title: Universal Television

text: Revue Productions (later known as Revue Studios) was founded in 1943 by MCA Inc. to produce live radio shows and also produced "Stage Door Canteen" live events for the United Service Organizations (USO) during World War II. Revue was re-launched as MCA's television production subsidiary in 1950. The partnership of NBC and Revue extends as far back as September 6, 1950, with the television broadcast of "Armour Theatre", based on radio's "Stars Over Hollywood". MCA bought the Universal Studios backlot in 1958 and renamed it Revue Studios. Following its merger with Decca Records, the then-parent of Universal Pictures, the studio backlot name was changed back to Universal. In 1963, MCA formed Universal City Studios to merge the motion picture and television arms of both Universal Pictures and Revue Studios and Revue was officially renamed Universal Television in 1963.


title: Universal Television

text: During the early years of television, Revue was responsible for producing and/or distributing many television programs. These included "Leave It to Beaver", which ran for only one season on CBS before going to ABC from 1958 until 1963. In addition, Revue also made Alan Hale Jr.'s "Biff Baker, U.S.A." (1952–1953) and all three of Rod Cameron's syndicated series, "City Detective" (1953–1955), "State Trooper" (1956–1959), and "Coronado 9" (1960–1961) and the Bill Williams western series, "The Adventures of Kit Carson" (1951–1955). It produced "Bachelor Father" (1957–1962), for "Bachelor Productions", Edmond O'Brien's syndicated crime film "Johnny Midnight", based on a fictitious New York City actor-turned-private investigator. Another of its offerings was the 52-episode "Crusader", the first Brian Keith series, which ran on CBS 1955–1956. Another western produced by Revue and starring Audie Murphy was "Whispering Smith" (NBC, 1959/61), based on the 1948 Alan Ladd movie of the same name. "Leave It to Beaver" was produced first by George Gobel's Gomalco Productions, then by Kayro Productions on a back lot at Revue Studios from 1958 to 1963. Also "McHale's Navy" was produced by Revue from 1962 to 1966.


title: Universal Television

text: In December 1958, MCA/Revue purchased Universal Studios' 367-acre backlot to produce television series, then leased it back to Universal for a million dollars a year for a decade.


title: Universal Television

text: Revue produced later seasons of "The Jack Benny Program" for CBS and NBC and in co-operation with Jack Benny's J and M productions "Checkmate", "General Electric Theater" and "Alfred Hitchcock Presents" for CBS, "Studio 57" for DuMont Television Network, and westerns such as "Tales of Wells Fargo", "The Restless Gun" and "Laramie" for NBC, as well as "Wagon Train" for NBC and ABC, and the first two seasons of NBC's "The Virginian", based on a film released originally by Paramount Pictures, whose pre-1950 theatrical sound feature film library was sold to MCA in 1957. "Wagon Train" was the only Revue-produced TV show ever to finish an American television season in first place.


title: Universal Television

text: NBC Television Network was founded in 1947 by RCA (NBC's former parent company). In 1955, NBC acquired production company Kagran Corporation, and by 1956, changed its company name to California National Productions. The company also brought several NBC-aired programs, like "The Adventures of Hiram Holliday" and "The Lawless Years", as well as non-NBC programs like "The Silent Service" and "Philip Marlowe", but none of them were successful. The company's first hit was the television show "Bonanza", which lasted from 1959 to 1973 on the NBC television network. Its follow-up project that was produced independently was "Outlaws", a western from 1960 to 1962. The third independently produced NBC show, "The Americans", which aired only in 1961, lasted a few episodes, and bombed after only one season.


title: Universal Television

text: In 1961, California National changes its name to NBC Films, and in 1963, launched NBC Productions to continue producing its existing show "Bonanza", and develop newer projects for the network. NBC developed and produced several shows internally like "Kentucky Jones", "Captain Nice" and "T.H.E. Cat". By 1966, the company had output talent deals with Sheldon Leonard, Bob Finkel, Norman Felton and David Dortort. The next big project was "The High Chaparral", which was a hit among viewers throughout its four-season run, only to be axed in 1971 due to the rural purge. Throughout its partnership with Sheldon Leonard, they produced three shows "Accidental Family", "My Friend Tony" and "My World and Welcome to It", but none of them were successful. By 1974, NBC is producing the next big hit "Little House on the Prairie".


title: Universal Television

text: By the 1980s, NBC is producing "Punky Brewster", which was popular among viewers. NBC's production output was primarily on television movies and miniseries. NBC's other television series output were "Sara" and "Roomies", both of them were unsuccessful. In 1985, Michael Filerman through his Michael Filerman Productions company signed a deal with NBC Productions to develop long-form telemovies and miniseries, as well as television series. In the late 1980s, NBC Productions attempted to get into the film business, but it was proven unsuccessful, after the failure of the film "". In 1987, NBC Productions provided funding for a feature film that starred Cassandra Peterson as her Elvira character, which raised $5–6 million by NBC to fund the film. In 1988, NBC started a deal with Peter Engel that resulted in the creation of "Good Morning, Miss Bliss" and eventually producing a number of teen shows.


title: Universal Television

text: In early 1990, NBC had struck a development deal with musician/producer Quincy Jones and his Quincy Jones Entertainment company. Also the same year, NBC signed a deal with Jay Tarses for his production company. By 1990, NBC returned to producing hit programs with the sitcom "The Fresh Prince of Bel Air", which starred Will Smith, in one of the first TV roles. Also that same year, NBC Productions partnered with Group W Productions to develop a syndicated program "House Party". In 1991, NBC produced another syndicated show, this time, out of the WMAQ-TV studios, "Johnny B...On the Loose", in partnership with Viacom Enterprises.


title: Universal Television

text: In 1993, Perry Simon left NBC to start his own production company with a non-exclusive production agreement. In 1995, NBC launched a partnership with television director James Burrows to create 3 Sisters Entertainment, who produced series for the network. Out of these five, the most successful out of the venture were "Will & Grace" and "Caroline in the City" (co-produced and owned by CBS Productions). Later that year, NBC Productions was however folded into NBC's entertainment division.


title: Universal Television

text: In 1996, the company was renamed NBC Studios. The company had returned to producing hit programs like "The Pretender", "Profiler", "Providence", "Ed", "Las Vegas" and "Crossing Jordan". In 2004, NBC Studios was merged with Universal Network Television to form NBC Universal Television Studios.


title: Universal Television

text: The first incarnation of Universal Television was reincorporated from Revue Productions in 1964, 2 years after MCA Inc. bought Universal Pictures and its then-current parent Decca Records. Among their many contributions to television programming included production of the first television film ("See How They Run" from 1964), the first wheel series ("The Name of the Game" from 1968), the first rotating series with an umbrella title (1969's "The Bold Ones") and the first two-part television movie ("Vanished" from 1971). Uni TV (also commonly known as MCA/Universal) also co-produced many shows with Jack Webb's Mark VII Limited such as "Emergency!", "Adam-12" and a revival of the 1951 series "Dragnet". During the 1970s and 1980s, Uni TV produced shows such as "Baretta", "The Rockford Files", "Murder, She Wrote", "Miami Vice", "The Equalizer", "The Incredible Hulk", "Battlestar Galactica", "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century", "Knight Rider", "The A-Team", "Simon & Simon" and "Magnum, P.I.", which received critical acclaim and several TV movie spin-offs after their cancellations.


title: Universal Television

text: In 1967, Grant Tinker, formerly employee of NBC was hired to join the studio. He held the position for two years, until he left in 1969 to join 20th Century-Fox Television, and later that year, had to start MTM Enterprises. He subsequently left Fox in 1971 due to conflicts with running MTM.


title: Universal Television

text: In 1980, Bud Austin has received a production contract with Universal Television to produce television series. One of the more notable and legendary contracts was writer/producer Dick Wolf, whose Universal association began in 1986 with "Miami Vice", then writing for several more shows before creating the hit "Law & Order" franchise. In 1987, Universal Television, which by then, was the leading producers in prime time television programming, decided to have six pilots committed for network production value, plus three series for the 1987–88 season, which included development deals with people who already contracted with Universal.


title: Universal Television

text: In 1990, MCA/Uni TV began the "Law & Order" franchise. In 1991, Tom Thayer was named president of the Universal Television arm. In 1993, former Warner Bros. Television senior vice president of production employee Steven J. Papazian joined Universal Television as vice president of production. In 1992, Universal Television signed a deal with several newer talent, plus some returning and existing talent that were offered at the studio, including Ivan Reitman, David Burke, John Leekley and R.J. Stewart. In 1993, St. Clare Entertainment, a company owned by John Landis had reupped its contract at both MCA TV, MTE and Universal Television, three of the encompassing TV units of MCA via the MCA TV Group. In 1994, Universal Television made a financing partnership with ABC to help them fund the show "Blue Skies".


title: Universal Television

text: In 1996, MCA was reincorporated as Universal Studios. Around the same time, Universal was acquired by Joseph A. Seagram and Sons and later acquired the Multimedia Entertainment and USA Network. Also that year, Universal Television collaborated with Warner Bros. Television to develop the series "Spy Game" for ABC, with Universal alumnus Sam Raimi and Robert Tapert of Renaissance Pictures, and Warner alumnus John McNamara producing the series, but it didn't last long, as it only lasted one season on the air.


title: Universal Television

text: Universal purchased a 50% stake of Brillstein-Grey Entertainment in 1996 for $75 to $100 million. They considered buying the other 50% after selling its own TV unit to Barry Diller in 1998. Universal sold its stake in BGE in 1999 and BGE was renamed as Brad Grey Television, though Universal continued to co-produce "Just Shoot Me!" and "The Steve Harvey Show" until their cancellations.


title: Universal Television

text: EMKA, Ltd. is the holding company responsible for a majority of the pre-1950 Paramount Pictures sound library. As an official part of the Universal Pictures library, they are part of the company's television unit, Universal Television.


title: Universal Television

text: For the 1970s and 1980s, MCA TV, the syndication company, had a production shop that produced shows like "Probe", which was for air on ABC.


title: Universal Television

text: MTE (known as MCA Television Entertainment) was formed in 1989 as a telemovie and cable division of Universal Television. It primarily dealt with made-for-TV movies and series like "Dream On" that were made for cable networks like HBO. It was also a producer of first-run syndication programming for the Hollywood Premiere Network, which was distributed by MCA's own syndication arm MCA TV, as well as KCOP-TV in Los Angeles and WWOR-TV in New York, such as "They Came from Outer Space", "Shades of L.A." and "She-Wolf of London", but it only lasted one season from 1990 to 1991, but it didn't last long.


title: Universal Television

text: In 1990, Michael Landsbury was named vice president of series programs, Angela Mancuso as vice president of production, and Michael Houbrick was named assistant director of publicity, at the studio.


title: Universal Television

text: One of the most notable clients of MTE was Papazian-Hirsch Entertainment, who produced a bulk of these television movies and series for the studio.


title: Universal Television

text: In 1996, it was renamed as Universal Television Entertainment (or UTE for short) to align with MCA's rebranding as Universal Studios. It was eventually renamed to Studios USA Pictures in 1998. MCA Television Entertainment is also a collective branding for their units owned and operated by MCA, and it absorbed Universal Family Entertainment and Universal Cartoon Studios in 1996.


title: Universal Television

text: USA Networks Inc. was formed by Barry Diller when he bought Universal's major television assets in October 1997. Among its assets were the USA Network and Sci-Fi Network cable channels along with series such as "Law & Order". Additionally, the company would own the HSN, the Ticketmaster Group and several TV stations. Universal TV's production and distribution unit was renamed Studios USA. Universal held on to its 50% share of Brillstein-Grey Entertainment, PolyGram's international channels and the rights to its TV library while signing a long-term domestic sales deal with Studios USA for the library. Universal got a 45% share in USA Networks Inc. Greg Meidel initially resigned and was rehired as chairman and CEO of Studios USA, only to leave in June 1998.


title: Universal Television

text: In 1999, USA Networks formed its own film and home media divisions when they acquired October Films and several production and distribution assets of PolyGram Filmed Entertainment for $200 million. Most of the new shows produced under the Studios USA name bombed after only one or two seasons; only "", "" and "The District" were deemed to be big hits. Although the latter two were cancelled, in 2011 and 2004 respectively, the former is still an ongoing show.


title: Universal Television

text: In 2000, Clyde Phillips has signed an overall deal with the studio to develop scripts made for the studio.


title: Universal Television

text: In 2001, Vivendi acquired USA's entertainment assets for an estimated $10.3 billion. Under the deal, Barry Diller became chairman of Vivendi Universal Entertainment. USA Networks is currently known as IAC. Shortly afterwards, in 2002, it was merged with Universal Studios Network Television, producers of NBC's sitcom "Just Shoot Me!" to form Universal Network Television.


title: Universal Television

text: In 1997, PolyGram created not only its syndication unit, but a network unit for long-form television movies and drama series, which was a rebranding from the former UK-based ITC Entertainment television division of PolyGram. It was headed up by Bob Sanitsky, who headed the combined syndication and network divisions. In 1998, it signed a deal with Meg Ryan and her Prufock Pictures to set up her projects at the studio.


title: Universal Television

text: In early 1999, Shortly after Seagram and Universal completed their deal to acquire PolyGram. PolyGram TV was absorbed into Universal's TV and Networks division (which consisted of Universal's international TV operations). Universal would sell the ITC film and TV library to Carlton Communications, and the pre-1996 film library to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Shortly afterwards, PolyGram Television was then retained by Universal, opting Bob Sanitsky out of the unit. Universal however then launched Universal Studios Network Programming to inherit the Brillstein-Grey productions, such as the upcoming "Work with Me", and the existing Brillstein-Grey shows "Just Shoot Me!" and "The Steve Harvey Show". In 2001, NBC had an option agreement with Universal Network Television to keep "Just Shoot Me!" on the air to 2003.


title: Universal Television

text: In June 2002, Universal Studios Network Television was also merged with Studios USA Network Television around the same time. In 2003, writer John Ridley signed a deal with the studio. Also that year, longtime Universal executives Sarah Timberman and Carl Beverly left the studio to start out 25C Productions, a production company affiliated with Warner Bros. Television.


title: Universal Television

text: The origins of USA Cable Entertainment was traced back to the 1980s when it was formed as USA Network Productions to produce content for the USA Networks. In 1996, it was rebranded to USA Studios, and in 1999 to USA Networks Productions, and later on reincorporated as USA Cable Entertainment on December 24, 1999. Stephen Chao is the company's president since 2000.


title: Universal Television

text: The company is best known for producing "Monk" and the 2003 miniseries "Battlestar Galactica", which spawned a reboot in 2004.


title: Universal Television

text: NBC Universal Television Studios was formed in 2004 from NBC Studios and Universal Network Television after NBC and Universal merged. On June 14, 2007, NBC Universal Television Studio was renamed Universal Media Studios (UMS) as the unit would be also developing entertainment for the web.


title: Universal Television

text: On July 21, 2009, Universal Cable Productions was split off from UMS and placed into NBCUniversal Cable Entertainment Group division. On September 14, 2011, Universal Media Studios was renamed to Universal Television. In October 2019, Universal Television was transferred from NBC Entertainment to NBCUniversal Content Studios.


title: Irreconcilable differences

text: The concept of irreconcilable differences provides possible grounds for divorce in a number of jurisdictions.


title: Irreconcilable differences

text: Australian family law uses a no-fault divorce approach, and irreconcilable differences is the sole grounds for divorce, with adequate proof being that the estranged couple have been separated for more than 12 months.


title: Irreconcilable differences

text: In the United States, this is one of several possible grounds. Often, it is used as justification for a no-fault divorce. In many cases, irreconcilable differences were the original and only grounds for no-fault divorce, such as in California, which enacted America's first purely no-fault divorce law in 1969. California now lists one other possible basis, "permanent legal incapacity to make decisions" (formerly "incurable insanity"), on its divorce petition form.


title: Irreconcilable differences

text: Any sort of difference between the two parties that either cannot or will not be changed can be considered an irreconcilable difference. A difference could be that of a difference in character, personality, belief, or some other personality trait. Some states use the terms irremediable breakdown, irretrievable breakdown, or incompatibility. In some states where the official grounds is 'irreconcilable differences', the statutory definition of that term may include a waiting period or a mutual-consent requirement.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Lucas Pezzini Leiva (born 9 January 1987), known as Lucas or Lucas Leiva (), is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for Grêmio.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Lucas began his career as a box-to-box midfielder at Grêmio where he won the Campeonato Gaúcho in 2006 and 2007. In July 2007 he moved to Liverpool, where he played 347 professional matches over the course of a decade, winning the League Cup in 2012. Between 2010 and 2016 Lucas led the Premier League in tackles per game five times in six seasons. He has the second most tackles in Premier League history, and remains the Brazilian with the 3rd most Premier League appearances. He joined Lazio in 2017.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: A full international since 2007, he has earned 24 caps and represented Brazil at the 2008 Olympics and 2011 Copa América, winning a bronze medal at the former. He also captained the under-20 team to victory in the 2007 South American Youth Championship.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Born in Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul, Lucas began his career at Grêmio as a midfielder in 2005. The following year was a successful year for him, as Grêmio won the Rio Grande do Sul state championship (the Campeonato Gaúcho) for the first time since 2001, and also came third in the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A. Lucas also became the youngest player ever to receive "Placar" magazine's "Bola de Ouro" (Golden Ball), given to the best player in the Campeonato Brasileiro – an honour previously won by the likes of Zico, Falcão, Careca, Alex, Romário, Robinho, Kaká and Carlos Tevez.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: His form in 2006 led to reported interest from many major European clubs including offers from top Spanish clubs and Internazionale. It was Liverpool that proved most attractive to the player, however, and on 13 May 2007, the club confirmed they had signed the player from Grêmio before the start of the 2007–08 season. The transfer fee was in the region of £6 million.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 26 July 2007, he was officially unveiled as a Liverpool player for a fee of £5 million and was given international clearance to compete in the final of the Barclays Asia Trophy.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: By late November, manager Rafael Benítez gave Lucas his chance to start a game in the Liverpool midfield after easing him in during his first few months at the club. Lucas scored his first goal for Liverpool on 27 January 2008 when he curled a 25-yard shot into the top corner during an FA Cup match against Havant & Waterlooville, becoming the first-ever Brazilian to score for Liverpool.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: The start of the 2008–09 season signified an important turning point for his career. Many commentators expected him to step up to the next level after completing his first season with the Reds. The Brazilian got off to a good start with a well taken opening goal in a 2–1 friendly win over Swiss side Lucerne in July. He impressed in pre-season games but missed the start of Premier League season due to his selection for the Brazilian Olympic Team in the Beijing Olympics.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Lucas returned with a bronze medal and Benítez had high hopes for the Brazilian's future, stating, "This season he will improve because he is a very, very good professional and has experience of the Olympic Games." Lucas noted that Liverpool's squad was much improved from the previous season and relished the opportunity to compete for trophies, despite the increased difficulty of getting a first-team place. However, after a number of disappointing performances, both critics and fans voiced concerns about Lucas' quality and his confidence was further knocked when Liverpool fans booed him after a lacklustre draw against Fulham. The criticism irked Benítez and he responded with a passionate defence of the player, saying that "people just don't know how good Lucas is." Benítez also underlined Lucas' credentials, stating that he had been captain for both Grêmio and his national youth team, and that competing for place against Javier Mascherano, Steven Gerrard and Xabi Alonso was inherently difficult. Lucas' performances in December 2008 for Liverpool drew him much praise from pundits, the highlight being his performance in the 5–1 thrashing of Newcastle United, where he provided an assist for Gerrard. Lucas was sent off in a cup tie against Mersey rivals Everton, which Liverpool lost. This compounded his growing unpopularity amongst Liverpool's supporters, after he gave away a late penalty in Liverpool's previous match, a 1–1 draw with Wigan Athletic.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 14 March, Lucas played a key role in Liverpool's 4–1 victory over Manchester United at Old Trafford, starting in place of the injured Xabi Alonso. On 14 April, Lucas played against Chelsea in the Champions League, in place of Steven Gerrard. He scored a goal with his long-range effort in the 81st minute deflected off Michael Essien and past goalkeeper Petr Čech to make the score 3–3. Dirk Kuyt's header a minute later briefly gave Liverpool the lead, but Frank Lampard's 89th-minute strike leveled the score to 4–4, with Chelsea winning 7–5 on aggregate to go through to the semi-finals of the tournament.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 3 May 2009, Lucas scored his first Premier League goal, a header from a free-kick for Liverpool against Newcastle United in a 3–0 win.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: During the 2009–10 pre-season period, Lucas showed good form scoring Liverpool's only goal in a 2–1 loss against Atlético Madrid. This form earned praise from manager Rafael Benítez, and gained him a start against Tottenham Hotspur for the opening game of the 2009–10 season on 16 August. Liverpool lost 2–1, but Lucas earned praise for a solid performance all round.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 8 April 2010, Lucas scored his second European goal for Liverpool, scoring in a 4–1 (5–3 aggregate) quarter-final win over Benfica in the UEFA Europa League quarter-finals.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: In pre-season games before the 2010–11 season, Lucas was made captain of a youthful Liverpool side against Grasshopper. On 16 September 2010, Lucas scored his sixth goal for Liverpool shortly after replacing Ryan Babel in the club's first Europa League group stage match against Steaua București. The goal was Liverpool's third in a 4–1 victory and was scored from 22 yards. On 13 November, Lucas was sent off for the second time in his Liverpool career after being shown a second yellow card in injury time in Liverpool's 2–0 defeat to Stoke City. On 6 December, Lucas was voted the fan's pick for Man of the Match on the official Liverpool website. Lucas assisted a Ryan Babel goal in a 3–0 win over Aston Villa.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Lucas was awarded Liverpool Player of the Year Award in May 2011. On 30 March, Lucas signed a new long term contract at Liverpool.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: After an excellent run of form for Liverpool, his season was unfortunately cut short on 1 December 2011, when it was confirmed he was out for the remainder of the season after he suffered an anterior cruciate ligament injury after he collided with Juan Mata in the 2–0 win over Chelsea in the quarter-final of the League Cup.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 10 April 2013, Lucas signed a new long term deal with the club. He was a consistent starter in the opening few months of the 2013–14 season as Liverpool put up an unexpected title challenge, though his season was again cut short by injury. His good form saw him make a return to the Brazilian national team's squad.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: In the initial run of games within the 2014–15 Premier League and other cup competitions, Lucas was rotated in and out of the squad, leading to speculation surrounding a move away from Anfield. He made his comeback, however, as a starter against Ludogorets in the Champions League with a good display. His fine form continued and he started games against Stoke City, Leicester City and Sunderland. Lucas' good run continued as Liverpool then played against Manchester United, Arsenal, Burnley, Swansea City, Leicester and Sunderland out of which Liverpool only lost to United and then achieved five games without defeat in a row with Lucas as an integral member. Lucas was on the substitute bench on 22 March in a 2–1 defeat against Manchester United after coming back from a six-week injury layoff.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Despite rumours of him leaving Anfield, Lucas was restored to the starting lineup. Following the sacking of manager Brendan Rodgers, Lucas under new manager Jürgen Klopp was praised for his excellent form in the club's 11-game unbeaten run. Lucas made his 300th appearance for Liverpool on 26 January 2016 against Stoke City in the Football League Cup semi-final at Anfield. Lucas captained the side in the Premier League match against Crystal Palace on 8 November, a 2–1 defeat for Liverpool.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 28 February 2016, Lucas started for Liverpool in central defence in the 2016 Football League Cup Final. He was one of three Liverpool players who failed to score his kick as the team lost 3–1 in a penalty shootout to Manchester City.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 18 January 2017, Lucas scored his first goal for the club since 16 September 2010, a first-half header in the FA Cup 3rd round replay against Plymouth Argyle. The end of the season marked the completion of Lucas's tenth year as a Liverpool player. In celebration, Lucas had a dinner party thrown in his honour and received a Special Recognition Award presented to him by club legend Kenny Dalglish at Liverpool's postseason award ceremony.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 18 July 2017, Lucas completed a move to Serie A side Lazio for £5 million, ending his 10-year stay at Liverpool.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Lucas made his official debut for the Rome club in a 3–2 win over league champions Juventus in the Supercoppa Italiana, on 13 August. His first goal for the club was in a 2–3 defeat to Zulte Waregem in the final group game of the UEFA Europa League. On 28 February 2018, Lucas missed a penalty during the penalty shootout in Lazio's match against Milan in the semi-finals of the Coppa Italia; which Lazio eventually lost 4–5.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 15 March, Lucas scored the opening goal in a 2–0 away win over Dynamo Kyiv in the UEFA Europa League round of sixteen second leg, securing a 4–2 aggregate win and advancement into the quarter-finals of the tournament. On 18 March, Lucas scored his first league goal for the club in a 1–1 draw with Bologna, and on 1 April, he scored in a 6–2 win over Benevento.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: He finished the season with 50 appearances in all competitions and was named the club's player of the year.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Lucas is the former captain of the Brazilian under-20 team. He led the team to victory in the 2007 South American Youth Championship, scoring four goals in the process. He was expected to lead the team again in the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup held in Canada in July 2007 and was named in their squad, but an injury in training kept him from playing for three weeks, leading to his withdrawal from the squad.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: In October 2006, Lucas was included in the senior Brazilian squad for friendlies against Kuwaiti club Al-Kuwait and Ecuador. Lucas was both the youngest member and one of only two non-Europe based players in a strong squad. He made his debut for Brazil on 7 October 2006 coming on as a second-half substitute against Al-Kuwait. Brazil won the match 4–0, but his appearance did not count as his first cap—the match was not considered an official friendly match by FIFA.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Lucas gained his first official Brazil international cap on 22 August 2007, coming on as a substitute in a friendly against Algeria. In June 2008, Lucas was named in the Brazil squad for an Olympics warm-up match later in the month.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 19 August, Lucas was shown a red card in the 2008 Olympics semi-final match between Brazil and Argentina, after a challenge on then Liverpool teammate Javier Mascherano, as Argentina ran out 3–0 winners. In August 2009, Lucas was recalled to the senior Brazil squad in place of Flamengo's Kléberson, who was absent through injury. After missing out on the Brazil world cup squad in South Africa, Lucas played the full 90 minutes in a friendly against the United States on 10 August 2010.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: On 17 July 2011, Lucas was shown a straight red card in the 2011 Copa América play-off quarter final against Paraguay, after an extra time altercation with Antolín Alcaraz. Brazil went on to lose the match on penalties after the match had finished all square after 90 minutes.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Although he is primarily deployed as a defensive midfielder, Lucas is also capable of playing as a makeshift central defender.


title: Lucas Leiva

text: Lucas is the nephew of former Brazilian footballer Leivinha and also holds an Italian passport due to his descent from the country.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime (Clark Kent, born Kal-El), also known as Superman-Prime or simply Prime, is a DC Comics superhero turned supervillain and an alternate version of Superman. The character first appeared in "DC Comics Presents" #87 (November 1985) and was created by Elliot S! Maggin and Curt Swan (based upon the original Superboy character by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster).


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime is from a parallel Earth called Earth-Prime, devoid of any superheroes, or even superhumans. There, Superman and the other comic superheroes were fictional characters, as they are in real life. The Earth-Prime universe was erased during "Crisis on Infinite Earths" (April 1985-March 1986), and Superboy-Prime ended up in a "paradise" dimension where, during that time, he found himself unable to let go of his former life and destiny as Earth's greatest hero.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Over time, his convictions and morals become twisted and warped, and he came to believe that Earth-Prime was the only proper Earth and that Superboy-Prime was the only one worthy of the Superboy mantle. Prime firmly believes that being Superman is his calling despite the fact that he has become a psychotic, murderous, and even sadistic villain. His overwhelming strength, speed, unpredictability, and ruthlessness make him one of the most dangerous foes in the DC Universe.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: The name "Superman-Prime" was first used by Grant Morrison in "DC One Million" (1998) for the mainstream Superman in the 853rd century (he is essentially the same Superman from the All-Star Superman storyline). Earth-Prime's Superboy first refers to himself as "Superboy-Prime" in "Infinite Crisis" #2 (January 2006).


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime is from the universe known as Earth Prime, in which the DC heroes are fictional comic book characters. He is the adopted son of Jerry and Naomi Kent. Naomi wanted to name their infant son Clark, after her maiden name, but Jerry, knowing he will also be named like Superman, a fictional comic book character, initially refused, but finally gave in. What the Kents do not know is that the baby, found abandoned in a forest, is actually a young Kal-El, who has been teleported to Earth by his father Jor-El moments before the planet Krypton was destroyed when its red sun went supernova. His parents were unable to escape that way due to a member of the Kryptonian council bursting into the room and using the device, although it is unknown what happened to him.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Young Clark lives the first fifteen years of his life as a normal boy. However, one night, as he attends a Halloween costume party dressed as Superboy, the passage of Halley's Comet overhead triggers his Kryptonian powers. At the same time, the Earth-One Superman finds his way to Earth Prime and the two Supermen meet. Superboy-Prime uses his powers to stop a tidal wave.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime is drawn into the "Crisis on Infinite Earths" after his universe is consumed in the light of the Anti-Monitor. Although the loss of everything he knows causes him anguish, he finds peace in knowing that he fights the good fight alongside other heroes. During the final battle against the Anti-Monitor, Kal-L, the Earth-Two Superman, orders him to escape with Alexander Luthor, Jr. and the other heroes. Fearing that Kal-L will die in battle and knowing the new Earth is not his true home, Superboy-Prime joins Kal-L in the fight against the Anti-Monitor.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: After the destruction of the Anti-Monitor by Kal-L, Superboy-Prime joins Alexander Luthor, Jr., of Earth-Three, Kal-L, and his wife Lois Lane in a "paradise dimension". In that dimension, Superboy-Prime secludes himself from the others, using crystals to replay events from his life on Earth Prime. Superboy-Prime becomes frustrated and angry. He tries to reach out to Kal-L, whose attention is focused on Lois's failing health. Alexander comes to believe that the reason behind Lois's failing health is the paradise dimension itself, and he persuades Superboy-Prime to help him return to reality by showing Superboy-Prime the negative aspects of the post-"Crisis" Earth. Superboy-Prime hesitates until he overhears Kal-L say, "I wish this world would let him grow up. He'll "never" be Superman here". Finally, Alexander shows him the deaths of his parents and girlfriend in a car accident on the post-"Crisis" Earth.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Furious, Superboy-Prime pounded on the barrier of reality. This assault caused ripples that overlapped parallel timelines (Hypertime), which was used as an explanation for character changes, errors, and retcons in DC continuity. These changes included:


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Eventually, Alexander reveals to Superboy-Prime that his powers are returning, and the two combine forces to break through the barrier wall. Together, they set into motion the events that culminate in "Infinite Crisis":


title: Superboy-Prime

text: The Superman of Earth-Two breaks open a portal to the DC Universe, and the four residents of the paradise dimension return, making themselves known to Power Girl and Batman. When introduced to Power Girl, he calls himself Superboy-Prime for the first time. Kal-L tells Power Girl: "When the universe was reborn, Earth-One became the primary world. The scraps of the remaining worlds were folded into it. But I finally realized—we saved the wrong Earth". Superboy-Prime is jealous of Conner Kent, the modern Superboy, believing him to be living the life he himself ought to have had while not fighting for it. He also believes the Earth's heroes act more like villains. Superboy-Prime confronts Superboy, telling him that he (Superboy-Prime) is the only Superboy the Earth needs. Superboy-Prime brutally attacks Conner, but not before Conner activates his Titans homing signal. The Teen Titans, the Doom Patrol, and the Justice Society of America arrive to help Conner. After accidentally killing Pantha with a deadly punch, Superboy-Prime is left shocked and horrified while the heroes try to contain Superboy-Prime, who kills (Wildebeest and Bushido) or wounds (tore Risk's arm off and badly beats most of the rest) several others.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Left with no other options, Jay Garrick, Wally West, and Bart Allen drive Superboy-Prime into the Speed Force, banish him to a parallel world and imprison him in a facility bathed in artificial red sunlight, where he remains for four years.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Hours later, an older Bart Allen, dressed in his grandfather's costume, emerges from the Speed Force and tells the heroine Doctor Light to warn the other heroes that Superboy-Prime has escaped. During a battle between Alexander Luthor and the heroes freed from his tower, Superboy-Prime appears, wearing a power suit modeled after the Anti-Monitor's armor, which constantly feeds him yellow solar energy and boosts his power levels. During the battle, Black Adam discovers that magic has little effect against Superboy-Prime. Superboy-Prime knocks Adam away from the tower, and his opponent is transported to Earth-S. Superboy-Prime insists that Luthor reinstate Earth Prime as the only existing Earth. After Superboy-Prime attempts to kill Wonder Girl (Cassie Sandsmark), an enraged Conner Kent attacks him. Conner and Superboy-Prime's battle sends them both headlong into Alexander Luthor's vibrational tuning fork with the effects causing the machine to explode and resulting in the alternate Earths merging into one. Conner dies from injuries sustained during the explosion, leaving the rest of the superheroes devastated.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Alexander and Superboy-Prime join the Battle of Metropolis and quarrel about their contingency plan. Since their tower has been destroyed, Alexander is prepared to settle for taking over New Earth instead of creating a perfect Earth. Upon hearing of the new plan, Superboy-Prime refuses to help him, as he believes New Earth to be hopelessly inferior.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: When Batman, Wonder Woman, Kal-El, and Kal-L arrive to save Metropolis, Kal-L confronts Alex about his role in the destruction. Meanwhile, Superboy-Prime is attacked by Bart Allen, who has been left outraged by Conner's death. Superboy-Prime escapes Bart and flies toward the planet Oa, intending to destroy it and spark another Big Bang which would recreate the universe with himself as the sole hero. Although the majority of the Earth's heroes are in pursuit, Superboy-Prime eludes capture.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime is slowed down by a thick wall of pure willpower generated by the Green Lantern Corps. Breaking through, he battles 32 Green Lanterns, killing them. The two Supermen arrive and fly Superboy-Prime through Rao, the red sun of Krypton. The heat melts away Superboy-Prime's armor and severely weakens all three Kryptonians, who then crash on Mogo. Superboy-Prime beats Kal-L to death, but is then attacked by Kal-El. Superboy-Prime claims that he is better than Kal-El and that his Krypton was superior to Kal-El's. Kal-El responds, "It's not about where you were born. Or what powers you have. Or what you wear on your chest. It's about what you do... It's about action." Although nearly powerless, Kal-El knocks Superboy-Prime out before collapsing himself, but members of the Green Lantern Corps manage to save Kal-El.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime is taken into the custody of the Guardians of the Universe, who place him in a quantum containment field, surrounded by a red Sun-Eater and guarded by 50 Green Lanterns. While inside his cell, he carves the Superman symbol into his chest, vowing to escape.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: A year later, Superboy-Prime sits naked in his cell and is watched over by a special cadre of Green Lanterns, including Guy Gardner, when the Guardians of the Universe discuss whether they should question him.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: When the Sinestro Corps attack Oa, Superboy-Prime is released from his imprisonment and joins them. He becomes one of the Anti-Monitor's heralds, and he wears the uniform of the Sinestro Corps along with a variant of the power suit he wore during "Infinite Crisis". Calling himself Super"man"-Prime (in part due to the legal disputes over the Superboy name), he arrives on Earth and battles a large group of heroes while flashing back on his life so far. He reveals that he did not believe Sinestro when he said that the Multiverse has been restored, and has only gone along with the Anti-Monitor's plans so that he may one day get revenge on him for the destruction of Earth Prime. Superman, Power Girl, and Supergirl arrive and stop him, only to have him escape as the sun rises, restoring his powers. Afterwards, Superman-Prime brutally battles Ion (Sodam Yat) throughout the state of New York. Superman-Prime gets the upper hand over Yat by exposing him to lead, and defeats him. When the Anti-Monitor is wounded by the Guardians and the destruction of War World, Superman-Prime impatiently flies through his chest and throws him into space, then battles both the Sinestro Corps and Green Lantern Corps, until a Guardian willingly sacrifices himself to destroy Superman-Prime. However, instead of dying, Prime is infused with Oan energy and warped back into the multiverse.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: In "Countdown to Final Crisis", following the conclusion of the "Sinestro Corps War", Superman-Prime is shown wearing a costume similar to the black suit worn by Superman shortly after his resurrection and has discovered the existence of the new Multiverse, traversing it in the hopes of finding Earth Prime. He arrives on Earth-15 and attacks that world's Lex Luthor, blaming him for Alexander Luthor's failure to make the universe "perfect". He promptly kills that world's heroes and destroys the planet.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: He then flies to his new base of operations in the Source Wall where he had been torturing Mister Mxyzptlk into helping him recreate Earth Prime. It is revealed that Superman-Prime is 19 years old. According to Mxyzptlk, his growth is the temporary side effect of his cells absorbing vast Oan energy from his last "encounter". Mxyzptlk escapes with the help of another prisoner, Annataz Arataz, an alternate version of Zatanna from Earth-3. Annataz is killed when Superman-Prime grows angry and gives up on using magic to achieve his goals.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: He appears on the Monitors' satellite headquarters and threatens Solomon to help him find Earth Prime. Solomon tells him that if he releases Forerunner, he will show Prime what he wants; Prime does so. Solomon then tells Prime that Earth-51 is his perfect Earth, and it is in ruins due to the fighting between Monarch's Army, the Earth-51 heroes, and the Challengers. Prime leaves the satellite, intending to confront Monarch. Superman-Prime fights with Monarch, finding out that this is an enemy who is on his level despite his boosted powers from the Guardian. The two seem evenly matched until Prime becomes slightly injured after Monarch exposes part of his suit and releases some of his massive contained energies. In a fit of rage, Superman-Prime redoubles his attack on Monarch and rips open the chestplate of Monarch's containment armor, resulting in a huge explosion of quantum energy that seems to destroy the entire universe of Earth-51.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Shortly after the events of Geoff Johns' "Superman and the Legion of Super-Heroes" storyline, the Time Trapper finds Superboy-Prime lost in time. He decides to use him to destroy the Legion and sends him to the 31st century, where he crashes in a farm outside of Smallville.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: He appears much younger than he did when he was last seen in "Countdown to Final Crisis", having used up the power he had absorbed from the dying Guardian. He encounters the elderly couple who own the farm, and they refer to him as Superboy, which enrages him. After being shot, he kills the farming couple, makes his way into Smallville, and visits the Superman Museum, where he discovers that he is regarded as merely a footnote in Superman's history, and ultimately has no impact on history. This sends him into a tantrum, in which he wrecks the museum and kills security guards and police officers. In the middle of his tantrum, the museum tour guide (a holographic recreation of Jimmy Olsen) tells Prime of the Legion of Super-Villains.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: He learns that the evil Legion followed a code of evil, inspired by a dark being whose "name was never spoken". Prime, resolved to be a villain with more of an impact than any other enemy of Superman, sets out for the prison planet of Takron-Galtos, and frees Lightning Lord, Saturn Queen, and Cosmic King. Unlike most denizens of the 31st century, they all recognize Prime and seem overjoyed to see him. The dialogue seems to imply that Prime was the dark being whose example the villains follow.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: After freeing the prisoners, Prime burns a huge S shield into the prison planet, determined to turn the shield from a symbol of hope into a symbol of terror. Learning of the prison break, the Legion of Super-Heroes call Superman from the 21st century. Superman, and the historical records, implies that no one from New Earth is aware of what happened to Prime after the Sinestro Corps War.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superman and Brainiac 5 decide to bring in two other versions of the Legion to combat Prime and the new Legion of Super-Villains, with Superman convinced the only way to neutralize the threat of Prime is to redeem him.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime led his Legion of Super-Villains to Sorcerer's World, where he recruits Mordru and kills Rond Vidar (the last Green Lantern) before heading to Earth.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: During the war between the Legions of Super-Heroes and the Legion of Super-Villains, Prime battles several opponents with whom he has a history. First, the immortal Sodam Yat (the last Guardian of the Universe) is persuaded to end his self-imposed retirement on Oa to battle Superboy-Prime. Then Bart Allen returns from the Speed Force, wearing the Kid Flash uniform that he had not worn since fighting Prime in "Infinite Crisis". Soon after, Conner Kent (Superboy) enters the battle, his corpse dug up by Starman in the present and placed in a Kryptonian restoration chamber for the past 1000 years. The resurrections of Kid Flash and Superboy are part of a master contingency plan devised long before by Brainiac 5, who was forewarned of Superboy-Prime by one of Dream Girl's prophecies.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: During the battle, Prime kills two Legionnaires whose abilities manage to hurt him: Sun Boy of Earth Prime's "Threeboot Legion", who uses red solar powers; and Element Lad of Earth Prime, who managed to turn the ground around Prime into green kryptonite of the Earth Prime universe.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: During the battle, Superman, Lightning Lad, Cosmic Boy, and Saturn Girl are brought to the end of time by the Time Trapper, who then attacks them. During the fight, the Trapper is revealed to be an aged Superboy-Prime. The elder Superboy-Prime states that he became an anomaly that could not be killed after being shunted into the multiverse by the Guardians of the Universe and became the sole survivor of all creation.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Back on Earth, Conner quickly begins gaining the upper-hand against Prime. Using his heat-vision, Conner manages to create a deep wound across the S-shield that Prime had carved into his chest. Meanwhile, at the end of time, the same wound appears on Time Trapper's chest. Realizing that Time Trapper's past is directly connected to his future, Saturn Girl uses the Time Trapper's time portals to recruit every Legion across the multiverse, who fight and defeat the Time Trapper. Superman and the three Legion founders transport him to the 31st Century, where the Trapper faces his younger self. Superboy-Prime and Trapper start bickering which culminates with their mutual destruction after Prime attacks Time Trapper, creating a paradox.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: The paradox created by Prime attacking himself returns him to Earth-Prime. To his dismay, his girlfriend and family have read "Infinite Crisis", "Sinestro Corps War", "Countdown to Final Crisis", and "Legion of 3 Worlds", and are now terrified of him. Prime lives in his parents' basement, who support him out of fear for what he might do to them. He spends his days collecting comic books and trolling the DC Comics message boards, remarking that the DCU will never be rid of him and that he "always survives." Despite the physical depletion of his powers, his eyes begin glowing red again.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime continues to live his secluded life, unknowingly but constantly monitored by the prime universe Brainiac 5, still compulsively reading every comic book and message board post pertaining to the DC multiverse. The extended cool-off period forced on him has left Clark more regretful, aware of his reputation as a joke character in the eyes of the people of Earth-Prime. Upon reading "Adventure Comics" #4, and the online solicitations for the two-part storyline possibly dealing with his death, he embarks with his fearful parents on a wild goose chase, hoping to find a comic book store willing to sell him a copy of the fifth issue. However, since the fifth issue is not yet on the shelves, the events unfold exactly as Clark already read them, with Alexander Luthor, multiversal-hopping Black Lantern, bestowing to him all of his powers in order to bring him to a higher emotional state. Upon calling forth Superboy's victims, he teasingly reveals to him his impending death in "Adventure Comics" #5. Unable to damage the Black Lanterns, Superboy-Prime flies to the DC Comics building in New York and attempts to take revenge on the writers he believes made him the way he is. Before he can do so, Alexander teleports him to his basement, and begins destroying his comic collection.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime then accepts the hopelessness of his situation, and willingly puts on a black ring, which wills him to "die". However, the ring, reacting to his mixed emotions, switches between the powers of the emotional spectrum, resulting in a mixed-light burst that eradicates the Black Lanterns and the ring itself. Lying on the floor, he becomes overcome by the emotions forced by the ring and devastated that "they" have turned him into a monster and made it so he cannot ever have a "happy ending." Laurie enters the basement, sporting a broken arm. She comforts Prime, telling him that "they" heard him, and that they sent her to tell him that they are sorry for what they did to him, and are going to leave him alone—"they" previously mentioned as being the writers at DC Comics. As they embrace, a Black Lantern ring is shown on Laurie's hand that detects the hope within Prime's heart.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: During a battle with the Teen Titans, a young villain named Headcase opens up a wormhole that accidentally transports Superboy-Prime back to New Earth. Enraged by his separation from Laurie, Superboy-Prime vows to destroy the Teen Titans and find a possible way to return home. He subsequently assembles a cadre of young supervillains consisting of Headcase, Zookeeper, Indigo, Sun Girl, Persuader (Elise Kimble) and a new Inertia, each of whom have a personal grudge against the Teen Titans. Superboy-Prime also brings three clones of Superboy (formed from the remains of Match), and he uses them to assist in the attack on the Titans. Superboy-Prime and his team attempt to destroy Titans Tower, but are met by the large group of former Teen Titans. Superboy-Prime is brought down by the combined might of the reserve Teen Titans, and then Superboy and Supergirl imprison him within the Source Wall. What becomes of him following the paradox and subsequent reboot of the multiverse caused by Barry Allen is left unknown


title: Superboy-Prime

text: In the 2016 initiative "DC Rebirth", Doctor Sivana and Mister Mind head to the Monsterlands' Dungeon of Eternity to free the Monster Society of Evil. As King Kid fights the Shazam Family, Doctor Sivana and Mister Mind find that Superboy-Prime is trapped inside a small prison cell when he states to Mister Mind that he can hear what the villain is saying. Superboy-Prime even states that he has plans for Billy Batson when he gets out. After Mister Mind has Doctor Sivana stab his magic eye with a magic dagger, Superboy-Prime senses that the Monster Society of Evil are being freed, demanding that Mister Mind releases him as well. When Dummy arrives, displeased that he was left behind after swimming all the way to the Dungeon of Eternity, Superboy-Prime states to Dummy that he can get him out in exchange for removing the little red sun outside of his prison. Dummy does so and is double-crossed by Superboy-Prime, who uses his heat beams on Dummy. Superboy-Prime then begins his plans to go after Billy Batson. As a Mister Mind-controlled C.C. Batson has Shazam cast the spell to unite the Seven Magiclands, Superboy-Prime is shown wandering the Monsterlands, asking the readers if they know how to get out. Superboy-Prime crashes the fight between the Shazam Family and the Monster Society of Evil, using his fists to impale Scapegoat. Shazam punches Mister Mind's talkbox enough to emit magical energy that knocks out the Monster Society of Evil, which Superboy-Prime also feels. When Shazam starts to work to undo Mister Mind's spell, Superboy-Prime interferes and defeats the Shazam Family until only Shazam remains standing. Free of the spell that affected him, Black Adam joins the fight and asks for Shazam to cast the spell while he buys him some time. As magic can still hurt Superboy-Prime, both Shazam and Black Adam shout "Shazam", causing lightning strikes to knock out Superboy-Prime. Superboy-Prime is handed over to the Justice League, as the Shazam Family don't know what else to do with him.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: In the pages of "", Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman travel back to the times of the three great crises to stop Perpetua's attempts to manipulate those events. Wonder Woman encounters a victorious Superboy-Prime in an alternate version of "Infinite Crisis". He taunts Wonder Woman that Perpetua has already changed the outcome of these events. Prime has created his perfect universe based on the comic books of his youth, reasoning that it is the only way to preserve good in Perpetua's new multiverse, notably he has created a Superman to protect this world rather than act as Superman himself. Although the Anti-Monitor and Darkseid nearly unmake Batman and Superman in the other Crises, Wonder Woman is able to talk with Superboy-Prime about his resentment of the heroes for becoming darker than he remembers from his childhood, imploring him to accept that change is constant, and that in the end there's room for all universes. Superboy-Prime shatters the Crisis worlds (saving Batman and Superman in the process) and directs all energy to Wally West. His change proves apparently pointless as the Darkest Knight had already rigged the Mobius Chair so it would always direct the power to himself, allowing him to remake the Multiverse in his own image.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Prime awaits the final battle with the Darkest Knight's "Last 52" multiverse alongside the other heroes and villains. He stands alone on the battlefield, rejected by the Superman Family and their rogues gallery, and reflects on his life and the loss of everyone and everything he cared about, and how he was never able to be a hero. Depressed and nihilistic after the multiple cosmic reboots and retcons he has witnessed, he hurls himself into the fight with an army of alternate Supermen. As he strikes one, he has a vision of that Superman's world changing to reflect Superboy-Prime's own desires. Realising that he is able to tap into Darkest Knight's energy and once again possesses the ability to reshape reality with his blows, he flies away from the battle to confront the Darkest Knight. He proves equal to the Darkest Knight, despite the other's immense power. Superboy-Prime plans to steal Darkest Knight's power, destroy what remains of reality and the people who hate him, and create his own perfect world. However, the arrival of Krypto, the only one who showed him any kindness, causes him to stay his hand. The Darkest Knight offers him a world of his own, where he can be the beloved and accepted hero he always wanted to be alongside the characters he loved as a child, if he joins the Darkest Knight's forces. Prime rejects him, and strikes the Darkest Knight with all his power, creating a massive explosion, killing him and injuring the Darkest Knight. He falls from the sky dead as some of the Last 52 worlds vanish, his sacrifice unnoticed by anyone but Krypto. Clark suddenly finds himself in his bedroom, reading "Dark Knights: Death Metal: The Secret Origin" #1, looking at his own dead body on the page. Laurie arrives to ask him out to lunch. As they walk down the street, Clark realises that although the world has changed from what he remembers, he knows he is really home. A child chases a ball into the street into the path of a car, Clark runs in after them and lifts the car above his head.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime has all the basic abilities of a Kryptonian except at a much higher level when compared to most adult Kryptonians, especially Superman, with exposure to yellow sunlight: superhuman strength, speed, senses, healing, endurance, superbreath, frost breath, flight, X-ray vision, telescopic vision, microscopic vision, heat vision, and invulnerability.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: While imprisoned by the Flashes in the speed force (where the Flash draws his power from), Superboy-Prime builds a power suit based on the one worn by the Anti-Monitor. The suit collects and feeds him yellow solar energy to maintain his power levels even when exposed to a red sun; in his first appearance, he was shown to shrug off the effects of artificial, localized red sun radiation, but he was not exposed to an actual red sun. Although he claims to have made it himself, Bart Allen remembers him stealing it following his escape. It is destroyed when the two Supermen fly Superboy-Prime through Krypton's red sun. After his escape from Oa, Superboy-Prime is given a new power suit built by the Sinestro Corps and reveals that he created the original after seeing how the Anti-Monitor's armor acted as a giant energy collector. It was destroyed during the assault on Earth. In "", Superboy-Prime dons his original armor once more, taking it from a statue in the Superman museum. During the Blackest Night, the Black Lantern Alexander Luthor provides Superboy-Prime with a copy of his original armor. It was ripped off by the aforementioned Black Lanterns.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Whereas most versions of Superman have a weakness to magic, Superboy-Prime has a greater resistance to it; he was able to easily fight off Black Adam during their initial encounter, and was only defeated by Shazam and Black Adam in the DC Rebirth when both of them attacked him by saying their word simultaneously, striking him with far more magical force than even he could cope with. Additionally, most versions are affected by Kryptonite; however, kryptonite from one universe does not affect Kryptonians from other universes. The Krypton of Earth Prime's universe—unlike other versions of the planet—was completely absorbed by its sun, rather than being destroyed and ejecting fragments from the explosion which would have created kryptonite, so, for some time, it seemed that no kryptonite that could affect Superboy-Prime existed. During his battles with the three Legions, however, the "Threeboot" Element Lad is able to transmute the ground around Superboy-Prime into a form of kryptonite that does hurt him. It is revealed that threeboot Element Lad is from Earth-Prime's future.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime loses his powers when exposed to a red sun, as do other versions of Superman. In his first appearance, he is shown to resist the effects of red sun radiation; however, this radiation was artificial. Every time Prime has been depowered, it has taken an actual red sun, and not merely localized red sun radiation. Kal-El and Kal-L defeat Superboy-Prime by flying him directly through Krypton's red sun Rao, destroying his armor and diminishing their powers in the process. Afterward, the Green Lantern Corps imprison him inside a "junior" Red Sun-Eater, which similarly depowers him. Also, unlike most versions of Superman who can store yellow solar energy to extend the use of their powers, Prime requires constant exposure to yellow sunlight to maintain his; otherwise, he will depower almost instantly.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: His reaction to psionics has not been fully explored, although Martian Manhunter is shown to be able to read his mind. Saturn Girl's attempts to attack him psionically seem to have little effect. When Nightshade attacks Superboy-Prime with darkness, he shows a deep achluophobia brought about most likely from the darkness blocking his access to yellow sunlight.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Superboy-Prime has a fear of the Flash Family, due in large part to them pushing Superboy-Prime into the Speed Force, where they imprison him under red sunlight to depower him for several years until he breaks out. He reveals his continued fear of them when, during the "Sinestro Corps War", he is confronted by Wally West and Jay Garrick, admitting with a stutter "I d-don't like Speedsters!" This fear is again on display in "", when he lapses into a fearful stutter while recounting his battle with the Flashes during "Infinite Crisis". Upon learning of the Legion's attempts to bring Bart back, Prime goes into a panic, going so far as to fly through his own Legion's forces as to attempt to stop Bart from returning; yelling and stuttering, even whimpering to himself in fear as he does so. Upon realizing that he is too late, Prime even screams in fear upon seeing the returned Kid Flash racing towards him.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: Massive amounts of quantum energy have been shown to injure Superboy-Prime as well, as seen in his battle with Monarch.


title: Superboy-Prime

text: According to "Infinite Crisis" writer Geoff Johns, "Superboy-Prime's really frustrated with what his life has turned into and, unfortunately, that frustration is going to be taken out on the world". He also mentioned that "He's been wanting to show the world what he can do, because he barely had a chance to be Superboy. He was Superboy a little bit before "Crisis on Infinite Earths" and then—BOOM!—his world was wiped out and that was it".


title: Superboy-Prime

text: After the publication of "Infinite Crisis" #5, Johns said at the "Wizard World LA" convention: "That took me a long time to break, because I thought Superboy-Prime needed to view the world so narrow. You can see how his world view is so narrow and so black and white and realistically that is not going to work anymore". Originally, Superboy-Prime started out coming into Crisis as corrupted and evil, but the take on the character did not work for Johns. "I said to Dan I think Prime does it by accident and is horrified. That panel where's he is looking at his hands and goes 'I didn't mean to do it', that for me is the entire story for Superboy-Prime. He didn't mean to do this stuff. What is worse... making a mistake and fessing up to it or doing something bad and saying 'You made me do it?'. Superboy-Prime is a very simplistic character who has become very complex".


title: Superboy-Prime

text: When asked if Superboy-Prime was irredeemable or not, Johns replied "I think it's a split. You saw his reaction when he did what he did in "Infinite Crisis", but at that same time, he's walked over that line. Does he think he can walk back? Should he? Does this universe even matter to him anymore? Is it the fact that now that he's got a big dent on his car, another one won't matter? If he's already on that path, is he going to continue on it, or is he going to really try and work and go back?"


title: Superboy-Prime

text: In "Dark Multiverse: Infinite Crisis", after Ted Kord takes over Checkmate when he kills Maxwell Lord, he manages to subvert most of Alexander Luthor's plans before confronting Luthor and Prime directly. After Alexander Luthor confirms Ted's belief that he has been manipulating events and denounces Prime as an idiot he manipulated into helping him, Luthor kills the Earth-2 Superman and Lois when he tries to kill Prime with a specially designed kryptonite weapon, only for Prime to kill him. Kord convinces Prime to act as his enforcer as he tries to establish himself as Earth's new discreet 'ruler', using Brother Eye's insight to track and eliminate metahuman threats, but when Prime defies his orders to bring in the Teen Titans unharmed, Kord infects Prime with the OMAC nanites to turn him into part of Kord's new OMAC enforcers.


title: Constructivism (international relations)

text: In international relations, constructivism is a social theory that asserts that significant aspects of international relations are shaped by ideational factors (which are historically and socially constructed), not simply material factors. The most important ideational factors are those that are collectively held; these collectively held beliefs construct the interests and identities of actors.


text: In contrast to some other prominent IR approaches and theories (such as realism and rational choice), constructivists see identities and interests of actors as socially constructed and changeable; identities are not static and cannot be exogenously assumed. Similarly to rational choice, constructivism does not make broad and specific predictions about international relations; it is an approach to studying international politics, not a substantive theory of international politics. Constructivist analyses can only provide substantive explanations or predictions once the relevant actors and their interests have been identified, as well as the content of social structures.


text: The main competitors theories to constructivism are variants of realism, liberalism and rational choice that emphasize materialism (the notion that the physical world determines political behavior on its own), and individualism (the notion that individual units can be studied apart from the broader systems that they are embedded in). Whereas other prominent approaches conceptualize power in material terms (e.g. military and economic capabilities), constructivist analyses also see power as the ability to structure and constitute the nature of social relations between actors.


text: Nicholas Onuf has been credited with coining the term "constructivism" to describe theories that stress the socially constructed character of international relations. Since the late 1980s and early 1990s, constructivism has become one of the major schools of thought within international relations.


text: The earliest constructivist works focused on establishing that "norms mattered" in international politics. Peter J. Katzenstein's edited volume "The Culture of National Security" compiled works by numerous prominent and emerging constructivists, showing that constructivist insights were important in the field of security studies; an area of International Relations that realists had been dominant.


text: After establishing that norms mattered in international politics, later veins of constructivism focused on explaining the circumstances under which some norms mattered and others did not. Swathes of constructivist research have focused on norm entrepreneurs: international organizations and law: epistemic communities; speech, argument, and persuasion; and structural configuration as mechanisms and processes for social construction.


text: Alexander Wendt is the most prominent advocate of social constructivism in the field of international relations. Wendt's 1992 article "Anarchy is What States Make of It: the Social Construction of Power Politics" published in "International Organization" laid the theoretical groundwork for challenging what he considered to be a flaw shared by both neorealists and neoliberal institutionalists, namely, a commitment to a (crude) form of materialism. By attempting to show that even such a core realist concept as "power politics" is socially constructed—that is, not given by nature and hence, capable of being transformed by human practice—Wendt opened the way for a generation of international relations scholars to pursue work in a wide range of issues from a constructivist perspective. Wendt further developed these ideas in his central work, "Social Theory of International Politics" (1999). Following up on Wendt, Martha Finnemore offered the first "sustained, systematic empirical argument in support of the constructivist claim that international normative structures matter in world politics" in her 1996 book "National Interests in International Society."


text: There are several strands of constructivism. On the one hand, there are "conventional" constructivist scholars such as Kathryn Sikkink, Peter Katzenstein, Elizabeth Kier, Martha Finnemore, and Alexander Wendt, who use widely accepted methodologies and epistemologies, and whose work has been widely accepted within the mainstream IR community and generated vibrant scholarly discussions among realists, liberals, institutionalists, and constructivists. These scholars hold that research oriented around causal explanations and constitutive explanations is appropriate. Wendt refers to this form of constructivism as "thin" constructivism. On the other hand, there are "critical" radical constructivists who take discourse and linguistics more seriously, and adopt non-positivist methodologies and epistemologies. Both thin and thick versions of constructivism agree that neorealism and neoliberalism pay insufficient attention to social construction in world politics. There is yet another strong strand of critical constructivism that takes conventional constructivists to task for systematically downplaying or omitting class factors.


text: Constructivism primarily seeks to demonstrate how core aspects of international relations are, contrary to the assumptions of neorealism and neoliberalism, "socially constructed". This means that they are given their form by ongoing processes of social practice and interaction. Alexander Wendt calls two increasingly accepted basic tenets of Constructivism "that the structures of human association are determined primarily by shared ideas rather than material forces, and that the identities and interests of purposive actors are constructed by these shared ideas rather than given by nature." This does not mean that constructivists believe that international politics is "ideas all the way down", but rather that international politics is characterized both by material factors and ideational factors.


text: Central to Constructivism are the notions that ideas matter, and that agents are socially constructed (rather than given).


text: Constructivist research is focused both on causal explanations for phenomena, as well as analyses of how things are constituted. In the study of national security, the emphasis is on the conditioning that culture and identity exert on security policies and related behaviors. Identities are necessary in order to ensure at least some minimal level of predictability and order. The object of the constructivist discourse can be conceived as the arrival, a fundamental factor in the field of international relations, of the recent debate on epistemology, the sociology of knowledge, the agent/structure relationship, and the ontological status of social facts.


text: The notion that international relations are not only affected by power politics, but also by ideas, is shared by writers who describe themselves as "constructivist theorists." According to this view, the fundamental structures of international politics are social rather than strictly material. This leads to "social constructivists" to argue that changes in the nature of social interaction between states can bring a fundamental shift towards greater international security.


text: During constructivism's formative period neorealism was the dominant discourse of international relations, thus much of constructivism's initial theoretical work challenged basic Neorealist assumptions. Neorealists are fundamentally causal structuralists, in that they hold that the majority of important content to international politics is explained by the structure of the international system, a position first advanced in Kenneth Waltz's "Man, the State, and War" and fully elucidated in his core text of Neorealism, "Theory of International Politics". Specifically, international politics is primarily determined by the fact that the international system is anarchic – it lacks any overarching authority, instead it is composed of units (states) which are formally equal – they are all sovereign over their own territory. Such anarchy, Neorealists argue, forces States to act in certain ways, specifically, they can rely on no-one but themselves for security (they have to self-help). The way in which anarchy forces them to act in such ways, to defend their own self-interest in terms of power, neorealists argue, explains most of international politics. Because of this, Neorealists tend to disregard explanations of international politics at the "unit" or "state" level. Kenneth Waltz attacked such a focus as being reductionist.


text: Constructivism, particularly in the formative work of Wendt, challenges this assumption by showing that the causal powers attributed to "structure" by neorealists are in fact not "given", but rest on the way in which structure is constructed by social practice. Removed from presumptions about the nature of the identities and interests of the actors in the system, and the meaning that social institutions (including anarchy) have for such actors, Wendt argues neorealism's "structure" reveals very little: "it does not predict whether two states will be friends or foes, will recognize each other's sovereignty, will have dynastic ties, will be revisionist or status quo powers, and so on". Because such features of behavior are not explained by anarchy, and require instead the incorporation of evidence about the interests and identities held by key actors, Neorealism's focus on the material structure of the system (anarchy) is misplaced. Wendt goes further than this – arguing that because the way in which anarchy constrains states depends on the way in which states conceive of anarchy, and conceive of their own identities and interests, anarchy is not necessarily even a self-help system. It only forces states to self-help if they conform to neorealist assumptions about states as seeing security as a competitive, relative concept, where the gain of security for any one state means the loss of security for another. If states instead hold alternative conceptions of security, either "co-operative", where states can maximise their security without negatively affecting the security of another, or "collective" where states identify the security of other states as being valuable to themselves, anarchy will not lead to self-help at all. Neorealist conclusions, as such, depend entirely on unspoken and unquestioned assumptions about the way in which the meaning of social institutions are constructed by actors. Crucially, because Neorealists fail to recognize this dependence, they falsely assume that such meanings are unchangeable, and exclude the study of the processes of social construction which actually do the key explanatory work behind neorealist observations.


text: As a criticism of neorealism and neoliberalism (which were the dominant strands of IR theory during the 1980s), constructivism tended to be lumped in with all approaches that criticized the so-called "neo-neo" debate. Constructivism has therefore often been conflated with critical theory. However, while constructivism may use aspects of critical theory and vice versa, the mainstream variants of constructivism are positivist.


text: In a response to Constructivism, John Mearsheimer has argued that ideas and norms only matter on the margins, and that appeals by leaders to norms and morals often reflect self-interest.


text: As constructivists reject neorealism's conclusions about the determining effect of anarchy on the behavior of international actors, and move away from neorealism's underlying materialism, they create the necessary room for the identities and interests of international actors to take a central place in theorising international relations. Now that actors are not simply governed by the imperatives of a self-help system, their identities and interests become important in analysing how they behave. Like the nature of the international system, constructivists see such identities and interests as not objectively grounded in material forces (such as dictates of the human nature that underpins classical realism) but the result of ideas and the social construction of such ideas. In other words, the meanings of ideas, objects, and actors are all given by social interaction. People give objects their meanings and can attach different meanings to different things.


text: Martha Finnemore has been influential in examining the way in which international organizations are involved in these processes of the social construction of actor's perceptions of their interests. In "National Interests In International Society", Finnemore attempts to "develop a systemic approach to understanding state interests and state behavior by investigating an international structure, not of power, but of meaning and social value". "Interests", she explains, "are not just 'out there' waiting to be discovered; they are constructed through social interaction". Finnemore provides three case studies of such construction – the creation of Science Bureaucracies in states due to the influence of the UNESCO, the role of the Red Cross in the Geneva Conventions and the World Bank's influence of attitudes to poverty.


text: Studies of such processes are examples of the constructivist attitude towards state interests and identities. Such interests and identities are central determinants of state behaviour, as such studying their nature and their formation is integral in constructivist methodology to explaining the international system. But it is important to note that despite this refocus onto identities and interests—properties of states—constructivists are not necessarily wedded to focusing their analysis at the unit-level of international politics: the state. Constructivists such as Finnemore and Wendt both emphasize that while ideas and processes tend to explain the social construction of identities and interests, such ideas and processes form a structure of their own which impact upon international actors. Their central difference from neorealists is to see the structure of international politics in primarily ideational, rather than material, terms.


text: Constructivist scholars have explored in-depth the role of norms in world politics. Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes have defined “norms” as “a broad class of prescriptive statements – rules, standards, principles, and so forth – both procedural and substantive” that are “prescriptions for action in situations of choice, carrying a sense of obligation, a sense that they ought to be followed”.


text: Norm-based constructivist approaches generally assume that actors tend to adhere to a “logic of appropriateness”. That means that actors follow “internalized prescriptions of what is socially defined as normal, true, right, or good, without, or in spite of calculation of consequences and expected utility”. This logic of appropriateness stands in contrast to the rational choice “logic of consequences”, where actors are assumed to choose the most efficient means to reach their goals on the basis of a cost-benefit analysis.


text: Constructivist norm scholarship has investigated a wide range of issue areas in world politics. For example, Peter Katzenstein and the contributors to his edited volume, "The Culture of National Security", have argued that states act on security choices not only in the context of their physical capabilities but also on the basis of normative understandings. Martha Finnemore has suggested that international organizations like the World Bank or UNESCO help diffuse norms which, in turn, influence how states define their national interests. Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink have explored how norms affect political change. In doing so, they have stressed the connections between norms and rationality, rather than their opposition to each other. They have also highlighted the importance of “norm entrepreneurs” in advocating and spreading certain norms.


text: Some scholars have investigated the role of individual norms in world politics. For instance, Audie Klotz has examined how the global norm against apartheid developed across different states (the United Kingdom, the United States, and Zimbabwe) and institutions (the Commonwealth, the Organization of African Unity, and the United Nations). The emergence and institutionalization of this norm, she argued, has contributed to the end of the apartheid regime in South Africa. Nina Tannenwald has made the case that the non-use of nuclear weapons since 1945 can be attributed to the strength of a nuclear weapons taboo, i.e., a norm against the use of nuclear weapons. She has argued that this norm has become so deeply embedded in American political and social culture that nuclear weapons have not been employed, even in cases when their use would have made strategic or tactical sense. Michael Barnett has taken an evolutionary approach to trace how the norm of political humanitarianism emerged.


text: Finnemore, Sikkink, Jeffrey W. Legro and others have argued that the robustness (or effectiveness) of norms can be measured by factors such as:


text: Many constructivists analyse international relations by looking at goals, threats, fears, cultures, identities, and other elements of "social reality" as social facts. In an important edited volume, "The Culture of National Security", constructivist scholars—including Elizabeth Kier, Jeffrey Legro, and Peter Katzenstein – challenged many realist assumptions about the dynamics of international politics, particularly in the context of military affairs. Thomas J. Biersteker and Cynthia Weber applied constructivist approaches to understand the evolution of state sovereignty as a central theme in international relations, and works by Rodney Bruce Hall and Daniel Philpott (among others) developed constructivist theories of major transformations in the dynamics of international politics. In international political economy, the application of constructivism has been less frequent. Notable examples of constructivist work in this area include Kathleen R. McNamara's study of European Monetary Union and Mark Blyth's analysis of the rise of Reaganomics in the United States.


text: By focusing on how language and rhetoric are used to construct the social reality of the international system, constructivists are often seen as more optimistic about progress in international relations than versions of realism loyal to a purely materialist ontology, but a growing number of constructivists question the "liberal" character of constructivist thought and express greater sympathy for realist pessimism concerning the possibility of emancipation from power politics.


text: Constructivism is often presented as an alternative to the two leading theories of international relations, realism and liberalism, but some maintain that it is not necessarily inconsistent with one or both. Wendt shares some key assumptions with leading realist and neorealist scholars, such as the existence of anarchy and the centrality of states in the international system. However, Wendt renders anarchy in cultural rather than materialist terms; he also offers a sophisticated theoretical defense of the state-as-actor assumption in international relations theory. This is a contentious issue within segments of the IR community as some constructivists challenge Wendt on some of these assumptions (see, for example, exchanges in "Review of International Studies", vol. 30, 2004). It has been argued that progress in IR theory will be achieved when Realism and Constructivism can be aligned or even synthesized. An early example of such synthesis was Jennifer Sterling-Folker’s analysis of the United States’ international monetary policy following the Bretton Woods system. Sterling-Folker argued that the U.S. shift towards unilateralism is partially accounted for by realism's emphasis of an anarchic system, but constructivism helps to account for important factors from the domestic or second level of analysis.


text: A significant group of scholars who study processes of social construction self-consciously eschew the label "Constructivist". They argue that "mainstream" constructivism has abandoned many of the most important insights from linguistic turn and social-constructionist theory in the pursuit of respectability as a "scientific" approach to international relations. Even some putatively "mainstream" constructivists, such as Jeffrey Checkel, have expressed concern that constructivists have gone too far in their efforts to build bridges with non-constructivist schools of thought.


text: A growing number of constructivists contend that current theories pay inadequate attention to the role of habitual and unreflective behavior in world politics, the centrality of relations and processes in constructing world politics, or both.


text: Advocates of the "practice turn" take inspiration from work in neuroscience, as well as that of social theorists such as Pierre Bourdieu, that stresses the significance of habit and practices in psychological and social life - essentially calling for greater attention and sensitivity towards the 'every day' and 'taken for granted' activities of international politics Some scholars have adopted the related sociological approach known as Actor-Network Theory (ANT), which extends the early focus of the Practice Turn on the work of Pierre Bourdieu towards that of Bruno Latour and others. Scholars have employed ANT in order to disrupt traditional world political binaries (civilised/barbarian, democratic/autocratic, etc.), consider the implications of a posthuman understanding of IR, explore the infrastructures of world politics, and consider the effects of technological agency.


title: Flag of Ethiopia

text: The flag of Ethiopia () is the national flag of Ethiopia. It consists of a green, yellow, and red tricolour with the National Emblem, a golden pentagram on a blue disc, superimposed at the center. While the colors green, yellow, and red in combination held symbolic importance since at least the early 17th century, the modern tricolour was first adopted on 11 October 1897 by Menelik II, and the present flag on 31 October 1996.


title: Flag of Ethiopia

text: The colors of green, yellow and red were used for the flag of the Ethiopian Empire in 1914. On 11 October 1897, a year after Ethiopia decisively defeated the Kingdom of Italy at the Battle of Adwa, emperor Menelik II ordered the three pennants combined in a rectangular tricolour from top to bottom of red, yellow, and green with the first letter of his own name (the Amharic letter "ም") on the central stripe. The letter of Menelik's name was removed from the flag after his death in 1913. For unknown reasons, the colour order was flipped- with green on top, red on the bottom, and the yellow remaining in place. The flag's tri-colour scheme has existed since the early 19th century, and the colours red, yellow, and green carried special importance prior to that. To commemorate its adoption in 1897, Ethiopia celebrates Flag Day on the first Monday of the month of Tikimt (September–October).


title: Flag of Ethiopia

text: The royal flag often featured the emblem of a Lion of Judah, a crowned lion carrying a cross centered in the banner's yellow midsection. The flag is understood to be a link between the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the peoples, and the nation that was united. The processional cross carried by the lion was the former flag or symbol of Ethiopia and has likewise been in use since at least the early 17th century. Whilst red is currently featured at the bottom of the horizontal tricolour, this was reversed until the mid-19th century. What the colors symbolise varies depending on point of view. However, generally, red represents the blood spilled in defense of Ethiopia; yellow represents peace and harmony between Ethiopia's various ethnic and religious groups; and green is said to symbolise hope, or the land and its fertility. The colors had historically been used by the Ethiopian church prior to their adoption as the colors of the state for unknown reasons, but likely due to them being easy to produce and common in the Ethiopian landscape. Two French travelers in the 19th century, Ferret and Joseph Galinier, noted "red,


title: Flag of Ethiopia

text: Upon gaining independence from colonial rule, several newly-established countries in Africa adopted these three colors in homage to Ethiopia's resistance against foreign occupation. When adopted by Pan-Africanist polities and organisations for their activities, the colours are often referred to as the Pan-African colours.


title: Flag of Ethiopia

text: Prior to 1996, the plain green, yellow and red banner was commonly used as a civil flag. Although a number of different emblems were used by the government since 1974, flags with emblems were uncommonly used in public outside of government usage. The basic colour schematic has remained constant.


title: Flag of Ethiopia

text: The star is yellow on a blue disc which overlaps the green and red stripes. The star testifies to Ethiopia's bright future, while the yellow rays which it emits are equidistant and are said to represent the equality of all Ethiopians regardless of race, creed, or sex. In recent years, the government of Ethiopia has taken a conscious effort to increase the usage of the flag with the emblem, which had been seen far less than the plain tricolour. As the plain tricolour was used and seen far more often than either the flag of the Derg or the Lion of Judah flag, this was considered unusual.


title: Flag of Ethiopia

text: In 2009, the Parliament of Ethiopia passed Proclamation 654/2009 (The Federal Flag Proclamation), which prohibited firstly amongst 23 other provisions "use [of] the Flag without its Emblem", as well as "to deface the Flag by writing or displaying signs, symbols, emblems or picture ", or "to prepare or use the Flag without the proper order of its colors and size or its Emblem." While most offenses were punishable by a fine of "3000 birr or rigorous imprisonment up to one year," the first offense, mandating the usage of the emblem, received an increased penalty of "5000 birr or rigorous imprisonment up to one year and six months." This replaced the 1996 Flag Proclamation, which had made no mention of offenses or penalties.


title: Tibetan script

text: The Tibetan script is a segmental writing system ("abugida") of Indic origin used to write certain Tibetic languages, including Tibetan, Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Ladakhi, Jirel and Balti. It has also been used for some non-Tibetic languages in close cultural contact with Tibet, such as Thakali. The printed form is called uchen script while the hand-written cursive form used in everyday writing is called umê script. This writing system is used across the Himalayas, and Tibet.


title: Tibetan script

text: The script is closely linked to a broad ethnic Tibetan identity, spanning across areas in India, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet. The Tibetan script is of Brahmic origin from the Gupta script and is ancestral to scripts such as Meitei, Lepcha, Marchen and the multilingual ʼPhags-pa script.


title: Tibetan script

text: According to Tibetan historiography, the Tibetan script was introduced by Thonmi Sambhota in the first half of the 7th century, mainly for the codification of the sacred Buddhist texts. From a contemporary academic perspective, this is merely a legend invented in the second half of the 11th century (cf. Miller 1963; Róna-Tas 1985: 183–303; Zeisler 2005). New research and writings suggest that there were one or more Tibetan scripts in use prior to the introduction of the current script by Songtsen Gampo and Thonmi Sambhota. The Tunhong manuscripts are key evidence for this hypothesis.


title: Tibetan script

text: Three orthographic standardisations were developed. The most important, an official orthography aimed to facilitate the translation of Buddhist scriptures, emerged during the early 9th century. Standard orthography has not altered since then, while the spoken language has changed by, for example, losing complex consonant clusters. As a result, in all modern Tibetan dialects and in particular in the Standard Tibetan of Lhasa, there is a great divergence between current spelling (which still reflects the 9th-century spoken Tibetan) and current pronunciation. This divergence is the basis of an argument in favour of spelling reform, to write Tibetan "as it is pronounced"; for example, writing "Kagyu" instead of "Bka'-rgyud".


title: Tibetan script

text: The nomadic Amdo Tibetan and the western dialects of Ladakhi, as well as Balti, come very close to the Old Tibetan spellings. But the grammar of these varieties has considerably changed. To write the modern varieties according to the classical orthography and grammar of Classical Tibetan would be the same as to write Italian according to that of Latin, or to write Hindi according to that of Sanskrit. However, modern Buddhist elites in the Indian subcontinent insisted the classical orthography should not be altered even when used for lay purposes. This became an obstacle for many modern Tibetic languages to modernize or to introduce a written tradition. Amdo Tibetan was one of a few examples where the Buddhist elites initiated a spelling reform. A spelling reform in Ladakhi was so controversial, however, partly because it was first initiated by Christian missionaries.


title: Tibetan script

text: In the Tibetan script, the syllables are written from left to right. Syllables are separated by a "tsek" (་); since many Tibetan words are monosyllabic, this mark often functions almost as a space. Spaces are not used to divide words.


title: Tibetan script

text: The Tibetan alphabet has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as "radicals", for consonants. As in other Indic scripts, each consonant letter assumes an inherent vowel; in the Tibetan script it is /a/. The letter is also the base for dependent vowel marks.


title: Tibetan script

text: Although some Tibetan dialects are tonal, the language had no tone at the time of the script's invention, and there are no dedicated symbols for tone. However, since tones developed from segmental features, they can usually be correctly predicted by the archaic spelling of Tibetan words.


title: Tibetan script

text: One aspect of the Tibetan script is that the consonants can be written either as radicals or they can be written in other forms, such as subscript and superscript forming consonant clusters.


title: Tibetan script

text: To understand how this works, one can look at the radical /ka/ and see what happens when it becomes /kra/ or /rka/. In both cases, the symbol for /ka/ is used, but when the /ra/ is in the middle of the consonant and vowel, it is added as a subscript. On the other hand, when the /ra/ comes before the consonant and vowel, it is added as a superscript. /ra/ actually changes form when it is above most other consonants; thus rka. However, an exception to this is the cluster /rɲa/. Similarly, the consonants /wa/, /ra/, and /ja/ change form when they are beneath other consonants; thus /kwa/; /kra/; /kja/.