title: Eilean Donan

text: At an unknown period, probably in the later 14th century or early 15th century, the outer wall was abandoned in favour of a smaller defensive enclosure, around square. The entrance to this smaller courtyard was from the east. The reasons for this change are unclear, though it is suggested that the smaller area would have been easier to defend. During the 16th century, two buildings were added to the southern periphery of the enclosure. A small house was constructed within the southeast angle of the wall, with a circular stair-tower on its northern side giving access to the walkway along the eastern curtain wall. Located just inside the gate, this is likely to have served as a house for the castle's constable or keeper, and is the only building shown with a roof on Petit's survey. At the southwest corner of the enclosure, an L-plan block was put up, possibly as late as the early 17th century. The southern part is sited outside the line of the inner curtain wall, with a northern wing, which may have been a slightly later addition, inside the wall.


title: Eilean Donan

text: In the later 16th century, the castle was extended eastward to create a bastion or "hornwork", providing a more securely defended entrance. The hornwork comprises a pair of walls enclosing a triangular courtyard, linking the east wall of the castle with an irregular hexagonal (or heptagonal) structure. This structure, across, contains a well at its lowest level, across and deep. This led MacGibbon and Ross to describe the structure as a water tower or cistern. However, the presence of a door on its eastern side is shown in 19th century photographs, indicating that it was built as the main entrance to the castle. The water-filled interior would have been crossed by a removable bridge, presenting an obstacle to attackers. From the bridge, access to the castle would have been up a flight of steps, into the triangular courtyard, and through the gate in the east curtain wall. It is possible that the hexagonal bastion was roofed to serve as an artillery position. Dredging of the reservoir in 1893 recovered two brass guns, referred to as "double hagbuts", and measuring around long with a bore of around . Also recovered was a yett, an iron gate, probably installed in the east door to the bastion, but now on display inside the castle. At some point in the 17th century, this elaborate access was abandoned and a more convenient entrance opened in the south wall of the hornwork. By 1714, Lewis Petit's drawing clearly shows that the castle was largely derelict, with only the house at the southeast corner being roofed. Four years later, it was completely demolished, and, by 1912, very little of the castle was still standing.


title: Eilean Donan

text: The present castle buildings are entirely the result of 20th-century reconstruction by Macrae-Gilstrap, who commissioned Edinburgh architect George Mackie Watson to draw up the plans. Although the rebuilding followed the extant ground plan, the details of the present castle differ from its original appearance. The survey drawings by Lewis Petit were not rediscovered until the restoration was almost complete, and the restorers therefore were forced to rely on less accurate interpretations such as the work of MacGibbon and Ross, who attempted a plan of the remains in the late 19th century. The clerk of works, Farquhar Macrae, is said to have based the reconstruction on a dream in which he saw the restored Eilean Donan. Rather than a genuinely medieval castle, Eilean Donan is described as "a romantic reincarnation in the tradition of early 20th-century castle revivals." John Gifford, analysing the building against the Petit survey, notes a "fussy elaboration of what was probably plain originally, and an omission of decoration where it once existed", and describes the interior as "a rubbly Edwardian stage-set for life in the Middle Ages".


title: Eilean Donan

text: The castle is today entered from the south, via a modern portal complete with a portcullis. Above the door is a Gaelic inscription which in translation reads: "As long as there is a Macrae inside, there will never be a Fraser outside", referring to a bond of kinship between the two clans, and a similar inscription which once adorned the Fraser's home at Beaufort Castle. Above this is carved the coat of arms of John Macrae-Gilstrap. The portal gives access to the courtyard, the level of which has been lowered exposing the bedrock around the tower house. The present buildings at the southeast of the castle reflect the form of the earlier structures, including the circular stair tower, but are larger in extent. To the southwest only the southern portion of the L-shaped block was reconstructed, as a plain three-storey house, while in place of the northern wing is an open platform giving views over the loch. A small tower occupies the north-west angle. The keep itself follows the original dimensions, though the formerly subdivided ground floor is now a single room: the tunnel-vaulted Billeting Hall. Above on the first floor is the Banqueting Hall with an oak ceiling, and decorated with coats of arms and 15th-century style fireplace. The main ceiling beams in the Banqueting Hall are of Douglas Fir and were shipped from British Columbia, Canada as a gift from the Macraes of Canada. Small mural chambers within the walls are accessed from each hall.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Executive Outcomes is a private military company (PMC) founded in South Africa in 1989 by Eeben Barlow, a former lieutenant-colonel of the South African Defence Force. It later became part of the South African-based holding company Strategic Resource Corporation. The company was reestablished in 2020.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: In 1989, following the conclusion of South African Border Wars in Angola and Namibia, the apartheid regime was looking at broad cuts in its military personnel. This initial drawback accelerated rapidly as the apartheid system was dismantled in the early 1990s. African National Congress leader Nelson Mandela demanded that then South African President Frederik Willem de Klerk dismantle some of the South African and South-West African Special Forces units such as 32 Battalion and Koevoet. One of these was the Civil Cooperation Bureau (CCB), a unit that carried out covert operations which included assassinations of government opponents, and worked to bypass the United Nations apartheid sanctions by setting up overseas front companies.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Only Koevoet, being part of the South West African Police (SWAPOL), was disbanded as part of independence negotiations for South-West Africa (now Namibia). Many members of the other units, or simply former national servicemen, were recruited by Executive Outcomes (EO).


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Eeben Barlow and Michael Mullen, formerly in charge of the Western European section of the CCB, established Executive Outcomes (EO) in 1989. Its aim was to provide specialised covert training to Special Forces members. Barlow was also awarded a contract by Debswana to train a selected group of security officers to infiltrate and penetrate the illegal diamond dealing syndicates in Botswana. When Debswana discovered EO was training the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA), it promptly cancelled EO's contract.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: "Many of Barlow's Special Forces students would later join him at EO after he started recruiting men to assist with the training of the Angolan forces," says Walter Halicki, one of Eeben's associates in the FAA.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: The company also went on to recruit many of its personnel from the units President F. W. De Klerk disbanded. Even former enemy fighters of the uMkhonto we Sizwe and Azanian People's Liberation Army were recruited as well since many were found out of work after their own restructuring and integration to the South African National Defense Force. At its peak, EO employed about 2,000 former soldiers.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Barlow registered Executive Outcomes Ltd in the UK on the insistence of the South African Reserve Bank. There is some confusion over this issue as a top secret British intelligence report states that "Executive Outcomes was registered in the UK on September 1993 by Anthony (Tony) Buckingham, a British businessman and Simon Mann, a former British officer". Buckingham denies that he registered EO in London and consistently denies any "corporate ties" to EO.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Apart from founder Eeben Barlow (CEO), other senior EO personnel were Lafras Luitingh (Deputy to CEO) and Nic van der Bergh (CEO after Barlow resigned). Senior associates included Simon Mann, Tony Buckingham and Derek Williams who, along with Barlow and Luitingh were the executive officers of Ibis Air, the aircraft procurement organisation for Executive Outcomes which was essentially their private "air force". Pilot Crause Steyl was the South African-based director of Ibis Air.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Executive Outcomes initially trained and later fought on behalf of the Angolan government against UNITA after UNITA refused to accept the election results in 1992. This contract was awarded to the company after EO had assisted Ranger Oil with an equipment recovery operation in the harbour town of Soyo. Dubbed by the South African media as an attempt to assassinate the rebel leader Dr. Jonas Savimbi, EO found itself under constant UNITA attacks where it lost three of its men. This action saw EO as being recognised by the FAA and a contract to train its forces was awarded. In a short space of time, UNITA was defeated on the battlefield and sued for peace. The Angolan government, under pressure from the UN and the US, were forced to terminate EO's contract. EO was replaced by the UN's peacekeeping force known as UNAVEM. Angola returned to war shortly thereafter.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: In March 1995, the company contained an insurrection of guerrillas known as the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in Sierra Leone, regained control of the diamond fields, and forced a negotiated peace.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: In the case of Angola this led to a cease fire and the Lusaka Protocol, which ended the Angolan Civil War – albeit only for a few years.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: In Sierra Leone, however, the government capitulated to international pressure to have EO withdraw in favour of an ineffective peacekeeping force, allowing the RUF to rebuild and sack the capital in "Operation No Living Thing".


title: Executive Outcomes

text: As is characteristic of one of the first PMCs, Executive Outcomes was directly involved militarily in Angola and Sierra Leone. The company was notable in its ability to provide all aspects of a highly trained modern army to the less professional government forces of Sierra Leone and Angola. For instance, in Sierra Leone, Executive Outcomes fielded not only professional fighting men, but armour and support aircraft such as one Mi-24 Hind and two Mi-8 Hip helicopters, the BMP-2 infantry fighting vehicle and T-72 main battle tank. These were bought from sources in the worldwide arms trade within Africa as well as Eastern Europe.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Ibis Air was a partner business entity that provided EO with airborne services, including medevac capabilities via a Boeing 727 with the registry D2-FLZ. Ibis Air also owned a small fleet of MiG-23 "Flogger" fighters and Pilatus PC-7 turbo-prop trainers converted for the reconnaissance and ground attack capabilities using SNEB air-to-ground rockets. It was also allowed to operate MiG-27 "Flogger" strike aircraft and Su-25 "Frogfoot" ground support aircraft that were loaned out to EO by the Angolan Air Force.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Executive Outcomes had contracts with multinational corporations such as De Beers, Chevron, Rio Tinto Zinc and Texaco. The governments of Angola, Sierra Leone and Indonesia were also clients.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Executive Outcomes actively encouraged the South African government to enforce a regulation of PMCs as several South African and international companies were masquerading for work under the banner of Executive Outcomes. Additionally, Executive Outcomes was actively engaged in providing input into the formulation of the bill which became known as "Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act" in 1998.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Executive Outcomes was duly provided with a licence stipulating that it met the requirements of the newly introduced Act.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: Executive Outcomes was often loosely linked with the United Kingdom private military company Sandline International, but in 1997 Sandline directly subcontracted Executive Outcomes for their operation in Papua New Guinea to oust the rebels holding the Pangua mine on Bougainville Island which led to the so-called "Sandline affair" when news of the government's intention to hire mercenaries was leaked to the Australian press.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: The Commander of the Papua New Guinea Defence Force, Jerry Singirok – who reversed his support for the operation – ordered the detaining of all the mercenaries on their arrival, and forced the Prime Minister Sir Julius Chan to resign with Papua New Guinea coming close to a military coup.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: A UN report from July 2012 criticised the South African security company Sterling Corporate Services for assembling a "private army" in defiance of international agreements and also of Somalian sanctions. The report was conducted by the UN's Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea (SEMG) and revealed strong links to Executive Outcomes.


title: Executive Outcomes

text: In November 2020, founder Eeben Barlow stepped down from his position as chairman of STTEP to restart Executive Outcomes. He mentioned that part of his company's mission would now be "to expose those media and intelligence whores that thrive on lying for secret payments." Barlow claimed that the decision to restart the company came at the request of "some governments", which he had "little choice but to accept."


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: Paint Your Wagon is a 1969 American Western musical film starring Lee Marvin, Clint Eastwood, and Jean Seberg. The film was adapted by Paddy Chayefsky from the 1951 musical "Paint Your Wagon" by Lerner and Loewe. It is set in a mining camp in Gold Rush-era California. It was directed by Joshua Logan.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: When a wagon crashes into a ravine, prospector Ben Rumson (Lee Marvin) finds two adult male occupants, brothers, one of whom is dead and the other of whom has a broken arm and leg. While burying the dead man, gold dust is discovered at the grave site. Ben stakes a claim on the land and adopts the surviving brother (Clint Eastwood) as his "Pardner" while he recuperates.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: Pardner is innocent and romantic, singing a love song about an imaginary girl ("I Still See Elisa"). He hopes to make enough in the gold rush to buy some land and is suspicious of the fast-living Ben. Ben claims that while he is willing to fight, steal, and cheat at cards, he will never betray a partner. Ben will share the spoils of prospecting on the condition that Pardner takes care of him in his moments of drunkenness and melancholy.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: After the discovery of gold, "No Name City" springs up as a tent city, with the miners alternating between wild parties ("Hand Me Down That Can o' Beans") and bouts of loneliness ("They Call the Wind Maria"). The men become frustrated with the lack of female companionship, and the arrival of Jacob Woodling (John Mitchum), a Mormon with two wives, is enough to catch the attention of the entire town. The miners persuade Woodling to sell one of his wives to the highest bidder. Elizabeth (Jean Seberg), Jacob's younger and more rebellious wife, agrees to be sold based on the reasoning that whatever she gets can't be as bad as what she currently has.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: Still drunk, Ben winds up with the highest bid for Elizabeth. Ben is readied for the wedding by the other miners ("Whoop-Ti-Ay"), and is married to Elizabeth under "mining law", with Ben being granted exclusive rights to "all her mineral resources." Elizabeth, not content to be treated as property, threatens to shoot Ben on their wedding night if she is not treated with respect. While she believes Ben is not the type to truly settle down, she views their arrangement as acceptable if he will build a proper wooden cabin to provide her with some security for when he inevitably leaves. Ben, impressed by Elizabeth's determination, enlists the miners to help him keep this promise, and Elizabeth rejoices in having a proper home ("A Million Miles Away Behind the Door").


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: News comes of the pending arrival of "six French tarts" to a neighboring town via stagecoach. A plan is hatched to divert the stagecoach under false pretenses and bring the women to "No Name City" ("There's a Coach Comin' In"), thus finally providing the other miners with female companionship. Ben heads up the mission and leaves Elizabeth in the care of Pardner. The two fall in love ("I Talk to the Trees"), whereupon Elizabeth, saying she also still loves Ben, convinces them that "if a Mormon man can have two wives, why can't a woman have two husbands?" The polyandrous arrangement works until the town becomes large enough that civilized people from the East begin to settle there. A parson (Alan Dexter) begins to make a determined effort to persuade the people of No Name City to give up their evil ways ("The Gospel of No Name City"). Meanwhile, Ben and a group of miners discover that gold dust is dropping through the floor boards of many of the saloons. They tunnel under all the businesses to get the gold ("The Best Things in Life Are Dirty").


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: A group of new settlers is rescued from the snow and the strait-laced family is invited to spend the winter with Elizabeth and Pardner, who is assumed to be her only husband. Ben is left to fend for himself ("Wand'rin' Star"). In revenge, he introduces one of the family, naive young Horton Fenty (Tom Ligon), to the pleasures of Rotten Luck Willie's (Harve Presnell) saloon and brothel. This leads to Elizabeth dismissing both Ben and Pardner from the log cabin, and Pardner takes to gambling in Willie's ("Gold Fever"). During a bull-and-bear fight, the rampaging bull falls into the tunnel complex dug by Ben and the others and knocks out all of the support beams, causing the streets and buildings to collapse. Eventually, the town is destroyed entirely. Ben departs for other gold fields, commenting that he never knew Pardner's real name, which Pardner then reveals: Sylvester Newel. Elizabeth and Pardner reconcile and plan to stay, while musing about Ben's next great adventure.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: Lee Marvin accepted the lead role instead of appearing in "The Wild Bunch". He received $1 million, while Eastwood was paid $750,000. Faye Dunaway, Mia Farrow and Tuesday Weld turned down the role of Elizabeth before Seberg was cast. Diana Rigg and Julie Andrews were also considered for the role. Lesley Ann Warren, who was under contract to Paramount, had to bow out after she became pregnant.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: Eastwood and Marvin did their own singing, while Seberg's songs were dubbed. The early incarnation of the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band had a cameo in the song "Hand Me Down That Can o' Beans." Some songs from the original musical were dropped, some were added by Alan Jay Lerner and André Previn, and others were used in different contexts.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: "Paint Your Wagon" was shot near Baker City, Oregon, with filming beginning in May 1968 and ending that October. Other locations included Big Bear Lake, California and the San Bernardino National Forest; the interiors were filmed at Paramount Studios, with Joshua Logan directing. The film's initial budget was $10 million, before it eventually doubled to $20 million. A daily expense of $80,000 was incurred to transport cast and crew to the filming location, as the closest hotel was nearly 60 miles away. The elaborate camp used in the film cost $2.4 million to build.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: The film was released at a time when movie musicals were going out of fashion, especially with younger audiences. Its overblown budget and nearly three-hour length became notorious in the press. Eastwood was frustrated by the long delays in the making of the film, later saying that the experience strengthened his resolve to become a director. According to Robert Osborne, Marvin drank heavily during filming, which may have enhanced his screen appearance, but led to delays and many retakes.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: "Paint Your Wagon" opened at Loew's State II theatre in New York City on October 15, 1969. In the UK, "Paint Your Wagon" had a 79-week 70mm roadshow run at the Astoria Theatre in London.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: Vincent Canby, in his October 16, 1969 review for "The New York Times", wrote that the film was "amiable... However, because amiability is never in over-abundant supply, especially in Hollywood super-productions, the movie can be enjoyed more than simply tolerated." He ended the review by expanding on its pleasantness:


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: The film grossed $50,506 in its first week. It opened in Los Angeles the following week and immediately expanded to another 12 cities. It reached number one at the US box office in its eighth week of release. The film became Paramount's sixth-largest success up to that point (and the seventh highest-grossing film of 1969); over its release, it grossed $31.6 million, although the earnings never offset the cost of production and marketing.


title: Paint Your Wagon (film)

text: Marvin's rendition of "Wand'rin' Star," accompanied by the film's choir, became a number one hit in the UK. His voice was described by Jean Seberg as "like rain gurgling down a rusty pipe". Interviewed on NPR, Marvin said that the song was a hit in Australia, and someone there described it as "The first 33⅓ recorded at 45."


title: W88

text: The W88 is an American thermonuclear warhead, with an estimated yield of , and is small enough to fit on MIRVed missiles. The W88 was designed at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in the 1970s. In 1999, the director of Los Alamos who had presided over its design described it as "the most advanced U.S. nuclear warhead". As of 2021, the latest version is called the W88 ALT 370, the first unit of which came into production on 1 July, 2021, after 11 years of development. The Trident II submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) can be armed with up to eight W88 warheads (Mark 5 re-entry vehicle) or twelve 100 kt W76 warheads (Mark 4 re-entry vehicle), but it is limited to eight warheads under the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty.


title: W88

text: Much of the work was done on the warhead by Los Alamos National Laboratory before the introduction of the Threshold Test Ban Treaty in 1976. A production run of 4000 to 5000 warheads was initially envisioned but production was halted after the November 1989 raid on the Rocky Flats Plant by the FBI. Consideration was given to restarting production but the program was terminated in January 1992. Final production was approximately 400 warheads.


title: W88

text: Information about the W88 has implied that it is a variation of the standard Teller–Ulam design for thermonuclear weapons. In a thermonuclear weapon such as the W88, nuclear fission in the "primary" stage causes nuclear fusion in the "secondary" stage, which results in the main explosion. Although the weapon employs fusion in the "secondary", most of the explosive yield comes from fission of nuclear material in the "primary, secondary," and casing.


title: W88

text: In 1999, the "San Jose Mercury News" reported that the W88 had an egg-shaped "primary" and a spherical "secondary", which were together inside a radiation case known as the "peanut" for its shape. Four months later, "The New York Times" reported that in 1995 a supposed double agent from the People's Republic of China delivered information indicating that China knew these details about the W88 warhead as well, supposedly through espionage (this line of investigation eventually resulted in the abortive trial of Wen Ho Lee). If these stories are true, it would indicate a variation of the Teller-Ulam design which would allow for the miniaturization required for small MIRVed warheads.


title: W88

text: The value of an egg-shaped primary lies apparently in the fact that a MIRV warhead is limited by the diameter of the primary—if an egg-shaped primary can be made to work properly, then the MIRV warhead can be made considerably smaller yet still deliver a high-yield explosion—a W88 warhead manages to yield up to 475 kt with a reentry vehicle length of approximately and base diameter of while the actual physics package is long. By different estimates the warhead has been given weights of ,<ref name="W88/W76 weight"></ref> , and . The smaller warhead allows more of them to fit onto a single missile and improves basic flight properties such as speed and range.


title: W88

text: The calculations for a nonspherical primary are apparently orders of magnitude more difficult than for a spherical primary. A spherically symmetric simulation is one-dimensional, while an axially symmetric simulation is two dimensional. Simulations typically divide up each dimension into discrete segments, so a one-dimensional simulation might involve only 100 points, while a similarly accurate two dimensional simulation would require 10,000. This would likely be the reason they would be desirable for a country like the People's Republic of China, which already developed its own nuclear and thermonuclear weapons, especially since they were no longer conducting nuclear testing which would provide valuable design information.


title: W88

text: The weapon contains the material Fogbank. While its precise nature is classified, Fogbank is believed to be a foam or aerogel material used in the weapon's interstage.


title: Saul Bass

text: Saul Bass (; May 8, 1920 – April 25, 1996) was an American graphic designer and Oscar-winning filmmaker, best known for his design of motion-picture title sequences, film posters, and corporate logos.


title: Saul Bass

text: During his 40-year career, Bass worked for some of Hollywood's most prominent filmmakers, including Alfred Hitchcock, Otto Preminger, Billy Wilder, Stanley Kubrick and Martin Scorsese. Among his best known title sequences are the animated paper cut-out of a heroin addict's arm for Preminger's "The Man with the Golden Arm", the credits racing up and down what eventually becomes a high-angle shot of a skyscraper in Hitchcock's "North by Northwest", and the disjointed text that races together and apart in "Psycho".


title: Saul Bass

text: Bass designed some of the most iconic corporate logos in North America, including the Geffen Records logo in 1980, the Hanna-Barbera "swirling star" logo in 1979, the sixth and final version of the Bell System logo in 1969, as well as AT&T Corporation's first globe logo in 1983 after the breakup of the Bell System. He also designed Continental Airlines' 1968 jet stream logo and United Airlines' 1974 tulip logo, which became some of the most recognized airline industry logos of the era. He died from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in Los Angeles on April 25, 1996, at the age of 75.


title: Saul Bass

text: Saul Bass was born on May 8, 1920, in the Bronx, New York, United States, to Eastern European Jewish immigrant parents. He graduated from James Monroe High School in the Bronx and studied part-time at the Art Students League in Manhattan until attending night classes with György Kepes at Brooklyn College. In 1938, Saul married Ruth Cooper and they had two children, Robert in 1942 and Andrea in 1946.


title: Saul Bass

text: He began his time in Hollywood in the 1940s, designing print advertisements for films including "Champion" (1949), "Death of a Salesman" (1951) and "The Moon Is Blue" (1953), directed by Otto Preminger. His next collaboration with Preminger was to design a film poster for his 1954 film "Carmen Jones". Preminger was so impressed with Bass's work that he asked him to produce the title sequence as well. This was when Bass first saw the opportunity to create a title sequence which would ultimately enhance the experience of the audience and contribute to the mood and the theme of the movie within the opening moments. Bass was one of the first to realize the creative potential of the opening and closing credits of a movie.


title: Saul Bass

text: Bass became widely known in the film industry after creating the title sequence for Otto Preminger's "The Man with the Golden Arm" (1955). The subject of the film was a jazz musician's struggle to overcome his heroin addiction, a taboo subject in the mid-1950s. Bass decided to create an innovative title sequence to match the film's controversial subject. He chose the arm as the central image, as it is a strong image relating to heroin addiction. The titles featured an animated, white on black paper cut-out arm of a heroin addict. As he hoped, it caused a sensation.


title: Saul Bass

text: For Alfred Hitchcock, Bass provided effective, memorable title sequences, inventing a new type of kinetic typography, for "North by Northwest" (1959), "Vertigo" (1958), working with John Whitney, and "Psycho" (1960). It was this kind of innovative, revolutionary work that made Bass a revered graphic designer. Before the advent of Bass's title sequences in the 1950s, titles were generally static, separate from the movie, and it was common for them to be projected onto the cinema curtains, the curtains only being raised right before the first scene of the movie. In 1960, Bass wrote an article for "Graphis" magazine called "Film Titles – a New Field for the Graphic Designer," which has been revered as a milestone for "the consecration of the movie credit sequence as a design object." One of the most studied film credit designers, Bass is known for integrating a stylistic coherence between the designs and the films in which they appear.


title: Saul Bass

text: Bass once described his main goal for his title sequences as being to "try to reach for a simple, visual phrase that tells you what the picture is all about and evokes the essence of the story". Another philosophy that Bass described as influencing his title sequences was the goal of getting the audience to see familiar parts of their world in an unfamiliar way. Examples of this or what he described as "making the ordinary extraordinary" can be seen in "Walk on the Wild Side" (1962) where an ordinary cat becomes a mysterious prowling predator, and in "Nine Hours to Rama" (1963) where the interior workings of a clock become an expansive new landscape. In the 1950s, Saul Bass used a variety of techniques, from cut-out animation for "Anatomy of a Murder" (1958), to fully animated mini-movies such as the epilogue for the Best Picture Oscar winner "Around the World in 80 Days" (1956), and live-action sequences.


title: Saul Bass

text: On occasion, Bass' title sequences were said to outshine the films they introduced. When Billy Wilder's "The Seven Year Itch" (1955) was released, a film critic wrote, "If the film had lived up to the titles, it would have been a good picture." In reviewing "A Walk on the Wild Side" (1962), more than half of New York Critics claimed that Bass' titles were better than the film itself. In 1962, Variety even suggested that Bass might no longer find work in the title field since there has been too frequent the use of the line: "The best thing about the film is the Saul Bass credits."


title: Saul Bass

text: In 1955, Elaine Makatura came to work with Bass in his Los Angeles office. With the opening to "Spartacus" (1960), she was directing and producing title sequences, and in 1961 the couple married, beginning more than 30 years of close collaboration. After the birth of their children, Jennifer in 1964 and Jeffrey in 1967, they concentrated on their family, film directing, and title sequences. Saul and Elaine designed title sequences for more than 30 years, continuously experimenting with a variety of innovative techniques and effects, from Bunraku-style maneuvers in "Spartacus" (1960), live-action sequences in "Walk on the Wild Side" (1962), to time-lapse photography in "The Age of Innocence" (1993), and even chopped liver in "Mr. Saturday Night" (1992). Their live-action opening title sequences often served as prologues to their films and transitioned seamlessly into their opening scenes. These "time before" title sequences either compress or expand time with startling results. The title sequence to "Grand Prix" (1966) portrays the moments before the opening race in Monte Carlo, the title sequence to "The Big Country" (1958) depicts the days it takes a stage coach to travel to a remote Western town, and the opening montage title sequence to "The Victors" (1963) chronicles the twenty-seven years between World War I and the middle of World War II, where the film begins.


title: Saul Bass

text: From the mid-1960s to the late '80s, Saul and Elaine moved away from main titles to focus on filmmaking and their children. About this time away from title design, Saul said:


title: Saul Bass

text: In the 1980s, Saul and Elaine were rediscovered by James L. Brooks and Martin Scorsese, who had grown up admiring their film work. For Scorsese, Saul and Elaine Bass created title sequences for "Goodfellas" (1990), "Cape Fear" (1991), "The Age of Innocence" (1993), and "Casino" (1995), their last title sequence. This later work with Martin Scorsese saw the Basses move away from the optical techniques that Saul had pioneered and move into the use of computerized effects. The Basses' title sequences featured new and innovative methods of production and startling graphic design.


title: Saul Bass

text: Screenwriter Nicholas Pileggi said of Saul and Elaine Bass, "You write a book of 300 to 400 pages and then you boil it down to a script of maybe 100 to 150 pages. Eventually you have the pleasure of seeing that the Basses have knocked you right out of the ballpark. They have boiled it down to four minutes flat."


title: Saul Bass

text: In a sense, all modern opening title sequences that introduce the mood or theme of a film can be seen as a legacy of the Basses' innovative work. In particular, title sequences for some recent movies and television series, especially those whose setting is during the 1960s, have purposely emulated the graphic style of Saul Bass's animated sequences from the 1950s. Some examples of title sequences that pay homage to Bass's graphics and animated title sequences are "Catch Me If You Can" (2002), "" (2011), and the openings to the AMC series "Mad Men" and TBS's "Conan".


title: Saul Bass

text: Bass was responsible for some of the best-remembered, most iconic logos in North America, including both the Bell Telephone logo (1969) and successor AT&T globe (1983). Other well-known designs were Continental Airlines (1968), Dixie (1969) and United Airlines (1974). Later, he produced logos for a number of Japanese companies as well.


title: Saul Bass

text: Selected logos by Saul Bass and their respective dates (note that the links shown point to articles on the entities themselves, and not necessarily to the logos):


title: Saul Bass

text: An analysis of a sample of Bass's corporate logos in 2011 found them to have an unusual longevity. The most common cause of the end of a Bass corporate logo (in the selection analyzed) was the demise or merger of the company, rather than a corporate logo redesign. The average lifespan of a Bass logo was more than 34 years as of 2013. In 2014, Frontier Airlines resurrected the stylized F logo originally designed for Frontier by Bass in 1978, and discontinued when the airline went bankrupt in 1984. Bass created the sculpture which each of the World Food Prize laureates receive.


title: Saul Bass

text: Saul Bass designed emblematic movie posters that transformed the visuals of film advertising. Before Bass's seminal poster for "The Man with the Golden Arm" (1955), movie posters were dominated by depictions of key scenes or characters from the film, often both juxtaposed with each other. Bass's posters, however, typically developed simplified, symbolic designs that visually communicated key essential elements of the film. For example, his poster for "The Man with the Golden Arm", with a jagged arm and off-kilter typography, starkly communicates the protagonist's struggle with heroin addiction. Bass's iconic "Vertigo" (1958) poster, with its stylized figures sucked down into the nucleus of a spiral vortex, captures the anxiety and disorientation central to the film. His poster for "Anatomy of a Murder" (1959), featuring the silhouette of a corpse jarringly dissected into seven pieces, makes both a pun on the film's title and captures the moral ambiguities within which this court room drama is immersed.


title: Saul Bass

text: He created some of his best known posters for films directed by Otto Preminger, Alfred Hitchcock, Billy Wilder, and Stanley Kubrick among others. His last commissioned film poster was created for Steven Spielberg's "Schindler's List" (1993), but it was never distributed. His poster work spanned five decades and inspired numerous other poster and graphic designers. Bass's film posters are characterized by a distinctive typography and minimalistic style.


title: Saul Bass

text: He received an unintentionally backhanded tribute in 1995, when Spike Lee's film "Clockers" was promoted by a poster that was strikingly similar to Bass's 1959 work for Preminger's film "Anatomy of a Murder". Designer Art Sims claimed that it was made as an homage, but Bass regarded it as theft. Many film posters have been considered to be homages to Saul Bass's posters. Some recent examples include the theatrical release poster for "Burn After Reading" (2008) which incorporates Bass's typography and style of figurative minimalism, and a poster for "Precious" (2009) which includes elements from several of Bass's posters, including "Anatomy of a Murder". The cover art for The White Stripes' single "The Hardest Button to Button" is clearly inspired by the Bass poster for "The Man with the Golden Arm".


title: Saul Bass

text: The comic book artist J. H. Williams III's designs for the Batman story "The Black Glove" pay homage to Bass's designs as well.


title: Saul Bass

text: In addition to movie posters, Bass designed numerous posters for film festivals, and several magazine, book, and album covers. He also designed five Academy Award Presentation posters and the Student Academy Award for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In 1962 he illustrated his only children's book, "Henri's Walk to Paris", written by Lenore Klein.


title: Saul Bass

text: During the 1960s, Bass was asked by directors and producers to produce not only title sequences for their films, but also to visualize and storyboard key scenes and sequences within them. Bass has the unusual credit of "visual consultant" or "pictorial consultant" on five films. For "Spartacus" (1960), Bass as "visual consultant" designed key elements of the gladiator school and storyboarded the final battle between slaves and Romans. John Frankenheimer, the director of "Grand Prix" (1966), had Bass storyboard, direct, and edit all but one of the racing sequences for his film. For "West Side Story" (1961) Bass filmed the prologue, storyboarded the opening dance sequence, and created the ending title sequence.


title: Saul Bass

text: It is Bass's credited role as "pictorial consultant" for Alfred Hitchcock on "Psycho" (1960); however, that has caused some controversy and debate. Bass claimed that he participated in directing the highlight scene of "Psycho", the tightly edited shower-murder sequence, though several on set at the time (including star Janet Leigh) disputed this claim.


title: Saul Bass

text: The research of several film scholars on Hitchcock's production of "Psycho" validates the claim that Bass in his capacity as a graphic artist did indeed have a significant influence on the visual design and pacing of that famous scene. Hitchcock had asked Bass to design and produce storyboards for the shower murder scene and for some other scenes in the film. For this, Bass received a credit as Pictorial Consultant as well as Title Designer. Janet Leigh told Donald Spoto that "the planning of the shower scene was left up to Saul Bass, and Hitchcock followed his storyboard precisely. Because of this ... [the shooting] went very professionally," and she told Stephen Rebello that "Mr. Hitchcock showed Saul Bass's storyboards to me quite proudly, telling me in exact detail how he was going to shoot the scene from Saul's plans".


title: Saul Bass

text: Bill Krohn has noted that Bass's 48 story board panels for the scene introduced all the key aspects of the final shower murder scene – most notably, the fact that the attacker appears as a silhouette, close-ups of a slashing knife, the shower curtain torn down, a shot of the shower head from below, Marion's desperate outstretched arm, and the famous shot of the transition from the drain hole of the bathtub to Marion Crane's dead eye. Krohn notes that this final transition is highly reminiscent of Bass's iris titles for "Vertigo". Krohn also concludes that Bass did not literally direct the shower scene, proving Hitchcock's presence on the set throughout the shooting of that scene.


title: Saul Bass

text: Bass introduced the idea of using a montage of fast cuts and tight framing to render a violent, bloody murder as an impressionistic and nearly bloodless one. Hitchcock felt uncertain about Bass's conception of the scene fearing that audiences might not accept such a stylized and quickly cut sequence. In an interview with film historian Pat Kirkham, Bass recalled, "Having designed and storyboarded the shower sequence, I showed it to Hitch. He was uneasy about it. It was very un-Hitchcockian in character. He never used that kind of quick cutting; he loved the long shot ["sic"]".


title: Saul Bass

text: To convince Hitchcock that the scene would work as planned, eight days before shooting of the final shower scene, Bass used a newsreel camera and Janet Leigh's stand-in Marli Renfro to shoot footage on the set to plan the shots in more detail. Working with Hitchcock's editor George Tomasini, he edited this footage following the storyboards to show Hitchcock how the scene could work. In the end, Hitchcock gave his approval but, according to Kirkham, made two additions: a spray of blood on the chest of Marion Crane/Janet Leigh as she slides down the tiles, and a close-up of her belly getting stabbed.


title: Saul Bass

text: In 1964, Saul and his wife and creative partner Elaine directed the short film "The Searching Eye" shown during the 1964 New York World's Fair, co-produced with Sy Wexler. The Basses also directed a short documentary film called "Why Man Creates" which won the Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject in 1968. An abbreviated version of that film was broadcast on the first episode of the television newsmagazine "60 Minutes". In 2002, this film was selected for the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Saul and Elaine directed several other short films, two of which were nominated for Academy Awards: "Notes on the Popular Arts", in 1977, and "The Solar Film", in 1979.


title: Saul Bass

text: In 1974, Saul Bass made his only feature-length film as a director, the visually splendid though little-known science fiction film "Phase IV", a "quiet, haunting, beautiful, ... and largely overlooked, science-fiction masterwork".


title: Saul Bass

text: The moving image collection of Saul Bass is held at the Academy Film Archive and consists of 2,700 items. The film material is complemented by the Saul Bass papers at the Academy's Margaret Herrick Library. The Academy Film Archive has preserved two of Bass's films: "Why Man Creates", in 2011, and "Notes on the Popular Arts" (also known as "An Essay: The Popular Arts Today"), in 2012.


title: Saul Bass

text: On May 8, 2013, Bass's 93rd birthday was celebrated by a Google Doodle, which featured the tune "Unsquare Dance" by Dave Brubeck.


title: Hart Bochner

text: Hart Matthew Bochner (born October 3, 1956) is a Canadian actor, film director, screenwriter and producer. He has appeared in films such as "Breaking Away" (1979), "Terror Train" (1980), "Rich and Famous" (1981), "The Wild Life" (1984), "Making Mr. Right" (1987), "Die Hard" (1988), "Apartment Zero" (1988), "Mr. Destiny" (1990), "Mad at the Moon" (1992), "Break Up" (1998), "Liberty Stands Still" (2002) and "Spread" (2009). On television, he has starred in "War and Remembrance" (1988–89), "Children of the Dust" (1995), "Baby for Sale" (2004), "The Starter Wife" (2008) and "Scandal" (2015).


title: Hart Bochner

text: Bochner was born in Toronto, Ontario, the son of Ruth (née Roher; 1925-2017), a concert pianist, and actor Lloyd Bochner. His family is Jewish. Bochner is a board member of the Environmental Media Awards. His grand-uncle was journalist, lawyer and philanthropist Isaiah L. Kenen.


title: Hart Bochner

text: Bochner appeared in such films as "Islands in the Stream" (1977), "Breaking Away" (1979), "Terror Train" (1980), "Rich and Famous" (1981), "Supergirl" (1984), "Apartment Zero" (1988), "Die Hard" (1988), "Mr. Destiny" and "Fellow Traveller" (1989).


title: Hart Bochner

text: In the late 1990s, Bochner had a voice role in "" (1993) and starred opposite Susan Sarandon in "Anywhere But Here" (1999). He also appeared in the films "" (2000), and "Say Nothing" (2001). Bochner had an uncredited role in the 2013 remake of "Carrie".


title: Hart Bochner

text: On television, Bochner had a key role as Byron Henry in the 1988 ABC miniseries "War and Remembrance". More recently, he starred as Zach, the boyfriend of Molly Kagan (Debra Messing), on USA Network's short-lived series "The Starter Wife" (2008).


title: Hart Bochner

text: Among the films he has directed are "PCU" (1994), "High School High" (1996), and "Just Add Water" (2008).


title: John Tory

text: John Howard Tory (born May 28, 1954) is a Canadian politician who has served as the 65th and current mayor of Toronto since 2014.


title: John Tory

text: After a career as a lawyer, political strategist and businessman, Tory ran as a mayoral candidate in the 2003 Toronto municipal election and lost to David Miller. Tory subsequently served as the leader of the Ontario Progressive Conservative (PC) Party from 2004 to 2009, and was a member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario representing Dufferin—Peel—Wellington—Grey and serving as the leader of the Opposition in Ontario from 2005 to 2007.


title: John Tory

text: After his resignation as PC leader in 2009, Tory became a radio talk show host on CFRB. Despite widespread speculation that he would run for mayor again in 2010, he announced in January that he would not be a candidate. He was the volunteer chair of the non-profit group CivicAction from 2010 to 2014. On February 24, 2014, he registered as a candidate for the 2014 mayoral election. On October 27, 2014, Tory was elected mayor of Toronto, defeating incumbent mayor Rob Ford's brother, councillor Doug Ford and former councillor and member of Parliament (MP) Olivia Chow. On October 22, 2018, he was re-elected mayor of Toronto in the 2018 mayoral election, defeating former chief city planner Jennifer Keesmaat. He was elected for a third term as mayor on October 24th, 2022 after defeating prominent urbanist Gil Peñalosa.


title: John Tory

text: Tory, the eldest of four, was born in Toronto, Ontario, to Elizabeth (née Bacon) and John A. Tory, president of Thomson Investments Limited and a director of Rogers Communications. His grandfather was lawyer John S. D. Tory and his great-grandfather founded Sun Life of Canada. Tory has two brothers, Michael and Jeffrey, and one sister, Jennifer.


title: John Tory

text: One of Tory's ancestors, James Tory, was a soldier in the 71st Scottish Regiment. He was captured and held as a prisoner of war during the American Revolution. He later settled in Nova Scotia in the 1780s.


title: John Tory

text: His maternal grandmother, Helen Yvonne Solomon, was born in 1909 to a Russian Jewish family that had immigrated to Canada six years earlier and settled in Toronto.


title: John Tory

text: Helen Solomon married Howard English Bacon, an Anglican, and their daughter Elizabeth Bacon was raised a Christian and married Tory's father, John A. Tory, in 1953.


title: John Tory

text: Tory is a member of the United Church of Canada. Like his father and grandfather, he attended the University of Toronto Schools, at the time a publicly funded high school affiliated with the University of Toronto. He received his bachelor of arts degree in political science from Trinity College at the University of Toronto in 1975. He received his bachelor of laws degree in 1978 from Osgoode Hall Law School of York University. He was called to the bar in Ontario in 1980.


title: John Tory

text: From 1972 to 1979, Tory was hired by family friend Ted Rogers as a journalist for Rogers Broadcasting's Toronto radio stations CFTR and CHFI. From 1980 to 1981, and later from 1986 to 1995, Tory held various positions at Tory, Tory, DesLauriers & Binnington including partner, managing partner, and member of the Executive Committee.


title: John Tory

text: From 1981 to 1985, Tory served in the office of the premier of Ontario, Bill Davis, as principal secretary to the premier and associate secretary of the cabinet. After Davis retired as premier in 1985, Tory joined the office of the Canadian Special Envoy on Acid Rain, as special advisor. The special envoy had been appointed by the Mulroney government to review matters of air quality with a United States counterpart. Tory supported Dianne Cunningham's bid to lead the Ontario PCs in 1990.


title: John Tory

text: Tory later served as tour director and campaign chairman to then Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, and managed the 1993 federal election campaign of Mulroney's successor, Kim Campbell. In his role as the Progressive Conservative campaign co-manager that year, he authorized two infamous campaign ads that ridiculed Liberal candidate Jean Chretien's face, which is partially paralyzed due to a childhood disease. The ads were greeted with much outcry among the Canadian public. They were withdrawn ten days after their first airings, and the Progressive Conservatives would proceed to be decimated in the federal election.


title: John Tory

text: From 1995 to 1999, he returned to Rogers Communications, but this time as president and CEO of Rogers Media which had become one of Canada's largest publishing and broadcasting companies. Rogers has interests in radio and television stations, internet, specialty television channels, consumer magazines, trade magazines and, at the time, the "Toronto Sun" and the Sun newspaper chain.


title: John Tory

text: In 1999, he became president and CEO of Rogers subsidiary Rogers Cable, which he led through a period of transition from a monopoly environment to an open marketplace, overseeing a significant increase in operating income. Tory stepped down after Ted Rogers announced that he would stay on as president and CEO of parent company Rogers Communications. He served as the ninth commissioner of the Canadian Football League from 1996 to 2000.


title: John Tory

text: Tory continued to have an interest in being a broadcaster throughout his life and, as a Rogers executive, hosted a public affairs program on Rogers Cable's community access channel for many years. He sat as a board member of Metro Inc., the Quebec-based parent corporation for Metro and Food Basics grocery stores.


title: John Tory

text: After six years as a key backer of retiring Toronto Mayor Mel Lastman, Tory ran in the November 2003 election for mayor of Toronto. He finished in second place, behind councillor David Miller and ahead of former mayor Barbara Hall, former councillor and MP John Nunziata, and former councillor and budget chief Tom Jakobek.


title: John Tory

text: Tory and Miller both entered the race with limited name recognition and support, but each quickly claimed a core base—Miller among progressives and Tory among more conservative voters. Meanwhile, Hall's initially commanding lead slowly dissipated over the course of the campaign, and the campaigns of both Nunziata and Jakobek were sidelined by controversies.


title: John Tory

text: Tory also accepted an endorsement from the Toronto Police Association. He held the traditional suburban conservative vote that had helped to elect Mel Lastman in the 1997 mayor's campaign, but lost the overall vote to Miller in a close race. After the election, Tory helped Miller and Hall raise funds to repay their campaign debts.


title: John Tory

text: In March 2004, Tory hinted that he would be seeking the leadership of the Progressive Conservatives, after Ernie Eves announced his intention to resign from that post. The provincial PC leadership election was announced for September 18, 2004, and Tory made his candidacy official on May 6, 2004. John Laschinger was appointed to be Tory's campaign manager. Tory won the support of former provincial cabinet ministers Elizabeth Witmer, David Tsubouchi, Jim Wilson, Janet Ecker, Chris Hodgson, Cam Jackson, Phil Gillies and Bob Runciman as well as backbench members of Provincial Parliament (MPPs) Norm Miller, Laurie Scott, Ted Arnott and John O'Toole.


title: John Tory

text: Tory's opponents for the leadership post were former provincial minister of finance Jim Flaherty and Oak Ridges MPP Frank Klees. Tory defeated Flaherty 54% to 46% on the second ballot. When Flaherty later left provincial politics to seek a seat in the House of Commons as a member of the Conservative Party of Canada, Tory endorsed his former rival in the 2006 election; Flaherty was elected and was appointed the federal minister of finance. Tory also campaigned prominently with Flaherty's wife Christine Elliott in the provincial by-election held March 30, enabling her to win the seat formerly held by her husband.


title: John Tory

text: Tory told the media in November 2004 that he would seek election to the legislature in time for the spring 2005 legislative session.


title: John Tory

text: On January 31, 2005, after much public speculation and some delay, Ernie Eves resigned his seat and cleared the way for Tory to run in Dufferin—Peel—Wellington—Grey, the safest PC seat in the province. As a "parachute candidate", Tory faced some criticism about his commitment to the riding. Nevertheless, he easily won the March 17, 2005 by-election with 56% of the vote. Former premier Bill Davis appeared for Tory's first session in the legislature as PC leader.


title: John Tory

text: In the 2007 general election, Tory ran in the Toronto riding of Don Valley West, the area where he grew up, raised his family and lived most of his life.


title: John Tory

text: Tory released his platform on June 9, 2007. The platform, "A Plan for a Better Ontario", commits a PC government to eliminate the health care tax introduced by the previous government, put scrubbers on coal-fired power plants, address Ontario's doctor shortage, allow new private health care partnerships provided services are paid by the Ontario Health Insurance Plan (OHIP), impose more penalties on illegal land occupations in response to the Caledonia land dispute, fast-track the building of nuclear power plants, and invest the gas tax in public transit and roads. A costing of the platform released in August estimated that the PC promises would cost an additional $14 billion over four years.


title: John Tory

text: The PC campaign was formally launched on September 3. Most of the campaign was dominated by discussion of his plan to extend public funding to Ontario's faith-based separate schools, during which Tory supported allowing the teaching of creationism in religious studies classes. Earlier in the year, indications were that the party would have been a strong contender to win the election, but the school funding promise resulted in the Liberals regaining the lead in popular support for the duration of the campaign. Later in the campaign, in the face of heavy opposition, Tory promised a free vote on the issue.


title: John Tory

text: With the beginning of the official campaign period on September 10, the PC campaign made clear its intention to make the previous government's record a key issue. In particular, Tory focused on the Liberals' 2003 election and 2004 pre-budget promise not to raise taxes and their subsequent imposition of a health care tax.


title: John Tory

text: On election night, the PCs made minor gains and remained the Official Opposition while Dalton McGuinty's Liberals were re-elected with a majority. Tory was defeated in Don Valley West by the incumbent Ontario Liberal MPP, Minister of Education Kathleen Wynne. Although Tory was defeated in both his riding of Don Valley West and the race for the premiership, he said that he would stay on as leader unless the party wanted him to resign.


title: John Tory

text: As a result of the election loss, the party decided to hold a leadership review vote at its 2008 general party meeting in London. Tory received 66.9 percent support, lower than internal tracking which showed him in the more comfortable 70 percent range. Three hours after the leadership review vote, Tory announced to the delegates that he would be staying on as leader. He came under heavy criticism from several party members following this delay, with his opponents signalling that they would continue to call for an end to what they called his 'weak' leadership. Other party members supported Tory, saying that his opponents should accept the results and move on.


title: John Tory

text: Throughout 2008, Tory's leadership of the party was perceived to be tenuous, as he faced widespread criticism for his seeming failure to convince a sitting MPP to resign in order to open a seat for him. Most notably, Bill Murdoch called for Tory to resign as party leader in September, resulting in his suspension from the party caucus on September 12. Six days later, Murdoch was permanently expelled from the party caucus. In December 2008, media pundits speculated that Prime Minister Stephen Harper would appoint PC MPP Bob Runciman to the Senate in order to clear the way for Tory to run in Runciman's comfortably safe riding of Leeds—Grenville. However, Harper did not do so.


title: John Tory

text: On January 9, 2009, PC MPP Laurie Scott announced her resignation from the legislature, allowing Tory to run in the resulting by-election in Haliburton—Kawartha Lakes—Brock, a normally safe PC riding in central Ontario. In exchange for agreeing to resign, Scott was given the post of chair of the party's election preparedness committee until the 2011 election, and $100,000 in severance pay. On March 5, 2009, he lost the by-election to Liberal candidate Rick Johnson. Tory announced his resignation from the party leadership the next day and was succeeded by Bob Runciman as interim leader; Runciman had served twice as leader of the opposition during the two times Tory did not have a seat in the legislature. Niagara West—Glanbrook MPP Tim Hudak won the 2009 Ontario Progressive Conservative leadership election to become party leader and opposition leader.


title: John Tory

text: Several weeks following the end of his provincial political career, Tory announced he was returning to broadcasting, to host a Sunday evening phone-in show on Toronto talk radio station CFRB. "The John Tory Show" simulcast on CHAM in Hamilton and CKTB in St. Catharines. He was also looking for opportunities in business, law or the non-profit sector.


title: John Tory

text: In the fall of 2009, CFRB moved Tory to its Monday to Friday afternoon slot, for a new show, "Live Drive", airing from 4pm to 7pm. The show first broadcast on October 5, 2009. Tory's last broadcast was February 21, 2014, after which he declared his candidacy for mayor.


title: John Tory

text: Tory was considering challenging incumbent Toronto Mayor David Miller in the 2010 municipal election as was Ontario Deputy Premier George Smitherman. On September 25, 2009, Miller announced he was not running for re-election. Tory announced on January 7 that he was not running in order to continue his radio show and also become head of the Toronto City Summit Alliance. On August 5, 2010, after a week of press speculation that he was about to re-enter the race, Tory confirmed that he would not be running in 2010 for mayor of Toronto.


title: John Tory

text: Tory registered as a candidate for the 2014 Toronto mayoral election on February 24, 2014. In his launch video he stated that building a Yonge Street relief line was "job one" if elected mayor. On May 27, he announced his Toronto relief plan, entitled SmartTrack, providing electric commuter rail along existing GO train infrastructure with service from Unionville to Pearson Airport. SmartTrack construction has still not begun as well as having seen several changes. On October 27, 2014, Tory was elected as mayor of Toronto.


title: John Tory

text: Soon after the 2014 election, the Toronto Police Services Board – with new member Tory – quashed rules governing the use of the Community Contacts Policy ("carding"), a controversial practice allowing police to randomly and routinely stop and demand identification and personal information from any individual deemed suspicious. The information collected is kept on record for an unspecified period and is easily accessible by police officers. Opponents allege it disproportionately targets black people.


title: John Tory

text: The previous rules, brought in by former police chief Bill Blair, had required police to inform stopped individuals of their rights and to keep a record of each stop. Blair had also suspended the practice pending new rules. Despite public demand from a wide range of prominent Torontonians to completely end carding, Tory continued for a brief period to defend the policy in general, stating it needed to be reformed but not stopped.


title: John Tory

text: On June 7, 2015, Tory called for an end to the policy, stating it had "eroded the public trust" and that the issue was among "the most personally agonizing" during his tenure as mayor.


title: John Tory

text: Tory supports renovating the Gardiner Expressway east of Jarvis Street. The head of Civic Action and has also called for spending 1 billion dollars to renovate the structure. Other politicians, including former mayor David Crombie and former chief city planner and 2018 Toronto mayoral candidate Jennifer Keesmaat oppose the renovation of the Gardiner Expressway, and prefer to tear it down instead. On this issue, three members of his executive committee oppose him.


title: John Tory

text: Tory supports a one-stop extension of Toronto subway Line 2 to serve a proposed transit hub at the Scarborough Town Centre as opposed to the three-stop Scarborough previously approved and fully funded under Ford. The LRT alternative failed in council in 2016. The Scarborough Subway Extension has completed the planning stage and as of 2016 was in the detailed design stage, with an estimated operation date of 2023.


title: John Tory

text: In August 2016, Tory proposed the development of a 21-acre greenspace in the downtown core constructed above the Railway Lands. The proposed park, for which no funds have been allocated, would span between the Rogers Centre and Bathurst Street.


title: John Tory

text: Tory retained a high approval rating at 58%, with only 24% disapproving, and 18% undecided. He was a front runner in the polls for the mayoral election at 65–70% support.


title: John Tory

text: Tory was re-elected mayor of Toronto on October 22, 2018, defeating former chief city planner Jennifer Keesmaat with 63.49% of the vote.


title: John Tory

text: Tory has promised to keep property tax increases at or below the rate of inflation. He had previously made the same promise during the last municipal election and kept it as mayor.


title: John Tory

text: On March 23, 2020, a state of emergency was declared in Toronto by Tory, amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Toronto. This came six days after Ontario Premier Doug Ford declared a state of emergency in the province, which included prohibition of all public events of over 50 people (later reduced to 5 people on March 28), closure of bars and restaurants (with the exception that restaurants may continue to provide takeout and delivery services) as well as libraries, theatres, cinemas, schools and daycares. On March 31, Tory announced that the City of Toronto would cancel all city-led major events, festivals, conferences, permits and cultural programs until June 30.


title: John Tory

text: Beginning after Canada Day, street parking enforcement as well as fare evasion enforcement returned to Toronto and the Toronto Transit Commission respectively. From July 2, 2020 face masks or coverings were been required to be worn on the TTC. After July 7, masks were required in enclosed, public places.


title: John Tory

text: On June 25, 2020, Tory tabled a motion to "detask" the Toronto Police Service in response to calls for police reform sparked by the police murder of George Floyd and a series of similar incidents in Toronto and elsewhere in Canada such as the death of Regis Korchinski-Paquet. Under the proposal, duties currently assigned to sworn officers would be assumed by "alternative models of community safety response" to incidents where neither violence nor weapons are at issue, such as some calls regarding persons suffering mental health crises, with the specific redirected duties and alternative models to be developed based on a report that the motion would commission. The proposal would "commit that its first funding priority for future budgets [be] centered ["sic"] on a robust system of social supports and services" and make an itemized line-by-line breakdown of the police budget public; a reduction in the police budget would likely ensue, according to the motion.


title: John Tory

text: Tory has been married to Barbara Hackett, a home builder and renovator, since 1978. They met in 1976 at York University, where they both studied law and Hackett also studied business. Hackett was diagnosed with Guillain–Barré syndrome in 1991. They have four children. Tory is a member of the United Church of Canada.


title: John Tory

text: In 2012, Tory was made a member of the Order of Ontario in recognition for being "a consummate champion for the Greater Toronto Region as a founding member and chair of CivicAction and chairs and volunteers on countless fundraising campaigns". Tory is also a recipient of the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal, and holds a commission as King's Counsel. In 2011 Tory was awarded a Harry Jerome Award for his work as co-chair of DiverseCity.


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: In Greek mythology, Endymion (; , "gen".: Ἐνδυμίωνος) was variously a handsome Aeolian shepherd, hunter, or king who was said to rule and live at Olympia in Elis. He was also venerated and said to reside on Mount Latmus in Caria, on the west coast of Asia Minor.


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: There is confusion over Endymion's correct identity, as some sources suppose that he was, or was related to, the prince of Elis, and others suggest he was a shepherd from Caria. There is a later suggestion that he was an astronomer: Pliny the Elder mentions Endymion as the first human to observe the movements of the moon, which (according to Pliny) accounts for Endymion's love. Consequently, there have been two attributed sites of Endymion's burial: the citizens of Heracleia ad Latmo claimed that Endymion's tomb was on Mount Latmus, while the Eleans declared that it was at Olympia.


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: However, the role of lover of Selene, the moon, is attributed primarily to Endymion who was either a shepherd or an astronomer, either profession providing justification for him to spend time beneath the moon.


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: Apollonius of Rhodes (3rd century BC) is one of the many poets who tell how Selene, the Titan goddess of the moon, loved the mortal Endymion. She believed him to be so beautiful that she asked Endymion's father, Zeus, to grant him eternal youth so that he would never leave her. Alternatively, Selene so loved how Endymion looked when he was asleep in the cave on Mount Latmus, near Miletus in Caria, that she entreated Zeus that he might remain that way. In some versions, Zeus wanted to punish Endymion for daring to show romantic interest in Hera (much like Ixion). Whatever the case, Zeus granted Selene's wish and put Endymion into an eternal sleep. Every night, Selene visited him where he slept, and by him had fifty daughters who are equated by some scholars with the fifty months of the Olympiad.


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: According to a passage in the "Deipnosophistae", the sophist and dithyrambic poet Licymnius of Chios (probably 4th century BCE) told a different tale, in which Hypnos, the god of sleep, loves Endymion and does not close the eyes of his beloved even while he is asleep, but lulls him to rest with eyes wide open so that he may without interruption enjoy the pleasure of gazing at them.


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: Calyce and Aethlius had a son Endymion who led Aeolians from Thessaly and founded Elis. But some say that he was a son of Zeus. As he was of unsurpassed beauty, the Moon fell in love with him, and Zeus allowed him to choose what he would, and he chose to sleep for ever, remaining deathless and ageless. Endymion had by a Naiad nymph or, as some say, by Iphianassa, a son Aetolus, who slew Apis, son of Phoroneus, and fled to the Curetian country. There he killed his hosts, Dorus and Laodocus and Polypoetes, the sons of Phthia and Apollo, and called the country Aetolia after himself."


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: In a similar vein, a scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius wrote that, according to Hesiod, Zeus allowed Endymion to be the keeper of his own death and to decide on his own when he would die.


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: According to Pausanias, Endymion deposed Clymenus, son of Cardys, at Olympia. Describing the "early history" of the Eleans, Pausanias reports that:


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: Propertius (Book 2, el. 15), Cicero's "Tusculanae Quaestiones" (Book 1), and Theocritus discuss the Endymion myth to some length, but reiterate the above to varying degrees. The myth surrounding Endymion has been expanded and reworked during the modern period by figures like Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and John Keats (in his 1818 narrative poem "Endymion").


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: The satirical author Lucian of Samosata records an otherwise unattested myth where a fair nymph named Myia becomes Selene's rival for Endymion's affections; the chatty nymph would endlessly talk to him when he slept, waking him up. This annoyed Endymion, and enraged Selene, who transformed the girl into a fly. In memory of Endymion, the fly still grudges all sleepers their rest.


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: No explicit narrative has survived. In "Argonautica" (iv.57ff) the "daughter of Titan," the Moon, was witness to Medea's fearful night-time flight to Jason, and "rejoiced with malicious pleasure as she reflected to herself: 'I'm not the only one then to skulk off to the Latmian cave, nor is it only I that burn with desire for fair Endymion'" she muses. "But now you yourself it would seem, are a victim of a madness like mine." Lemprière's "Classical Dictionary" reinforces Pliny's account of Endymion's attachment to astronomy and cites it as the source of why Endymion was said to have a relationship with the moon as she passed by.


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: The mytheme of Endymion being not dead but endlessly asleep, which was proverbial (the proverb—"Endymionis somnum dormire", "to sleep the sleep of Endymion") ensured that scenes of Endymion and Selene were popular subjects for sculpted sarcophagi in Late Antiquity, when after-death existence began to be a heightened concern. The Louvre example, discovered at Saint-Médard-d'Eyrans, France ("illustration above"), is one of this class.


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: Some believe that he was the personification of sleep, or the sunset (most likely the last one as his name, if it were Greek rather than Carian can be construed from "to dive in" [Greek en (ἐν) in, and duein (δύειν) dive], which would imply a representation of that sort. Latin writers explained the name from "somnum ei inductum", the "sleep put upon him".


title: Endymion (mythology)

text: The myth of Endymion was never easily transferred to ever-chaste Artemis, the Olympian associated with the Moon. In the Renaissance, the revived moon goddess Diana had the Endymion myth attached to her.


title: Leaf spring

text: A leaf spring is a simple form of spring commonly used for the suspension in wheeled vehicles. Originally called a "laminated" or "carriage spring", and sometimes referred to as a semi-elliptical spring, elliptical spring, or cart spring, it is one of the oldest forms of vehicle suspension. A leaf spring is one or more narrow, arc-shaped, thin plates which are attached to the axle and chassis in a way that allows the leaf spring to flex vertically in response to irregularities in the road surface. Lateral leaf springs are the most commonly used arrangement, running the length of the vehicle and mounted perpendicular to the wheel axle, but numerous examples of transverse leaf springs exist as well.


title: Leaf spring

text: Leaf springs can serve multiple suspension functions: location, springing, and to some extent damping as well, through interleaf friction. However, this friction is not well controlled, resulting in stiction and irregular suspension motions. For this reason, some manufacturers have used mono-leaf springs.


title: Leaf spring

text: A leaf spring takes the form of a slender arc-shaped length of spring steel of rectangular cross-section. In the most common configuration, the center of the arc provides location for the axle, while loops formed at either end provide for attaching to the vehicle chassis. For very heavy vehicles, a leaf spring can be made from several leaves stacked on top of each other in several layers, often with progressively shorter leaves. The longest leaf is also known as the main, master, or No. 1 leaf, with leaves numbered in descending order of length. The eyes at the end of the leaf spring are formed into the master leaf. In general, aside from the main leaf, the other leaves are tapered at each end. Sometimes auxiliary or rebound leaves are part of the main spring pack, in which case the auxiliary leaf closest to the main leaf is No. 1, the next closest is No. 2, etc. The leaves are attached to each other through the center bolt, which is at or near the mid-point along the length of the leaf spring. To ensure that leaves remain aligned laterally, several methods can be used, including notches and grooves between leaves or external clips.


title: Leaf spring

text: Spring steels were discovered to be most efficient at approximately 1% carbon content. Individual leaf thickness is specified by the Stubbs or Birmingham gauge, with typical thicknesses ranging between (6 to 3/8 or 00 gauge). The material and dimensions should be selected such that each leaf is capable of being hardened to have a fully martensitic structure throughout the entire section. Suitable spring steel alloys include 55Si7, 60Si7, 65Si7, 50Cr4V2, and 60Cr4V2.


title: Leaf spring

text: The two ends of a leaf spring usually are formed into round eyes or eyelets, through which a fastener connects each end of the spring to the vehicle frame or body. Some springs terminated in a concave end, called a "spoon end" (seldom used now), to carry a swiveling member instead. One eye is usually fixed translationally but allowed to pivot with the motion of the spring, whereas the other eye is fastened to a hinge mechanism that allows that end to pivot as well as undergo limited translational movement. A leaf spring can either be attached directly to the frame at both eyes or attached directly at one end, usually the front, with the other end attached through a shackle, a short swinging arm. The shackle takes up the tendency of the leaf spring to elongate when compressed and thus makes the suspension softer. The shackle provides some degree of flexibility to the leaf spring so that it does not fail when subjected to heavy loads. The axle is usually fastened to the middle of the spring by U-bolts.


title: Leaf spring

text: The leaf spring acts as a linkage to hold the axle in position and thus separate linkages are not necessary. The result is a suspension that is simple and strong. Inter-leaf friction dampens the spring's motion and reduces rebound, which, until shock absorbers were widely adopted, was a very significant advantage over helical springs. However, because the leaf spring is also serving to hold the axle in position, soft springs—i.e. springs with low spring constant—are not suitable. The consequent stiffness, in addition to inter-leaf friction, makes this type of suspension not particularly comfortable for the riders.


title: Leaf spring

text: There are a variety of leaf springs, usually employing the word "elliptical". "Elliptical" or "full elliptical" leaf springs, patented in 1804 by the British inventor Obadiah Elliott, referred to two circular arcs linked at their tips. This was joined to the frame at the top center of the upper arc, the bottom center was joined to the "live" suspension components, such as a solid front axle. Additional suspension components, such as trailing arms, would usually be needed for this design, but not for "semi-elliptical" leaf springs as used in the Hotchkiss drive. That employed the lower arc, hence its name.


title: Leaf spring

text: "Quarter-elliptic" springs often had the thickest part of the stack of leaves stuck into the rear end of the side pieces of a short ladder frame, with the free end attached to the differential, as in the Austin Seven of the 1920s. As an example of non-elliptic leaf springs, the Ford Model T had multiple leaf springs over its differential that were curved in the shape of a yoke. As a substitute for dampers (shock absorbers), some manufacturers laid non-metallic sheets in between the metal leaves, such as wood.


title: Leaf spring

text: Elliot's invention revolutionized carriage design and construction, removing the need for a heavy perch and making transportation over rough roadways faster, easier, and less expensive.


title: Leaf spring

text: A more modern implementation is the parabolic leaf spring. This design is characterized by fewer leaves whose thickness varies from centre to ends following a parabolic curve. The intention of this design is to reduce inter-leaf friction, and therefore there is only contact between the leaves at the ends and at the centre, where the axle is connected. Spacers prevent contact at other points. Aside from weight-saving, the main advantage of parabolic springs is their greater flexibility, which translates into improved ride quality, which approaches that of coil springs; the trade-off is reduced load carrying capability. They are widely used on buses for improved comfort.


title: Leaf spring

text: A further development by the British GKN company and by Chevrolet, with the Corvette, among others, is the move to composite plastic leaf springs. Nevertheless, due to the lack of inter-leaf friction and other internal dampening effects, this type of spring requires more powerful dampers/shock absorbers.


title: Leaf spring

text: Typically when used in automobile suspension the leaf both supports an axle and locates/partially locates the axle. This can lead to handling issues (such as "axle tramp"), as the flexible nature of the spring makes precise control of the unsprung mass of the axle difficult. Some suspension designs use a Watts link (or a Panhard rod) and radius arms to locate the axle and do not have this drawback. Such designs can use softer springs, resulting in a better ride. Examples include the various rear suspensions of Austin-Healey 3000s and Fiat 128s.


title: Leaf spring

text: The earliest known leaf springs began appearing on carriages in France in the mid-17th century in the form of the two-part elbow spring (as the illustrated example from Lisbon), and later migrated to England and Germany, appearing on the carriages of the wealthy in those countries around 1750. Dr. Richard Lovell Edgeworth was awarded three gold medals by the Society of English Arts and Manufacturers in 1768 for demonstrating the superiority of sprung carriages. By 1796, William Felton's "A Treatise on Carriages and Harness" showed that leaf springs were being marketed regularly by the late 18th century carriage industry.


title: Leaf spring

text: Obadiah Elliot is credited with inventing the modern leaf spring with his 1804 patent on elliptical leaf springs, which brought him significant recognition and revenue, and engineers began studying leaf springs to develop improved designs and manufacturing processes. The mechanics and deflection of leaf springs were developed by Clark (1855), Franz Reuleaux (1861), and G.R. Henderson (1894). Improved steel rolling processes, process instruments, and spring steel alloys were developed during the latter half of the 19th century as well, making the manufacture of leaf springs more consistent and less expensive.


title: Leaf spring

text: Leaf springs were very common on automobiles until the 1970s when automobile manufacturers shifted primarily to front-wheel drive, and more sophisticated suspension designs were developed using coil springs instead. Today leaf springs are still used in heavy commercial vehicles such as vans and trucks, SUVs, and railway carriages. For heavy vehicles, they have the advantage of spreading the load more widely over the vehicle's chassis, whereas coil springs transfer it to a single point. Unlike coil springs, leaf springs also locate the rear axle, eliminating the need for trailing arms and a Panhard rod, thereby saving cost and weight in a simple live axle rear suspension. A further advantage of a leaf spring over a helical spring is that the end of the leaf spring may be guided along a definite path. In many late 1990s and early 2000s trucks, the leaf spring is connected to a Hinkle Beam ball joint.


title: Leaf spring

text: The leaf spring also has seen modern applications in cars. For example, the 1963 Chevrolet Corvette Sting Ray uses a transverse leaf spring for its independent rear suspension. Similarly, 2016 Volvo XC90 has a transverse leaf spring using composite materials for its rear suspension, similar in concept to the front suspension of the 1983 Corvette. This arrangement uses a straight leaf spring that is tightly secured to the chassis at the center; the ends of the spring are bolted to the wheel suspension, allowing the spring to work independently on each wheel. This suspension is smaller, flatter and lighter than a traditional setup.


title: Leaf spring

text: Because leaf springs are made of relatively high quality steel, they are a favorite material for blacksmiths. In countries such as India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Philippines, Myanmar and Pakistan, where traditional blacksmiths still produce a large amount of the country's tools, leaf springs from scrapped cars are frequently used to make knives, kukris, and other tools. They are also commonly used by amateur and hobbyist blacksmiths.


title: Leaf spring

text: Leaf springs have also replaced traditional coil springs in some trampolines (known as soft-edge trampolines), which improves safety for users and reduces risk of concussion. The leaf springs are spaced around the frame as 'legs' that branch from the base frame to suspend the jumping mat, providing flexibility and resilience.


title: Carrier battle group

text: A carrier battle group (CVBG) is a naval fleet consisting of an aircraft carrier capital ship and its large number of escorts, together defining the group. The "CV" in "CVBG" is the United States Navy hull classification code for an aircraft carrier.


title: Carrier battle group

text: The first naval task forces built around carriers appeared just prior to and during World War II. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was the first to assemble many carriers into a single task force, known as "Kido Butai". This task force was used with devastating effect in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Kido Butai operated as the IJN's main carrier battle group until four of its carriers were sunk at the Battle of Midway. In contrast, the United States Navy deployed its large carriers in separate formations, with each carrier assigned its own cruiser and destroyer escorts. These single-carrier formations would often be paired or grouped together for certain assignments, most notably the Battle of the Coral Sea and Midway. By 1943, however, large numbers of fleet and light carriers became available, which required larger formations of three or four carriers. These groups eventually formed the Fast Carrier Task Force, which became the primary battle unit of the U.S. Third and Fifth Fleets.


title: Carrier battle group

text: With the construction of the large "supercarriers" of the Cold War era, the practice of operating each carrier in a single formation was revived. During the Cold War, the main role of the CVBG in case of conflict with the Soviet Union would have been to protect Atlantic supply routes between the United States and its NATO allies in Europe, while the role of the Soviet Navy would have been to interrupt these sea lanes, a fundamentally easier task. Because the Soviet Union had no large carriers of its own, a situation of dueling aircraft carriers would have been unlikely. However, a primary mission of the Soviet Navy's attack submarines was to track every allied battle group and, on the outbreak of hostilities, sink the carriers. Understanding this threat, the CVBG expended enormous resources in its own anti-submarine warfare mission.


title: Carrier battle group

text: In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, most uses of carrier battle groups by the United States as well as that of other Western nations have been in situations where their use has been uncontested by other comparable forces. During the Cold War, an important battle scenario was an attack against a CVBG using numerous antiship missiles.


title: Carrier battle group

text: During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, India used its carrier strike group centered on to impose a naval blockade upon East Pakistan. Air strikes were carried out initially on shipping in the Chittagong and Cox's Bazar harbors, sinking or incapacitating most ships there. Further strikes were carried out on Cox's Bazar from 60 nautical miles (110 km) offshore. On the evening of 4 December, the air group struck Chittagong Harbour. Later strikes targeted Khulna and the Port of Mongla. Air strikes continued until 10 December 1971.


title: Carrier battle group

text: The first attempted use of anti-ship missiles against a carrier battle group was part of Argentina's efforts against British Armed Forces during the Falklands War. This was the last conflict so far in which opposing belligerents employed aircraft carriers, although Argentina made little use of its sole carrier, originally built in the United Kingdom as HMS "Venerable" and later served with the Netherlands (1948–1968).


title: Carrier battle group

text: The United States Sixth Fleet assembled a force of three carrier battle groups and a battleship during the Lebanese Civil War in 1983. Daily reconnaissance flights were flown over the Bekaa Valley and a strike was flown against targets in the area resulting in loss of an A-6 Intruder and an A-7 Corsair.


title: Carrier battle group

text: Carrier battle groups routinely operated in the Gulf of Sidra inside the "Line of Death" proclaimed by Libya resulting in aerial engagements in 1981, 1986 and 1989 between U.S. Navy Tomcats and Libyan Su-22 aircraft, SA-5 surface-to-air missiles and MiG-23 fighters. During the 1986 clashes, three carrier battle groups deployed to the Gulf of Sidra and ultimately two of them conducted strikes against Libya in Operation El Dorado Canyon.


title: Carrier battle group

text: During the international military intervention in the 2011 Libyan civil war, the French Navy deployed its aircraft carrier, , off Libya. The "Charles de Gaulle" was accompanied by several frigates as , , , the replenishment tanker "Meuse" and two nuclear attack submarines.


title: Carrier battle group

text: China plans to set up several carrier battle groups in the future. At present China's two aircraft carriers, the "Liaoning" and "Shandong", use Type 055 destroyers for area air defence with anti-submarine warfare, Type 052C or Type 052D destroyers for air defense, Type 054A frigates for anti-submarine and anti-ship warfare, 1–2 Type 093 nuclear attack submarines, and 1 Type 901 supply ship. China is currently building a third carrier, expected to be launched in 2020 and enter active service in 2023, as well as a nuclear-powered fourth carrier planned for construction and expected to be completed by the late 2020s. China is also building a new larger class of air defense destroyers, the Type 055.


title: Carrier battle group

text: The only serving French carrier is the , which also serves as the flagship of the Marine Nationale. The carrier battle group of the Force d'Action Navale is known as the "Groupe Aéronaval" (GAN) and is usually composed, in addition to the aircraft carrier, of:


title: Carrier battle group

text: This group is commanded by a rear admiral (contre-amiral, in French) on board the aircraft carrier. The commanding officer of the air group (usually a —equivalent to commander) is subordinate to the commanding officer of the aircraft carrier, a senior captain. The escort destroyers (called frigates in the French denomination) are commanded by more junior captains.


title: Carrier battle group

text: France also operates three s. While incapable of operating fixed-winged aircraft, they function as helicopter carriers and form the backbone of France's amphibious force. These ships are typically escorted by the same escorts the "Charles De Gaulle" uses.


title: Carrier battle group

text: The Indian Navy has been operating carrier battle groups since 1961, with its first carrier battle group formed around the now decommissioned . As of 2017, the Indian Navy operates one carrier battle group centered on . INS "Viraat" was an updated "Centaur"-class light carrier originally built for the Royal Navy as , which was laid down in 1944 and commissioned in 1959. It was purchased by India in May 1987, and was decommissioned in March 2017. India commissioned in 2013 and will follow this with a second carrier, the new INS "Vikrant" in 2022. INS "Vikramaditya" is the modified , INS "Vikrant" will be the first indigenous Indian aircraft carrier. India plans to have three carrier battle groups by 2035, each centered on "Vikrant", "Vikramaditya" and "Vishal", another planned carrier.


title: Carrier battle group

text: The Indian Navy's carrier battle group centered on "Viraat" consisted of two destroyers, usually of the (previously s were used), two or more frigates, usually of the , Godavari or Nilgiri classes, and one support ship.


title: Carrier battle group

text: The navy's new carrier battle group centered on "Vikramaditya" consists of the modern "Kolkata" class destroyers, "Shivalik" and "Talwar"-class frigates, "Kamorta"-class anti-submarine warfare corvettes and new tankers. INS "Chakra" is expected to fill the sub-surface component.


title: Carrier battle group

text: The CVS–ASW (Aircraft Carrier with Anti-Submarine Warfare) is Italy's first carrier. The battle group based in Taranto called COMFORAL is formed by the carrier "Giuseppe Garibaldi", two s, two support ships "Etna" and "Elettra", and three amphibious/support ships ("San Giusto", "San Marco" and "San Giorgio").


title: Carrier battle group

text: After 2010, the Italian battle group will be formed by the new , 5–6 new warships (including destroyers "Horizon" and frigates FREMM), one new support ship, some minehunters and new submarines (the COMFORAL will be a reserve group).


title: Carrier battle group

text: "Admiral Kuznetsov" has been observed sailing together with a (CBGN), (CG), (ASuW), (ASW) and "Krivak" I/II FFG (ASW). These escorts, especially the heavily armed "Kirov"-class battlecruiser, use advanced sensors and carry a variety of weaponry. During "Admiral Kuznetsov"s deployment to Syria in November 2016 on her first combat tour, the carrier was escorted by a pair of Udaloy-class destroyers and a Kirov-class battlecruiser en route, while additional Russian Navy warships met her off Syria.


title: Carrier battle group

text: "Admiral Kuznetsov" is designed specifically to sail alone and carries greater firepower than her U.S. counterparts. This includes 12x SS-N-19 'Shipwreck' (long range, high speed, sea-skimming) SSMs, 24x VLS units loaded with 192 SA-N-9 'Gauntlet' SAMs, and 8x Kashtan CIWS with dual 30 mm guns, and 8x AK-630 CIWS. Compared to the 4x Phalanx CIWS and 4x Sea Sparrow launchers, each with 8 missiles carried by the "Nimitz"-class, "Admiral Kuznetsov" is well armed for both air-defence and offensive operations against hostile shipping.


title: Carrier battle group

text: As one of the pioneers of aircraft carriers, the Royal Navy has maintained a carrier strike capability since the commissioning of in 1918. However, the capability was temporarily lost between 2010 and 2018, following the retirement of the and Harrier GR7s. During this period, the Royal Navy worked to regenerate its carrier strike capability based on the Carrier-Enabled Power Projection (CEPP) concept by ordering two "Queen Elizabeth"-class aircraft carriers and the F-35B Lightning to operate from them. To maintain its skills and experience, the Royal Navy embedded personnel and ships with partner navies, in particular the United States Navy.


title: Carrier battle group

text: In 2017, the first "Queen Elizabeth"-class aircraft carrier entered service followed by her sister ship in 2019. The first carrier strike group took to sea in September 2019 as part of an exercise known as "Westlant 19". HMS "Queen Elizabeth" and her air group of F-35B Lightning jets operated alongside two surface escorts and a fleet tanker off the east coast of the United States. The deployment was in preparation for the first operational deployment in 2021, which is expected to involve HMS "Queen Elizabeth" alongside four Royal Navy escorts, two support ships and a submarine.


title: Carrier battle group

text: Under current plans, a Royal Navy carrier strike group will typically comprise a "Queen Elizabeth"-class aircraft carrier, two air defence destroyers, two anti-submarine frigates, a submarine, solid stores ship and a fleet tanker, however the composition varies depending on the operational tasking. While "Queen Elizabeth"'s initial deployment will be as part of an all-British carrier group, it is envisaged in the longer term that the UK's carriers will usually form the centre of a multi-national operation – in 2018, it was announced that the British and Dutch governments had come to an agreement that would see escort vessels of the Royal Netherlands Navy operating as part of the UK Carrier Strike Group. Command of the UK carrier strike group is the responsibility of Commander United Kingdom Carrier Strike Group. A June 2020 National Audit Office report however provided a critical review of the forthcoming Carrier Strike Group, especially noting the delay to the Crowsnest system.


title: Carrier battle group

text: In modern United States Navy carrier air operations, a carrier strike group (CSG) normally consists of 1 aircraft carrier, 1 guided missile cruiser (for air defense), 2 LAMPS-capable warships (focusing on anti-submarine and surface warfare), and 1–2 anti-submarine destroyers or frigates. The large number of CSGs used by the United States reflects, in part, a division of roles and missions allotted during the Cold War, in which the United States assumed primary responsibility for blue-water operations and for safeguarding supply lines between the United States and Europe, while the NATO allies assumed responsibility for brown- and green-water operations. The CSG has replaced the old term of carrier battle group (CVBG or CARBATGRU). The US Navy maintains 11 carrier strike groups, 9 of which are based in the United States and one that is forward deployed in Yokosuka, Japan.


title: Carrier battle group

text: An expeditionary strike group is composed of an amphibious assault ship (LHA/LHD), a dock landing ship (LSD), an amphibious transport dock (LPD), a Marine expeditionary unit, AV-8B Harrier II or, more recently Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II aircraft, CH-53E Super Stallion and CH-46E Sea Knight helicopters or, more recently, MV-22B tiltrotors. Cruisers, destroyers and attack submarines are deployed with either an Expeditionary Strike Group or a Carrier Strike Group.


title: Carrier battle group

text: During the period when the American navy recommissioned all four of its s, it sometimes used a similar formation centered on a battleship, referred to as a battleship battle group (BBBG). It was alternately referred to as a surface action group (SAG).


title: Carrier battle group

text: The battleship battle group typically consisted of one modernized battleship, one , one or , one , three s and one auxiliary ship such as a replenishment oiler.


title: Carrier battle group

text: A surface action group (SAG) is "a temporary or standing organization of combatant ships, other than carriers, tailored for a specific tactical mission".