title: Beauceron

text: This breed stands 61 to 70 cm (24 to 27.5 inches) in height and weighs 30 to 45 kg (66 to 100 pounds) The Beauceron has a hard outer coat and a woolly undercoat that grows thick in cold weather, especially if the dog sleeps outdoors. Its standard colouring is black and tan (the latter colour referred to in French as "rouge ecureuil", squirrel-red) or grey, black and tan called harlequin. Other colours, such as the once prevalent tawny, grey or grey/black, are now banned by the breed standard. The harlequin coats should have more black than gray with no white. In the black and tan dogs the tan markings should appear in two dots above the eyes, on the sides of the muzzle, fading off to the cheeks, but do not reach the underside of the ears. Also on the throat, under the tail and on the legs and the chest. Tan markings on the chest should appear as two spots but a chest plate is acceptable. Ear cropping is no longer allowed in most countries.


title: Beauceron

text: Although most breeds may or may not have dewclaws (many owners of other breeds remove dewclaws, especially if the dog is used for field and hunting), an important feature of the Beauceron is the double dewclaw. In order to be shown, a Beauceron must have double dewclaws that form well-separated "thumbs" with nails on each rear leg; anything less will result in disqualification from dog shows. The Beauceron’s double dew claws are connected by bone (unlike most breeds) and some dogs are even able to flex each one individually.


title: Beauceron

text: The Beauceron is known in France as a guard dog, a helper around the farm (herding sheep or cattle), and/or a ring sport dog (primarily protection training). This athletic, healthy and long-lived breed has been bred to be intelligent, calm, gentle, and fearless. Adults are typically suspicious of strangers and are excellent natural guard dogs. On the other hand, they typically take their cue from their handlers when it comes to greeting strangers, and are neither sharp nor shy. They do best when raised within the family but they can sleep outside, the better to act as guards (their weatherproof coats make them ideal kennel users even in the coldest winters). They have a double smooth coat that is short. They are eager learners and can be trained to a high level. However, their physical and mental development is slow relative to other similar breeds (e.g. German and other large shepherds): they are not mentally or physically mature until the age of about three years, so their training should not be rushed. Several five- or ten-minute play-training exercises per day in the early years can achieve better results than long or rigorous training sessions.


title: Audi A1

text: The Audi A1 (internally designated Typ 8X) is a supermini car launched by Audi at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show. Sales of the initial three-door A1 model started in Germany in August 2010, with the United Kingdom following in November 2010. A five-door version, called Sportback, was launched in November 2011, with sales starting in export markets during spring 2012.


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 was previewed at the 2007 Tokyo Motor Show in the form of the Audi metroproject quattro concept car. The concept seats four and features a new plug-in hybrid powertrain. With this powertrain, a Turbo FSI engine drives the front wheels via a six-speed S-Tronic, while a electric motor provides power to the rear wheels. The electric motor is also capable of producing of torque.


title: Audi A1

text: The metroproject quattro is able to travel at up to on one charge of its lithium-ion batteries, which reduces fuel consumption by up to 15%. Both power sources are available to use simultaneously, with the driver then benefiting from MacPherson strut front and rear four-link suspension configuration, electromechanical speed-sensitive power steering with a low energy draw, Audi magnetic ride adaptive damping technology, and in 7.8 seconds.


title: Audi A1

text: At the 2008 Leipzig Auto Mobil International show, Audi again presented the metroproject quattro, renamed the A1 "Project Quattro". The vehicle was designed by Audi AG Project Designer in Exterior Design Jürgen Löffler, who also presented the design during the car's Hong Kong debut.


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 Sportback concept is a five-door hatchback based on the Audi A1 project quattro, with longer body of , 1.4-litre TFSI engine rated at at 5,500 rpm and at 1,600-2,400 rpm, S tronic dual-clutch transmission, electric motor rated at and driving the front wheels, ESP-controlled active front differential lock, lithium-ion batteries, a two-part spoiler with a striking centre groove integrated into the rear window, Daytona Grey body colour, aerodynamically designed single-frame grille, LED three-dimensional main headlights, turbine-look air vents and air conditioning controls, drive select with dynamic and sport modes, contrasting white and red interior colour scheme, mobile phone WLAN connection, Audi drive select with efficiency mode, MacPherson front suspension and four-link independent rear suspension, 18-inch wheels with 225/35R18 tires, diameter brake discs, electromechanical steering with speed-sensitive power assistance, magnetorheological shock absorbers from Audi R8 and Audi TT. The vehicle's acceleration is 7.9 seconds and average CO emissions are given as 92g/km. The vehicle's electric-only range is .


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 three-door went on sale in most markets in late 2010 following the launch at Wörthersee Tour 2010, followed by the major public launch at the 2010 Paris Motor Show. The car is aimed mostly at young, affluent urban buyers.


title: Audi A1

text: The five-door version of Audi A1, called "Sportback" by Audi, was unveiled at the 2011 Tokyo Motor Show.


title: Audi A1

text: In the UK, the A1 trim levels are "SE", "Sport" and "S line". SE is the base specification, while Sport and S line models also have sport seats, sports suspension and larger wheels, amongst other features.


title: Audi A1

text: All engines will include a start-stop system and energy recuperation system except the versions with the 1.4 TFSI and the S Tronic version of the 1.6-litre TDI with 90 HP. 1.4-litre TFSI () was sold as the 30 TFSI in China.


title: Audi A1

text: The production version of the A1 quattro was tested by "Autocar" magazine on MIRA's wet handling track alongside a Nissan GT-R; the A1 recorded lap time over five seconds faster than the GT-R. "Autocar" called the test a "...giant-killing result".


title: Audi A1

text: Euro NCAP tested Audi A1, Supermini 3-door Hatchback with front airbags, side airbags, seatbelt pretensioners and load limiters as standard and scored it accordingly:


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 was produced at Audi's Belgian factory in Forest, near Brussels. The A1 is based on the Volkswagen Group PQ25 platform, the same platform used in the SEAT Ibiza Mk4 and the VW Polo Mk5, and in its development Audi has collaborated with SEAT. As of 23 June 2011, the 100,000th A1 was produced at Audi Brussels plant.


title: Audi A1

text: A1 "Competition Kit" (Amalfi White) with 1.6 TDI engine, A1 "Follow Me" (Citrus Yellow) with 1.4 TFSI engine, A1 "Wasserwacht" (Suzuka Gray) with 1.4 TFSI engine, A1 "FC Bayern" (Misano Red) with 1.6 TDI engine, A1 "Pickerljäger" (Ibis White) with 1.6 TDI engine, A1 "Fashion" (Aubergine) with 1.6 TDI engine, A1 "Hot Rod" (Daytona Gray) with 1.4 TFSI were unveiled in Wörthersee Tour 2010.


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 e-tron is a series plug-in hybrid (PHEV), with UQM PowerPhase Select 125 electric motor and controller rated continuous output and peak output of . A fully charged 12 kWh lithium-ion battery gives a maximum range of , after which a 254 cc Wankel engine is used to power a generator with a fuel tank. This is estimated to provide an additional range of . The company claims the car weighs , can reach in 10.2 seconds and a maximum speed of .


title: Audi A1

text: In June 2012, the UK's "Car Magazine" reported that Audi had put the production version of the A1 e-tron on hold indefinitely in order to slim down its future electric vehicles plan. It was reported that, according to the director of e-mobility and sustainability strategy at Audi of America, the A1 e-tron had never been scheduled for production.


title: Audi A1

text: In March 2013, at the New York Auto Show, Audi announced it will be expanding the testing of its A1 E-tron outside of Munich to other regions of Germany.


title: Audi A1

text: Available in A1 1.4 TFSI (122PS) and 1.6 TDI (105PS), the A1 Competition Line is based on Sport trim (Sports seats, a leather multifunction steering wheel, Driver's Information System) for the UK market, inspired by the famous models from Audi's motorsport heritage, such as the Audi Quattro rally car. It included 18-inch 'Polygon' design alloy wheels, exterior styling package (front spoiler, double-blade roof spoiler, side skirts, rear diffuser in gloss black, stainless steel tailpipe trims), roof line, shoulder line with 'Audi Sport' lettering, number '1' on the bonnet and doors, boot lid, front spoiler lip, side skirts, wheel arch; surrounds and double-blade roof spoiler, rear sills with Audi rings, centre console trim, door handles, floor mats, rear-view mirror trim (not available with auto-dimming mirror), air vent sleeves in high gloss white.


title: Audi A1

text: The Contrast Edition is based on Sport trim (Sports seats, a leather multifunction steering wheel, Driver's Information System) for the UK market, with 17-inch '5-arm' design alloy wheels, exterior styling package (front spoiler lip, double-blade roof spoiler, side skirts, rear diffuser in gloss black, stainless steel tailpipe trims), roof contrast line, matching contrast on front spoiler lip, side skirts and double-blade roof spoiler.


title: Audi A1

text: It is a version of the Audi A1 with a modified version of the Audi RS 3's 2.5 TFSI engine rated at at 2500–5300 rpm and , tailpipe located on the left flank in front of the rear wheel, six-speed manual transmission and quattro on-demand all-wheel drive from Audi TT RS, 255/30 low-profile tires, 19-inch alloy wheels with unique turbine design, ventilated carbon fiber-ceramic front brake discs with six-piston calipers, rear steel brake discs, Glacier White matt body colour, roof arch in high-gloss black, carbon fiber-reinforced polymer roof, four rings at the front of the car in solid aluminum, single-frame radiator grille with black honeycomb design, headlights with matted clasps with a red 'wing', air outlets in the hood, front fenders and doors and the rear side panels widened by in horizontal "blister" edges (from Audi Ur-quattro), trim strips on the sills are made of exposed CFRP, side mirrors in Audi R8 design, roof spoiler with a double wing, darkly toned rear lights, single closed rear diffuser, rear seat replaced by a crossbar, weight-optimized starter battery in the rear below the two storage compartments, removal of infotainment system and Audi MMI monitor and loudspeaker, CFRP bucket seats from Audi R8 GT, red four-point seat belts, dark gray interior, matt-finished CFRP at the walls in the rear section of the car, the tubes of the air vents and the "stern of the yacht" in the lower section of the center console; CFRP open-spoked sport steering wheel upholstered in leather, rocker switches on the center console replace switches on the control stalk and in the door panels, 3 additional instruments indicate the oil pressure, boost pressure and electrical system voltage; center console and seats covered in fine leather upholstery with tone-on-tone stitching, selector lever is made of aluminum, caps of the pedals and the surface of the footrest made of stainless steel, red loops replacing the handles on the doors, the glove box and the covers of the storage compartments. This car is capable of acceleration in 3.7 seconds.


title: Audi A1

text: Parts shown in Audi A1 clubsport quattro were sold as part of the accessories program for the A1 family, with adhesive film decals in the contrasting colors Amalfi White, Ice Silver, metallic and Daytona Gray, pearl effect for the vehicles' shoulders available immediately. Other options included union square lifestyle kit (exterior decals and design elements for the interior, both with a diamond pattern), roof spoiler competition kit. The union square lifestyle kit are painted either in the body color or in a contrasting color.


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 Contrast Edition is available for all engines in the A1 Sport range except 1.4 TFSI 185PS for the UK market, with contrasting colour for the roof line and aerodynamic body styling elements (optional double-blade roof spoiler in a contrasting colour), 17-inch 'five-arm' design bi-colour alloy wheels.


title: Audi A1

text: The UK version of the A1 Black Edition is a version of the A1 1.4 TFSI (185PS) S line and 2.0 TDI (143PS) S line with black styling treatment for the single frame grille surround and number plate holder, dark tinted rear privacy glass, 18-inch five-arm rotor design alloy wheels in a titanium finish, Xenon Plus headlights with LED daytime-running lights, full electronic climate control 180-watt Audi Sound System speaker upgrade.


title: Audi A1

text: The Taiwan version of the A1 Black Edition is a limited (40 units) version of the A1 Ambition with high gloss front fascia with black fog lamp shade, 17-inch 5-spoke aluminium wheels, turbine design air conditioning vent sleeves in aluminium.


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 Samurai Blue is a Japanese special edition model based on the 1.4 TFSI (122PS) 3-door unveiled at the 2011 Tokyo Motor Show. It is inspired by the Japanese national soccer team, with red 18-inch wheels with exclusive polygonal design, black interior equipment with contrasting stitching in blue, corresponding colour accents for air vent nozzles, inlays, center console and floor mats; sports suspension. Part of the profit will be donated for Japan Football Association revival fund. A further 111 models were released in 2012.


title: Audi A1

text: This model is a special edition in America. The model is known for its prints, striking on the sides, trunk and lateral mirrors (wine color) in addition to its elegant finishes in air conditioning exits, door handles, center console and mats. matching the same prints that surround the car (in wine color).


title: Audi A1

text: The Audi A1 2012 model features a large engine, the 1.4 litere turbocharged FSI, which generates and torque of . This engine can be coupled to two options of gearbox, a S Tronic of 7 speeds, this last one counts in all the versions with pallets of changes behind the steering wheel. Its traction is forward.


title: Audi A1

text: It is a limited (333 units) version of the Audi A1 with 2.0 TFSI engine rated at at 6000 rpm and at 2500-4500 rpm, six-speed transmission, electronic differential lock, 8.0Jx18 Glacier White cast alloy wheels in exclusive turbine design, 225/35-series tires, diameter front brake discs, black calipers, ESP stabilization program with a sport mode, Glacier White metallic body colour, roof in high-gloss black, frame and grate of the single-frame grille in high-gloss black, curved bars in the headlights – the wings – in red, grille, roof arch and the rear hatch with quattro badges; tinted rear windows, black rear hatch and diffuser, tinted LED rear lights, exhaust system with two polished dual tailpipes on the left and the right, black interior, seats and armrests on the doors are in Silk Nappa leather with contrasting red seams, front S sport seats with bolsters, multi-way adjustment, integrated head restraints and a quattro badge on the backrest covers; lower section of the center console in high-gloss black, footrest and the pedal caps made of brushed stainless steel, red seams floor mat frame, door sill trims with A1 quattro badges, instrument cluster with white needles, red tachometer, quattro logo, color display for the driver information system; leather-wrapped flat bottom multifunction sport steering wheel with contrasting red stitching and the car's serial number, shift lever knob made of aluminum, control elements with aluminum-look finish.


title: Audi A1

text: They are versions of the A1 and A1 Sportback based on the Ambition line, which is available for all engine versions of both models. The models combine exclusive optional features from Audi, quattro GmbH and Audi Genuine Accessories. The amplified red line and amplified white are in Misano Red pearl and Glacier White metallic body colours respectively.


title: Audi A1

text: The amplified model includes high-gloss black roof line, S line roof spoiler, exterior mirror housings and single-frame grille; 17-inch alloy wheels in five-arm design with black inserts, a matt transparent film for the engine hood, roof and rear hatch; air vent sleeves in the body color, black sport seats with stitching in Parade Red (amplified red) or Rock Gray (amplified white), floor mats with piping in matching colors.


title: Audi A1

text: The amplified plus model is based on the amplified, with black headliner, an LED interior light package, a color coordinated ignition key, center console and interior mirror housing in body color, stainless steel caps for the pedals and foot rest, aerodynamics competition kit in body color, LED taillights, high-gloss black diffuser insert integrating two matt black tailpipes on the left side (one tailpipe for engines up to 77 kW).


title: Audi A1

text: The amplified advanced model (available for A1 models with over 90 kW of engine power) is based on amplified and amplified plus, with S line sport package interior (S sport seats with black upholstery in Silk Nappa leather and contrasting stitching in Parade Red or Dark Silver, seat back shells in high-gloss Misano Red or Glacier White), matching finish on the floor mats, dark tinted glass at the rear, add-on parts from the aerodynamics competition kit and the large roof wing in high-gloss black, Xenon plus headlights, matt black 18-inch wheels in five-arm 'Rotor' design.


title: Audi A1

text: Early models include A1 amplified red edition models, followed by amplified white versions shortly afterwards.


title: Audi A1

text: The vehicle was unveiled in the London 2012 Summer Olympics and was used in the 2012 London Olympic games as shuttles between German House and MS Deutschland cruise ship.


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 Competition Line exterior styling packages are based on the limited A1 Competition Line, available for the UK market. Competition Line plus exterior styling package is based on the A1 3-door, with foils with striking colouring on shoulder line with 'Audi Sport' lettering, wheel arch surrounds, roof line, boot lid with Audi chrome rings, Audi rings for side sills and Number '1' on the bonnet and doors.


title: Audi A1

text: It is a limited (15 units) version of the A1 Sport Plus for the New Zealand market, produced in association with Huffer clothing company. It included 1.4 TFSI (185PS) engine, choice of 3 body colours (black, red with black roof, white with black roof), racing-style bucket seats, interior fabrics in sprint cloth and black leather, suede-covered steering wheel, handbrake and gear selector; brushed aluminium inlays, MMI navigation system.


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 China Limited Edition is a limited (500 units) version of the Audi A1 30 TFSI Ego and A1 30 TFSI Ego plus for China market, with 1.4 TFSI (122PS) engine, 7-speed S tronic transmission, electronic anti-theft system, optional MMI Navigation plus with 20G hard disk space and simple voice input system, S line sporty chassis, sparkling red/white/gold three theme colors, 17-inch 5-spoke red/silver wheels, highlighted spraying red decorative trim for air vents, the central control board, inside rear-view mirror, door handles and other details are all decorated with Chinese elements. A1 30 TFSI Ego plus adds leather seats, tire pressure monitor, automatic air conditioner with rain sensor, Audi audio system, Bluetooth/Audi audio system connector, rain sensor for automatic anti-glare rear view mirror, xenon bulb with headlamp cleaner and LED tail lamps over A1 30 TFSI Ego.


title: Audi A1

text: The Audi A1 Sportback Urban Style Limited (model DBA-8XCAX) is a limited (200 units) version of the right hand drive Audi A1 Sportback 1.4 TFSI (122PS) with 7-speed S tronic transmission for Japan market, with bi-xenon package (bi-xenon headlight, automatic headlight range control, headlight washer, rear LED combination lamp), exclusive brilliant black grille, exclusive brilliant black contrast roof, S-line roof spoiler in exclusive brilliant black, brilliant black door mirror cover, exclusive decorative film, air conditioning vent sleeve in exclusive glacier white, exclusive sport seat in Herzklopfen cloth upholstery in black with rock grey stitching, advance door key with body colour cover (glacier white), exclusive floor mat with grey piping and white stitching, exclusive 5-arm design 7.5Jx17-inch aluminium wheel with inner rim in high gloss black, 215/40R17 tires.


title: Audi A1

text: It is a limited (200 units) version of the Audi A1 Sportback S line for the Australian market, with 1.4 TFSI (122PS) engine, S tronic transmission, 17-inch alloy wheels in part-polished 5-spoke V design, front fog lights, LED tail lights, black exterior styling package, contrasting roof and roof arch, interior air vents in body colour, Audi parking system (rear), choice of 4 body colours (metallic colours Glacier White and Ice Silver, pearl effect colours Misano Red and Phantom Black).


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 Sportback Lifestyle (時尚限量版) is a limited (76 units) version of the Audi A1 Sportback 1.4 TFSI with 7-speed S tronic transmission for Taiwan market, with stainless steel pedal, Lifestyle series floor mat, instrument panel black leather upholstery with white stitching (including steering wheel, hand brake, shifter knob), Lifestyle series centre console veneer, Audi exclusive aluminium alloy air conditioning vent sleeves, high gloss black side mirror cover.


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 Competition Legends (傳奇競速限量版) is a limited (4 units) version of the Audi A1 1.4 TFSI 7-speed S tronic transmission for Taiwan market, with stainless steel pedal, Legends series floor mat, Legends series leather shifter, Legends series hand brake cover, Legends series leather-wrapped steering wheel, Legends series centre console veneer, Legends series inner door veneer, Legends series air conditioning vent veneer, Audi Sport body decor.


title: Audi A1

text: Available for the A1 and A1 Sportback (1.2 TFSI 86PS, 1.4 TFSI 122PS and 1.6 TDI 105 PS), they are versions of the A1 S line for the UK market, with choice of 4 body colours (Ice Silver, Phantom Black, Misano Red or Glacier White colour) with metallic or pearl-effect paint finishes, gloss black finish (3-door) or fully gloss black (Sportback) contrasting roof line, gloss black door mirror housings, xenon headlamps with distinctive LED daytime running lights, Black styling package (a gloss finish for the single frame front grille surround, a matt black finish for the grille, fog light surrounds and number plate holder), 17-inch 'five V-spoke' or no-cost optional 'five-arm' design alloy wheels with a bi-colour finish, interior air vents sleeves in body colour (gloss black for Ice Silver and Phantom Black body colour car), part-leather sports seats, three-spoke S line sports steering wheel.


title: Audi A1

text: The Black Edition (available for 1.4 TFSI cylinder on demand, 1.4 TFSI (185PS), 2.0 TDI (143PS)) is based on S line trim level, with 18-inch titanium finish alloy wheels, 180-watt Audi sound system, privacy glass and electronic climate control.


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 urban racer limited (model ABA-8XCTH) is a limited (150 units) version of the right hand drive A1 1.4 TFSI 3-door for Japan market, with increased engine power to at 6200 rpm and at 2000-4500 rpm via a supercharger, 7-speed S tronic transmission, matt black single frame grille, bi-xenon package, contrast roof, mirror housing in contrast roof colour, S-line roof spoiler, 18-inch aluminium wheel with exclusive 5-spoke design, black interior, S-line sports seat or leather-wrapped 3-spoke multifunction sport steering wheel with paddle shifter, checker black design floor mat, MMI 3G+navigation, choice of 4 body colours (Daytona Grey, Glacier White, Misano Red, Phantom Black).


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 Sportback admired limited (model DBA-8XCAX) is a limited (500 units) version of the right hand drive A1 1.4 TFSI (122PS) Sportback for Japan market, 7-speed S tronic transmission, with matt black single frame grille, S-line front bumper and roof spoiler, bi-xenon package, contrast roof, black door mirror housing, 17-inch aluminium wheel, checker black design floor mat, body colour air conditioning outlet, accented coloured sleeve, MMI 3G+navigation, choice of 4 body colours (Ice Silver, Glacier White, Misano Red, Phantom Black).


title: Audi A1

text: The A1 competition kits include adhesive film decals, vibrant paint finishes, exterior add-on parts, and a matching interior, available under the Audi Genuine Accessories (AOZ) program.


title: Audi A1

text: The 'competition kit Aerodynamic' includes a front spoiler lip, side sills, rear diffuser and – depending on the vehicle configuration – sport exhaust tips. Customers can also order a roof spoiler for the A1.


title: Audi A1

text: The 'competition kit legends interior plus' includes Amalfi White body colour, front spoiler lip and rear diffuser in Begonia Red, legends graphics with gloss-black Number 1 on the hood and the doors, decorative bezels for the rearview mirror, air vents, door pull handles, center console; black cloth floor mats with Begonia Red, Stone Gray and Gray Brown strips; color accent on the leather sport steering wheel, gear shift lever and parking brake lever.


title: Audi A1

text: Competition kit R18 is based on the look of Audi R18 e-tron quattro race car and has been reinterpreted for the Audi A1 as competition kit R18 gray and R18 red. A version of Audi A1 with competition kit R18 was unveiled in Wörthersee Tour 2013.


title: Audi A1

text: As part of Audi A1 launch, Audi Space became available for PlayStation Home, including a virtual Audi A1 showroom in 2010-02-11.


title: Audi A1

text: As part of Audi A1 launch, a free iPhone and iPod Touch rhythm driving game called 'Audi A1 Beat Driver' was released on 2010-04-19. The games features an international high score list, option for subscribing to a newsletter with the latest news and information about Audi A1, and nine different rock songs ("Accelerate" by Torpedo, "I'm A Rope" by Tommy Sparks, "Strength in Numbers" by The Music, "Farewell to the Fairground" by White Lies, "Gold Guns Girls" by Metric, "1989" by The Rakes, "Bulletproof" by La Roux, "Digital Age" by The Fall and "Want U" by Lo-Fi-Fnk). The updated iPhone & iPod touch version includes 8 new music tracks ("Gimme Sympathy" by Metric, "I'm Not Your Toy – Jack Beats Remix" by La Roux, "Love Affair Strapped in Electric Chair" by Torpedo, "Suburbia" by Spleen United, "Death" by White Lies, "Where I Belong (Life Is A Festival)" by Don Diablo, "Earthquake threat" by Torpedo, "A Funny Thing (Dan Grech Final Mix)" by Penguin Prison). iPad version includes 2 more new songs for total of 19 songs ("Self Machine" by I Blame Coco, "City Limits" by I Am Giant). The game was produced by Veemee.


title: Audi A1

text: Veemee produced Audi S1 Sledge video game for PlayStation 3, available via PlayStation Home. Updated version includes multiplayer support where player can race six players at one time with voice communication. Audi S1 sledge was designed by Miroslaw Leczek.


title: Audi A1

text: The Audi A1 has been promoted using a viral internet video release entitled "The Next Big Thing". The campaign stars Justin Timberlake and is comparable to the BMW film series "The Hire". Six episodes have been created and are available to view online. Each episode is around three minutes long, and shorter versions are featuring as television advertisements worldwide.


title: Audi A1

text: As part of Audi A1 launch in Taiwan, Ethan Juan became the Audi's Taiwan brand ambassador in 2011. As part of the deal, Audi supplied Juan Audi S4 as transport for 1 year.


title: Audi A1

text: As part of Audi A1 clubsport quattro premiere at Wörthersee Tour 2011 and Need for Speed World reaching 5 million registered users, the vehicle could be driven in "Need for Speed World" as a free in-game rental car between 2011-06-01 and 2011-06-04. The in-game vehicle was subsequently made available by using a redeem code as part of the game's 30 million registrations celebration. An updated version, called Audi A1 clubsport quattro Speed Edition, was available for 20 Audi Retweet contest winners hosted by Twitter between 2011-06-21 and 2011-06-26.


title: Audi A1

text: Philipp und Keuntje GmbH and Everybody All Together produced Audi A1 eCatalogue for Apple iPad, which allows the viewer to change the color of the car on almost every page, and included a 3D driving simulation.


title: Audi A1

text: As part of the A1 Sportback Urban Style Limited launch in Japan, an Audi A1 present campaign was held between 2013-06-07 and 2013-07-31, where an A1 Sportback Urban Style Limited was given away as A-prize.


title: Audi A1

text: The second generation A1 was launched in mid-June 2018. It is built on the MQB platform which is shared with the Volkswagen Polo Mk6 and the SEAT Ibiza Mk5.


title: Audi A1

text: It is a version of A1 Sportback with of additional ground clearance, increased ride height by , a choice of 9 body colours, contrast roof in either Mythos black metallic or Manhattan gray metallic. Black styling package includes gray lower body section, deep black stainless steel paint finish.


title: Audi A1

text: Unlike the predecessor, the second generation Audi A1 does not offer diesel engines but instead four petrol variants; The entry-level 25 TFSI (95PS), the 30 TFSI (116PS) with a 1.0 litre three-cylinder engine respectively, the 35 TFSI (150PS) with a 1.5-litre four-cylinder engine and the 40 TFSI (200PS) with a 2.0 litre four-cylinder engine along with 6-speed manual or 7-speed S tronic transmission. The 25 TFSI (95PS) is equipped with a 5-speed manual.


title: Audi A1

text: MMI radio and Audi smartphone interface which includes Apple CarPlay and Android Auto as standard, as well as a 10.25-inch infotainment touchscreen.


title: Audi A1

text: In the UK, the trim levels includes; SE, Sport and S line from the previous generation along with three new S Line trims; S Line Competition, S Line Contrast Edition and S Line Style Edition. SE is the base specification, while Sport and S line models includes have sport seats, sports suspension, exterior styling and larger wheels, as well as other features.


title: Audi A1

text: In an interview by Automotive News Europe, Audi's CEO, Markus Duesmann, announced that once the second generation Audi A1's lifecycle ends, it will be discontinued with no successor, due to tighter European emissions standards, leaving the A3 as their entry-level model.


title: Oil lamp

text: An oil lamp is a lamp used to produce light continuously for a period of time using an oil-based fuel source. The use of oil lamps began thousands of years ago and continues to this day, although their use is less common in modern times. They work in the same way as a candle but with fuel that is liquid at room temperature, so that a container for the oil is required. A textile wick drops down into the oil, and is lit at the end, burning the oil as it is drawn up the wick.


title: Oil lamp

text: Oil lamps are a form of lighting, and were used as an alternative to candles before the use of electric lights. Starting in 1780, the Argand lamp quickly replaced other oil lamps still in their basic ancient form. These in turn were replaced by the kerosene lamp in about 1850. In small towns and rural areas the latter continued in use well into the 20th century, until such areas were finally electrified and light bulbs could be used.


title: Oil lamp

text: Sources of fuel for oil lamps include a wide variety of plants such as nuts (walnuts, almonds, and kukui) and seeds (sesame, olive, castor, or flax). Also widely used were animal fats (butter, ghee, fish oil, shark liver, whale blubber, or seal). Camphine, a blend of turpentine and ethanol, was the first "burning fluid" fuel for lamps after whale oil supplies were depleted. It was replaced by kerosene after the US Congress enacted excise taxes on alcohol to pay for the American Civil War.


title: Oil lamp

text: Most modern lamps (such as fueled lanterns) have been replaced by gas-based or petroleum-based fuels to operate when emergency non-electric light is required. Therefore, oil lamps of today are primarily used for the particular ambience they produce.


title: Oil lamp

text: Lamps can be categorized based on different criteria, including material (clay, silver, bronze, gold, stone, slip), shape, structure, design, and imagery (e.g. symbolic, religious, mythological, erotic, battles, hunting).


title: Oil lamp

text: Lamps appear in the Torah and other Jewish sources as a symbol of "lighting" the way for the righteous, the wise, and for love and other positive values. While fire was often described as being destructive, light was given a positive spiritual meaning. The oil lamp and its light were important household items, and this may explain their symbolism. Oil lamps were used for many spiritual rituals.


title: Oil lamp

text: The oil lamp and its light also became important ritualistic articles with the further development of Jewish culture and religion. The Temple Menorah, a ritual seven-branched oil lamp used in the Second Temple, forms the centre of the Chanukah story.


title: Oil lamp

text: There are several references to oil lamps in the New Testament, In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Catholic Churches oil lamps (, Slavonic: ) are still used both on the Holy Table (altar) and to illuminate icons on the iconostasis and around the temple (church building). Orthodox Christians will also use oil lamps in their homes to illuminate their icon corner. Traditionally, the sanctuary lamp in an Orthodox church is an oil lamp. It is lit by the bishop when the church is consecrated, and ideally it should burn perpetually thereafter. The oil burned in all of these lamps is traditionally olive oil. Oil lamps are also referenced as a symbol throughout the New Testament, including in the Parable of the Ten Virgins.


title: Oil lamp

text: Oil lamps are commonly used in Hindu temples as well as in home shrines. Generally the lamps used in temples are circular with places for five wicks. They are made of metal and either suspended on a chain or screwed onto a pedestal. There will usually be at least one lamp in each shrine, and the main shrine may contain several. Usually only one wick is lit, with all five burning only on festive occasions. The oil lamp is used in the Hindu ritual of Aarti.


title: Oil lamp

text: In the home shrine, the style of lamp is usually different, containing only one wick. There is usually a piece of metal that forms the back of the lamp, which has a picture of a Hindu deity embossed on it. In many houses, the lamp burns all day, but in other homes, it is lit at sundown. The lamp in the home shrine is supposed to be lit before any other lights are turned on at night.


title: Oil lamp

text: A hand-held oil lamp or incense sticks (lit from the lamp) are also used during the Hindu puja ceremony. In the North of India, a five-wick lamp is used, usually fueled with ghee. On special occasions, various other lamps may be used for puja, the most elaborate having several tiers of wicks.


title: Oil lamp

text: In South India, there are a few types of oil lamps that are common in temples and traditional rituals. Some of the smaller ones are used for offerings as well.


title: Oil lamp

text: Oil lamps are lit at traditional Chinese shrines before either an image of a deity or a plaque with Classical Chinese characters giving the name of the deity. Such lamps are usually made from clear glass (giving them a similar appearance to normal drinking glasses) and are filled with oil, sometimes with water underneath. A cork or plastic floater containing a wick is placed on top of the oil with the bottom of the wick submerged in the oil.


title: Oil lamp

text: Such lamps are kept burning in shrines, whether private or public, and incense sticks or joss sticks are lit from the lamp.


title: Oil lamp

text: Curved stone lamps were found in places dated to the 10th millennium BC (Mesolithic, Middle Stone Age Period, c. 10,300–8000 BC). The oldest stone-oil lamp was found in Lascaux in 1940 in a cave that was inhabited 10,000 to 15,000 years ago.


title: Oil lamp

text: Some archaeologists claim that the first shell-lamps existed more than 6,000 years ago (Neolithic, Later Stone Age, c. 8500–4500 BC). They believe that the alabaster shell-shaped lamps dug up in Sumerian sites dating to 2600 BC were imitations of real shell-lamps that had been used for a long time (Early Bronze Age, Canaanite/Bronze I–IV, c. 3300–2000 BC).


title: Oil lamp

text: It is generally agreed that the evolution of handmade lamps moved from bowl-shaped to saucer-shaped, then from saucer with a nozzle, to a closed bowl with a spout.


title: Oil lamp

text: The first manufactured red pottery oil lamps appeared in the Chalcolithic. These were of the round bowl type.


title: Oil lamp

text: Bronze Age lamps were simple wheel-made bowls with a slight pinch on four sides for the wick. Later lamps had only one pinch. These lamps vary in the shape of the rim, the general shape of the bowl and the shape of the base.


title: Oil lamp

text: During the Iron Age, lamp rims become wider and flatter, with a deeper and higher spout. The tip of the spout is more upright in contrast to the rest of the rim. The lamps are becoming variable in shape and distribution, although some remain similar to lamps from the Late Bronze period. In addition, other forms evolve, such as small lamps with a flat base and larger lamps with a round base. The later form continues into the Iron Age II.


title: Oil lamp

text: In the later Iron Age, variant forms appear. One common type is small, with a wide rim and a wide base. Another type is a small, shallow bowl with a thick and high discus base.


title: Oil lamp

text: The "qulliq" (seal-oil lamp) provided warmth and light in the harsh Arctic environment where there was no wood and where the sparse population relied almost entirely on seal oil. This lamp was the most important article of furniture for the Inuit, Yupik and other Inuit peoples.


title: Oil lamp

text: The lamps were made of stone and their sizes and shapes of lamps could be different, but mostly were elliptical or half-moon shaped. The wicks were mostly made of dried moss or cottongrass and were lit along the edge of the lamp. A slab of seal blubber could be left to melt over the lamp feeding it with more fat.


title: Oil lamp

text: Persian lamps were large, with thin sides and a deep pinch that flattens the mouth and makes it protrude outward.


title: Oil lamp

text: Greek lamps are more closed to avoid spilling. They are smaller and more refined. Most are handle-less. Some are with a lug, which may be pierced or not pierced. The nozzle is elongated. The rim is folded over so it overlaps in order to make the nozzle, and is then pinched to make the wick hole.


title: Oil lamp

text: The earliest Chinese oil lamps are dated from the Warring States period (481–221 BC). The ancient Chinese created oil lamps with a refillable reservoir and a fibrous wick, giving the lamp a controlled flame. Lamps were constructed from jade, bronze, ceramic, wood, stone, and other materials. The largest oil lamp excavated so far is one discovered in a 4th-century tomb located in modern Pingshan, Hebei.


title: Oil lamp

text: Production of oil lamps shifted to Italy as the main source of supply in the Early Roman era. Molds began to be used, and lamps were produced in large scale in factories. All lamps are closed in type. The lamp is produced in two parts, the upper part with the spout and the lower part with the fuel chamber. Most are of the characteristic "Imperial Type"—round, with nozzles of different forms (volute, semi-volute, U-shaped), a closed body, a central disk decorated with reliefs and a filling hole.


title: Oil lamp

text: Late Roman lamps were of the "High Imperial" type. They included more decorations, and were produced locally or imported in large scale. The multiple-nozzled lamps appeared during this period. Many different varieties were created.


title: Oil lamp

text: Frog type lamps also appeared during this period. These are kidney-shaped, heart-shaped or oval, and feature the motif of a frog or its abstraction, and sometimes geometrical motifs. They were produced around 100 AD. They are so variant that two identical lamps are seldom found.


title: Oil lamp

text: Early Christian and late antique oil lamps were diverse. One of the most notable ones were Mediterranean sigillata (“African”) lamps. The motifs were largely geometric, vegetative and graphic (monograms), with figural depiction of animals and human figures, often Christ.


title: Oil lamp

text: Oil lanterns of the Byzantine were slipper-shaped and highly decorative. The multiple-nozzle design continued and most lamps bore handles. Some have complex exteriors.


title: Oil lamp

text: There is a transition period from Byzantine to Islamic lamps. The decoration on lamps of this transition period changed from crosses, animals, human likenesses, birds, or fish to plain linear, geometric, and raised-dot patterns.


title: Oil lamp

text: The early Islamic lamps continued the traditions of Byzantine lamps. Decorations were initially a stylized form of a bird, grain, tree, plant, or flower. Later, they became entirely geometric or linear with raised dots.


title: Oil lamp

text: In 9th-century Baghdad, al-Razi (Rhazes) described the first kerosene lamp; he referred to it as the in his ('Book of Secrets').


title: Oil lamp

text: In the transition period, some lamps had Arabic writing. Writing later disappears until the Mamluk period (13th to 15th century AD).


title: Oil lamp

text: In Vedic times, fire was kept alive in every household in some form and carried with oneself while migrating to new locations. Later, the presence of fire in the household or a religious building was ensured by an oil lamp. Over the years various rituals and customs were woven around an oil lamp.


title: Oil lamp

text: For , the gift of a lamp was and still is believed to be the best ('donation'). During marriages, spinsters of the household stand behind the bride and groom, holding an oil lamp to ward off evil. The presence of an oil lamp is an important aspect of ritual worship (the ) offered to a deity. Moreover, a day is kept aside for the worship of the lamp in the busy festival calendar, on one (moonless) day in the month of Shravan. This reverence for the deep is based on the symbolism of the journey from darkness and ignorance to light and the knowledge of the ultimate reality – "".


title: Oil lamp

text: Earlier lamps were made out of stone or seashells. The shape was like a circular bowl with a protruding beak. Later, they were replaced by earthen and metal lamps. In the epics "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata", there are references to gold and silver lamps as well. The simple shape evolved and the lamps were created in the shapes of the ('fish'), ('tortoise') and other incarnations of god Vishnu. Lamps were also created in the shape of the many emblems of gods, like conch shells or lotuses. Birds such as swans, peacocks, or parrots, and animals like snakes, lions, elephants and horses were also favorites when decorating a lamp. For lighting multiple lamps, wooden and stone ('towers of light') were created.


title: Oil lamp

text: Erecting a in front of a temple is still a general practice in western and southern India. In some of the South Indian temples, raised brass lamp towers called can be seen. To adapt the design to households and smaller spaces, the ('tree of light') was created. As the name suggests, it is a metal lamp container with curvi-linear lines branching out from the base, each holding a lamp. The is another common design, where the goddess Lakshmi holds the lamp in her hands. is another typical lamp traditionally used for household purposes in South India.


title: Oil lamp

text: Oil lamps also were included in proverbs. For example, a Bradj (pre-Hindi) proverb says, "", 'the [utmost] darkness is under the oil-lamp ()', meaning that what you seek could be close but unnoticed (right under your nose or feet), in various senses (a lamp's container casts a strong shadow).


title: Oil lamp

text: When the Big Temple in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, was built 1010 AD, there were elaborate measures taken to provide lighting for the temple. Lands were donated to or conquered for the temple for this sole objective. The income from these lands would go towards providing the oil for the lights.


title: Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)

text: Cloud Cuckoo Land is a 2021 historical and speculative fiction novel by Pulitzer-prize winning author Anthony Doerr. It was first published on September 28, 2021, in the United States by Charles Scribner's Sons and the United Kingdom by Fourth Estate. The novel centers around an Ancient Greek codex that links characters from fifteenth-century Constantinople, present-day Idaho, and a twenty-second-century starship.


title: Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)

text: "Cloud Cuckoo Land" is the story of five characters spanning eight centuries. In the fifteenth-century Byzantine Empire, Anna is a young seamstress living in Constantinople, and Omeir is a village boy conscripted into the Ottoman army, as they are preparing to take the city. In the present day, Zeno, a Korean War veteran, works in a library in Idaho translating Ancient Greek texts, while Seymour, a disturbed autistic youngster, becomes caught up with a group of ecoterrorists. In the twenty-second century, Konstance is a young girl aboard the "Argos", a generation starship heading for a planet called Beta Oph2.


title: Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)

text: Their stories are bound by an Ancient Greek codex entitled "Cloud Cuckoo Land" that each of the five characters discover and find solace in. It is a fictional book written by real Greek novelist Antonius Diogenes in the second century, and tells the story of Aethon, a shepherd on a quest to find the fabled paradise in the sky. In his travels, he is transformed into a donkey, a sea bass, and finally a crow, which allows him to fly to the gates of the city in the clouds.


title: Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)

text: Doerr stated in "Cloud Cuckoo Land" "Author's Note" that his novel draws on several other books, most notably Antonius Diogenes' now-lost "globetrotting tale", "Wonders Beyond Thule". The "Cloud Cuckoo Land" codex is a fictional book-within-a-book that Doerr wrote, but credited it to Diogenes. Ideas for the fable come from "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius, which Doerr says tells the story of a man turning into a donkey "with far more zest and skill than I do". Many of Zeno's experiences as a prisoner of war in Korea appear in "Remembered Prisoners of a Forgotten War: An Oral History of Korean War POWs" (2002) by Lewis H. Carlson.


title: Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)

text: While researching defensive walls for his previous novel "All the Light We Cannot See" (2014), which centers on the walled city of Saint-Malo, Doerr kept finding references to Constantinople. He said in an interview with "Entertainment Weekly" that its walls had withstood many sieges, and that it was only when gunpowder appeared in Europe that the Ottomans were able to breach its defenses with cannons in 1453. His fascination with the city's story made him realize that he had to write about it. Doerr said he set part of "Cloud Cuckoo Land" in the future to show how long ancient texts could survive. He noted that those sections are "not quite science fiction", but added that they were the result of extensive research into what life could be like then. Doerr added that Bill McKibben's book "" (2019) helped him picture what Earth may look like in the twenty-second century.


title: Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)

text: "Publishers Weekly", in its starred review, wrote, "Doerr seamlessly shuffles each of these narratives in vignettes that keep the action in full flow and the reader turning the pages. The descriptions of Constantinople, Idaho, and the "Argos" are each distinct and fully realized, and the protagonists of each are united by a determination to survive and a hunger for stories." "Kirkus Reviews" agreed, also in a starred review, praising Doerr's many "narrative miracles" for uniting the novel's storylines.


title: Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)

text: In a review in "The Guardian", Elizabeth Knox called "Cloud Cuckoo Land" "a gift of a novel", that is "large-hearted ... joyous [and] a deep lungful of fresh air". She complimented the skill with which Doerr weaves each of his character's narratives into Diogenes’ fable. Knox stated that Doerr's novel shows "how things survive by chance, and through love" and that love is needed "to save what we still have on Earth". In another review in "The Guardian", Hephzibah Anderson wrote that "Cloud Cuckoo Land" is full of "[w]onderment and despair, love and destruction and hope". With its "lyrical" text and classical philosophy intermingling with the climate crisis, Anderson described the book as "a tribute to the magic of reading".


title: Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)

text: Marcel Theroux wrote in a review in "The New York Times" that "Cloud Cuckoo Land" is "a wildly inventive novel that teems with life, straddles an enormous range of experience and learning, and embodies the storytelling gifts that it celebrates." He said that its characters are "engaging" and the storytelling is "bracing and energetic". He found it "an amazing feat" that Doerr is able to hold together the different narratives, spanning eight centuries, and still produce a "compelling, coherent and moving" book. Theroux concluded that it is "a humane and uplifting book for adults that’s infused with the magic of childhood reading experiences."


title: Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)

text: In a largely negative review in "The Irish Times", Barry Pierce called Doerr's "multi-genre epic" "a convoluted work". He said that while the sections in the present have some of the novel's "strongest plotting and best writing", the Constantinople pieces tend to stagnate, and the time spent aboard the "Argos" "reads like a literary fiction author attempting to do sci-fi". He also found the short chapters that hop between characters and genres "exhausting" and "the literary equivalent of late-night channel hopping". Pierce concluded that overall, the novel's plot is "technically, masterfully done", and notwithstanding the weaker sections, it keeps moving at a brisk pace, but added that "there may actually be some truth behind the concept of something being too big to fail." Writing in "The Washington Post", Ron Charles also called "Cloud Cuckoo Land" "convoluted". He wrote that while each character's tales could have been a captivating novel (barring the science-fiction story, which he said "has a moldy "Twilight Zone" funk"), Doerr slices the plots up and scrambles them, creating "a textual puzzle as complicated as the ancient Diogenes codex."


title: Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)

text: "Cloud Cuckoo Land" was a finalist for the 2021 National Book Award for Fiction, and was longlisted for the 2021 Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence in Fiction.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The Woman of the Apocalypse (or the woman clothed with the sun, ; Latin: ) is a figure, traditionally believed to be the Virgin Mary, described in Chapter 12 of the Book of Revelation (written c. AD 95).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The woman gives birth to a male child who is threatened by a dragon, identified as the Devil and Satan, who intends to devour the child as soon as he is born. When the child is taken to heaven, the woman flees on eagle’s wings into the wilderness at "palace prepared" for 1,260 days. This leads to a "War in Heaven" in which the angels cast out the dragon. The dragon attacks the woman, but the woman escapes on her wings for "a time, times and a time and a half" i.e. 1,260 days (the duration of each of three periods). The dragon then attacks her again with a flood of water from his mouth, which is subsequently swallowed by earth. Frustrated, the dragon initiates war on "the remnant of her seed", identified as the righteous followers of Christ.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The Woman of the Apocalypse is widely identified as the Virgin Mary. This interpretation is held by some commentators of the ancient Church as well as in the medieval and modern Catholic Church. This view does not negate the alternative interpretation of the Woman representing the Church, as in Catholic teaching, Mary is both the Mother of God and the Mother of the Church. Some Catholic commentaries, such as Thomas Haydock's Catholic Bible Commentary (1859), allow for the interpretation of the woman as either the Church or Mary. The commentary of the New American Bible (the official Catholic Bible for America) states that "The woman adorned with the sun, the moon, and the stars (images taken from Genesis 37:9–10) symbolizes God’s people in the Old and the New Testament. The Israel of old gave birth to the Messiah (Rev 12:5) and then became the new Israel, the church, which suffers persecution by the dragon (Rev. 12:6, 13–17); cf. Is. 50:1; 66:7; Jer. 50:12."


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: In Protestant churches, including Reformed Churches and the Evangelical Movement, the Woman of the Apocalypse tends to be seen as the Church or Israel.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The text describes "a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars" (12:1).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The woman is pregnant and about to give birth, "travailing in birth, and pained to be delivered" (12:2).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Then there is "a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads" (12:3) who is about to "devour her child as soon as it was born" (12:4). But her child is "caught up unto God" (12:5), and the woman herself is "fled into the wilderness, where she hath a place prepared of God, that they should feed her there a thousand two hundred and threescore days." (12:6)


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Then there is a description of "War in Heaven" of the angels against the dragon, and "the great dragon was cast out, that old serpent, called the Devil, and Satan, which deceiveth the whole world: he was cast out into the earth, and his angels were cast out with him." (12:9)


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The woman is again mentioned in 12:13, as she is persecuted by the dragon, and she escapes on her "two wings of a great eagle" (12:14).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The dragon attempts to inundate her place of refuge, by "water as a flood" emerging from his mouth (12:15), but the flood is swallowed up by the earth (12:16), so the dragon went "to make war with the remnant of her seed, which keep the commandments of God, and have the testimony of Jesus Christ" (12:17).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Ancient witnesses to the Marian interpretation include St. Epiphanius, Tychonius (who heavily influenced St. Augustine), the unknown author of the "History of Joseph the Carpenter", Quodvultdeus (a disciple of St. Augustine), Cassiodorus (Complexiones in Apocalypsi, written c. 570 AD), and the Greek Fathers Andreas of Caesarea (late 6th c. / early 7th c.) and Oikoumenios (6th c.).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The woman's "male child" is a reference to Jesus (Revelation 12:5), since he is destined to "rule all nations with a rod of iron" (Revelation 12:5). The dragon trying to devour the woman's child at the moment of his birth (Revelation 12:4) is a reference to Herod the Great's attempt to kill the infant Jesus (Matthew 2:16). Through his death and resurrection and Ascension, Jesus "was snatched up to God and to his throne" (Revelation 12:5).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: In the interpretation of Pius X (1904), the birth is not that of Jesus but "surely ours", (i.e. the Church Militant) "we who, being yet detained in exile, are still to be brought forth to the perfect love of God and eternal happiness". Pius XII (1950) makes explicit the reference to the Assumption of Mary.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: And John Paul II (1987) to the Protoevangelium interpretation of Genesis 3:15, and by extension the symbolic identification of the Woman with both Mary and Eve.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: For an assessment of the logical and theological reasons for identifying the Woman of Revelation 12 with Mary Mother of God, see , "Raised to Heaven because Co-Redemptrix on Earth. Thoughts on the Foundation of the Catholic Dogma" (2012) and D'Argon J-L, "The Apocalypse" in The Jerome Biblical Commentary (1968).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Alternatively, extreme pain in childbirth is seen as a result of the fall by many and the woman has extreme pain in child birth which may cause some tension with a sinless Mary interpretation of the text is an issue to consider. Dr. Mark Miravalle teacher of General Mariology in Mary's Virginity During the Birth of Jesus: The Catholic Church's Perennial Tradition.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Also alternatively, some would make the woman Israel and/or the church since in one dream of Joseph's in Genesis of his father and mother being the sun and moon and his brothers in Gen 37:9.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Both Marian veneration and the interpretation of the Woman of the Apocalypse are recorded since at least the 4th century, but the specific veneration of Mary in this form becomes tangible only in the medieval period. Iconographically, Marian figures associated with the Revelation narrative are recognizable by the astronomical attributes, specifically her standing on a crescent moon, and the crown of twelve stars (while the description "clothed with the sun" is sometimes rendered by rays emanating from her figure).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Association of Mary with a single star is recorded from the early medieval period, in the hymn "Ave Maris Stella".


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Many depictions of Mary from the Gothic period (14th to 16th century) show her standing on a crescent moon inspired by the association of Mary with the woman of the Apocalypse. The motif became so popular in 15th-century Germany that pre-existing Madonna figures were refitted with a crescent (e.g. Madonna of Bad Doberan, c. 1300, refitted in the 15th century).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The Virgin of Guadalupe was depicted as the Madonna of the Apocalypse since at least the 16th century.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The Madonna of the Apocalypse became associated with Our Lady of the Rosary, the "crown of twelve stars" being identified with a "rosary of twelve privileges" of Mary. The Virgin of the Rosary is frequently shown with the crown or halo of twelve stars (but not the crescent moon) in modern depictions (since the 19th century). A notable example is the Virgin of the Rosary of Pompei.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: An anecdote (first published in the 1980s) connects the design of the Flag of Europe (1955) to this aspect of Marian iconography.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: One early witness to the interpretation of the woman as the church is Hippolytus of Rome who states said interpretation in "On Christ and Antichrist".


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The Catholic Church recognizes the "woman" as part of the polyvalent symbolism that is found in the book in four referents: Israel, the Church, Eve, and Mary.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Commentators who adhere to Protestant theology in their eschatology sometimes identify the woman as the Church, and the man-child she gives birth to are the saints. According to this interpretation, Revelation 12:17 describes the remnant of the seed of the woman as those who keep the commandments of God, and have the testimony of Jesus Christ. The offspring of the Woman, the Woman's seed, then refers to the saints. The man child "who shall rule the nations with a rod of iron" is a symbol of the faithful members of the Church.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: In Revelation 2:18–29, the Church in Thyatira is promised that the faithful shall rule the nations with a rod of iron. In Revelation 19:15 the same thing is stated of Jesus. In Galatians 4:26, Paul the Apostle refers to the "New Jerusalem" as "our mother", and in Revelation 21:2 and Ephesians 5:21–32 the New Jerusalem and the Church is portrayed as the Bride of Christ.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The Seventh-day Adventist Church identifies itself as the end-time "remnant church" described in Revelation 12:17.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also interprets the woman to be the Church, and the man-child to be the political kingdom that will grow out of the Church prior to or during the Second Coming of Christ; this interpretation arises from Joseph Smith's translation of the twelfth chapter of Revelation. Some in the church interpret the woman to be a symbol of the earth. Baptisms of fire and water being poured upon the earth and the sun clothing the earth daily are just a couple examples of this reference.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The Bahá'í Faith interprets the woman as representing the religion of God as revealed within Islam, with the governments of the Persian Empire (the sun) and Ottoman Empire (the moon) under its influence "for the emblem of Persia is the sun and that of the Ottoman Empire is the crescent moon." They identify the crown of twelve stars on her head as the Twelve Imams of Islam who promoted the religion and were "the educators of the nation, and who shone as stars in the heaven of guidance." Bahá'í Faith recognizes the child she bears after a period of 1,260 days to rule all nations with a rod of iron to be the Báb, the forerunner of the Bahá'í Faith, who declared his mission in 1844 – the year 1260 in the Islamic lunar calendar.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Dispensational Premillennialists, and Amillennialists who believe in multiple valid interpretations will often identify the woman as the nation of Israel. There are several reasons given to support this interpretation. The woman is said to be clothed with the sun, the moon under her feet, and twelve stars. These symbols are drawn from Genesis 37:9–11, in which Joseph has a dream of the sun and moon symbolizing his father and mother, and stars representing his eleven brothers, which bow down to him. The Old Testament's prophets referred to Israel as a "woman" (Isaiah 54:5–6; Jeremiah 4:31; Micah 4:9–10).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The woman flees into the wilderness where she is nourished for 1260 days, the equivalent of three and a half years or forty-two months (cf. Rev. 12:6). According to this interpretation, these terms are used prophetically in Scripture either for the first half or the last half of the "Seventieth Week of Daniel", in Daniel 9:24–27, a prophecy specifically addressed to Daniel and his people, Israel (Dan. 9:24).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: In the latter part of the seventieth week, a remnant of Israel will flee into the wilderness to escape the persecution of Antichrist, who is called "the son of destruction", "the lawless one", and "whose coming is in accord with the activity of Satan" (2 Thess. 2:1–12; cf. Rev. 12:4,9). Jesus, in the Olivet discourse, warned the people of this time which would occur just prior to His return to set up His earthly, Millennial kingdom (Matt. 24:15–22). Further, the archangel Michael is called the guardian over the sons of Israel in Dan. 12:1. And he will arise at that time of national Israel's tribulation (Dan. 12:1; cf. Rev. 12:7).


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Amillennialist belief can also interpret this passage as the nation of Israel, however this belief as expressed by amillennialists refers, not to the modern Israel, but to the Ancient religious state of Israel(Judea) as it existed in the time of Christ. The Child is Christ, born into the then existing state of Israel, and of Israel's lineage.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: The remnant or sons of Israel is, in this understanding, the followers of Christ, the followers of the true religion of Israel as it exists after the coming of the messiah. The "Seventieth Week of Daniel", and prophecy of the Olivet discourse, in this belief, are ascribed as concerning the first coming of Christ, the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD (during which enforced emperor worship occurred in the temple of Jerusalem, which was later almost totally destroyed, and many Jews were made slaves in distant lands resulting presumably in their remaining families not knowing what happened to them or where they were), and the establishment of Christ's Church, as it currently exists, both on earth and in heaven.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Lutheran scholar Craig Koester, for example, says, "The woman encompasses the story of Israel, from whom the Messiah was born, as well as the story of the church, which was persecuted after Jesus' death and resurrection... John's visionary account of the threat against the woman and the woman's preservation uses imagery that encompasses many moments in the story of God's people. This allows the story to apply to people in many times and places."


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: Russian Orthodox theologian Sergei Bulgakov (1871–1944) in his interpretation of Revelation notes of the astronomical attributes of the woman in Babylonian, Persian, Greek, and Egyptian mythologies. He takes the crown of twelve stars as representing the Zodiac. In his interpretation, astronomical attributes of a pagan goddess are here "translated into the language of Christian theology and assume the new symbolism.


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: In Joseph Smith's Inspired Translation of the King James Bible the woman is identified as "the church of God".


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: "And the woman fled into the wilderness, where she had a place prepared of God, that they should feed her there a thousand two hundred and threescore days. And there was war in heaven; Michael and his angels fought against the dragon; and the dragon and his angels fought against Michael; And the dragon prevailed not against Michael, neither the child, nor the woman which was the church of God, who had been delivered of her pains, and brought forth the kingdom of our God and his Christ. (Revelation 12:1–17 JST)


title: Woman of the Apocalypse

text: "Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures" (1875) written by Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of The First Church of Christ, Scientist, presents the woman in the Apocalypse as symbolizing "the spiritual idea of God; she illustrates the coincidence of God and man as the divine Principle and divine idea ... the spiritual idea of God's motherhood." The man child represents "Christ, God's idea, [which] will eventually rule all nations and peoples – imperatively, absolutely, finally – with divine Science [the Law of God]"


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a label for a diverse set of methods used by scientists in both experimental and observational research across the sciences, business, and other fields. It is used most in the social and behavioral sciences. A definition of SEM is difficult without reference to highly technical language, but a good starting place is the name itself.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: SEM involves the construction of a "model", to represent how various aspects of an observable or theoretical phenomenon are thought to be causally structurally related to one another. The "structural" aspect of the model implies theoretical associations between variables that represent the phenomenon under investigation. The postulated causal structuring is often depicted with arrows representing causal connections between variables (as in Figures 1 and 2) but these causal connections can be equivalently represented as equations. The causal structures imply that specific patterns of connections should appear among the values of the variables, and the observed connections between the variables’ values are used to estimate the magnitudes of the causal effects, and to test whether or not the observed data are consistent with the postulated causal structuring. The "equations" in SEM are mathematical and statistical properties that are implied by the model and its structural features, and then estimated with statistical algorithms (usually based on matrix algebra and generalized linear models) run on experimental or observational data.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: The boundary between what is and is not a structural equation model is not always clear but SE models often contain postulated causal connections among a set of latent variables (variables thought to exist but which can’t be directly observed) and causal connections linking the postulated latent variables to variables that can be observed and whose values are available in some data set. Variations among the styles of latent causal connections, variations among the observed variables measuring the latent variables, and variations in the statistical estimation strategies result in the SEM toolkit including confirmatory factor analysis, confirmatory composite analysis, path analysis, multi-group modeling, longitudinal modeling, partial least squares path modeling, latent growth modeling and hierarchical or multilevel modeling.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Use of SEM is commonly justified because it helps identify latent variables that are believed to exist, but cannot be directly observed (like an attitude, intelligence or mental illness). Although there are not always clear boundaries of what is and what is not SEM, it generally involves "path models" (see also path analysis) and "measurement models" (see also factor analysis) and always employs statistical models and computer programs to investigate the structural connections between latent variables underlying the actual variables taken from observed data. Researchers using SEM employ software programs to estimate the strength and sign of a coefficient for each modeled arrow (the numbers shown in Figure 1 for example), and to provide diagnostic clues suggesting which indicators or model components might produce inconsistency between the model and the data. Criticisms of SEM methods hint at mathematical formulation problems, a tendency to accept models without establishing external validity, and potential philosophical bias.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: A SEM suggesting that intelligence (as measured by four questions) can predict academic performance (as measured by SAT, ACT, and high school GPA) is shown in Figure 1. The concept of human intelligence cannot be measured directly in the way that one could measure height or weight. Instead, researchers have a theory and conceptualization of intelligence and then design measurement instruments such as a questionnaire or test that provides them with multiple indicators of intelligence. These indicators are then combined in a model to create a plausible way of measuring intelligence as a latent variable (the circle for intelligence in Figure 1) from the indicators (square boxes with scale 1–4 in Figure 1). Figure 1 is presented as a final model, after running it and obtaining all estimates (the numbers on the arrows). There is no consensus on the best symbolic notation to represent SEMs, for example Figure 2 represents a similar model as Figure 1 without as many arrows and in a format that might occur prior to running the model.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: A great advantage of SEM is that all of these measurements and tests occur simultaneously in one statistical estimation procedure, where the errors throughout the model are calculated using all information from the model. This means the errors are more accurate than if a researcher were to calculate each part of the model separately.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Structural equation modeling (SEM) has its roots in the work of Sewall Wright who applied explicit causal interpretations to regression equations based on direct and indirect effects of observed variables in population genetics. Lee M. Wolfle compiled an annotated bibliographic history of Sewall Wright's path coefficient method which we know today as path modeling. Wright added two important elements to the standard practice of using regression to predict an outcome. These were (1) to combine information from more than one regression equation using (2) a causal approach to regression modeling rather than merely predictive. Sewall Wright consolidated his method of path analysis in his 1934 article "The Method of Path Coefficients".


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Otis Dudley Duncan introduced SEM to the social sciences in 1975 and it flourished throughout the 1970s and 80s. Different yet mathematically related modeling approaches developed in psychology, sociology, and economics. The convergence of two of these developmental streams (factor analysis from psychology, and path analysis from sociology via Duncan) produced the current core of SEM although there is great overlap with econometric practices employing simultaneous equations and exogenous (causal variables).


title: Structural equation modeling

text: One of several programs Karl Gustav Jöreskog developed in the early 1970s at Educational Testing Services (LISREL) embedded latent variables (which psychologists knew as the latent factors from factor analysis) within path-analysis-style equations (which sociologists had inherited from Wright and Duncan). The factor-structured portion of the model incorporated measurement errors and thereby permitted measurement-error-adjusted estimation of effects connecting latent variables.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Loose and confusing terminology has been used to obscure weaknesses in the methods. In particular, PLS-PA (also known as PLS-PM) has been conflated with partial least squares regression PLSR, which is a substitute for ordinary least squares regression and has nothing to do with path analysis. PLS-PA has been falsely promoted as a method that works with small datasets when other estimation approaches fail; in fact, it has been shown that minimum required sample sizes for this method are consistent with those required in multiple regression.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Both LISREL and PLS-PA were conceived as iterative computer algorithms, with an emphasis from the start on creating an accessible graphical and data entry interface and extension of Wright's (1921) path analysis. Early Cowles Commission work on simultaneous equations estimation centered on Koopman and Hood's (1953) algorithms from the economics of transportation and optimal routing, with maximum likelihood estimation, and closed form algebraic calculations, as iterative solution search techniques were limited in the days before computers.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Anderson and Rubin (1949, 1950) developed the limited information maximum likelihood estimator for the parameters of a single structural equation, which indirectly included the two-stage least squares estimator and its asymptotic distribution (Anderson, 2005) and Farebrother (1999). Two-stage least squares was originally proposed as a method of estimating the parameters of a single structural equation in a system of linear simultaneous equations, being introduced by Theil (1953a, 1953b, 1961) and more or less independently by Basmann (1957) and Sargan (1958). Anderson's limited information maximum likelihood estimation was eventually implemented in a computer search algorithm, where it competed with other iterative SEM algorithms. Of these, two-stage least squares was by far the most widely used method in the 1960s and the early 1970s.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Systems of regression equation approaches were developed at the Cowles Commission from the 1950s on, extending the transportation modeling of Tjalling Koopmans. Sewall Wright and other statisticians attempted to promote path analysis methods at Cowles (then at the University of Chicago). University of Chicago statisticians identified many faults with path analysis applications to the social sciences; faults which did not pose significant problems for identifying gene transmission in Wright's context, but which made path methods such as PLS-PA and LISREL problematic in the social sciences. Freedman (1987) summarized these objections in path analyses: "failure to distinguish among causal assumptions, statistical implications, and policy claims has been one of the main reasons for the suspicion and confusion surrounding quantitative methods in the social sciences" (see also Wold's (1987) response). Wright's path analysis never gained a large following among US econometricians, but was successful in influencing Hermann Wold and his student Karl Jöreskog. Jöreskog's student Claes Fornell promoted LISREL in the US.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Advances in computers made it simple for novices to apply structural equation methods in the computer-intensive analysis of large datasets in complex, unstructured problems. The most popular solution techniques fall into three classes of algorithms: (1) ordinary least squares algorithms applied independently to each path, such as applied in the so-called PLS path analysis packages which estimate with OLS; (2) covariance analysis algorithms evolving from seminal work by Wold and his student Karl Jöreskog implemented in LISREL, AMOS, and EQS; and (3) simultaneous equations regression algorithms developed at the Cowles Commission by Tjalling Koopmans.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Pearl has extended SEM from linear to nonparametric models, and proposed causal and counterfactual interpretations of the equations. For example, excluding a variable Z from the arguments of an equation asserts that the dependent variable is independent of interventions on the excluded variable, once we hold constant the remaining arguments. Nonparametric SEMs permit the estimation of total, direct and indirect effects without making any commitment to the form of the equations or to the distributions of the error terms. This extends mediation analysis to systems involving categorical variables in the presence of nonlinear interactions. Bollen and Pearl survey the history of the causal interpretation of SEM and why it has become a source of confusions and controversies.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: SEM path analysis methods are popular in the social sciences because of their accessibility; packaged computer programs allow researchers to obtain results without the inconvenience of understanding experimental design and control, effect and sample sizes, and numerous other factors that are part of good research design. Supporters say that this reflects a holistic, and less blatantly causal, interpretation of many real world phenomena – especially in psychology and social interaction – than may be adopted in the natural sciences; detractors suggest that many flawed conclusions have been drawn because of this lack of experimental control.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Direction in the directed network models of SEM arises from presumed cause-effect assumptions made about reality. Social interactions and artifacts are often epiphenomena – secondary phenomena that are difficult to directly link to causal factors. An example of a physiological epiphenomenon is, for example, time to complete a 100-meter sprint. A person may be able to improve their sprint speed from 12 seconds to 11 seconds, but it will be difficult to attribute that improvement to any direct causal factors, like diet, attitude, weather, etc. The 1 second improvement in sprint time is an epiphenomenon – the holistic product of interaction of many individual factors.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Although each technique in the SEM family is different, the following aspects are common to many SEM methods, as it can be summarized as a 4E framework by many SEM scholars like Alex Liu, that is 1) Equation (model or equation specification), 2) Estimation of free parameters, 3) Evaluation of models and model fit, 4) Explanation and communication, as well as execution of results.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Two main components of models are distinguished in SEM: the "structural model" showing potential causal dependencies between endogenous and exogenous variables, and the "measurement model" showing the relations between latent variables and their indicators. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis models, for example, contain only the measurement part, while path diagrams can be viewed as SEMs that contain only the structural part.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: In specifying pathways in a model, the modeler can posit two types of relationships: (1) "free" pathways, in which hypothesized causal (in fact counterfactual) relationships between variables are tested, and therefore are left 'free' to vary, and (2) relationships between variables that already have an estimated relationship, usually based on previous studies, which are 'fixed' in the model.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: A modeler will often specify a set of theoretically plausible models in order to assess whether the model proposed is the best of the set of possible models. Not only must the modeler account for the theoretical reasons for building the model as it is, but the modeler must also take into account the number of data points and the number of parameters that the model must estimate to identify the model.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: An identified model is a model where a specific parameter value uniquely identifies the model (recursive definition), and no other equivalent formulation can be given by a different parameter value. A data point is a variable with observed scores, like a variable containing the scores on a question or the number of times respondents buy a car. The parameter is the value of interest, which might be a regression coefficient between the exogenous and the endogenous variable or the factor loading (regression coefficient between an indicator and its factor). If there are fewer data points than the number of estimated parameters, the resulting model is "unidentified", since there are too few reference points to account for all the variance in the model. The solution is to constrain one of the paths to zero, which means that it is no longer part of the model.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Parameter estimation is done by comparing the actual covariance matrices representing the relationships between variables and the estimated covariance matrices of the best fitting model. This is obtained through numerical maximization via expectation–maximization of a "fit criterion" as provided by maximum likelihood estimation, quasi-maximum likelihood estimation, weighted least squares or asymptotically distribution-free methods. This is often accomplished by using a specialized SEM analysis program, of which several exist.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Having estimated a model, analysts will want to interpret the model. Estimated paths may be tabulated and/or presented graphically as a path model. The impact of variables is assessed using path tracing rules (see path analysis).


title: Structural equation modeling

text: It is important to examine the "fit" of an estimated model to determine how well it models the data. This is a basic task in SEM modeling, forming the basis for accepting or rejecting models and, more usually, accepting one competing model over another. The output of SEM programs includes matrices of the estimated relationships between variables in the model. Assessment of fit essentially calculates how similar the predicted data are to matrices containing the relationships in the actual data.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Formal statistical tests and fit indices have been developed for these purposes. Individual parameters of the model can also be examined within the estimated model in order to see how well the proposed model fits the driving theory. Most, though not all, estimation methods make such tests of the model possible.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Of course as in all statistical hypothesis tests, SEM model tests are based on the assumption that the correct and complete relevant data have been modeled. In the SEM literature, discussion of fit has led to a variety of different recommendations on the precise application of the various fit indices and hypothesis tests.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: There are differing approaches to assessing fit. Traditional approaches to modeling start from a null hypothesis, rewarding more parsimonious models (i.e. those with fewer free parameters), to others such as AIC that focus on how little the fitted values deviate from a saturated model (i.e. how well they reproduce the measured values), taking into account the number of free parameters used. Because different measures of fit capture different elements of the fit of the model, it is appropriate to report a selection of different fit measures. Guidelines (i.e., "cutoff scores") for interpreting fit measures, including the ones listed below, are the subject of much debate among SEM researchers.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: For each measure of fit, a decision as to what represents a good-enough fit between the model and the data must reflect other contextual factors such as sample size, the ratio of indicators to factors, and the overall complexity of the model. For example, very large samples make the Chi-squared test overly sensitive and more likely to indicate a lack of model-data fit.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: The model may need to be modified in order to improve the fit, thereby estimating the most likely relationships between variables. Many programs provide modification indices which may guide minor modifications. Modification indices report the change in χ² that result from freeing fixed parameters: usually, therefore adding a path to a model which is currently set to zero. Modifications that improve model fit may be flagged as potential changes that can be made to the model. Modifications to a model, especially the structural model, are changes to the theory claimed to be true. Modifications therefore must make sense in terms of the theory being tested, or be acknowledged as limitations of that theory. Changes to measurement model are effectively claims that the items/data are impure indicators of the latent variables specified by theory.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Models should not be led by modification indices, as Maccallum (1986) demonstrated: "even under favorable conditions, models arising from specification searches must be viewed with caution."


title: Structural equation modeling

text: While researchers agree that large sample sizes are required to provide sufficient statistical power and precise estimates using SEM, there is no general consensus on the appropriate method for determining adequate sample size. Generally, the considerations for determining sample size include the number of observations per parameter, the number of observations required for fit indexes to perform adequately, and the number of observations per degree of freedom. Researchers have proposed guidelines based on simulation studies, professional experience, and mathematical formulas.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Sample size requirements to achieve a particular significance and power in SEM hypothesis testing are similar for the same model when any of the three algorithms (PLS-PA, LISREL or systems of regression equations) are used for testing.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: The set of models are then interpreted so that claims about the constructs can be made, based on the best fitting model.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Caution should always be taken when making claims of causality even when experimentation or time-ordered studies have been done. The term "causal model" must be understood to mean "a model that conveys causal assumptions", not necessarily a model that produces validated causal conclusions. Collecting data at multiple time points and using an experimental or quasi-experimental design can help rule out certain rival hypotheses but even a randomized experiment cannot rule out all such threats to causal inference. Good fit by a model consistent with one causal hypothesis invariably entails equally good fit by another model consistent with an opposing causal hypothesis. No research design, no matter how clever, can help distinguish such rival hypotheses, save for interventional experiments.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: As in any science, subsequent replication and perhaps modification will proceed from the initial finding.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Numerous software packages exist for fitting structural equation models. LISREL was the first such software, initially released in the 1970s. Frequently used software implementations among researchers include Mplus, R packages lavaan and sem, LISREL, OpenMx, SPSS AMOS, and Stata. Barbara M. Byrne published multiple instructional books for using a variety of these softwares as part of the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychology's Multivariate Applications book series.


title: Structural equation modeling

text: Scholars consider it good practice to report which software package and version was used for SEM analysis because they have different capabilities and may use slightly different methods to perform similarly named techniques.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: The Whitechapel murders were committed in or near the largely impoverished Whitechapel district in the East End of London between 3 April 1888 and 13 February 1891. At various points some or all of these eleven unsolved murders of women have been ascribed to the notorious unidentified serial killer known as Jack the Ripper.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: Most, if not all, of the victims—Emma Elizabeth Smith, Martha Tabram, Mary Ann "Polly" Nichols, Annie Chapman, Elizabeth Stride, Catherine Eddowes, Mary Jane Kelly, Rose Mylett, Alice McKenzie, Frances Coles, and an unidentified woman—were prostitutes. Smith was sexually assaulted and robbed by a gang. Tabram was stabbed 39 times. Nichols, Chapman, Stride, Eddowes, Kelly, McKenzie and Coles had their throats cut. Eddowes and Stride were murdered on the same night, within approximately an hour and less than a mile apart; their murders are known as the "double event", after a phrase in a postcard sent to the press by an individual claiming to be the Ripper. The bodies of Nichols, Chapman, Eddowes and Kelly had abdominal mutilations. Mylett was strangled. The body of the unidentified woman was dismembered, but the exact cause of her death is unclear.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: The Metropolitan Police, City of London Police, and private organisations such as the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee were actively involved in the search for the perpetrator or perpetrators. Despite extensive enquiries and several arrests, the culprit or culprits evaded capture, and the murders were never solved. The Whitechapel murders drew attention to the poor living conditions in the East End slums, which were subsequently improved. The enduring mystery of who committed the crimes has captured public imagination to the present day.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: In the late Victorian era, Whitechapel was considered to be the most notorious criminal rookery in London. The area around Flower and Dean Street was described as "perhaps the foulest and most dangerous street in the whole metropolis"; Dorset Street was called "the worst street in London". Assistant Police Commissioner Robert Anderson recommended Whitechapel to "those who take an interest in the dangerous classes" as one of London's prime criminal "show places". Robbery, violence and alcohol dependency were commonplace. The district was characterised by extreme poverty, sub-standard housing, poor sanitation, homelessness, drunkenness and endemic prostitution. These factors were focused in the institution of the 233 common lodging-houses within Whitechapel, in which approximately 8,500 people resided on a nightly basis.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: The common lodging-houses in and around Whitechapel provided cheap communal lodgings for the desperate, the destitute and the transient, among whom the Whitechapel murder victims were numbered. The nightly price of a single bed was 4d () and the cost of sleeping upon a "lean-to" rope stretched across the bedrooms was 2d for adults or children.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: All the identified victims of the Whitechapel murders lived within the heart of the rookery in Spitalfields, including three in George Street (later named Lolesworth Street), two in Dorset Street, two in Flower and Dean Street and one in Thrawl Street.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: Police work and criminal prosecutions at the time relied heavily on confessions, witness testimony, and apprehending perpetrators in the act of committing an offence or in the possession of obvious physical evidence that clearly linked them to a crime. Forensic techniques, such as fingerprint analysis, were not in use, and blood typing had not been invented. Policing in London was—and still is—divided between two forces: the Metropolitan Police with jurisdiction over most of the urban area, and the City of London Police with jurisdiction over about a square mile (2.9 km) of the city centre. The Home Secretary, a senior minister of the British government, controlled the Metropolitan Police, whereas the City Police were responsible to the Corporation of London. Beat constables walked regular, timed routes.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: Eleven deaths in or near Whitechapel between 1888 and 1891 were gathered into a single file, referred to in the police docket as the Whitechapel murders. Much of the original material has been either stolen, lost, or destroyed.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: On Tuesday 3 April 1888, following the Easter Monday bank holiday, 45-year-old prostitute Emma Elizabeth Smith was assaulted and robbed at the junction of Osborn Street and Brick Lane, Whitechapel, in the early hours of the morning. Although injured, she survived the attack and managed to walk back to her lodging house at 18 George Street, Spitalfields. She told the deputy keeper, Mary Russell, that she had been attacked by two or three men, one of them a teenager. Russell took Smith to the London Hospital, where a medical examination revealed that a blunt object had been inserted into her vagina, rupturing her peritoneum. She developed peritonitis and died at 9:00a.m. the following day.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: The inquest was conducted on 7 April by the coroner for East Middlesex, Wynne Edwin Baxter, who also conducted inquests on six of the later victims. The local inspector of the Metropolitan Police, Edmund Reid of H Division Whitechapel, investigated the attack but the culprits were never caught. Walter Dew, a detective constable stationed with H Division, later wrote that he believed Smith to be the first victim of Jack the Ripper, but his colleagues suspected her murder was the work of a criminal gang. Smith claimed that she was attacked by two or three men, but either refused to or could not describe them beyond stating one was a teenager. East End prostitutes were often managed by gangs, and Smith could have been attacked by her pimps as a punishment for disobeying them, or as an act of intimidation. She may not have identified her attackers because she feared reprisal. Her murder is considered unlikely to be connected with the later killings.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: On Tuesday 7 August, following a Monday bank holiday, prostitute Martha Tabram was murdered at about 2:30 am. Her body was found at George Yard Buildings, George Yard, Whitechapel, shortly before 5:00 a.m. She had been stabbed 39 times about her neck, torso and genitals with a short blade. With one possible exception, all her wounds had been inflicted by a right-handed individual.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: On the basis of statements from a fellow prostitute, and PC Thomas Barrett who was patrolling nearby, Inspector Reid put soldiers at the Tower of London and Wellington Barracks on an identification parade, but without positive results. Police did not connect Tabram's murder with the earlier murder of Emma Smith, but they did connect her death with later murders.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: Most experts do not connect Tabram's murder with the others attributed to the Ripper, because she had been repeatedly stabbed, whereas later victims typically suffered slash wounds and abdominal mutilations. However, a connection cannot be ruled out.


title: Whitechapel murders

text: On Friday 31 August, Mary Ann Nichols was murdered in Buck's Row (since renamed Durward Street), a back street in Whitechapel. Her body was discovered by cart driver Charles Cross at 3:45 am on the ground in front of a gated stable entrance. Her throat had been slit twice from left to right and her abdomen was mutilated by a deep jagged wound. Several shallower incisions across the abdomen, and three or four similar cuts on the right side were caused by the same knife used violently and downwards. As the murder occurred in the territory of the J or Bethnal Green Division of the Metropolitan Police, it was at first investigated by the local detectives. On the same day, James Monro resigned as the head of the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) over differences with Chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police Sir Charles Warren.