer glass bulb, which has a lower temperature, protects the inner bulb from contamination, and makes the bulb mechanically more similar to a conventional lamp.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Standard and halogen incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than LED and compact fluorescent lamps, and therefore have been or are being phased out in many places.


title: Halogen lamp

text: A carbon filament lamp using chlorine to prevent darkening of the envelope was patented in 1882, and chlorine-filled "NoVak" lamps were marketed in 1892.


title: Halogen lamp

text: The use of iodine was proposed in a 1933 patent, which also described the cyclic redeposition of tungsten back onto the filament. In 1959, General Electric patented a practical lamp using iodine.


title: Halogen lamp

text: In 2009, the EU and other European countries began a phase-out of inefficient bulbs. The production and importation of directional mains-voltage halogen bulbs was banned on 1 September 2016 and non-directional halogen bulbs followed on 1 September 2018. Australia banned halogen light bulbs in late 2021 as the original target date of September 2020 to keep the policy in line with the European Union. In June 2021, The UK government also announced plans to end the sale of halogen light bulbs from September, as part of the UK's wider efforts to tackle climate change.


title: Halogen lamp

text: In ordinary incandescent lamps, evaporated tungsten mostly deposits onto the inner surface of the bulb, causing the bulb to blacken and the filament to grow increasingly weak until it eventually breaks. The presence of the halogen, however, sets up a reversible chemical reaction cycle with this evaporated tungsten. The halogen cycle keeps the bulb clean and causes the light output to remain almost constant throughout the bulb's life. At moderate temperatures the halogen reacts with the evaporating tungsten, the halide formed being moved around in the inert gas filling. At some point, however, it will reach higher temperature regions within the bulb where it then dissociates, releasing tungsten back onto the filament and freeing the halogen to repeat the process. However, the overall bulb envelope temperature must be significantly higher than in conventional incandescent lamps for this reaction to succeed: it is only at temperatures of above on the inside of the glass envelope that the halogen vapor can combine with the tungsten and return it to the filament rather than the tungsten becoming deposited on the glass. A 300 watt tubular halogen bulb operated at full power quickly reaches a temperature of about , while a 500 watt regular incandescent bulb operates at only and a 75 watt regular incandescent at only .


title: Halogen lamp

text: The bulb must be made of fused silica (quartz) or a high-melting-point glass (such as aluminosilicate glass). Since quartz is very strong, the gas pressure can be higher, which reduces the rate of evaporation of the filament, permitting it to run a higher temperature (and so luminous efficacy) for the same average life. The tungsten released in hotter regions does not generally redeposit where it came from, so the hotter parts of the filament eventually thin out and fail.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Quartz iodine lamps, using elemental iodine, were the first commercial halogen lamps launched by GE in 1959. Quite soon, bromine was found to have advantages, but was not used in elemental form. Certain hydrocarbon bromine compounds gave good results. Regeneration of the filament is also possible with fluorine, but its chemical reactivity is so great that other parts of the lamp are attacked. The halogen is normally mixed with a noble gas, often krypton or xenon. The first lamps used only tungsten for filament supports, but some designs use molybdenum – an example being the molybdenum shield in the H4 twin filament headlight for the European Asymmetric Passing Beam.


title: Halogen lamp

text: For a fixed power and life, the luminous efficacy of all incandescent lamps is greatest at a particular design voltage. Halogen lamps made for 12 to 24 volt operation have good light outputs, and the very compact filaments are particularly beneficial for optical control (see picture). The ranges


title: Halogen lamp

text: of multifaceted reflector "MR" lamps of 20–50 watts were originally conceived for the projection of 8 mm film, but are now widely used for display lighting and in the home. More recently, wider beam versions have become available designed for direct use on supply voltages of 120 or .


title: Halogen lamp

text: Tungsten halogen lamps behave in a similar manner to other incandescent lamps when run on a different voltage. However the light output is reported as proportional to formula_1, and the luminous efficacy proportional to formula_2. The normal relationship regarding the lifetime is that it is proportional to formula_3. For example, a bulb operated at 5% higher than its design voltage would produce about 15% more light, and the luminous efficacy would be about 6.5% higher, but would be expected to have only half the rated life.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Halogen lamps are manufactured with enough halogen to match the rate of tungsten evaporation at their design voltage. Increasing the applied voltage increases the rate of evaporation, so at some point, there may be insufficient halogen and the lamp goes black. Over-voltage operation is not generally recommended. With a reduced voltage, the evaporation is lower and there may be too much halogen, which can lead to abnormal failure. At much lower voltages, the bulb temperature may be too low to support the halogen cycle, but by this time the evaporation rate is too low for the bulb to blacken significantly. If the bulbs do blacken, it is recommended to run the lamps at the rated voltage to restart the cycle. There are many situations where halogen lamps are dimmed successfully. However, lamp life may not be extended as much as predicted. The life span on dimming depends on lamp construction, the halogen additive used, and whether dimming is normally expected for this type.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Like all incandescent light bulbs, a halogen lamp produces a continuous spectrum of light, from near ultraviolet to deep into the infrared. Since the lamp filament can operate at a higher temperature than a non-halogen lamp, the spectrum is shifted toward blue, producing light with a higher effective color temperature and higher power efficiency. This makes halogen lamps the only option for consumer light source with black-body radiation spectrum similar to that of the Sun and most suitable for the eyes. Alternatively, multi-component glasses can be used, which have a natural UV-block. These glasses belong to the family of the aluminosilicate-glasses.


title: Halogen lamp

text: High-temperature filaments emit some energy in the UV region. Small amounts of other elements can be mixed into the quartz, so that the "doped" quartz (or selective optical coating) blocks harmful UV radiation. Hard glass blocks UV and has been used extensively for the bulbs of car headlights. Alternatively, the halogen lamp can be mounted inside an outer bulb, similar to an ordinary incandescent lamp, which also reduces the risks from the high bulb temperature. Undoped quartz halogen lamps are used in some scientific, medical, and dental instruments as a UV-B source.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Halogen lamps must run at much higher temperatures than regular incandescent lamps for proper operation. Their small size helps to concentrate the heat on a smaller envelope surface, closer to the filament than a non-halogen incandescent. Because of the very high temperatures, halogen lamps can pose fire and burn hazards. In Australia, numerous house fires each year are attributed to ceiling-mounted halogen downlights. The Western Australia Department of Fire and Emergency Services recommends that homeowners consider instead using cooler-running compact fluorescent lamps or light emitting diode lamps. Halogen torchères have been banned in some places, such as dormitories, because of the large numbers of fires they have caused. They were held responsible by the US Consumer Product Safety Commission for 100 fires and 10 deaths between 1992 and 1997. Halogen bulbs operate at high temperatures and the tall height of the lamps brings them near flammable materials, such as curtains. Some safety codes require halogen bulbs to be protected by a grid or grille, especially for high-power (1–2 kW) bulbs used in theatre, or by the glass and metal housing of the fixture, to prevent ignition of draperies or flammable objects in contact with the lamp.


title: Halogen lamp

text: To reduce unintentional ultraviolet (UV) exposure, and to contain hot bulb fragments in the event of explosive bulb failure, general-purpose lamps usually have a UV-absorbing glass filter over or around the bulb. Alternatively, lamp bulbs may be doped or coated to filter out the UV radiation. With adequate filtering, a halogen lamp exposes users to less UV than a standard incandescent lamp producing the same effective level of illumination without filtering.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Any surface contamination, notably the oil from human fingertips, can damage the quartz envelope when it is heated. Contaminants, because they absorb more light and heat than the glass does, will create a hot spot on the bulb surface when the lamp is turned on. This extreme, localized heat causes the quartz to change from its vitreous form into a weaker, crystalline form that leaks gas. This weakening may also cause the bulb to form a bubble, weakening it and leading to its explosion.


title: Halogen lamp

text: The small glass envelope may be enclosed in a much larger outer glass bulb, which provides several advantages if small size is not required:


title: Halogen lamp

text: Halogen lamps are available in a series of different shapes and sizes, and are designated according to a coding system that specifies the diameter of the bulb as well as whether or not the bulb has a built-in infrared-transparent dichroic reflector. Many such lamps have designations that begin with the letter "T" to indicate that they are "tubular" followed by a number indicating the diameter of the tube in eighths of an inch: a T3 bulb, then is a tubular halogen bulb that is in diameter. The designation "MR" means "Multifaceted Reflector", with the number following this still corresponding to eighths of an inch in diameter of the overall bulb. If a lamp has a "G" code, this will mean the lamp is a bipin shape and the number following the G will indicate the distance in millimeters between the pins, usually either 4, 6.35 or 10; if the G is followed by a letter "Y", then the lamp's pins are thicker than normal— thus, a G6.35 has pins that are 1 mm in diameter but a GY6.35 has pins that are 1.3 mm in diameter. If there is a "C" code, this represents the number of coils in the filament. The length (sometimes also referred to as "height") of any two-ended cylindrical bulb must be specified separately from its form factor code, usually in millimeters, as must the lamp's voltage and wattage— hence, T3 120 V 150 W 118 mm means a double-ended tube-shaped bulb with a diameter of that operates at 120 V and is 150 W and that is also 118 mm long.


title: Halogen lamp

text: An R7S is a double ended, Recessed Single Contact (RSC) linear halogen lamp, usually measuring a length of either 118 mm or 78 mm. Some less common lengths are 189 mm, 254 mm and 331 mm. These lamps have a T3 shape on an RSC/R7S base. These can also be known as J type and T type lamps.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Halogen headlamps are used in many automobiles. Halogen floodlights for outdoor lighting systems as well as for watercraft are also manufactured for commercial and recreational use. They are now also used in desktop lamps.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Halogen lamps were used on the Times Square Ball from 1999 to 2006. However, from 2007 onward, the halogen lamps were replaced with LEDs, due to the much longer lifespan, about ten times longer for LED over incandescent. The 'New Year' numerals that light up when the Times Square Ball reaches the base used halogen lighting for the last time for the 2009 ball drop.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Low wattage halogen lamp arrays are widely used by monitor lizard keepers. Two or three small halogen lamps can produce all the heat needed in an enclosure and are recognized by the animals as sources of heat preventing curious individuals from attempting to touch them. Halogen lamps' thick glass lenses are safe to use inside high humidity reptile enclosures.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Banks of powerful tubular halogen lamps were used to simulate the heat of re-entry of space vehicles.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Fixed-mount lamps are used in indoor and outdoor flood lighting, although improvements in LED systems are displacing halogen lamps. Round spotlights with built-in multifaceted reflector lamps are widely used in residential and commercial lighting. Tubular halogen lamps provide a large quantity of light from a small source and so can be used to produce powerful flood lamps for architectural lighting effects, or for lighting large areas outdoors.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Low voltage lamps use the GU5.3 and similar bi-pin bases, whereas mains voltage lamps use the same caps as normal mains tungsten filament lamps, or a special GU10/GZ10 base. The GU10/GZ10 bases are shaped to prevent dichroic reflector lamps being used in luminaires intended for aluminised reflector lamps, which could cause overheating of the fitting. Higher efficiency LED versions of all of these lamps are now available.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Tubular lamps with electrical contacts at each end are now being used in standalone lamps and household fixtures. These come in various lengths and power ratings (50–300 W). More powerful lamps are used as portable work lights, with bulbs rated 250 or 500 watts.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Tungsten halogen lamps are used in the majority of theatrical and studio (film and television) fixtures, including Ellipsoidal reflector spotlights, Source Four, and Fresnels. PAR Cans are also predominantly tungsten halogen.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Projection lamps are used in motion-picture and slide projectors for homes and small office or school use. The compact size of the halogen lamp permits a reasonable size for portable projectors, although heat-absorbing filters must be placed between the lamp and the film to prevent melting. Halogen lamps are sometimes used for inspection lights and microscope stage illuminators. Halogen lamps were used for early flat-screen LCD backlighting, but other types of lamps such as CCFL and now LED are used.


title: Halogen lamp

text: Halogen lamps do not contain any mercury. General Electric says that their quartz halogen lamps would not be classified as hazardous waste.


title: Lara Jill Miller

text: Lara Jill Miller (born April 20, 1967) is an American actress. She plays Samantha "Sam" Kanisky on the 1980s sitcom "Gimme a Break!" and as Kathy on "The Amanda Show".


title: Lara Jill Miller

text: She voices characters in "Clifford's Puppy Days", "The Life and Times of Juniper Lee", and Henry in "Henry Hugglemonster". She voices the character Widget in "Wow! Wow! Wubbzy!", Lambie in "Doc McStuffins", Fink in "OK K.O.! Let's Be Heroes", Lisa Loud in "The Loud House", and Libby Stein-Torres in "The Ghost and Molly McGee", in addition to Izzie in "SciGirls", Allie in "Curious George", and Cat in "If You Give a Mouse a Cookie"


title: Lara Jill Miller

text: Miller was born April 20, 1967, in Allentown, Pennsylvania, to Lois (née Noll; 1937-2014) and Stanley Miller. She is Jewish. She first started acting in a dinner theater she found in a newspaper ad, and she did not know what the word audition meant. She asked her Dad what that meant and he told her. She graduated from Allentown's William Allen High School. Her father was a pajama factory owner and her mother founded the talent agency Star Talent Management.


title: Lara Jill Miller

text: Miller's professional acting career began on Broadway, where she appeared as Amaryllis in a revival of "The Music Man" with Dick Van Dyke.


title: Lara Jill Miller

text: In 1981, after her appearance on Broadway, she joined the cast of "Gimme a Break!", playing the role of the tomboyish Samantha "Sam" Kanisky opposite Nell Carter. When the series ended its six-year run on NBC in 1987, Miller returned to New York University, where she played on the university's women's varsity tennis team and continued performing on stage nationally. Four years later, she received her J.D. degree from Fordham University School of Law, leaving graduation early to portray Peter Pan in a production at the Pennsylvania Youth Theater. She subsequently was admitted to practice law in New Jersey, New York, and her native Pennsylvania.