title: Airplane II: The Sequel

text: The computer's destruction results in collateral damage to the shuttle; the flight is not yet out of danger. En route to the Moon, flight control shifts to a lunar base under the command of Commander Buck Murdock. Contemptuous of Ted because of Macho Grande, he nonetheless agrees to help and they manage to land the craft safely on the Moon. Ted and Elaine fall back in love and are married at the end. After the wedding, Joe looks into the cockpit and asks for his briefcase back.


title: Airplane II: The Sequel

text: A post-credit message – "Coming from Paramount Pictures: "Airplane III"" – inspires Murdock to remark, "That's exactly what they'll be expecting us to do!"


title: Airplane II: The Sequel

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 42% based on 19 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100 based on nine critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Airplane II: The Sequel

text: "Variety" remarked, "It can't be said that "Airplane II" is no better or worse than its predecessor. It is far worse, but might seem funnier had there been no original". Roger Ebert gave the film two out of four stars, saying it "never really seems to know whether it's about a spaceship. It's all sight gags, one-liners, puns, funny signs and scatological cross-references".


title: Airplane II: The Sequel

text: "Airplane II" opened in the United States the same weekend as "The Toy" and "48 Hrs." and finished second for the weekend behind "The Toy" with a gross of $5,329,208 from 1,150 screens. Grosses dropped 45% the following week and the film went on to earn only $27.2 million in the United States and Canada, compared to the original's $83 million box office total.


title: Bart Allen

text: Bartholomew Henry "Bart" Allen II is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. A speedster, he first appeared under the alias Impulse and later became the second Kid Flash and the fourth Flash. Created by Mark Waid and Mike Wieringo, Bart first made a cameo in "The Flash" (vol. 2) #91 in 1994 before his full debut in issue #92. He has since been featured as the lead character in "Impulse" (1995–2002) and "" (2006–2007). Bart also appears in the series "Young Justice" and "Teen Titans" as a member of both superhero teams. In addition to the Teen Titans and Young Justice, Bart was a core character in 10 issues of "Justice League of America" under the mantle of the Flash.


title: Bart Allen

text: As first conceived by writers, Bart was born in the 30th century to Meloni Thawne and Don Allen, and is part of a complex family tree of superheroes and supervillains. His father, Don, is one of the Tornado Twins and his paternal grandfather is Barry Allen, the second Flash. His paternal grandmother, Iris West Allen, is also the adoptive aunt of the third Flash, Wally West (Bart's first cousin once removed). Additionally, Bart is the first cousin of XS, a Legionnaire and daughter of Dawn Allen. On his mother's side, he is a descendant of supervillains Professor Zoom and Cobalt Blue as well as the half-brother of Owen Mercer, the second Captain Boomerang. In addition to these relatives, he had a supervillain clone known as Inertia.


title: Bart Allen

text: For most of his superhero career, Bart was the teenage sidekick to the Wally West version of the Flash. After West's apparent death in the "Infinite Crisis" crossover event in 2006, Allen grew up and became the Flash. His tenure as the Flash was brief and concluded with his death in issue 13 of "The Flash: The Fastest Man Alive". Allen was subsequently absent for nearly two years after his apparent death, but resurfaced—young again—as Kid Flash, in 2009's "". During DC's "The New 52" era, Bart Allen was reintroduced in "Teen Titans" as the alias of an amnesiac revolutionary from the future named Bar Torr; the character was later written out of comics, and his tenure erased from continuity by the subsequent DC Rebirth initiative. The original Bart Allen was brought back as part of DC Rebirth's "Wonder Comics Young Justice" series.


title: Bart Allen

text: Outside of comics, Bart has been portrayed by Kyle Gallner in the live-action television series "Smallville". Jason Marsden voiced the character in the animated series "Young Justice". Jordan Fisher portrays a variation of the character as the future son of Barry Allen and Iris West-Allen starting in the seventh season of The CW Arrowverse television series "The Flash" as a recurring character.


title: Bart Allen

text: As depicted in a Legion of Super-Heroes story, Barry Allen's children—the Tornado Twins—were arrested in A.D. 2995 by the government of Earth, which had fallen under the covert control of the Dominators. Following a one-day trial on trumped-up charges of treason, the Twins were executed. According to a "Daily Planet" news report, Don Allen is survived by his wife Carmen Johnson (whose real name was Meloni Thawne), his mother Iris West Allen, and his two-year-old son: Barry Allen II. This timeline was wiped out by the events of "" miniseries.


title: Bart Allen

text: In the new post-"Zero Hour" timeline, Bart Allen was the son of Don Allen and Meloni Thawne (a descendant of Eobard Thawne). The Tornado Twins of this timeline were killed in an invasion by the Dominators that took place years before this timeline's Legion of Super-Heroes was founded, when Bart was a baby. Bart was born with full super-speed; his cousin Jenni Ognats, daughter of Dawn Allen and Jeven Ognats, did not at first display any signs of super-speed. At the sight of seeing her father tortured, her latent super-speed powers activated and would go on to join the Legion under the name XS. Subsequent to the restoration of the DC multiverse, this along with the entire history of the post-"Zero Hour" Legion was retconned to have taken place on the parallel world of Earth-247, with the Tornado Twins and their families having traveled there from New Earth.


title: Bart Allen

text: Suffering from a hyper-accelerated metabolism, Bart Allen was aging at a faster rate than that of any other human being, thus causing him to appear the age of twelve when he was chronologically only two years old. To prevent him from developing mental health problems, he was raised in a virtual reality machine which created a simulated world that kept pace with his own scale of time. When it became clear that this method was not helping, his grandmother, Iris Allen, took him back in time to the present where The Flash, Wally West, tricked Bart into a race around the world. By forcing Bart into an extreme burst of speed, Wally managed to shock his hyper metabolism back to normal. Because he had spent the majority of his childhood in a simulated world, Bart had no concept of danger and was prone to leaping before he looked. The youth proved to be more trouble than Wally could handle, and he was palmed off onto retired superhero speedster Max Mercury, who moved Bart to Manchester, Alabama. Bart originally created the Impulse codename for himself, though a retcon in "Impulse" #50 has Batman codenaming him such as a warning, not a compliment.


title: Bart Allen

text: Bart joined the Titans early in his career before going on to become one of the founding members of the superhero team Young Justice alongside Robin and Superboy. For a time, Impulse became the owner of a spaceship granted to him by a rich sultan in appreciation for having helped save his castle. The team used this ship to reunite Doiby Dickles with his queen and restore the rightful rule of Myrg. Impulse stayed with Young Justice for an extensive period of time during which he developed the ability to make speed-force energy duplicates. This allowed him to be in multiple places at once. The newly acquired power proved useful until one of the duplicates was killed during the "Our Worlds at War" storyline when half the team was lost on Apokolips. Bart quit Young Justice temporarily as the death of his duplicate led him to come to terms with his own mortality.


title: Bart Allen

text: Following Max Mercury's disappearance, Bart was taken in by Jay Garrick, the first Flash, and his wife Joan. After the breakup of Young Justice, Bart joined some of his former teammates in a new line-up of the Teen Titans.


title: Bart Allen

text: Shortly after Bart joined the Teen Titans, he was shot in the knee by Deathstroke (who at the time was possessed by Jericho) and received a prosthetic one. While recovering, Bart read every single book in the San Francisco Public Library and reinvented himself as the new Kid Flash. Once healed, the artificial knee did not affect his ability to run at speeds approaching that of light, but reminding him that he needs to think first rather than to act impulsively. When Robin reminded him that by becoming Kid Flash, he would be forced to live in the Flash's shadow, Bart said firmly, "No, he'll be living in mine."


title: Bart Allen

text: In the "Titans Tomorrow" storyline, Bart assumed the mantle of the Flash after the current Flash died in a "Crisis". In this alternate future he was able to steal the speed of others, a power he used on his past self. This reality shows a grown Bart posing as a member of the so-called Titans of Tomorrow. However he is really a spy working on the behalf of Titans East, a resistance group led by the future Cyborg. Additionally, the future Bart is romantically involved with Rose Wilson, The Ravager.


title: Bart Allen

text: During the "Infinite Crisis", Superboy-Prime attacked Conner Kent (Superboy) and injured or killed several Teen Titans, thus prompting Bart to stop his rampage. He accomplished this by running him at top speed into the Speed Force with the help of veteran speedsters Wally West and Jay Garrick. The feat took its toll on Garrick, who reached his limit before entering the Speed Force, and West, who turned into energy and vanished, leaving Bart alone in the fight against a vastly more powerful Superboy-Prime. Luckily for the young speedster, Barry Allen, Johnny Quick, and Max Mercury, all of whom had been previously absorbed into the Speed Force, appeared and aided him.


title: Bart Allen

text: After Superboy-Prime managed to escape from his prison, Bart follows him, spending four years in an alternate reality's Keystone City. Returning to his universe with Superboy-Prime, temporarily without his memories of what happened during the crisis and wearing his grandfather's costume, an aged Bart reappeared in Tokyo just in time to fight alongside Superman and many other heroes in the Battle of Metropolis. Getting his memories back, he unleashes his anger against Superboy-Prime for killing Conner Kent and so forcing the villain to retreat from battle. When the battle is over, Bart explains to Jay where he had been, and claimed he had used up the last of his speed, leaving him powerless.


title: Bart Allen

text: Harboring a secret—that the Speed Force was still around, and threatened to overwhelm him—Bart set about creating a normal, mundane life for himself. He got a job as a factory worker at Keystone Motors and tried to leave super-heroics behind him; however, trouble around him eventually led him to don the costume.


title: Bart Allen

text: When his roommate gained super-powers and became the Griffin, Bart is forced to accept his destiny. Following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather, Bart Allen became the Flash. Not long after defeating the Griffin, the latest Flash moved to Los Angeles to start a new chapter in his life. As a civilian, Bart began training at the Los Angeles Police Academy, focusing on forensics.


title: Bart Allen

text: Soon after donning the Flash identity, Bart was considered for Justice League membership and got particular support from Batman, who felt he was more than ready for the position. Robin contacted Bart and asked him to return to the Teen Titans. However, after fighting Steppenwolf with the newly reformed Justice League, Bart tried to join the League rather than rejoin the Titans, although he held off on taking an official position until he felt that he was ready.


title: Bart Allen

text: When Bart confronted Captain Cold at his apartment while following up on a cold case as part of his forensics class- having determined that the victim's head had been frozen and shattered, with Cold the only villain capable of reaching the necessary temperature who didn't have a clear alibi at the time- Zoom appeared and attacked Bart. Zoom was apparently enlisted by Bart's grandmother, Iris, with the goal of immobilizing him before an imminent attack. It was later revealed that Iris only came to the past to warn her grandson about the Rogues (consisting of Abra Kadabra, Mirror Master, Heat Wave, the Pied Piper, the Trickster, Weather Wizard, and Captain Cold), led by Inertia, teaming up. Together they were trying to build a machine that would stop time. As their plan began to come to fruition, Bart was arrested for the fight with Steppenwolf, who was a New God.


title: Bart Allen

text: Bart revealed himself as the Flash in order to fight the Rogues. During the battle, it was revealed that the machine built by Inertia actually drains the Speed Force from an individual instead of freezing time. When the Rogues used it on the Flash, Bart's powers were stripped away from him, leaving him surrounded by the Rogues and leading to the appearance of the Black Flash. Inertia's machine proved unstable, however, and would destroy the West Coast if the Speed Force was not safely released from it. Bart fought the Rogues before chasing after Inertia, distracting them while Valerie Perez released the Speed Force. In a panic, Captain Cold, Heatwave, and Weather Wizard kill Bart.


title: Bart Allen

text: Mourners held a candlelight vigil at the Flash Museum. Outside Titans Tower in San Francisco, a memorial statue of Bart in his Kid Flash uniform was placed next to the statue of Superboy.


title: Bart Allen

text: As Wally West's return to New Earth coincided exactly with Bart's death, Inertia alleged that Bart's loss of powers was a direct consequence of Wally absorbing the newly released Speed Force. However, no further blame was put on Wally, who then avenged his protégé by freezing Inertia's body in time but leaving his mind active. Inertia was put on display in a new area of the Flash Museum, dedicated to Bart's life. In "Final Crisis: Rogues Revenge", Inertia was unfrozen and continued his rampage trying to kill Bart Allen's family, but was stopped by the Flash's enemy Zoom. Zoom revealed that he wanted Inertia to become the new Kid Flash. Inertia stole Zoom's time manipulation power, leaving Zoom unable to even walk, and renamed himself "Kid Zoom." The Rogues and Kid Zoom battled, and, Kid Zoom was incapacitated by the Pied Piper, at which point the Rogues killed him. The Rogues delivered Inertia's corpse to Keystone City with a message reading "Tell the Flash we're even – The Rogues."


title: Bart Allen

text: Marc Guggenheim, writer of the story arc in which Bart dies, has stated that this was an editorial decision, and that he was instructed that his five-issue run would have to end with Bart's death and the involvement of the Rogues.


title: Bart Allen

text: Keystone City held a funeral for Bart, in which Jay Garrick, Cyborg, Wonder Girl and Robin gave eulogies. At the end of his own speech, Robin played a video Bart made soon after he had taken on the mantle of Kid Flash. In it Bart relayed to his friends that no matter what happened to him, he would always be proud of having been a part of the Flash legacy, and how happy he was being a member of the Teen Titans. Shortly after the Keystone funeral, a more private funeral was held for Bart at Titans Tower, where they erected a golden statue of Bart as Kid Flash beside the statue of Superboy.


title: Bart Allen

text: During the Sinestro Corps invasion of Earth, Superboy-Prime's first act was to visit and defile Bart's grave which was inscribed "Bart Allen: The Flash". Superboy-Prime used his heat vision to cross out "The Fastest Man Alive" and write in its place "stupidest boy dead".


title: Bart Allen

text: In "" mini-series, Bart Allen returns as his teenage self in his Kid Flash attire when Brainiac 5 enacts phase two of his plan to defeat Superboy-Prime and the Legion of Super-Villains. His resurrection is brought about by the activation of the "living lightning rod" first seen in "The Lightning Saga". Brainiac 5 explains that Bart was destined to die one way or another, because his leap from child to adult had jump-started Bart's hyper-accelerated aging again, and that had the Rogues not killed him, he would have been dead of old age within months. Because he is needed for the battle against Superboy-Prime, Brainiac 5 sends the Legion back to the 21st century to use Wally West's lightning bolt to house Bart's childlike Speed Force essence. In the 31st, he then uses the combined power of the Lightning Lads and Lighting Lasses, along with XS running on the cosmic treadmill, to release Bart from the Speed Force. Bart and XS make mention that they feel a new strength emanating from the Speed Force, suggesting they can feel Barry Allen's return, although Bart believes it to be Max Mercury instead.


title: Bart Allen

text: Soon after Bart's resurrection, Superboy is also resurrected by the Legion. Together the pair aid the Legion in defeating Superboy-Prime by having him destroy himself (literally). Bart tries to convince XS to return to the past with him, but she instead decides to stay in the future, getting to know their new Earth.


title: Bart Allen

text: Once returned to the present, Superman assembles the Teen Titans as well as the adult Titans together, and re-introduces them to Kid Flash and Superboy.


title: Bart Allen

text: In "" storyline, Bart quickly discovers that things had changed significantly since he had been away. Barry Allen, his grandfather and legendary speedster who had sacrificed himself against the battle with the Anti-Monitor, had also returned from the grave. At Teen Titans Tower West, where Robin and Wonder Girl have planned a welcome home party for Bart while everyone else is at the parades for Barry, Bart views his grandfather's return with skepticism, admitting a desire for things to "go back to the way it used to be". He wishes that Wally was still the primary Flash and he would still be his sidekick. Bart's bitterness, though, centers on feeling angry that Barry is the only one to escape the Speed Force and his former mentor, Max Mercury had not.


title: Bart Allen

text: Bart, along with others connected to the Speed Force, are struck with severe pain when Barry accidentally kills the speedster Savitar by merely touching him. When Barry accidentally kills another evil speedster, it is revealed that he is now the new Black Flash. The JLA and JSA work together to contain Barry in a machine that will sever his ties to the Speed Force. Bart rushes to the scene and confronts Barry over the reason why Max has not returned, but his grandfather cannot provide an answer. The Black Flash part of Barry quickly takes over, shattering the machine and attempting to reach out to the speedsters, including Bart, in the area. Barry is rushed away by his friends as Bart, Wally, Iris, and Jay look on.


title: Bart Allen

text: Superman tells Bart and the others that Barry has decided to run back into the Speed Force to protect them. Wally decides to follow Barry and bring him back, and Bart asks him to bring back Max. Shortly after Wally leaves, Linda contacts Jay and Bart to tell them that Professor Zoom, the Reverse-Flash, is at her house attacking Jay and Iris. Bart and Jay rush to the scene, and fight Professor Zoom through the city. During their fight, Professor Zoom criticizes Bart for being a pollutant in the Thawne line due to being a descendant of both an Allen and a Thawne. He bests Bart with ease and is about to stab him with his staff, when Max Mercury suddenly returns from the Speed Force. Bart is shocked and overjoyed by his mentor's return. Wally and Barry return as well and the group of speedsters charge the Reverse-Flash, ready for a fight.


title: Bart Allen

text: In the aftermath of the battle with the Reverse-Flash, an encounter with Jesse Chambers causes Wally's daughter Iris to manifest a connection to the Speed Force. Much to Bart's surprise, Iris decides to don Bart's old costume and become the new Impulse.


title: Bart Allen

text: With Bart and Conner Kent's return, both of their statues are removed from the Titans Tower's memorial. However, Nekron, the "black personification" of Death, seeks to reclaim their lives during the "Blackest Night" crossover. Bart, along with Wally, races across the globe to warn every hero of the Black Lantern Corps' invasion. Bart later arrives at Coast City with Wally and scatters members of the Justice League and Teen Titans to take a stand against Nekron, who is responsible for the Black Lanterns. Despite being resurrected, Bart's previous status as a deceased still allows one of the undead lord's black rings to transform him into a Black Lantern.


title: Bart Allen

text: After his grandfather is chosen as a Blue Lantern by Ganthet of the Guardians of the Universe and leader of the Blue Lantern Corps, Bart immediately engages in battle with him. Barry's blue power ring detects that Bart is still alive, but will die if he is not freed from the black ring soon. Barry nearly releases Bart from the black ring using blue energy constructs crafted in the images of Bart as Impulse and Kid Flash, before interference by Black Lantern versions of Professor Zoom and Solovar stops him. Wally and Blue Lantern Saint Walker join Barry to fight against them. Bart attempts to use his speed powers to kill Wally, only to be temporarily returned to normal. Realizing that their mutual connection to the Speed Force can save Bart, Barry uses his powers to break the ring's connection, freeing him.


title: Bart Allen

text: Sometime after Blackest Night, Bart and Conner are recruited by Cyborg to help rescue a current Titan by the name of Static, who had been kidnapped while visiting his hometown of Dakota. The three heroes arrive at the scene of a battle between the Teen Titans and a superhuman gangster named Holocaust, and intervene just as he is about to finish off their comrades. Bart and Conner then comment that it's time for them to come out of "retirement" and rejoin the Teen Titans. Holocaust simply laughs and tells them to bring it, and Bart responds by saying "We were hoping you'd say that". After a lengthy battle, Bart deals the finishing blow to the villain by running around him fast enough to open a vacuum which sucks him into the Earth's inner core.


title: Bart Allen

text: At the behest of Tim Drake, Bart travels to Gotham City and saves Selina Kyle from members of the League of Assassins while she is sleeping in her apartment. After knocking out the would-be killers, Bart remarks to Tim over the radio that Selina is "super-fine", and that this may be the best day of his life.


title: Bart Allen

text: Shortly after settling back in Titans Tower, Bart reveals to Conner that during his brief stay in the future, he went through a number of records and schematics concerning technology from the era. He also tells Conner that he is losing his memories of this future information due to the time stream being corrected, and that he is writing down everything he can remember.


title: Bart Allen

text: When Iris West Allen calls Barry home, she, Jay Garrick, Wally West, and Bart Allen are all troubled by the way that he has been isolating himself from everyone. Bart believes that Barry dislikes him and runs off until he is attacked by Hot Pursuit. Barry arrives too late, when Hot Pursuit discharges electricity at Bart with his baton and is engulfed in lightning. However, Hot Pursuit mistakenly believes that Bart is not one of the anomalies that are affecting the timeline, known as the "Flashpoint".


title: Bart Allen

text: The Earth is a changed alternate timeline, where Bart Allen wakes up in the 31st century in Brainiac's stasis pod chamber in 31st century and has lost his super-speed. After failing to avoid being re-captured by Brainiac, he is confronted by a female Hot Pursuit and with her help, pulls away from Brainiac. This Hot Pursuit reveals herself to be Patty Spivot, Barry Allen's assistant. Bart must find a way to get his super-speed back before being erased from existence. Bart learns that Patty stole Hot Pursuit's motorcycle and has taken his place. Bart allows himself to be recaptured by Brainiac and is placed into a stasis pod, destroying Brainiac's security program from the inside. Patty holds of Brainiac and breaks an energy projector, which returns Bart's super-speed to him. Bart then runs through time to the 21st century, and promises Patty he will return and rescue her. However, Bart's body was transforming into the Black Flash that had been controlled by the Speed Force, taking him to reduce the speedsters Max Mercury, Jay Garrick, and Wally West. Bart reversed from the Black Flash and runs into Barry, when he realizes that the Speed Force is encased for him. Bart is to be absorbed into the living embodiment of the Speed Force's light that gives Barry his power and tells him to save the world.


title: Bart Allen

text: Prior to Bart Allen's reappearance, the "Titans Tomorrow" alternate-future version of Bart Allen reappears in the 2018 crossover storyline “Super-Sons of Tomorrow”. A shattered figure of Bart Allen wearing his Impulse costume is also seen in the Flash Museum in the 25th Century.


title: Bart Allen

text: The original Bart Allen returns to the main DC universe after Wally West and Barry Allen break the Force Barrier. Once again wearing the Impulse costume, he emerges from the Speed Force and races through a city street triumphantly declaring that he is back.


title: Bart Allen

text: Shortly afterward, he reunites with his former Young Justice and Teen Titans teammates Robin (Tim Drake) and Wonder Girl (Cassandra Sandsmark). Bart is the main driving force behind the revival of the Young Justice team; after being transported to Gemworld and reunited with Superboy (Kon-El), the team officially re-forms.


title: Bart Allen

text: Bart's primary power is speed, along with abilities that are common to comics speedsters, such as creating whirlwinds, running on water, and vibrating through matter. The latter ability results in "molecular taffy" if Bart does not concentrate; he also possesses an aura, that prevents air friction while running. Bart does possess some abilities that other speedsters do not have. He has the ability to produce "scouts", Speed Force avatars that he can send through the timestream, but has used it infrequently since the death of one avatar put him in a coma during the "Our Worlds at War" storyline that crossed over among the "Impulse", "Superboy", and "Young Justice" titles. After being forced to use it during the "World Without Young Justice" crossover event, he was able and willing to use them with ease, up until he became Kid Flash. He has been shown to move faster than light as Impulse, while now he has an artificial knee which limits his speed as Kid Flash. He now can only travel close to the speed of light.


title: Bart Allen

text: Bart is resistant to the alterations in the time stream. His parents met only in post-"Zero Hour" continuity, but he arrived before the event. Bart has the ability to recall everything he has ever read, heard or watched (which includes speed-reading every book in the San Francisco Public Library), allowing him to spout encyclopedic information concerning the situation at hand as well as quotations from Mark Twain, of whose work he is fond. He has also displayed the ability to create powerful radio waves by rotating his arms at high speeds and using the resulting vibrations in conjunction with his teammate Static's electromagnetic abilities.


title: Bart Allen

text: After "Infinite Crisis", Bart's connection to the Speed Force is more difficult to control because he now contains the Speed Force and, in essence, is the Speed Force. When he taps into the Speed Force, Bart appears to have electricity crackling around him, and the Speed Force inside him becomes so lethal that he initially wears the Flash suit while running in order to prevent it from killing him. After remembering his experiences on an alternate Earth during a fight with Griffin, he began to gain a measure of control over the Speed Force before it was released from his body just prior to his death.


title: Bart Allen

text: Since his first appearance in "The Flash" #91, Bart had been trained by several speed-endowed heroes such as Jay Garrick, Johnny Quick, and Max Mercury. Prior to his reluctance to don the red and yellow, Bart showed a lot of enthusiasm toward his role as the future Flash. However, Wally West had a number of apprehensions about Bart, as shown by Wally's naming Jesse Quick as his successor and his refusal to deliver to Bart his invitation from Cyborg to join the latest incarnation of the Teen Titans. Bart took these acts in stride though, and, after Robin claimed that he will always live in the Flash's shadow, Bart even says that "the Flash will be in mine".


title: Bart Allen

text: After the DC universe was rebooted in 2011, a new incarnation of the character was introduced with a substantially rewritten history. "Teen Titans" (vol. 4) #1 opens with an amnesiac Bart six months prior to his first appearance, saving a mansion from a fire. He cannot explain how he is able to move at superhuman speeds, but he is certain that he has a connection to the Flash, and so begins to call himself "Kid Flash". The second issue identifies this Kid Flash as Bart Allen. Virgil Hawkins, a brilliant intern from S.T.A.R. Labs, performs diagnostic tests on Bart and concludes that Bart is not from the 21st Century, indicating that he may possibly be from the 30th Century. Based on his test, Virgil presents Kid Flash with a new uniform, one that can keep his molecules aligned. This Bart Allen is also hinted to be from the future as his flashes from the future and the Legion Lost team's recollection of him from their history indicate.


title: Bart Allen

text: In "Justice League of America's Vibe", Amanda Waller deduces from testing his abilities against Vibe's that Kid Flash draws power from the Speed Force, which Vibe is able to disrupt. When they accidentally touch, Kid Flash's past appears before Vibe's eyes, and he is shown to be a criminal from Earth's future. Kid Flash says he has no recollection of his past, nor why he has been sent back in time. The pair find the spot where he first arrived from Earth's future, which Kid Flash had been dreaming about for some time, but Bart flees the scene because he distrusts the JLA. In "The Flash" #21, Kid Flash meets the Flash (Barry Allen). Barry learns Kid Flash is from the future and also senses that his powers do not stem from the Speed Force. Kid Flash claims that Bart Allen is not his real name, and refuses to say who gave it to him. He also denies the Flash the opportunity to share his own secret identity with Bart.


title: Bart Allen

text: Bart Allen's new origin story is later given in "Teen Titans" (vol. 4) #25 and 26 (December 2013, January 14). His real name is explained to be Bar Torr, having been sent to the 21st century as part of a witness protection program ahead of his trial for terrible crimes. A feared reactionary from a dystopian alien world Altros Prime in the far future, Bar Torr was the son of a religious couple who were murdered by the Purifiers, agents of the oppressive regime of the Functionary. An orphan, Bar managed to put his sister Shira into the care of a nunnery after many brutal years spent protecting her. Too young to kill any Purifiers himself, he joined their ranks instead. Following a space ship crash while smuggling contraband for the Purifiers, Torr discovered that by unknown means he had acquired healing abilities and incredible super speed, which he later used to get bloody revenge on the Purifiers, sending a message of hope to the oppressed people of his homeworld. He later assembled an army of reactionaries and began a full-scale rebellion against the Functionary which lasted many years, until members of his rebellion seriously injured an older Shira, who grew up on the side of the Functionary. This prompted Bar to turn himself in. Seeking penance, he promised the Functionary he would take down his own rebellion from the inside. While the prosecution assembled its case against Bar, he was sent back to the 21st century with a new personality and new memories, as Bart Allen, and only a lingering feeling that he was pursuing redemption. In the present day, in the wake of an attack on the team by Johnny Quick of the Crime Syndicate, the prosecution retrieves Bart and brings him and the team to the future once again, where he awaits trial, and his friends learn of his past atrocities. During his trial, Kid Flash admits being guilty and the rest of his future resistance come and attack. During the fight Bart reunites with his sister and she convinces him to surrender. Bart is sentenced to life on the prison planet Takron-Galtos. Solstice then proclaims her love for him and kills a judge in order to be imprisoned with Bar. After a brief goodbye with Red Robin they are sent away to prison.


title: Bart Allen

text: Bart returns to the 21st century and is next seen with the Elite alongside Klarion the Witch Boy, Trinity of the Indigo Tribe and the Guardian. He confronts his old teammates, angry because he feels Red Robin abandoned him and Solstice in the future and never came back for him, implying that he has spent centuries waiting. He ultimately rejoins the Teen Titans, but soon afterwards returns to the future, leaving behind a note saying that he intends to rescue Solstice from Takron-Galtos by himself.


title: Bart Allen

text: Following the death of Max Mercury and Helen Claiborne, Bart went back to the future to be with his mother, while his girlfriend Carol Bucklen came along. Carol began studying the Speed Force to use it for the benefit of humanity. The corrupt President Thawne, Bart's grandfather, took their research and made the Hyperguard, a group of hyper-fast soldiers. The adult Carol managed to pull her younger self and Bart into the future. Bart ended up preventing Max's and Helen's death, thus preventing this reality from happening. This reality appeared in "Impulse" #73–75.


title: Bart Allen

text: Bart was a crucial part of the "Titans Tomorrow" storyline. Here, Wally West was dead and Bart was the new Flash. The Teen Titans were now fanatic superheroes controlling the western United States. However, Bart was really a spy for Titans East, a rebel group led by Cyborg and Bumblebee. He seemed to have a romantic relationship with Rose Wilson.


title: Bart Allen

text: The Titans Tomorrow group has recently returned, where it was revealed that due to Bart's recent death, the future timeline has been altered so these versions of him and Conner are actually clones of the originals, created by the alternate future version of Tim Drake. However, unlike his previous future self, the cloned Bart is completely on the side of his fascist teammates.


title: Bart Allen

text: Another alternate future is showcased in "The Ray" (vol. 2) #25–26. Here Bart, Ray Terrill, and Triumph were "three rich guys with superpowers". Bart was in love with Ray's girlfriend, whom Ray treated like dirt. However, Bart realized that he did not have a chance with her either and ended up knocking Ray out and leaving him, not knowing that hitmen were on their way.


title: Bart Allen

text: In Superman's dream reality, Kid Flash makes a cameo when Superman's cousin, Supergirl makes a speech at Congress. Bart is Kid Flash in this reality, and he, Superboy, and Beast Boy were heading to an Italian restaurant in Metropolis on the day the Joker's nuclear bomb went off, killing Bart and Beast Boy.


title: Bart Allen

text: Impulse appears in the comic-tie in for the "Legion of Super-Heroes" where he teams up with Brainiac 5, Triplicate Girl and Bouncing Boy to fight Tharok of the Fatal Five, who hijacked his virtual reality system.


title: Bart Allen

text: In the continuation of the "Smallville" TV show, "Smallville Season 11", Bart reappears in the arc "Haunted" teaming with Superman, and taking down Psimon in the streets of Metropolis. They get a message from Watchtower to stop Monsieur Mallah and Brain in Paris, robbing the Musée du Louvre, and in the middle of the fight, Bart gets "flashes of a speed demon" but prevail against the duo. Bart and Clark go on a quest to find Jay Garrick, the first speedster for knowledge to stop the demon. Bart sacrifices himself in a final altercation with the demon. In memorial, Jay starts a new career of managing younger heroes. Bart's appearance here is different: he has shaved blonde hair and has a suit resembling Jay Garrick's original costume. In the following story arc, "Argo" while Clark celebrates victory following the defeat of Doomsday with the help of Kara and the Legion of Super-Heroes, he sees a young Bart to his surprise.


title: Bart Allen

text: Stories featuring Bart Allen from "The Flash", "Impulse" and "The Flash: The Fastest Man Alive" have been collected into trade paperback:


title: Uppsala University

text: Uppsala University () is a public research university in Uppsala, Sweden. Founded in 1477, it is the oldest university in Sweden and the Nordic countries still in operation.


title: Uppsala University

text: The university rose to significance during the rise of Sweden as a great power at the end of the 16th century and was then given a relative financial stability with a large donation from King Gustavus Adolphus in the early 17th century. Uppsala also has an important historical place in Swedish national culture, identity and for the Swedish establishment: in historiography, literature, politics, and music. Many aspects of Swedish academic culture in general, such as the white student cap, originated in Uppsala. It shares some peculiarities, such as the student nation system, with Lund University and the University of Helsinki.


title: Uppsala University

text: Uppsala belongs to the Coimbra Group of European universities and to the Guild of European Research-Intensive Universities. It has ranked among the world's 100 best universities in several international rankings.


title: Uppsala University

text: The university has nine faculties distributed over three disciplinary domains: Humanities and Social Sciences, Medicine and Pharmacy, and Science and Technology. , it had approximately 52,000 registered students at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, and 2,200 PhD students.


title: Uppsala University

text: Architecturally, Uppsala University has traditionally had a strong presence in Fjärdingen, the neighbourhood around the cathedral on the western side of the River Fyris. Despite some contemporary building developments further away from the centre, Uppsala's historic centre continues to be dominated by the presence of the university.


title: Uppsala University

text: As with most medieval universities, Uppsala University initially grew out of an ecclesiastical centre. The archbishopric of Uppsala had been one of the most important sees in Sweden proper since Christianity first spread to this region in the ninth century. Uppsala had also long been a hub for regional trade, and had contained settlements dating back into the deep Middle Ages. As was also the case with most medieval universities, Uppsala had initially been chartered through a papal bull. Uppsala's bull, which granted the university its corporate rights, was issued by Pope Sixtus IV in 1477, and established a number of provisions. Among the most important of these was that the university was officially given the same freedoms and privileges as the University of Bologna. This included the right to establish the four traditional faculties of theology, law (Canon Law and Roman law), medicine, and philosophy, and to award the bachelor's, master's, licentiate, and doctoral degrees. The archbishop of Uppsala was also named as the university's Chancellor, and was charged with maintaining the rights and privileges of the university and its members.


title: Uppsala University

text: The turbulent period of the reformation of King Gustavus Vasa resulted in a drop in the already relatively insignificant number of students in Uppsala, which was seen as a centre of Catholicism and of potential disloyalty to the Crown. Swedish students generally travelled to one of the Protestant universities in Germany, especially Wittenberg. There is some evidence of academic studies in Uppsala during the 16th century; the Faculty of Theology is mentioned in a document from 1526, King Eric XIV appointed Laurentius Petri Gothus (later archbishop) rector of the university in 1566, and his successor and brother John III appointed a number of professors in the period 1569–1574. At the end of the century the situation had changed, and Uppsala became a bastion of Lutheranism, which Duke Charles, the third of the sons of Gustavus Vasa to eventually become king (as Charles IX) used to consolidate his power and eventually oust his nephew Sigismund from the throne. The Meeting of Uppsala in 1593 established Lutheran orthodoxy in Sweden, and Charles and the Council of state gave new privileges to the university on 1 August of the same year.


title: Uppsala University

text: Theology still had precedence, but in the privileges of 1593, the importance of a university to educate secular servants of the state was also emphasized. Three of the seven professorial chairs which were established were in Theology; of the other four, three were in Astronomy, Physics (or general natural sciences) and Latin eloquence. A fourth chair was given to Ericus Jacobi Skinnerus, who was also appointed rector, but whose discipline was not mentioned in the charter. Of the professors, several were taken over from the Collegium Regium in Stockholm, which had been functioning for a few years but closed in 1593. An eighth chair, in Medicine, was established in 1595 but received no appointee for several years. In 1599 the number of students was approximately 150. In 1600 the first post-reformation conferment of degrees took place. In the same year, the antiquarian and mystic Johannes Bureus designed and engraved the seal of the university, which is today used as part of the logotype.


title: Uppsala University

text: The medieval university had mainly been a school for theology. The aspirations of the emergent new great power of Sweden demanded a different kind of learning. Sweden both grew through conquests and went through a complete overhaul of its administrative structure. It required a much larger class of civil servants and educators than before. Preparatory schools, gymnasiums, were also founded during this period in various cathedral towns, notably Västerås (the first one) in 1623. Beside Uppsala, new universities were founded in more distant parts of the Swedish Realm, the University of Dorpat (present-day Tartu) in Estonia (1632) and the University of Åbo in Finland (1640). After the Scanian provinces were taken from Denmark, Lund University was founded in 1666.


title: Uppsala University

text: Instrumental in the reforms of the early 17th-century Swedish state was the long-dominant Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna, who had spent his own student days in German universities and who for the last years before his death was also chancellor of the university. King Gustavus Adolphus showed the university a keen interest and increased the professorial chairs from eight to thirteen in 1620, and again to seventeen in 1621. In 1624 the king donated "for all eternity" all his own inherited personal property in the provinces of Uppland and Västmanland, some 300 farms, mills and other sources of income. The king's former private tutor, Johan Skytte, who was made chancellor of the university in 1622, donated the Skyttean chair in Eloquence and Government which still exists. The university received a stable structure with its constitution of 1626. The head of the university was to be the chancellor, his deputy was the "pro-chancellor" (always the archbishop "ex officio"). The immediate rule was the responsibility of the consistory, to which belonged all the professors of the university, and the rector magnificus, who was elected for a semester at the time; the latter position circulated among the professors, each of whom sometimes held it several times.


title: Uppsala University

text: During the late 16th and early 17th centuries (and perhaps even earlier), the university was located to the old chapter house parallel to the south side of the cathedral, later renamed the "Academia Carolina". In 1622–1625 a new university building was built east of the cathedral, the so-called "Gustavianum", named after the reigning king. In the 1630s, the total number of students were about one thousand.


title: Uppsala University

text: Queen Christina was generous to the university, gave scholarships to Swedish students to study abroad and recruited foreign scholars to Uppsala chairs, among them several from the University of Strassburg, notably the philologist Johannes Schefferus (professor skytteanus), whose little library and museum building at "S:t Eriks torg" now belongs to the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala. The Queen, who would eventually declare her abdication in the great hall of Uppsala Castle, visited the university on many occasions; in 1652 she was present at an anatomical demonstration arranged at the castle for the young physician Olaus Rudbeck. Rudbeck, one of several sons of Johannes Rudbeckius, a former Uppsala professor who became Bishop of Västerås, was sent for a year to the progressive University of Leiden in the Netherlands. Returning in 1654, he received an assistantship in Medicine in 1655, and had already gone to work on a program of improving aspects of the university. He planted the first botanical garden, the one which would eventually be tended by Carl Linnaeus and is kept today as a museum of 18th-century botany under the name "Linnéträdgården" ("the Linnaean Garden"). With the patronage of the university chancellor Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie, Rudbeck was made full professor in 1660, was elected rector for two terms, despite his youth, and started a revision of the work of the other professors and a building spree with himself as architect. His most significant remaining architectural work is the anatomical theatre, which was added to Gustavianum in the 1660s and crowned with the characteristic cupola for which the building is today known.


title: Uppsala University

text: A gifted scientist, architect and engineer, Rudbeck was the dominant personality of the university in the late 17th century who laid some of the groundwork for Linnaeus and others, but he is perhaps more known today for the pseudohistorical speculations of his "Atlantica", which consumed much of his later life. When large parts of Uppsala burned down in 1702, Gustavianum, which contained the university library and its many valuable manuscripts, escaped the fire; local lore has it that the aging Rudbeck stood on the roof directing the work of fighting the fire.


title: Uppsala University

text: The early part of the 18th century was still characterized by the combination of Lutheran orthodoxy and classical philology of the previous century, but eventually a larger emphasis on sciences and practically useful knowledge developed. The innovative mathematician and physicist Samuel Klingenstierna (1698–1765) was made a professor in 1728, the physicist and astronomer Anders Celsius in 1729, and Carl Linnaeus was made professor of medicine with botany in 1741. The university was not immune to the parliamentary struggle between the parties known as the "Hats" and the "Caps," with the former having a preference for hard sciences and practical knowledge. The Hat government then in power established a chair in economics ("Œconomia publica") in 1741 and called Anders Berch as its first incumbent. This was the first professorship in economics outside Germany, and possibly the third in Europe (the first chairs having been established in Halle and Frankfurt (Oder) in 1727). In 1759, following a donation, another chair in economy was established, the Borgströmian professorship in "practical economy," by which was meant the practical application of the natural sciences for economic purposes (it eventually developed into a chair for physiological botany).


title: Uppsala University

text: There were very radical attempts at reforms which were never implemented, but important changes took place. University studies had until this time been very informal in their overall organization, with the all-purpose "philosophiæ magister"-degree being the only one frequently conferred and many never graduating, as there were no degree applicable to their intended area of work (and well-connected aristocratic students often not graduating as they did not need to). A few professional degrees for various purposes were introduced in 1749–1750, but the radical suggestion of binding students to a single program of study adapted to a particular profession was never implemented. The reforms of this era have been compared to those of the 1960s and 1970s (Sten Lindroth).


title: Uppsala University

text: Although it took some time after the fire of 1702, Uppsala Cathedral and Uppsala Castle were both eventually restored, both by Carl Hårleman, perhaps the most important Swedish architect of the era. He also modified Gustavianum, designed a new conservatory for Linnaeus' botanical garden and built the new Consistory house, which was to be the administrative core of the university.


title: Uppsala University

text: Another magnificent royal donation was that of the large baroque garden of the castle, given by Gustavus III to the university when it was obvious that the old botanical garden was insufficient. A large new conservatory was built by the architect Louis Jean Desprez. Additional grounds adjacent to the baroque garden has since been added. The old garden of Rudbeck and Linnaeus was largely left to decay, but was reconstructed in the years between 1918 and 1923 according to the specifications of Linnaeus in his work "Hortus Upsaliensis" from 1745.


title: Uppsala University

text: The issue of women's right to study at universities was raised during the very last session of the estate parliament in 1865 in a motion from Carl Johan Svensén, a member of the farmers' estate. The reception was mixed, with the most negative views coming from the clergy. In the following years the issue continued to be debated at the universities. In 1870, it was decided to let women take the secondary school examination ("studentexamen") that gave the right to entry at universities and the right to study and complete degrees at the faculties of Medicine in Uppsala and Lund and at the Caroline Institute of Medicine and Surgery in Stockholm. A common view was that the female sensitivity and compassion would make women capable of working as physicians, but their right to work was still restricted to private practice. Women's rights to higher education was extended in 1873, when all degrees except those in the faculties of theology and the licentiate degree in Law were made accessible for women.


title: Uppsala University

text: The first female student in Sweden was Betty Pettersson (1838–1885), who had already worked as a private tutor for several years when she took "studentexamen" in 1871. With a royal dispensation, she was allowed to enter university in Uppsala in 1872, the year before studies at the Philosophical faculty would actually be made generally available to women. She studied modern European languages and was the first woman in Sweden to complete an academic degree when she finished a fil. kand. in 1875. She became the first woman to be employed as a teacher in a public school for boys. The first woman in Sweden to complete a doctoral degree was Ellen Fries (1855–1900), who entered Uppsala university in 1877 and became a PhD in history in 1883. Other female students of this period includes Lydia Wahlström (1869–1954) who later became a noted educator, activist and writer on women's emancipation and suffrage. Defending a dissertation in history in 1900, she became the second woman to finish a doctorate at a Swedish university. In 1892, she founded the Uppsala Women's Student Association, who set up spex performances and other things enjoyed by male students but from which the women were excluded at the time. The members of the Association were the first woman to wear the student caps in public, an important sign of their status. Elsa Eschelsson (1861–1911) was the first Swedish woman to finish a law degree, and the first to become a "docent," but was not permitted to even hold the position of acting professor despite being formally qualified for this in everything but her sex. After years of conflicts with the professor of civil law A. O. Winroth, who wrote the paper on "Om tjenstehjonsförhållandet" and with the university board, she died in 1911 from an overdose of sleeping-powder.


title: Uppsala University

text: According to the constitution of 1809, only "native Swedish men" could be appointed to higher civil servant positions, including professorships. This was changed in 1925, and the first woman to hold a professorial chair at Uppsala University was Gerd Enequist, appointed professor of human geography in 1949.


title: Uppsala University

text: Hildegard Björck who studied in the university became the first Swedish woman to receive an academic degree.


title: Uppsala University

text: The governing board of the university is the consistory, with representatives of the faculties as well as members representing the students and non-academic employees (three professors and three students), and ten university outsiders appointed by the Swedish government. All these members in the consistory have the right to vote.


title: Uppsala University

text: The unions active at the university also have three representatives in the consistory; these members have the right to speak but not any right to vote.


title: Uppsala University

text: Since the last reorganization in 1999 the university has a separate body called the "academic senate", which is a wider, but mostly advisory group representing teaching staff / researchers and students. The executive head of the university is the "rector magnificus", whose deputy is the "prorector". There are (also since 1999) three vice rectors, each heading one of the three "disciplinary domains" (Arts and Social Sciences, Medicine and Pharmacy, and Science and Technology) into which the nine faculties are divided. Each faculty has a faculty board and is headed by a dean ("dekanus"). The position of dean is held part-time by a professor of the faculty.


title: Uppsala University

text: Through division of faculties and the addition of a previously independent school of Pharmacy as a new faculty, the traditional four-faculty organization of European universities has evolved into the present nine faculties:


title: Uppsala University

text: Uppsala University also hosts the Forum for South Asia Studies, a collaborative academic effort by its six faculties: Theology, Law, History and Philosophy, Social Sciences, Languages, and Educational Sciences. The Forum aims facilitate and promote research and education related to the South Asian countries: India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, the Maldives and Afghanistan, on the national and international level, with Ferdinando Sardella, Faculty of Theology, serving as the Forum's director.


title: Uppsala University

text: The Faculty of Law ("Juridiska fakulteten") is the oldest one in the Nordic countries and existed before 1477 (when the University of Uppsala was founded).


title: Uppsala University

text: The activities of the faculty include a wide range of research areas and specializations. This Faculty has one department: the Department of Law.


title: Uppsala University

text: The university library holds about 5.25 million volumes of books and periodicals (131,293 shelf meters), 61,959 manuscripts, 7,133 music prints, and 345,734 maps and other graphic documents. The holdings of the collection of manuscripts and music includes, among other things, the Gothic Bible manuscript Codex Argenteus.


title: Uppsala University

text: The most widely recognized building of the university library is Carolina Rediviva, the "revived Carolina," thus named in reference to "Academia Carolina" (see illustration), which held the university library from the earliest times until 1691, when it was moved to the upper floor of Gustavianum, where it miraculously survived the great city fire of 1702. In the mid-18th century, there were plans to move it back to the Academia Carolina or a new building on the same spot. The building was demolished in 1778 to make place for a new library, but this was never built and the area next to the cathedral where it stood is today a lawn. The present Carolina Rediviva was built in a different place and completed in 1841.


title: Uppsala University

text: The present university library system comprises 19 branches, including the one in the Carolina building.


title: Uppsala University

text: The Uppsala Academic Hospital or "Akademiska sjukhuset", which functions as a teaching hospital for the Faculty of Medicine and the Nursing School, is run by the Uppsala County Council in cooperation with the university. , the hospital had 7,719 employees and 1,079 places for patients.


title: Uppsala University

text: The university hospital is actually older than the university, as it goes back to the earliest hospital, founded in Uppsala in 1302, much later merged with the university clinic. This was used for 400 years until the great fire of 1702 which destroyed large parts of central Uppsala. A new hospital, which later became the Uppsala county hospital, was built in its place, but was moved out of the town in 1811.


title: Uppsala University

text: The first clinic with the specific intention to facilitate the practical education of medical students was the "Nosocomium Academicum", founded in 1708 and located to the Oxenstierna Palace at Riddartorget beside the cathedral (see illustration above). The building (the former residence of the president of the Royal Chancellery Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna) today houses the Faculty of Law.


title: Uppsala University

text: The present "Akademiska sjukhuset" was founded in 1850 as an organizational merger of the county hospital and the university clinic, and a new building was inaugurated in 1867 on the hill below Uppsala Castle to the southeast. From this building, which is still in use, the present hospital complex has grown.


title: Uppsala University

text: The Svedberg Laboratory (named after Theodore "The" Svedberg) is a university facility that contains the "Gustaf Werner cyclotron", which is used for research as well as for proton therapy for the treatment of cancer with close cooperation with the oncology clinic at Uppsala University Hospital. Such an accelerator and its gantries costs between $60 million and $100 million, and makes Uppsala University Hospital one of the approximately 40 centres in the world to provide such cancer treatment.


title: Uppsala University

text: The buildings and locations where the university has activities or which are significantly connected to its history are listed below. Some of the historic buildings in central Uppsala have had to be retired, as their protected status has made it impossible to make modifications necessary to meet requirements to adjust to the needs for students with disabilities.


title: Uppsala University

text: Ekonomikum is a building that is part of Uppsala University. The building, designed by Swedish modernist architect Peter Celsing, was completed in 1976, and housed departments for languages, humanities, and social sciences.


title: Uppsala University

text: Since the early 2000s, Ekonomikum is a multidisciplinary centre specialized in economics and financial studies, information science, and human geography. It has approximately 2,500 students and 500 faculty and staff members, a library, KPH print shop, a restaurant, and several students' associations.


title: Uppsala University

text: Up until June 2010 students at Uppsala University were obliged to become members of one of the nations, corporations of students traditionally according to province of origin (not strictly upheld now, for practical reasons). The system of dividing students into nations according to origin can ultimately be traced back to the nations at the medieval University of Paris and other early medieval universities, but the Uppsala nations appear only about 1630–1640, most likely under influence of the "Landsmannschaften" which existed at some of the German universities visited by Swedish students. In Sweden, nations exist only in Uppsala and Lund. The nations were originally seen as subversive organisations promoting less virtuous aspects of student life, but in 1663 the consistory made membership in a nation legal, each nation being placed under the inspectorship of a professor.


title: Uppsala University

text: The current thirteen nations all have a history stretching back to the early-to-mid 17th century, but some of them are the result of mergers of older, smaller nations that took place in the early 19th century to facilitate the financing of building projects.


title: Uppsala University

text: Since the 1960s there is a fourteenth nation, the "Skånelandens nation" (referring to the Scanian lands) which has no membership fee and exists as a legal device to get around the compulsory membership for students who prefer not to become affiliated with the traditional nations. However this nation was made redundant in 2010, when membership in a nation ceased to be mandatory.


title: Uppsala University

text: The Uppsala Student Union was founded in 1849 as a corporation representing all students except those attending the faculty of Pharmacy, irrespective of nation. The students at the faculty of Pharmacy were also exempt from the compulsory membership in the nations, but most pharmacy-students belonged to one. However they were obliged to take up membership in the Pharmaceutical Association of Uppsala Students, an organisation having the same role as the nations and the student union at the rest of the university.


title: Uppsala University

text: The compulsory membership in a student union was abolished 1 July 2010; however, the unions will still be the representing organisations in the university boards and committees. The status as a student union will be decided upon by the university board for periods of three years at a time. On 20 February 2013, the university board decided that there will be four student unions at the university during July 2013 – June 2016: the Uppsala Student Union (for students at the faculties of Art, Social Sciences, Languages, Theology, Law, Educational Sciences and Medicine), the Pharmaceutical Association of Uppsala Students (for students at the Faculty of Pharmacy), the Uppsala Union of Engineering and Science Students (at the Faculty of Science and Technology), and Rindi (the union for students at Campus Gotland). In February, 2016, two additional associations were given the status as student unions: Uppsala Business & Economics Students Association (for students of economy) and Uppsala Law Student Associations (for students of law). Thus, there are now six student unions at Uppsala university.


title: Uppsala University

text: The University's Royal Academic Orchestra was founded in 1627. Its main purpose is to play at academic ceremonies, but holds concerts on other occasions as well. Its leader has the title of "director musices". The position has been held by composers such as Wilhelm Stenhammar, Hugo Alfvén and Lars-Erik Larsson. Affiliated with the university are three choirs, the mixed Uppsala University Choir ("Allmänna Sången"), founded in 1830, the male choir Orphei Drängar, founded in 1853, and the Academy Chamber Choir of Uppsala, founded in 1957. A number of other choirs and orchestras are affiliated with the nations.


title: Uppsala University

text: An important name in the recent history of the choirs is Eric Ericson, who was conductor of both Orphei Drängar and the Chamber Choir. In honour of Ericson, the FöreningsSparbanken endowed the Eric Ericson Chair in Choral Directing, and the Uppsala University Choral Centre was inaugurated in 2000. The centre arranges courses in choral directing.Uppsala universitets Körcentrum


title: Uppsala University

text: Like many cities there is a shortage of housing in Uppsala, a problem which has existed for many years. Both native Swedes and foreign students are finding it difficult to find accommodation when first enrolling into the university. This problem is however not as bad as it was with several major housing construction projects having been completed after 2010.


title: Uppsala University

text: There has never been a custom in Sweden for the universities to arrange housing for students, in fact universities are by law not allowed to own housing. Students are expected to arrange their own living accommodations on the private market. To make it easier for students to find moderately priced housing, special student rooms and student apartments have been built by the student nations and student unions. However, the student housing is insufficient to accommodate all students. About 40,000 students are eligible to live in the 11,000 available rooms and apartments. Because of the low rent in these apartments and the general lack of housing in Uppsala the student apartments are highly attractive and many try to hold on to the contracts as long as possible even after graduating.


title: Uppsala University

text: Some of the most popular housing accommodations for the students are Flogsta, Kantorsgatan, Studentstaden, Studentvägen, Klostergatan, Rackarbergsgatan and many more.


title: Uppsala University

text: Sports play a very small role in the life of the university, compared to British and especially U.S. universities, but have existed in various forms since the early 17th century. Uppsala University is more noted for its musical and choral traditions. Both have partial roots in the 17th century institution of extracurricular exercises for students from the nobility.


title: Uppsala University

text: To ease the recruitment of students from the nobility, the university started in the 1630s to offer training in a number of or "exercises" (Swedish: ) deemed necessary for the well-rounded education of a young nobleman: riding, fencing, dance, drawing and modern languages such as French and Italian. The initiative came from Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna, who saw the value in a well-educated class of civil servants and the danger to his own class if its members would fall behind in academic education compared to those students who came from the lower estates. An "exercise yard," built for the riding and fencing exercises, was demolished in the late 19th century to give place to the new University Hall. The modern languages were made part of the regular academic curriculum in the 19th century. The surviving "exercises" include:


title: Uppsala University

text: Besides the , other sports have had a presence in Uppsala student life. The Upsala Simsällskap, "Uppsala Swimming Society," which is the oldest swimming club in the world, was founded in 1796 by the mathematician Jöns Svanberg. It had no formal connection to the university, but all its earliest members came from academic life. Svanberg even arranged a mock graduation ceremony, a "simpromotion", in parody of the university ceremonies, where those who had graduated from its swimming training were awarded "degrees" of master ("magister") and bachelor ("kandidat"). These degrees stuck, and Swedish swimming schools still use these degrees for different levels of swimming skills.


title: Uppsala University

text: An attempt was made in the 1870s to introduce academic rowing after the Oxbridge model. The Stockholm Nation acquired a rowing boat in 1877, soon followed by the Gothenburg Nation, and for a number of years rowing competitions were held between teams from the two nations. Although rowing never got the strong position it has at the English universities, an annual Uppsala-Lund regatta has been arranged since 1992, between rowing teams from Uppsala and Lund University. The race is held on the Fyris River in Uppsala on even years, and on a river in the vicinity of Lund on odd years. Each year there is at least one full eight crew with cox competing, with both men's and women's teams present. With the recent victory for Uppsala in 2005, the score stands 24–23 in Uppsala's favor.


title: Uppsala University

text: Uppsala University is one of the most prominent universities in Sweden and is commonly ranked within the top 100 in the world by several ranking agencies. For example, for over ten years, it has been ranked among the 80 best universities in the world the Academic Ranking of World Universities. Moreover, the QS World University Rankings by Subject for 2021 places Uppsala University in the top 50 in the following subjects: Pharmacy & Pharmacology (37th), Theology, Divinity and Religious studies (42nd), Biological Sciences (47th), Development Studies (48th), Archaeology (48th), Environmental Sciences (49th) and Geography (49th). Additionally, the Times Higher subject rankings for 2021 places Uppsala as the 51st most international university in the world.


title: Uppsala University

text: Uppsala University is associated with 8 Nobel Prize laureates, and numerous royalty, academics and public figures.


title: Uppsala University

text: As the dominant academic institution in Sweden for several centuries, Uppsala University has educated a large proportion of Swedish politicians and civil servants ever since its first period of expansion in the early part of the 17th century. These range from Chancellor of the Realm ("rikskansler") Johan Oxenstierna (1611–1657) and Lord Chief Justice ("riksdrots") Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie (1622–1686) to the first Social Democratic Prime Minister of Sweden, Hjalmar Branting (1860–1925). Other alumni are Dag Hammarskjöld (1905–1961), United Nations Secretary General who was (posthumously) awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1961, and the Swedish diplomat Hans Blix (born 1928), who was Head of the International Atomic Energy Agency 1981–1997, of the UNMOVIC 2000–2003, and previously Swedish Minister of Foreign Affairs 1978–1979. Hammarskjöld and Blix both graduated from the Uppsala Faculty of Law, as did the Swedish Minister of Foreign Affairs Anna Lindh, who was assassinated in 2003.


title: Uppsala University

text: Most Swedish clergymen, including most bishops and archbishops, have been educated at the university, including, in more recent times, Nathan Söderblom (1866–1931), Professor of the History of Religions in the Faculty of Theology, later Archbishop of Uppsala, and awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1930 for his work as leader of the ecumenical movement.


title: Uppsala University

text: The university became prominent in the sciences in the 18th century with names such as the physician and botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), the father of biological and mineralogical taxonomy, and his numerous important pupils, the physicist and astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), inventor of the Celsius scale the predecessor of the Celsius scale, and the chemist Torbern Bergman (1735–1784). Another scientist from this era is Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), better remembered today as a religious mystic. Several of the elements were discovered by Uppsala scientists during this period or later. Jöns Jakob Berzelius, one of the fathers of modern chemistry, received his doctorate in medicine in Uppsala in 1804, but later moved to Stockholm. Uppsala scientists of the 19th century include the physicist Anders Jonas Ångström (1814–1874). During the 20th century several Nobel laureates in the sciences have been Uppsala alumni or professors at the university.


title: Uppsala University

text: Many well-known Swedish writers have studied in Uppsala: Georg Stiernhielm (1598–1672) is often called the father of Swedish poetry. The poet and song composer Carl Michael Bellman (1740–1795), without doubt the best-loved and best-remembered of Swedish 18th-century poets, matriculated but left the university after less than a year. The writer, historian and composer Erik Gustaf Geijer (1783–1847), professor of history, and the poet Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom (1790–1855), professor of poetry, were principal figures of early 19th-century Swedish romanticism. The less than happy experiences of the Uppsala student life of novelist and playwright August Strindberg (1849–1912), resulted in his "Från Fjärdingen och Svartbäcken" (1877), a collection of short stories set in Uppsala ("From Fjärdingen and Svartbäcken," the title refers to two districts in Uppsala). Other Uppsala alumni are the poet Erik Axel Karlfeldt (1864–1931), who refused the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1918, but received it posthumously in 1931, the novelist and playwright Pär Lagerkvist (1891–1974), Nobel laureate in 1951, and the poet and novelist Karin Boye (1900–1941), for whom one branch of the university library has been named. The Communist leader Ture Nerman (1886–1969) wrote a novel called "Olympen", based on his experience as a student in Uppsala.


title: Uppsala University

text: Uppsala University has signed student exchange agreements with about 400 universities across all parts of the world. It takes part in the Erasmus programme and the Nordplus programme. It also benefits from its membership of the Coimbra Group of universities.


title: Uppsala University

text: In May 2010 Uppsala joined the Matariki Network of Universities (MNU) together with Dartmouth College (USA), Durham University (UK), Queen's University (Canada), University of Otago (New Zealand), University of Tübingen (Germany), and University of Western Australia (Australia).


title: Uppsala University

text: Along with Lund, Uppsala is the historic and traditional centre of Swedish academic life, making it a popular object of reference in Swedish literature, art, and film. Specifically, Uppsala University has appeared notably in "Män som hatar kvinnor" or "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo" by Stieg Larsson.


title: Uppsala University

text: The Norwegian pop singer Kirsti Sparboe dedicated one of her biggest successes to Uppsala University, publishing in 1969 the song "Ein Student aus Uppsala". The song, originally written in German, lasted 14 weeks in the German charts.


title: Uppsala University

text: Uppsala University appears in the novel "S." by Doug Dorst and J. J. Abrams. The fictional author V. M. Straka of "Ship of Theseus" sends Mr. Grahn a confidential letter on Uppsala Universitet letterhead and stamps his signature with "Straka Uppsala Arkiv" (included as an insert to the book).


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: The program evaluation and review technique (PERT) is a statistical tool used in project management, which was designed to analyze and represent the tasks involved in completing a given project.


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: First developed by the United States Navy in 1958, it is commonly used in conjunction with the critical path method (CPM) that was introduced in 1957.


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: PERT is a method of analyzing the tasks involved in completing a given project, especially the time needed to complete each task, and to identify the minimum time needed to complete the total project. It incorporates uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing precisely the details and durations of all the activities. It is more of an event-oriented technique rather than start- and completion-oriented, and is used more in those projects where time is the major factor rather than cost. It is applied on very large-scale, one-time, complex, non-routine infrastructure and on Research and Development projects.


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: PERT offers a management tool, which relies "on arrow and node diagrams of "activities" and "events": arrows represent the "activities" or work necessary to reach the "events" or nodes that indicate each completed phase of the total project."


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: PERT and CPM are complementary tools, because "CPM employs one time estimation and one cost estimation for each activity; PERT may utilize three time estimates (optimistic, expected, and pessimistic) and no costs for each activity. Although these are distinct differences, the term PERT is applied increasingly to all critical path scheduling."


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: PERT was developed primarily to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and complex projects. It was developed for the U.S. Navy Special Projects Office in 1957 to support the U.S. Navy's Polaris nuclear submarine project. It found applications all over industry. An early example is when it was used for the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble which applied PERT from 1965 until the opening of the 1968 Games. This project model was the first of its kind, a revival for scientific management, founded by Frederick Taylor (Taylorism) and later refined by Henry Ford (Fordism). DuPont's critical path method was invented at roughly the same time as PERT.


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: Initially PERT stood for "Program Evaluation Research Task," but by 1959 was renamed. It had been made public in 1958 in two publications of the U.S. Department of the Navy, entitled "Program Evaluation Research Task, Summary Report, Phase 1." and "Phase 2." In a 1959 article in "The American Statistician" the main Willard Fazar, Head of the Program Evaluation Branch, Special Projects Office, U.S. Navy, gave a detailed description of the main concepts of the PERT. He explained:


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: Ten years after the introduction of PERT in 1958 the American librarian Maribeth Brennan published a selected bibliography with about 150 publications on PERT and CPM, which had been published between 1958 and 1968. The origin and development was summarized as follows:


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: For the subdivision of work units in PERT another tool was developed: the Work Breakdown Structure. The Work Breakdown Structure provides "a framework for complete networking, the Work Breakdown Structure was formally introduced as the first item of analysis in carrying out basic PERT/COST."


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: In a PERT diagram, the main building block is the "event", with connections to its known predecessor events and successor events.


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: The first step for scheduling the project is to determine the tasks that the project requires and the order in which they must be completed. The order may be easy to record for some tasks (e.g., when building a house, the land must be graded before the foundation can be laid) while difficult for others (there are two areas that need to be graded, but there are only enough bulldozers to do one). Additionally, the time estimates usually reflect the normal, non-rushed time. Many times, the time required to execute the task can be reduced for an additional cost or a reduction in the quality.


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: In the following example there are seven tasks, labeled "A" through "G". Some tasks can be done concurrently ("A" and "B") while others cannot be done until their predecessor task is complete ("C" cannot begin until "A" is complete). Additionally, each task has three time estimates: the optimistic time estimate ("o"), the most likely or normal time estimate ("m"), and the pessimistic time estimate ("p"). The expected time ("te") is computed using the formula ("o" + 4"m" + "p") ÷ 6.


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: A network diagram can be created by hand or by using diagram software. There are two types of network diagrams, activity on arrow (AOA) and activity on node (AON). Activity on node diagrams are generally easier to create and interpret. To create an AON diagram, it is recommended (but not required) to start with a node named "start". This <nowiki>"activity"</nowiki> has a duration of zero (0). Then you draw each activity that does not have a predecessor activity ("a" and "b" in this example) and connect them with an arrow from start to each node. Next, since both "c" and "d" list "a" as a predecessor activity, their nodes are drawn with arrows coming from "a". Activity "e" is listed with "b" and "c" as predecessor activities, so node "e" is drawn with arrows coming from both "b" and "c", signifying that "e" cannot begin until both "b" and "c" have been completed. Activity "f" has "d" as a predecessor activity, so an arrow is drawn connecting the activities. Likewise, an arrow is drawn from "e" to "g". Since there are no activities that come after "f" or "g", it is recommended (but again not required) to connect them to a node labeled "finish".


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: By itself, the network diagram pictured above does not give much more information than a Gantt chart; however, it can be expanded to display more information. The most common information shown is:


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: In order to determine this information it is assumed that the activities and normal duration times are given. The first step is to determine the ES and EF. The ES is defined as the maximum EF of all predecessor activities, unless the activity in question is the first activity, for which the ES is zero (0). The EF is the ES plus the task duration (EF = ES + duration).


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: Barring any unforeseen events, the project should take 19.51 work days to complete. The next step is to determine the late start (LS) and late finish (LF) of each activity. This will eventually show if there are activities that have slack. The LF is defined as the minimum LS of all successor activities, unless the activity is the last activity, for which the LF equals the EF. The LS is the LF minus the task duration (LS = LF − duration).


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: The next step is to determine the critical path and if any activities have slack. The critical path is the path that takes the longest to complete. To determine the path times, add the task durations for all available paths. Activities that have slack can be delayed without changing the overall time of the project. Slack is computed in one of two ways, slack = LF − EF "or" slack = LS − ES. Activities that are on the critical path have a slack of zero (0).


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: The critical path is "aceg" and the critical time is 19.51 work days. It is important to note that there can be more than one critical path (in a project more complex than this example) or that the critical path can change. For example, let's say that activities "d" and "f" take their pessimistic (b) times to complete instead of their expected (T) times. The critical path is now "adf" and the critical time is 22 work days. On the other hand, if activity "c" can be reduced to one work day, the path time for "aceg" is reduced to 15.34 work days, which is slightly less than the time of the new critical path, "beg" (15.67 work days).


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: Therefore, activity "b" can be delayed almost 4 work days without delaying the project. Likewise, activity "d" or activity "f" can be delayed 4.68 work days without delaying the project (alternatively, "d" and "f" can be delayed 2.34 work days each).


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: Depending upon the capabilities of the data input phase of the critical path algorithm, it may be possible to create a loop, such as A -> B -> C -> A. This can cause simple algorithms to loop indefinitely. Although it is possible to "mark" nodes that have been visited, then clear the "marks" upon completion of the process, a far simpler mechanism involves computing the total of all activity durations. If an EF of more than the total is found, the computation should be terminated. It is worth saving the identities of the most recently visited dozen or so nodes to help identify the problem link.


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: During project execution a real-life project will never execute exactly as it was planned due to uncertainty. This can be due to ambiguity resulting from subjective estimates that are prone to human errors or can be the result of variability arising from unexpected events or risks. The main reason that PERT may provide inaccurate information about the project completion time is due to this schedule uncertainty. This inaccuracy may be large enough to render such estimates as not helpful.


title: Program evaluation and review technique

text: One possible method to maximize solution robustness is to include safety in the baseline schedule in order to absorb the anticipated disruptions. This is called "proactive scheduling". A pure proactive scheduling is a utopia; incorporating safety in a baseline schedule which allows for every possible disruption would lead to a baseline schedule with a very large make-span. A second approach, termed "reactive scheduling", consists of defining a procedure to react to disruptions that cannot be absorbed by the baseline schedule.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927), is a decision of the United States Supreme Court, written by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., in which the Court ruled that a state statute permitting compulsory sterilization of the unfit, including the intellectually disabled, "for the protection and health of the state" did not violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Despite the changing attitudes in the coming decades regarding sterilization, the Supreme Court has never expressly overturned "Buck v. Bell". It was widely believed to have been slightly weakened by "Skinner v. Oklahoma" 316 U.S. 535 (1942), which involved compulsory sterilization of male habitual criminals (and came to a contrary result). The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 has also made guaranteed protections from the federal government to people with disabilities, including intellectually disabled people.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: The concept of eugenics was propounded in 1883 by Francis Galton, who also coined the name. The idea first became popular in the United States, and had found proponents in Europe by the start of the 20th century; 42 of the 58 research papers presented at the First International Congress of Eugenics, held in London in 1912, were from American scientists. Indiana passed the first eugenic sterilization statute in 1907, but it was legally flawed. To remedy that situation, Harry Laughlin, of the Eugenics Record Office (ERO) at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, designed a model eugenic law that was reviewed by legal experts. In 1924, the Commonwealth of Virginia adopted a statute authorizing the compulsory sterilization of the intellectually disabled for the purpose of eugenics, a statute closely based on Laughlin's model.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: Looking to determine if the new law would pass a legal challenge, on September 10, 1924, Albert Sidney Priddy, superintendent of the Virginia State Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded, filed a petition to his Board of Directors to sterilize Carrie Buck. She was an 18-year-old patient at his institution who he claimed had a mental age of 9. Priddy maintained that Buck represented a genetic threat to society. According to him, Buck's 52-year-old mother possessed a mental age of 8, had a record of prostitution and immorality, and had three children without good knowledge of their paternity. Buck, one of those children, had been adopted and attended school for five years, reaching the level of sixth grade. However, according to Priddy, Buck eventually proved to be "incorrigible", and gave birth to an illegitimate child. Her adoptive family had her committed to the State Colony as "feeble-minded", feeling they were no longer capable of caring for her. It was later discovered that Buck's pregnancy was not caused by any "immorality" on her own part. In the summer of 1923, while her adoptive mother was away "on account of some illness", her adoptive mother's nephew had raped Buck, and her later commitment has been seen as an attempt by the family to save their reputation.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: While the litigation was making its way through the court system, Priddy died and his successor, John Hendren Bell, took up the case. The Board of Directors issued an order for the sterilization of Buck, and her guardian appealed the case to the Circuit Court of Amherst County, which sustained the decision of the Board. The case then moved to the Supreme Court of Appeals of Virginia.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: The appellate court sustained the sterilization law as compliant with both the state and federal constitutions, and it then went to the United States Supreme Court. Buck and her guardian contended that the due process clause guarantees all adults the right to procreate which was being violated. They also made the argument that the Equal Protection Clause in the 14th Amendment was being violated since not all similarly situated people were being treated the same. The sterilization law was only for the "feeble-minded" at certain state institutions and made no mention of other state institutions or those who were not in an institution.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: On May 2, 1927, in an 8–1 decision, the Court accepted that Buck, her mother and her daughter were "feeble-minded" and "promiscuous", and that it was in the state's interest to have her sterilized. The ruling legitimized Virginia's sterilization procedures until they were repealed in 1974.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: The ruling was written by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. In support of his argument that the interest of "public welfare" outweighed the interest of individuals in their bodily integrity, he argued:


title: Buck v. Bell

text: Holmes concluded his argument by citing "Jacobson v. Massachusetts" as a precedent for the decision, stating "Three generations of imbeciles are enough". The sole dissenter in the court, Justice Pierce Butler, a devout Catholic, did not write a dissenting opinion.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: Carrie Buck was operated upon, receiving a compulsory salpingectomy (a form of tubal ligation). She was later paroled from the institution as a domestic worker to a family in Bland, Virginia. She was an avid reader until her death in 1983. Her daughter Vivian had been pronounced "feeble minded" after a cursory examination by ERO field worker Dr. Arthur Estabrook. According to his report, Vivian "showed backwardness", thus the "three generations" of the majority opinion. It is worth noting that the child did very well in school for the two years that she attended (she died of complications from measles in 1932), even being listed on her school's honor roll in April 1931.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: Historian Paul A. Lombardo argued in 1985 that Buck was not "feeble-minded" at all, but that she had been put away to hide her rape, perpetrated by the nephew of her adoptive mother. He also asserted that Buck's lawyer, Irving Whitehead, poorly argued her case, failed to call important witnesses, and was remarked by commentators to often not know what side he was on. It is now thought that this was not because of incompetence, but deliberate. Whitehead had close connections to the counsel for the institution and to Priddy. Whitehead was a member of the governing board of the state institution in which Buck resided, had personally authorized Priddy's sterilization requests, and was a strong supporter of eugenic sterilization.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: The effect of "Buck v. Bell" was to legitimize eugenic sterilization laws in the United States as a whole. While many states already had sterilization laws on their books, their use was erratic and effects practically non-existent in every state except for California. After "Buck v. Bell", dozens of states added new sterilization statutes, or updated their constitutionally non-functional ones already enacted, with statutes which more closely mirrored the Virginia statute upheld by the Court.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: The Virginia statute which the ruling of "Buck v. Bell" supported was designed in part by the eugenicist Harry H. Laughlin, superintendent of Charles Benedict Davenport's Eugenics Record Office in Cold Spring Harbor, New York. Laughlin had, a few years previously, conducted a number of studies on the enforcement of sterilization legislation throughout the country and had concluded that the reason for their lack of use was primarily that the physicians who would order the sterilizations were afraid of prosecution by patients whom they operated upon. Laughlin saw the need to create a "Model Law" which could withstand a test of constitutional scrutiny, clearing the way for future sterilization operations. The Nazi jurists designing the German Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring based it largely on Laughlin's "Model Law", although development of that law preceded Laughlin's. Nazi Germany held Laughlin in such regard that they arranged for him to receive an honorary doctorate from Heidelberg University in 1936. At the Subsequent Nuremberg trials after World War II, counsel for "SS" functionary Otto Hofmann explicitly cited Holmes's opinion in "Buck v. Bell" in his defense.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: Sterilization rates under eugenic laws in the United States climbed from 1927 until "Skinner v. Oklahoma", 316 U.S. 535 (1942). While "Skinner v. Oklahoma" did not specifically overturn "Buck v. Bell", it created enough of a legal quandary to discourage many sterilizations. By 1963, sterilization laws were almost wholly out of use, though some remained officially on the books for many years. Language referring to eugenics was removed from Virginia's sterilization law, and the current law, passed in 1988 and amended in 2013, only authorizes the voluntary sterilization of those 18 and older, after the patient has given written consent and the doctor has informed the patient of the consequences as well as alternative methods of contraception.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: The story of Carrie Buck's sterilization and the court case was made into a television drama in 1994, "". It was also referred to in 1934's sensational film "Tomorrow's Children", and was covered in the October 2018 "American Experience" documentary "The Eugenics Crusade".


title: Buck v. Bell

text: Although this opinion and eugenics remain controversial, the decision in this case still stands. "Buck v. Bell" was cited as a precedent by the opinion of the court (part VIII) in "Roe v. Wade", but not in support of abortion rights. To the contrary, Justice Blackmun quoted it to justify that the constitutional right to abortion is not unlimited. Blackmun claimed that the right to privacy was strong enough to prevent the state from protecting unborn life in the womb, but not strong enough to prevent a woman being sterilized against her will.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: In the 1996 case of "Fieger v. Thomas", the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit both recognized and criticized "Buck v. Bell" by writing "as Justice Holmes pointed out in the only part of "Buck v. Bell" that remains unrepudiated, a claim of a violation of the Equal Protection Clause based upon selective enforcement 'is the usual last resort of constitutional arguments. In 2001, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit cited "Buck v. Bell" to protect the constitutional rights of a woman coerced into sterilization without procedural due process. The court stated that error and abuse will result if the state does not follow the procedural requirements, established by "Buck v. Bell", for performing an involuntary sterilization.


title: Buck v. Bell

text: Derek Warden has shown how the decision in "Buck v. Bell" has been impacted by the Americans with Disabilities Act.


title: Exponential decay

text: A quantity is subject to exponential decay if it decreases at a rate proportional to its current value. Symbolically, this process can be expressed by the following differential equation, where is the quantity and (lambda) is a positive rate called the exponential decay constant, disintegration constant, rate constant, or transformation constant:


title: Exponential decay

text: If the decaying quantity, "N"("t"), is the number of discrete elements in a certain set, it is possible to compute the average length of time that an element remains in the set. This is called the mean lifetime (or simply the lifetime), where the exponential time constant, formula_3, relates to the decay rate constant, λ, in the following way:


title: Exponential decay

text: The mean lifetime can be looked at as a "scaling time", because the exponential decay equation can be written in terms of the mean lifetime, formula_3, instead of the decay constant, λ:


title: Exponential decay

text: and that formula_3 is the time at which the population of the assembly is reduced to 1/"e" ≈ 0.367879441 times its initial value.


title: Exponential decay

text: For example, if the initial population of the assembly, "N"(0), is 1000, then the population at time formula_3, formula_9, is 368.


title: Exponential decay

text: A very similar equation will be seen below, which arises when the base of the exponential is chosen to be 2, rather than "e". In that case the scaling time is the "half-life".


title: Exponential decay

text: A more intuitive characteristic of exponential decay for many people is the time required for the decaying quantity to fall to one half of its initial value. (If "N"("t") is discrete, then this is the median life-time rather than the mean life-time.) This time is called the "half-life", and often denoted by the symbol "t". The half-life can be written in terms of the decay constant, or the mean lifetime, as:


title: Exponential decay

text: When this expression is inserted for formula_3 in the exponential equation above, and ln 2 is absorbed into the base, this equation becomes: