title: Morecambe F.C.

text: Since elevation to the Conference in season 1995–96, the Shrimps achieved status as one of the leading teams in the league. In fact, only Woking had a longer unbroken membership of the league at this time. Runners-up spot was claimed on one occasion and the play-offs places were narrowly missed twice. Also during this time, the club also equalled its best appearance in the FA Cup in both 2000–01 and 2002–03. On both occasions the club faced Ipswich Town, losing 3–0 and 4–0 respectively. Morecambe also defeated a few league clubs in the FA Cup, including Cambridge United in 2000–01 and Chesterfield in 2002–03.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: In the 2005–06 season, Morecambe reached the play-offs, but were beaten 4–3 on aggregate by Hereford United, after a 1–1 draw in the first leg at Christie Park.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: In November 2005, Jim Harvey suffered a heart attack during a league game at Christie Park against Cambridge United. The club quickly declared the appointment of a caretaker manager, Sammy McIlroy, a long-time friend of Harvey. After McIlroy's initial three-month stint as caretaker expired, he was given the job for the remainder of the season with Harvey expected to return on its closure. However, on his first day back as manager of Morecambe, Harvey was sacked by the club and McIlroy was appointed as permanent manager with Mark Lillis as his assistant. This caused a feud between long-time friends Harvey and McIlroy which has not been reconciled to this day.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: In the absence of Harvey, Morecambe reached the Conference play-offs. They lost to Hereford 4–3 on aggregate, but McIlroy was appointed on a permanent basis in May 2006. The following season, Morecambe were promoted to the Football League for the first time in their history after winning the Conference Playoff Final, beating Exeter City 2–1 at Wembley on 20 May 2007, in front of over 40,000 fans which followed their semi-final victory over York City.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: On 17 July 2007, Morecambe announced plans to move to a new stadium in time for the start of the 2009–10 season. Work did not commence on the proposed site until spring 2009, with an anticipated completion date of summer 2010.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: Morecambe played their first game in the Football League against Barnet at Christie Park in August 2007, in which they played out a 0–0 draw to secure their first ever Football League point. On 14 August 2007, Morecambe played their first fixture in the League Cup and recorded a 2–1 win against near neighbours Preston North End at Deepdale with Jim Bentley and David Artell scoring for Morecambe. The Shrimps compounded this result with another upset win over a Championship side, a 3–1 win over Wolverhampton Wanderers on 28 August to advance into the third round of the League Cup, in which they faced a third consecutive Championship side, Sheffield United. However, Morecambe lost 5 goals to 0. They finished their first season in League Two in 11th place with 60 points. They also finished the 2008–09 season in 11th, this time with 63 points.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: 2009–10 was Morecambe's last season at Christie Park. They finished the season in fourth place, qualifying for the playoffs, where they lost 7–2 on aggregate to Dagenham & Redbridge.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: On 10 August 2010, Morecambe played their first match at the Globe Arena against Championship side Coventry City in the League Cup First Round. Morecambe secured a 2–0 win, with Andy Fleming scoring the first two goals at the stadium. This earned Morecambe a Lancashire Derby in the second round against another Championship side, Burnley, where they lost 3–1. On 9 May 2011, Morecambe manager Sammy McIlroy left the club by mutual consent after five years at the helm. McIlroy, who took over as manager from Jim Harvey, had left the club alongside assistant Mark Lillis. Morecambe chairman Peter McGuigan praised the pair for their efforts since taking over, describing McIlroy as the "best manager in his reign at the club."


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: On 13 May 2011, Bentley was appointed manager on a two-year contract, signing a two-year deal as player-manager. His first game as a professional manager was a 1–0 defeat at home to Barnet. The Shrimps then went on a run of four wins in all competitions, including a 2–0 victory over Barnsley in the League Cup. After his first nine games in charge, Morecambe sat top of the league after winning six, drawing two and losing just once. Morecambe's defence at this time was crucial, conceding just five goals in nine games. However, this didn't last, as a poor end to the season led to Morecambe finishing 15th in League Two, still an improvement on the previous season. Jim Bentley's second season began with a 3–0 win over Exeter City. However, inconsistent performances once again resulted in them slipping into mid-table. During the 2016–17 season, Bentley received a two-match touchline ban and was fined £1,000, though Morecambe fans paid the fine.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: Bentley left the club in October 2019 to take the manager's role at AFC Fylde, having spent 16 months as the longest serving manager in the top four tiers of English football. In November 2019, Morecambe appointed Derek Adams as manager, signing him to a two-and-a-half year contract. The remainder of the season, shortened by the COVID-19 pandemic, saw the Shrimps finish 22nd after 37 games played, still enough to avoid relegation.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: The 2020–21 season proved to be a banner year. Among other events, the season saw the club face two Premier League sides in various cup competitions, falling to Newcastle United in the third round of the EFL Cup and to Chelsea in the third round of the FA Cup at Stamford Bridge; the latter equaled their furthest run in the FA Cup since the early 2000s. The club also saw success in the league, qualifying for the League Two play-offs with 78 points, good enough for fourth in the league; they missed out on automatic promotion by a single point. Following a 3–2 aggregate win over Tranmere Rovers in the semi-final, the club confirmed a spot in the League Two play-off Final for the first time in their history, where they faced Newport County. On 31 May 2021, Morecambe beat Newport County 1–0 in the 2021 League Two play-off Final at Wembley Stadium after Carlos Mendes Gomes converted a penalty in the 107th minute, earning the Shrimps promotion to League One, the third tier of English football, for the first time in their history.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: Adams resigned three days later, with the club stating that he had left "to pursue an opportunity elsewhere," which proved to be the managerial job at Bradford City.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: In June 2021, the club announced that former Motherwell manager Stephen Robinson would take over as manager for the club's first season in League One. Their first game in League One was a 2–2 draw at Ipswich Town. Among the season's highlights, the club once again reached the third round of the FA Cup, and again faced a London-based Premier League side, this time Tottenham Hotspur; after scoring the first goal, Morecambe were ultimately undone in the last 15 minutes by goals from Harry Kane, Lucas Moura, and Harry Winks and fell 3–1 at Tottenham Hotspur Stadium.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: However, with 32 games played in the season, Robinson left to take over at Scottish club St Mirren. Goalkeeping coach Barry Roche served a game as caretaker manager before Adams returned as manager on a deal lasting until June 2023. Despite the club flirting with relegation, Adams once again managed to lead them out of the drop zone, with the Shrimps finishing 19th and securing League One status for a second consecutive season.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: In October 2022, Adams voiced worries about the future of the club; its owners, Bond Group Investments, had put the club up for sale in September 2022, with directors Jason Whittingham and Colin Goldring (both associated with the collapse of Worcester Warriors rugby union club) stepping down from the Shrimps' board.


title: Kyle Schmid

text: Kyle Schmid (born August 3, 1984) is a Canadian actor, best known for his roles as Alex Caulder in History's "Six", Henry Durham in Syfy's "Being Human", Robert Morehouse in BBC America's "Copper" and Aaron Abbot in "The Covenant" (2006). Recently, he starred as Moses in the Netflix science fiction miniseries "The I-Land". In 2021, Schmid had a recurring role on ABC's television drama "Big Sky".


title: Kyle Schmid

text: Schmid was born in Mississauga, Ontario. He played on the Erin Mills soccer team, and attended Port Credit Secondary School in Mississauga, Ontario.


title: Kyle Schmid

text: Schmid is perhaps best known for his starring role as 470-year-old vampire Henry Fitzroy on Lifetime's supernatural drama series "Blood Ties", and for his recurring role as Aidan Waite's vampire progeny Henry on the Syfy series "Being Human". He also starred as Robert Morehouse in the BBC America drama series "Copper".


title: Kyle Schmid

text: He has appeared in several films, such as "The Covenant", "A History of Violence", "The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants", "The Pacifier", and "Zerophilia". He is also recognizable for playing the love interest of Raven-Symoné's character, Galleria, in Disney Channel's "The Cheetah Girls".


title: Kyle Schmid

text: In October 2018, it was announced that Schmid was cast in the main role of Moses on the Netflix science fiction miniseries "The I-Land". The miniseries was released on September 12, 2019.


title: Kyle Schmid

text: In January 2021, Schmid was added to the cast of the ABC drama "Big Sky" as recurring character John Wayne Kleinsasser.


title: Advertising agency

text: An advertising agency, often referred to as a creative agency or an ad agency, is a business dedicated to creating, planning, and handling advertising and sometimes other forms of promotion and marketing for its clients. An ad agency is generally independent of the client; it may be an internal department or agency that provides an outside point of view to the effort of selling the client's products or services, or an outside firm. An agency can also handle overall marketing and branding strategies promotions for its clients, which may include sales as well.


title: Advertising agency

text: Typical ad agency clients include businesses and corporations, non-profit organizations and private agencies. Agencies may be hired to produce television advertisements, radio advertisements, online advertising, out-of-home advertising, mobile marketing, and AR advertising, as part of an advertising campaign.


title: Advertising agency

text: The first acknowledged advertising agency was William Taylor in 1786. Another early agency, started by James 'Jem' White in 1800 at Fleet Street, London, eventually evolved into White Bull Holmes, a recruitment advertising agency, that went out of business in the late 1980s. In 1812 George Reynell, an officer at the "London Gazette", set up another of the early advertising agencies, also in London. This remained a family business until 1993, as 'Reynell & Son,' and is now part of the TMP Worldwide agency (UK and Ireland) under the brand "TMP" Reynell. Another early agency that traded until recently, was founded by Charles Barker, and the firm he established traded as 'Barkers' until 2009 when it went into Administration.


title: Advertising agency

text: Volney B. Palmer opened the first American advertising agency, in Philadelphia in 1850. This agency placed ads produced by its clients in various newspapers.


title: Advertising agency

text: In 1856, Mathew Brady created the first modern advertisement when he placed an ad in the New York Herald paper offering to produce "photographs, ambrotypes, and daguerreotypes." His ads were the first whose typeface and fonts were distinct from the text of the publication and from that of other advertisements. At that time all newspaper ads were set in agate and only agate. His use of larger distinctive fonts caused a sensation. Later that same year Robert E. Bonner ran the first full-page ad in a newspaper.


title: Advertising agency

text: In 1864, William James Carlton began selling advertising space in religious magazines. In 1869, Francis Ayer, at the age of 20, created the first full-service advertising agency in Philadelphia, called N.W. Ayer & Son. It was the oldest advertising agency in America and dissolved in 2002.


title: Advertising agency

text: James Walter Thompson joined Carlton's firm in 1868. Thompson rapidly became their best salesman, purchasing the company in 1877 and renaming it the James Walter Thompson Company. Realizing that he could sell more space if the company provided the service of developing content for advertisers, Thompson hired writers and artists to form the first known Creative Department in an advertising agency. He is credited as the "father of modern magazine advertising" in the US. Advertising Age commemorated the first 100 years of the agency in 1964, noting that its "history and expansion overseas seems peculiarly to match the whole history of modern advertising."


title: Advertising agency

text: Globalization of advertising originates in earlier days of the twentieth century. American advertising agencies began as the process of opening overseas offices before the two World Wars and accelerated their globalization throughout the latter part of the twentieth century.


title: Advertising agency

text: McCann, an agency established in New York City in 1902, opened its first European offices by 1927. It was followed up with offices opening in South America in 1935 and in Australia in 1959.


title: Advertising agency

text: Companies such as J. Walter Thompson adopted a strategy to expand in order to provide advertising services wherever clients operated.


title: Advertising agency

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, English agencies began to realize the overseas opportunities associated with globalization. Expanding overseas gives potential to wider markets.


title: Advertising agency

text: In the early 21st century, management consulting firms such as PwC Digital and Deloitte Digital began competing with ad agencies by emphasizing data analytics. , Accenture Interactive was the world's sixth-largest ad agency, behind WPP, Omnicom, Publicis, Interpublic, and Dentsu. In 2019, it purchased David Droga's Droga5 agency, the first major consultant acquisition of an ad agency.


title: Advertising agency

text: Studies show that successful advertising agencies tend to have a shared sense of purpose with their clients through collaboration. This includes a common set of client objectives where agencies feel a shared sense of ownership of the strategic process. Successful advertisements start with clients building a good relationship with the agencies and work together to figure out what their objectives are. Clients must trust the agencies to do their jobs correctly and accordingly with the resources they have provided. Breakdowns in relationships were more likely to occur when agencies felt undermined, subjugated, or even feel they don't have equal status. Traditionally advertising agencies tend to be in a position to take the lead on projects but results are best when there is a more collaborative relationship.


title: Advertising agency

text: Stronger collaboration happens in situations where a personal chemistry has been established between both parties. Finding out similar likes and dislikes points of view, and even hobbies and passions. Personal chemistry builds with the length of the client relationship, frequency of meetings, and how far mutual respect goes between parties. This was one trait that advertising agencies were perceived to not always have. It was suggested that on occasions media planners and researchers were more closely involved in the project because of their personal relationships with their clients. Successful strategic planning is best when both parties are involved due to the bond between sides by understanding each other's views and mindset.


title: Advertising agency

text: Involved advertising account planners are seen to contribute towards successful agency-client collaboration. Planners of advertising agencies tend to be capable of creating a very powerful, trusting relationship with their clients because they were seen as intellectual prowess, seniority, and have empathy in the creative process.


title: Advertising agency

text: All advertising agencies are called that because they are acting as agents for their principals which were the media. They were then, and are now, paid by the media to sell advertising space to clients. Originally, in the 18th century, and the first half of the 19th, advertising agencies made all of their income from commissions paid by the media for selling space to the client.


title: Advertising agency

text: Although it is still the case that the majority of their income comes from the media, in the middle of the 19th century, agencies began to offer additional services which they sold directly to the client. Such services can include writing the text of the advertisement.


title: Advertising agency

text: The use of creativity by agencies is "unexpected" because so much advertising today is expected. This will capture the attention of audiences, therefore the message is more likely to get through. There have been many advertisements that have surprised audiences because it was not normal for them to see that in an advertisement of that nature. The best use of creativity is when the agencies make consumers think about the product or brand. The type of creativity is distinctive communication which is breaking through the clutter.


title: Advertising agency

text: This is a list of notable advertising agencies and holding companies for advertising agencies, with their headquarters' cities indicated.


title: The A.V. Club

text: The A.V. Club is an American online newspaper and entertainment website featuring reviews, interviews, and other articles that examine films, music, television, books, games, and other elements of pop-culture media. "The A.V. Club" was created in 1993 as a supplement to its satirical parent publication, "The Onion". While it was a part of "The Onion"s 1996 website launch, "The A.V. Club" had minimal presence on the website at that point.


title: The A.V. Club

text: A 2005 website redesign placed "The A.V. Club" in a more prominent position, allowing its online identity to grow. Unlike "The Onion", "The A.V. Club" and other sites owned by G/O Media are not satirical. The publication's name is a reference to audiovisual (AV) clubs typical of American high schools.


title: The A.V. Club

text: In 1993, five years after the founding of "The Onion", Stephen Thompson, a student at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, launched an entertainment section of the newspaper.


title: The A.V. Club

text: In 1996, both "The Onion" and "The A.V. Club" debuted on the Internet. "The A.V. Club" was originally a subsection of the main "theonion.com" domain name.


title: The A.V. Club

text: The supplement was moved to its own domain name, "theavclub.com", before the 2005 acquisition of the shorter "avclub.com" domain name. The latter change coincided with a redesign that incorporated reader comments and blog content. In 2006, the website shifted its content model again to add content on a daily, rather than weekly, basis. Some contributors have become established as freelance writers and editors.


title: The A.V. Club

text: According to Sean Mills, then-president of "The Onion," the "A.V. Club" website first reached more than 1 million unique visitors in October 2007. In late 2009, the website was reported to have received more than 1.4 million unique visitors and 75,000 comments per month.


title: The A.V. Club

text: At its peak, the print version of "The A.V. Club" was available in 17 different cities. Localized sections of the website were also maintained, with reviews and news relevant to specific cities. The print version and localized websites were gradually discontinued, and in December 2013, print publication ceased production in the last three markets.


title: The A.V. Club

text: On 13 December 2012, long-time writer and editor Keith Phipps, who oversaw the website after Stephen Thompson left, stepped down from his role as editor of "The A.V. Club". He said, ""Onion, Inc." and I have come to a mutual parting of the ways."


title: The A.V. Club

text: On 2 April 2013, long-time film editor and critic Scott Tobias stepped down as film editor of "The A.V. Club". He said via Twitter, "After 15 great years @theavclub, I step down as Film Editor next Friday."


title: The A.V. Club

text: On 26 April 2013, long-time writers Nathan Rabin, Tasha Robinson, and Genevieve Koski announced they would also be leaving the website to begin work on a new project with Scott Tobias and Keith Phipps. Koski also said that she would continue to write freelance articles. Writer Noel Murray announced he would be joining their new project, but would also continue to contribute to "The A.V. Club" in a reduced capacity. On 30 May 2013, those six writers were announced as becoming part of the senior staff of "The Dissolve", a film website run by Pitchfork Media.


title: The A.V. Club

text: In April and June 2014, senior staff writers Kyle Ryan, Sonia Saraiya, and Emily St. James left the website for positions at "Entertainment Weekly", "Salon", and Vox Media, respectively. In 2015, Ryan returned to "Onion, Inc." for a position in development. Following his departure from "The Dissolve" earlier that month, Nathan Rabin returned to write freelance for the "A.V. Club" website in May 2015. He renewed his regular column "My World of Flops" . "The Dissolve" folded in July 2015.


title: The A.V. Club

text: On 16 February 2017, "The A.V. Club"'s editor-at-large, John Teti, posted an article on the website announcing the upcoming release of a television series, titled "The A.V. Club", based on the website. The series, hosted by Teti, began airing on Fusion on 16 March 2017 and ran for one season. The series featured news, criticism, and discussions about various popular-culture topics and featured staff members from the website.


title: The A.V. Club

text: In January 2016, Univision Communications acquired "a 40 percent, controlling stake" in Onion Inc., the parent company of "The A.V. Club". Later that year, Univision also purchased Gawker Media and reorganized several of Gawker's sites into the new Gizmodo Media Group, a division of Fusion Media Group.


title: The A.V. Club

text: The site was subsequently migrated from Bulbs, an internal content management system developed by Onion Inc. to the Gawker-developed Kinja platform. It deleted the comment section and audience reviews hosted on the previous site. In July 2018, Univision announced it was looking for a buyer for the entire Gizmodo Group.


title: The A.V. Club

text: In April 2019, Gizmodo and "The Onion" were sold to private-equity firm Great Hill Partners, which combined them into a new company named G/O Media. In July 2019, executive editor Laura M. Browning and managing editor Caitlin PenzeyMoog left. In early 2020, former "People" magazine and "Entertainment Weekly" editor Patrick Gomez was named editor-in-chief, and it was announced that the site was opening a Los Angeles bureau. In August 2021, Yahoo! Entertainment and E! Online alum Scott Robson joined to lead the team.


title: The A.V. Club

text: In March 2018 the employees of the company announced they had unionized with the Writers Guild Of America, East. The union comprises "all of the creative staffs at Onion Inc.: "The A.V. Club", "The Onion", "ClickHole", "The Takeout", Onion Labs, and Onion Inc.'s video and art departments." ("ClickHole" was subsequently acquired by Cards Against Humanity in February 2020.) The union was recognized on 20 April 2018 and reached a contract agreement with management on 20 December 2018. The contract includes "annual pay increases, minimum pay grades, strong diversity and anti-harassment language, just cause, union security, editorial independence, intellectual property rights, and an end to permalancers."


title: The A.V. Club

text: On 18 January 2022, the union representing staff at the website announced that all seven staff members based in Chicago had taken severance as opposed to accepting a mandatory move of work location to Los Angeles. This predominantly affected the senior staff of the site and comprised the managing editor, film editor, TV editor, associate editor, senior writer, assistant editor, and editorial coordinator.


title: The A.V. Club

text: On 9 December 2010, the website "ComicsComicsMag" revealed a capsule review for the book "Genius, Isolated: The Life and Art of Alex Toth" had been fabricated. The book had not yet been published nor even completed by the authors. After the review was removed, editor Keith Phipps posted an apology on the website, stating that the reporter assigned the review could not locate a copy of the book ("for obvious reasons"), so fabricated it. Leonard Pierce, the author of the review, was terminated from his freelance role with the website.


title: The A.V. Club

text: In 2017, "The A.V. Club" won an Eisner Award for "Best Comics-related Periodical/Journalism" (for works published in 2016). The award went to writers Oliver Sava, Caitlin Rosberg, Shea Hennum, and Tegan O'Neil. The award also went to editor Caitlin PenzeyMoog.


title: The A.V. Club

text: Starting in 1999, only lists written by individual writers were published. Beginning in 2006, "The A.V. Club" began publishing website-consensus, year-end album and film rankings, together with lists created by individual writers. Additionally decade-end lists were published for the 2000s and 2010s.


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: The M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle (ESR), formerly known as the XM2010 and M24 Reconfigured Sniper Weapon System, is a sniper rifle developed by PEO Soldier for the United States Army. It is derived from and replaced the M24 Sniper Weapon System, and was designed to give snipers longer range in the mountainous and desert terrain of the War in Afghanistan. After winning a competitive bidding process, Remington was awarded the production contract for up to 3,600 weapons. The Army had anticipated sending the upgraded weapons to deployed snipers in late 2010, but later expected fielding would happen in January 2011. The M2010 fires .300 Winchester Magnum (7.62×67mm) ammunition, which offers about 50 percent more effective range than the M24's 7.62×51mm NATO. This chambering to dimensionally larger cartridges is possible because the M24 was designed to use the "long action" bolt version of the Remington 700 receiver for cartridges up to in overall length.


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: The Barrett M107 .50 BMG rifle can hit targets past , but it is accurate to 2.5 MOA, meaning it would hit within a area at . This was acceptable for shooting at materiel but not people. The XM2010 addressed the problem with a .300 Winchester Magnum round that can hit targets out to with a 1 MOA accuracy, half again farther than the M24's .


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: On 20 September 2010, the Army gave Remington a $28 million contract to rebuild 3,600 M24 rifles. By January, 250 had been ordered to be changed.


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: The U.S. Army issued three XM2010s to snipers at the United States Army Sniper School on 18 January 2011 and began using the rifle in combat in Afghanistan in March 2011. Snipers in the field learned how to use and maintain the new rifle during a three-day course. After the course, snipers had no difficulty hitting targets out to 1,000 meters from "ridgetop to ridgetop". In addition to the more powerful cartridge, the new optic improves the rifle's ability to sight a target quickly without calculations of range estimation.


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: All 250 XM2010 rifles were to be fielded in eight Brigade Combat Teams by mid-May 2011. Based on the results and feedback from troops, the U.S. Army decided in May 2011 to replace its entire fleet of M24s, ordering a total of 2,558 M2010 rifles. By September 2012, the Army had fielded more than 1,400 systems as part of an urgent material release. The M2010 achieved Type Classification-Standard in July 2013 and Full Materiel Release in September 2013, supporting procurement for the balance of the Army requirement. On 25 April 2014, the 2,558th M2010 rifle was completed.


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: In January 2014, the Army bought six "smart scopes" made by TrackingPoint for testing on the M2010 sniper rifle. Costing between $22,000 and $27,000, the computerized scope marks a selected target, gathers and compensates for external factors, and uses a special trigger that does not pull until the system is sure the bullet will land where intended. It can help a bolt-action rifle to hit targets out to . It is intended to help non-snipers take shots at longer ranges, not replace sniping skills.


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: The U.S. Army plans to field the Barrett Mk22 MRAD (Multi-Role Adaptive Design) in 2021 to eventually replace the M2010. This bolt-action weapon can be user field converted to fire 7.62×51mm NATO, .300 Norma Magnum and .338 Norma Magnum. With the Norma Magnum chambering options, the Mk22 can shoot out to , further than the M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle.


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: The M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle differs from 7.62×51mm NATO chambered M24 Sniper Weapon System in that M2010 sniper weapons are:


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: According to Remington Arms each rifle is tested to meet (and typically exceeds) the requirement to fire ≤ 1 moa/0.3 mil (less than a 2-inch shot group at 200 yards/ 6 cm at 200 meters) before being released for fielding.


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: In 2009 the U.S. government purchased MK 248 MOD 1 .300 Winchester Magnum match-grade ammunition for use in .300 Winchester Magnum sniper rifles like the U.S. Navy Mk13 SWS or reconfigured M24 SWSs. This ammunition was developed as a .300 Winchester Magnum Match Product Improvement (PIP) and uses the 14.26 g (220 gr) Sierra MatchKing Hollow Point Boat Tail (HPBT) very-low-drag bullet fired at a nominal muzzle velocity of 869 m/s (2,850 ft/s) ± 15.2 m/s (50 ft/s). According to the U.S. Navy this ammunition should increase the maximum effective range of .300 Winchester Magnum sniper rifle systems to 1,370 m (1,500 yd), decrease wind deflection on bullets in flight and use a reduced muzzle flash propellant that remains temperature stable across an operational temperature range of -32 °C to 74 °C (-25 °F to 165 °F). According to JBM Ballistics, using the 0.310 G7 ballistic coefficient provided by Bryan Litz, and a Weapon Employment Zone (WEZ) analysis of the XM2010 rifle with various .300 Winchester Magnum ammunition types by Bryan Litz, the MK 248 MOD 1 .300 Winchester Magnum cartridge, when fired at its nominal muzzle velocity of 869 m/s (2,850 ft/s), should have supersonic range under International Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level (air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m).


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: In January 2014, the U.S. Department of Defense annual testing report found that the older A191 or MK 248 Mod 0 .300 Winchester Magnum service round loaded with aerodynamically less efficient 190 gr (12.32 g) Sierra MatchKing Hollow Point Boat Tail (HPBT) bullets (0.270 G7 ballistic coefficient provided by Bryan Litz) fired from the XM2010 demonstrated adequate performance and lethality. Live fire tests were conducted in March 2013 against ballistics gelatin, light material barriers, and other targets to determine the projectile's ability to perforate targets. This was the first time the Pentagon's Director, Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E) tested the round, which can hit targets out to .


title: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle

text: In March 2015 Remington Defense announced that they will start offering some of their products for sale on the civilian market. One of those products is the M2010 sniper rifle.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Heracleum mantegazzianum, commonly known as giant hogweed, is a monocarpic perennial herbaceous plant in the carrot family Apiaceae. "H. mantegazzianum" is also known as cartwheel-flower, giant cow parsley, giant cow parsnip, or hogsbane. In New Zealand, it is also sometimes called wild parsnip (not to be confused with "Pastinaca sativa") or wild rhubarb.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Giant hogweed is native to the western Caucasus region of Eurasia. It was introduced to Britain as an ornamental plant in the 19th century, and has also spread to other areas in Western Europe, the United States, and Canada. Its close relatives, Sosnowsky's hogweed and Persian hogweed, have similarly spread to other parts of Europe.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: The sap of giant hogweed is phototoxic and causes phytophotodermatitis in humans, resulting in blisters and scars. These serious reactions are due to the furanocoumarin derivatives in the leaves, roots, stems, flowers, and seeds of the plant. Consequently, it is considered to be a noxious weed in many jurisdictions.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: The species name "mantegazzianum" refers to Paolo Mantegazza (1831–1910), Italian traveller and anthropologist.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Giant hogweed typically grows to heights of . Under ideal conditions, a plant can reach a height of . The leaves are incised and deeply lobed. A mature plant has huge leaves, between wide, and a stout, bright green stem with extensive dark reddish-purple splotches and prominent coarse white hairs, especially at the base of the leaf stalk. Hollow, ridged stems vary from in diameter, occasionally up to in diameter and can grow to more than high. Dark red spots on the stem each surround a single hair. The umbrella-shaped inflorescence, called a compound umbel, may be up to in diameter across its flat top. The flowers are white or greenish white and may be radially symmetrical or strongly bilaterally symmetrical (zygomorphic). The fruits are schizocarps, producing seeds in dry, flattened, oval pairs. Each seed is approximately in length, with a broadly rounded base and broad marginal ridges, tan in color with brown lines (so-called oil tubes) extending of the length of the seed.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: During the first few years of growth, the leaves and stem of a pre-flowering plant die over the winter. In the spring, the plant grows back from its root. In other words, the giant hogweed is a herbaceous perennial.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: A giant hogweed plant usually produces a flowering stalk in 3–5 years, but plants may take up to eight years to flower if conditions are unfavorable. In the Czech Republic, a single plant reached twelve years old before flowering. In any case, when the plant finally flowers, it does so between June and July (in the northern hemisphere).


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Seeds are typically produced in August. A single flowering plant will produce 20,000 seeds on average with seed production varying between 10,000 and 50,000 seeds per plant.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Giant hogweed is a monocarpic perennial, that is, after a mature plant flowers and produces seed, the entire plant dies. During the following winter, tall dead stems mark the locations where the flowering plants once stood.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: The seeds are dispersed short distances by wind, but can travel longer distances by water, animals, and people. Most seeds (95%) are found in the top of the soil within a few meters of the parent plant. Seeds may stay alive in the seed bank for more than five years.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: A seed deposited in the seed bank is initially dormant. Dormancy is broken by the cold and wet conditions of fall and winter, and so freshly deposited seeds lie dormant until at least the following spring, at which time approximately 90% of the previously dormant seeds will germinate. The rest remain dormant in the seed bank.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Seeds normally result from cross-pollination between two or more plants but self-pollination is also possible. More than half the seeds produced by self-pollination will germinate and give rise to healthy seedlings. Hence a single isolated seed may give rise to a colony of new plants.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: The various species of the genus "Heracleum" are similar in appearance, but vary in size. "H. mantegazzianum" is among the tallest, typically reaching high (and sometimes more than high), whereas "Heracleum" species native to Western Europe, such as ordinary Hogweed (H sphondlylium), or North America, such as the cow parsnip ("H. maximum"), rarely exceed high. There are considerable differences in the size of the umbel, leaves, and stem of "H. mantegazzianum" as well.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Other plant species in the family Apiaceae have features somewhat similar to those of the giant hogweed ("H. mantegazzianum"). Examples:


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Some other species, such as the abovementioned "Heracleum sosnowskyi" and "Heracleum persicum", do reach similar sizes, and are equally noxious as a result.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: "Heracleum mantegazzianum" is native to the western Caucasus region of Eurasia. Because of its impressive size, giant hogweed was brought to Europe and North America as an ornamental plant and garden curiosity.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: The following historical information grew out of the European Giant Alien Project, which began in 2005.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: "Heracleum mantegazzianum" was first described in scientific literature in 1895 but by that time more than a dozen European countries had already imported the plant as an “ornamental curiosity”. The introduction of "Heracleum mantegazzianum" was first recorded in Great Britain in 1817 when it was put on the seed list at the Kew Botanic Gardens in London. By 1828, the first natural population was recorded, growing wild in Cambridgeshire, England.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: The spread of "Heracleum mantegazzianum" throughout Europe continued unabated until the middle of the 20th century, at which time the dangers of giant hogweed had become more widely known. Despite the warnings, however, the plant continued to be used by gardeners, beekeepers, and farmers (for cattle fodder) for another 50 years. "Heracleum mantegazzianum" was finally de-listed by the Royal Horticultural Society of Great Britain in 2002.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: During the 20th century, giant hogweed was transported to the United States and Canada for display in arboreta and Victorian gardens. The earliest recorded planting in North America was in 1917, in gardens near Highland Park in the city of Rochester, New York.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: By 1950, giant hogweed had appeared in southern Ontario, and within a quarter century, the plant was firmly established in Ontario. It was first collected from Nova Scotia in 1980 and Quebec in 1990. Giant hogweed was still available for sale in Canadian nurseries as late as 2005.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: On the west coast of North America, "Heracleum mantegazzianum" appeared in Oregon, Washington, and southwestern Canada but it is not clear how the species found its way into this region. First reports of giant hogweed in British Columbia were published in the 1930s.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Giant hogweed is native to Russia and was further distributed during the late 1960s, later spreading extensively on its own throughout Russia and eastern Europe.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Giant hogweed is widespread throughout western and northern Europe, especially along terrains such as coastal areas and riverbanks. By forming dense stands, it can displace native plants and reduce wildlife habitats. It has spread in the northeastern and northwestern United States, and southern Canada and is an invasive species across western Europe; in sites where it has settled, it overtakes the local native species, "Heracleum sphondylium".


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: In Canada, the plant occurs in most provinces, except in the prairies. It has been seen in Quebec since the early 1990s. The plant's spread in Ontario began in the southwest and was seen in 2010 in the Greater Toronto Area and Renfrew County near Ottawa.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: In the United States, giant hogweed occurs in Maine, Wisconsin and south to Indiana, Michigan, Maryland, and New Jersey. In June 2018, it was reported growing in Virginia and North Carolina. The plant is federally listed as a noxious weed in the US.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: The sap of the giant hogweed plant is phototoxic. Contact with the plant sap prevents the skin from being able to protect itself from sunlight, which leads to phytophotodermatitis, a serious skin inflammation. A phototoxic reaction can begin as soon as 15 minutes after contact with the sap. Photosensitivity peaks between 30 minutes and two hours after contact but can last for several days. Authorities advise that all humans (especially children) should stay away from giant hogweed. Protective clothing, including eye protection, should be worn when handling the plant. Parts of the body that come into contact with the sap of giant hogweed should be immediately washed with soap and cold water, and further exposure to sunlight should be avoided for at least 48 hours. Other "Heracleum" species, such as the "cow parsnip" ("Heracleum maximum"), are likewise phototoxic, and hence similar caution is advised. Owing to physical similarities to Queen Anne's lace, giant hogweed and its relatives are sometimes mistaken as harmless plants.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: Because of its phototoxicity and invasive nature, giant hogweed is often actively removed. The European Union funded the "Giant Alien" project to combat the plant.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: thus placing restrictions on keeping, importing, selling, breeding and growing it and requiring governments to detect and eradicate it throughout the EU. In the United Kingdom, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 makes it an offence to plant or cause giant hogweed to grow in the wild.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: In the United States, hogweed is regulated as a federal noxious weed by the U.S. Government, and is illegal to import into the United States or move interstate without a permit from the Department of Agriculture. The USDA Forest Service states pigs and cattle can eat it without apparent harm. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation has had an active program to control giant hogweed since 2008. In 2011, Maine state horticulturists, describing the plant as "Queen Anne's lace on steroids", reported that it has been found at 21 different locations in Maine, with the number of plants ranging from one to a hundred.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: The 1971 album "Nursery Cryme" by the progressive rock group Genesis contains a song called 'The Return of the Giant Hogweed'. The darkly-humorous lyrics describe an attack on the human race by "Heracleum mantegazzianum", long after the plant was first 'captured' and brought to England by a Victorian explorer.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: In Season 10 Episode 3 "Ghosts" (first aired October 20, 2019) of the AMC television series "The Walking Dead", the character Aaron is attacked by "walkers" that have hogweed flowers growing from their decomposing bodies. Aaron comes into close contact with the hogweed, rendering him unable to properly see, and more susceptible to harm.


title: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: In her 1985 novel "Curse of the Giant Hogweed", popular mystery author Charlotte MacLeod places her established character Peter Shandy and his colleagues in a fantasy version of Wales to investigate Giant Hogweed endangering Britain's hedgerows.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The Swedish alphabet () is a basic element of the Latin writing system used for the Swedish language. The 29 letters of this alphabet are the modern 26-letter basic Latin alphabet (A through Z) plus Å, Ä, and Ö, in that order. It contains 20 consonants and 9 vowels (a e i o u y å ä ö). The Latin alphabet was brought to Sweden along with the Christianization of the population, although runes continued in use throughout the first centuries of Christianity, even for ecclesiastic purposes, despite their traditional relation to the Old Norse religion. The runes underwent partial "latinization" in the Middle Ages, when the Latin alphabet was completely accepted as the Swedish script system, but runes still occurred, especially in the countryside, until the 18th century, and were used decoratively until mid 19th century. Popular literacy is thought to have been higher (nearly universal) with the simplified Younger Futhark runes, than in the first centuries of use of the Latin alphabet.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The pronunciation of the "names" of the letters (that does not necessarily coincide with the sound it represents) is as follows:


title: Swedish alphabet

text: In addition to the basic twenty-six letters, A–Z, the Swedish alphabet includes Å, Ä, and Ö at the end. They are distinct letters in Swedish and are sorted after Z as shown above. They do not mark grammatical change, as the umlaut can in German orthography, or separate syllables, as does the diaeresis, so it is not strictly correct to call them "umlauts".


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The letter Q is rare. Q was common in ordinary words before 1889, when its replacement by K was allowed. Since 1900, only the forms with K are listed in dictionaries. Some proper names kept their Q despite the change to common words: Qvist, Quist, Husqvarna, Quenby, Quinby, Quintus, Quirin and Quirinus. Other uses include some loanwords that retained Q, including "queer", "quisling", "squash", and "quilting"; student terms such as "gasque"; and foreign geographic names like "Qatar".


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The letter W is rare. Before the 19th century, W was interchangeable with V (W was used in Fraktur, V in Antiqua). Official orthographic standards since 1801 use only V for common words. Many family names kept their W despite the change to common words. Foreign words and names bring in uses of W, particularly combinations with "webb" for (World Wide) Web. Swedish sorting traditionally and officially treated V and W as equivalent, so that users would not have to guess whether the word, or name, they were seeking was spelled with a V or a W. The two letters were often combined in the collating sequence as if they were all V or all W, until 2006 when the 13th edition of "Svenska Akademiens ordlista" (The Swedish Academy's Orthographic Dictionary) declared a change. W was given its own section in the dictionary, and the W = V sorting rule was deprecated. This means Swedish books printed before 2006 would group W with V in the index, and most Swedish software published before 2006 would treat the two as variations of a single character when sorting text.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The letter Z is rare, used in names and a few loanwords such as "zon" (zone). Z was historically pronounced /ts/. By 1700, this had merged with /s/. As a result, Z was replaced by S in 1700. Z was instead used in loanwords for historical /z/. Z is the second least used letter in Swedish, before Q.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: Though not in the official alphabet, "á" is a Swedish (old-fashioned) letter. In native Swedish personal names, ü and è and others are also used.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The umlauted ü is recognised but is only used in names of German origin, and in German loanwords such as . It is otherwise treated as a variant of y and is called a German y. In Swedish, y is a vowel and is pronounced as such (/y:/ as in ). In a few unchanged English loanwords, the y is used for the consonant /j/ as in English.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The characters à (which is used only in a few rare non-integrated loanwords such as "à", from French) and é (used in some integrated loanwords like "idé" and "armé", and in some surnames such as "Rosén" or "Löfvén") are regarded simply as variants of a and e, respectively.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: For foreign names, ç, ë, í, õ, and many others might be used, but are usually converted to c, e, i, o, etc.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: Swedish newspapers and magazines have a tendency only to use letters available on the keyboard. à, ë, í, etc. are available on Swedish keyboards with a little effort, but usually not æ and ø (used in Danish and Norwegian), so they are usually substituted by ae or ä, and ö. The news agency TT follows this usage because some newspapers have no technical support for æ and ø, although there is a recommendation to use æ and ø. The letter Æ was used in earlier Swedish script systems, when there was in general more similarity between the Scandinavian languages.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The Swedish population register has traditionally only used the letters a–z, å, ä, ö, ü, é, so immigrants with other Latin letters in their names have had their diacritic marks stripped (and æ/ø converted to ä/ö), although recently more diacritics have been allowed.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The difference between the Danish/Norwegian and the Swedish alphabet is that Danish/Norwegian uses the variant Æ instead of Ä, and the variant Ø instead of Ö. Also, the collating order for these three letters is different: Æ, Ø, Å.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The Swedish traditional handwritten alphabet is the same as the ordinary Latin cursive alphabet, but the letters Ö and Ä are written by connecting the dots with a curved line ~, hence looking like Õ and Ã. In texted handwriting the dots should be clearly separated, but writers frequently replace them with a line: Ō, Ā.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: Short vowels are followed by two or more consonants; long vowels are followed by a single consonant, by a vowel or are word-final.


title: Swedish alphabet

text: The combinations are pronounced respectively. The phoneme is a very common variation instead of the phoneme (below).


title: Swedish alphabet

text: Due to several phonetic combinations coalescing over recent centuries, the spelling of the Swedish sje-sound is very eclectic. Some estimates claim that there are over 50 possible different spellings of the sound, though this figure is disputed. Garlén (1988) gives a list of 22 spellings (, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ), but many of them are confined to only a few words, often loanwords, and all of them can correspond to other sounds or sound sequences as well. Some spellings of the sje-sound are as follows:


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin is an endopeptidase that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is produced in the gastric chief cells of the stomach lining and is one of the main digestive enzymes in the digestive systems of humans and many other animals, where it helps digest the proteins in food. Pepsin is an aspartic protease, using a catalytic aspartate in its active site.


title: Pepsin

text: It is one of three principal endopeptidases (enzymes cutting proteins in the middle) in the human digestive system, the other two being chymotrypsin and trypsin. There are also exopeptidases which remove individual amino acids at both ends of proteins (carboxypeptidases produced by the pancreas and aminopeptidases secreted by the small intestine). During the process of digestion, these enzymes, each of which is specialized in severing links between particular types of amino acids, collaborate to break down dietary proteins into their components, i.e., peptides and amino acids, which can be readily absorbed by the small intestine. The cleavage specificity of pepsin is broad, but some amino acids like tyrosine, phenylalanine and tryptophan increase the probability of cleavage.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin's proenzyme, pepsinogen, is released by the gastric chief cells in the stomach wall, and upon mixing with the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, pepsinogen activates to become pepsin.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin was one of the first enzymes to be discovered, by Theodor Schwann in 1836. Schwann coined its name from the Greek word "pepsis", meaning "digestion" (from "peptein" "to digest"). An acidic substance that was able to convert nitrogen-based foods into water-soluble material was determined to be pepsin.


title: Pepsin

text: In 1928, it became one of the first enzymes to be crystallized when John H. Northrop crystallized it using dialysis, filtration, and cooling.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin is expressed as a zymogen called pepsinogen, whose primary structure has an additional 44 amino acids compared to the active enzyme.


title: Pepsin

text: In the stomach, gastric chief cells release pepsinogen. This zymogen is activated by hydrochloric acid (HCl), which is released from parietal cells in the stomach lining. The hormone gastrin and the vagus nerve trigger the release of both pepsinogen and HCl from the stomach lining when food is ingested. Hydrochloric acid creates an acidic environment, which allows pepsinogen to unfold and cleave itself in an autocatalytic fashion, thereby generating pepsin (the active form). Pepsin cleaves the 44 amino acids from pepsinogen to create more pepsin.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsinogens are mainly grouped in 5 different groups based on their primary structure: pepsinogen A (also called pepsinogen I), pepsinogen B, progastricsin (also called pepsinogen II and pepsinogen C), prochymosin (also called prorennin) and pepsinogen F (also called pregnancy-associated glycoprotein).


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin is most active in acidic environments between pH 1.5 to 2.5. Accordingly, its primary site of synthesis and activity is in the stomach (pH 1.5 to 2). In humans the concentration of pepsin in the stomach reaches 0.5 – 1 mg/mL.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin is inactive at pH 6.5 and above, however pepsin is not fully denatured or irreversibly inactivated until pH 8.0. Therefore, pepsin in solutions of up to pH 8.0 can be reactivated upon re-acidification. The stability of pepsin at high pH has significant implications on disease attributed to laryngopharyngeal reflux. Pepsin remains in the larynx following a gastric reflux event. At the mean pH of the laryngopharynx (pH = 6.8) pepsin would be inactive but could be reactivated upon subsequent acid reflux events resulting in damage to local tissues.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin exhibits a broad cleavage specificity. Pepsin will digest up to 20% of ingested amide bonds. Residues in the P1 and P1' positions are most important in determining cleavage probability. Generally, hydrophobic amino acids at P1 and P1' positions increase cleavage probability. Phenylalanine, leucine and methionine at the P1 position, and phenylalanine, tryptophan and tyrosine at the P1' position result in the highest cleavage probability. Cleavage is disfavoured by positively charged amino acids histidine, lysine and arginine at the P1 position.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin is one of the primary causes of mucosal damage during laryngopharyngeal reflux. Pepsin remains in the larynx (pH 6.8) following a gastric reflux event. While enzymatically inactive in this environment, pepsin would remain stable and could be reactivated upon subsequent acid reflux events. Exposure of laryngeal mucosa to enzymatically active pepsin, but not irreversibly inactivated pepsin or acid, results in reduced expression of protective proteins and thereby increases laryngeal susceptibility to damage.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin may also cause mucosal damage during weakly acidic or non-acid gastric reflux. Weak or non-acid reflux is correlated with reflux symptoms and mucosal injury. Under non-acid conditions (neutral pH), pepsin is internalized by cells of the upper airways such as the larynx and hypopharynx by a process known as receptor-mediated endocytosis. The receptor by which pepsin is endocytosed is currently unknown. Upon cellular uptake, pepsin is stored in intracellular vesicles of low pH at which its enzymatic activity would be restored. Pepsin is retained within the cell for up to 24 hours. Such exposure to pepsin at neutral pH and endocyctosis of pepsin causes changes in gene expression associated with inflammation, which underlies signs and symptoms of reflux, and tumor progression. This and other research implicates pepsin in carcinogenesis attributed to gastric reflux.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin in airway specimens is considered to be a sensitive and specific marker for laryngopharyngeal reflux. Research to develop new pepsin-targeted therapeutic and diagnostic tools for gastric reflux is ongoing. A rapid non-invasive pepsin diagnostic called Peptest is now available which determines the presence of pepsin in saliva samples.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin may be inhibited by high pH (see Activity and stability) or by inhibitor compounds. Pepstatin is a low molecular weight compound and potently inhibitor specific for acid proteases with an inhibitory dissociation constant (Ki) of about 10 M for pepsin. The statyl residue of pepstatin is thought to be responsible for pepstatin inhibition of pepsin; statine is a potential analog of the transition state for catalysis by pepsin and other acid proteases. Pepstatin does not covalently bind pepsin and inhibition of pepsin by pepstatin is therefore reversible. 1-bis(diazoacetyl)-2-phenylethane reversibly inactivates pepsin at pH 5, a reaction which is accelerated by the presence of Cu(II).


title: Pepsin

text: Porcine pepsin is inhibited by pepsin inhibitor-3 (PI-3) produced by the large roundworm of pig ("Ascaris suum"). PI-3 occupies the active site of pepsin using its N-terminal residues and thereby blocks substrate binding. Amino acid residues 1 - 3 (Gln-Phe-Leu) of mature PI-3 bind to P1' - P3' positions of pepsin. The N-terminus of PI-3 in the PI-3:pepsin complex is positioned by hydrogen bonds which form an eight-stranded β-sheet, where three strands are contributed by pepsin and five by PI-3.


title: Pepsin

text: Sucralfate, a drug used to treat stomach ulcers and other pepsin-related conditions, also inhibits pepsin activity.


title: Pepsin

text: Commercial pepsin is extracted from the glandular layer of hog stomachs. It is a component of rennet used to curdle milk during the manufacture of cheese. Pepsin is used for a variety of applications in food manufacturing: to modify and provide whipping qualities to soy protein and gelatin, to modify vegetable proteins for use in nondairy snack items, to make precooked cereals into instant hot cereals, and to prepare animal and vegetable protein hydrolysates for use in flavoring foods and beverages. It is used in the leather industry to remove hair and residual tissue from hides and in the recovery of silver from discarded photographic films by digesting the gelatin layer that holds the silver. Pepsin was historically an additive of Beeman's gum brand chewing gum by Dr. Edwin E. Beeman.


title: Pepsin

text: Pepsin is commonly used in the preparation of F(ab')2 fragments from antibodies. In some assays, it is preferable to use only the antigen-binding (Fab) portion of the antibody. For these applications, antibodies may be enzymatically digested to produce either an Fab or an F(ab')2 fragment of the antibody. To produce an F(ab')2 fragment, IgG is digested with pepsin, which cleaves the heavy chains near the hinge region. One or more of the disulfide bonds that join the heavy chains in the hinge region are preserved, so the two Fab regions of the antibody remain joined together, yielding a divalent molecule (containing two antibody binding sites), hence the designation F(ab')2. The light chains remain intact and attached to the heavy chain. The Fc fragment is digested into small peptides. Fab fragments are generated by cleavage of IgG with papain instead of pepsin. Papain cleaves IgG above the hinge region containing the disulfide bonds that join the heavy chains, but below the site of the disulfide bond between the light chain and heavy chain. This generates two separate monovalent (containing a single antibody binding site) Fab fragments and an intact Fc fragment. The fragments can be purified by gel filtration, ion exchange, or affinity chromatography.


title: Pepsin

text: Fab and F(ab')2 antibody fragments are used in assay systems where the presence of the Fc region may cause problems. In tissues such as lymph nodes or spleen, or in peripheral blood preparations, cells with Fc receptors (macrophages, monocytes, B lymphocytes, and natural killer cells) are present which can bind the Fc region of intact antibodies, causing background staining in areas that do not contain the target antigen. Use of F(ab')2 or Fab fragments ensures that the antibodies are binding to the antigen and not Fc receptors. These fragments may also be desirable for staining cell preparations in the presence of plasma, because they are not able to bind complement, which could lyse the cells. F(ab')2, and to a greater extent Fab, fragments allow more exact localization of the target antigen, i.e., in staining tissue for electron microscopy. The divalency of the F(ab')2 fragment enables it to cross-link antigens, allowing use for precipitation assays, cellular aggregation via surface antigens, or rosetting assays.


title: Highly Suspect

text: Highly Suspect is an American rock band from Cape Cod, Massachusetts. The band consists of twin brothers Rich (bass, backing vocals) and Ryan Meyer (drums, backing vocals), Johnny Stevens (guitar, lead vocals), and Matt Kofos (guitar, synthesizer, backing vocals). After starting as a bar cover band, they relocated to Brooklyn, New York, where they recorded "The Worst Humans EP" with producer Joel Hamilton.


title: Highly Suspect

text: The band's first studio album, "Mister Asylum", was released in 2015, earning Highly Suspect a nomination for Best Rock Album at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards. The song "Lydia" was also nominated for Best Rock Song. Their second studio album, "The Boy Who Died Wolf", was released in 2016. Two singles have been released from the album, "My Name Is Human", which topped the "Billboard" US Mainstream Rock Songs chart, and "Little One", which peaked at number 2 on the same chart. Highly Suspect's third studio album, "MCID", was released in 2019, and its fourth studio album, "The Midnight Demon Club", came out in 2022.


title: Highly Suspect

text: Highly Suspect got their start in 2009 as a cover band playing songs by Sublime, Jimi Hendrix and Pink Floyd in local bars in the Cape Cod area, such as the British Beer Company, J.R Brody's Roadside Tavern, and Sundancers, also touring and playing a limited number of shows with bands 10 Years, Monster Truck and Sevendust. They attended Dennis-Yarmouth Regional High School.


title: Highly Suspect

text: "First Offense" was Highly Suspect's first EP, released on July 15, 2009. The EP consists of "Life's a Fun Ride", "Not Me", and "Smile On", their first written and recorded songs after making the switch from a cover band ("Not Me" would later appear on the self-titled album "Highly Suspect").


title: Highly Suspect

text: "The Gang Lion EP" was the band's second EP, released on October 3, 2010. It consists of "Gang Lion", "Big Bear", and "Then Mickey", all of which would later appear on their self-titled album, "Highly Suspect".


title: Highly Suspect

text: "The Worst Humans" was the band's third EP, released July 13, 2012. The EP featured the songs "Bath Salts", "Gumshoe" and "The Go". The recordings were available for both physical purchase and digital download on Bandcamp.


title: Highly Suspect

text: The band's fourth EP, "Black Ocean", was released in October 2013. It featured two tracks from their debut release as well as three new tracks, "Fuck Me Up", "Lydia", and "Guess What". This release was jointly produced by Joel Hamilton and Joe Duplantier of Gojira.


title: Highly Suspect

text: Their self-titled compilation album "Highly Suspect" was released in 2011. It contains fourteen tracks, consisting of several new songs as well as previously released but re-recorded songs, like "Gang Lion" and "Then Mickey".


title: Highly Suspect

text: The band toured the United States in early 2015 with Deftones, Chevelle, Halestorm, Catfish and the Bottlemen and Scott Weiland from Stone Temple Pilots. The music video for the song "Lydia" premiered on MTV.com on June 25, 2015.


title: Highly Suspect

text: Their first studio album "Mister Asylum" was released on July 17, 2015, via 300 Entertainment. The first single from the album, titled "Lydia", peaked at number 4 on the US Mainstream Rock Songs chart and at number 24 on the US Alternative Songs chart. On July 24, 2015, the album debuted at number 39 on the New Zealand Albums Chart.


title: Highly Suspect

text: Highly Suspect was selected for iTunes' 2015 New Artist Spotlight by its editors. In November, the band released their second single "Bloodfeather", which peaked at number 5 on the US Mainstream Rock Songs chart.


title: Highly Suspect

text: Their second studio album, "The Boy Who Died Wolf", was released November 18, 2016. The band released the single "My Name Is Human" on September 7, 2016. A second single, "Little One", was released on April 26, 2017. On December 6, it was announced that "My Name Is Human" was nominated for Best Rock Song at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards.


title: Highly Suspect

text: A single featuring Young Thug entitled "Tokyo Ghoul" and Stevens' hip-hop persona "Terrible Johnny" was released October 4, 2019. The fourth single, "Canals", was released on October 25, 2019. The album was released on November 1.


title: Highly Suspect

text: The fourth full-length album came out in September 9, 2022, featuring singles as "Natural Born Killer", "Pink Lullabye" and others.


title: Highly Suspect

text: Highly Suspect's musical style has been described as alternative rock, hard rock, blues rock, grunge, rock and roll, progressive rock, and garage rock. Their third studio album, "MCID," marked a change in sound and utilized elements of hip hop, pop, and electropop.


title: Keep

text: A keep (from the Middle English "kype") is a type of fortified tower built within castles during the Middle Ages by European nobility. Scholars have debated the scope of the word "keep", but usually consider it to refer to large towers in castles that were fortified residences, used as a refuge of last resort should the rest of the castle fall to an adversary. The first keeps were made of timber and formed a key part of the motte-and-bailey castles that emerged in Normandy and Anjou during the 10th century; the design spread to England, south Italy and Sicily. As a result of the Norman invasion of 1066, use spread into Wales during the second half of the 11th century and into Ireland in the 1170s. The Anglo-Normans and French rulers began to build stone keeps during the 10th and 11th centuries; these included Norman keeps, with a square or rectangular design, and circular shell keeps. Stone keeps carried considerable political as well as military importance and could take up to a decade or more to build.


title: Keep

text: During the 12th century, new designs began to be introduced – in France, quatrefoil-shaped keeps were introduced, while in England polygonal towers were built. By the end of the century, French and English keep designs began to diverge: Philip II of France built a sequence of circular keeps as part of his bid to stamp his royal authority on his new territories, while in England castles were built without keeps. In Spain, keeps were increasingly incorporated into both Christian and Islamic castles, although in Germany tall fighting towers called "bergfriede" were preferred to keeps in the western fashion. In the second half of the 14th century, there was a resurgence in the building of keeps. In France, the keep at Vincennes began a fashion for tall, heavily machicolated designs, a trend adopted in Spain most prominently through the Valladolid school of Spanish castle design. Meanwhile, tower keeps in England became popular amongst the most wealthy nobles: these large keeps, each uniquely designed, formed part of the grandest castles built during the period.


title: Keep

text: In the 15th century, the protective function of keeps was compromised by improved artillery. For example, in 1464 during the Wars of the Roses, the keep of Bamburgh Castle on the Northumberland coast, previously considered to be impregnable, was defeated with bombards. By the 16th century, keeps were slowly falling out of fashion as fortifications and residences. Many were destroyed in civil wars between the 17th and 18th centuries or incorporated into gardens as an alternative to follies. During the 19th century, keeps became fashionable once again and in England and France, a number were restored or redesigned by Gothic architects. Despite further damage to many French and Spanish keeps during the wars of the 20th century, keeps now form an important part of the tourist and heritage industry in Europe.


title: Keep

text: Since the 16th century, the English word "keep" has commonly referred to large towers in castles. The word originates from around 1375 to 1376, coming from the Middle English term "kype", meaning basket or cask, and was a term applied to the shell keep at Guînes, said to resemble a barrel. The term came to be used for other shell keeps by the 15th century. By the 17th century, the word keep lost its original reference to baskets or casks and was popularly assumed to have come from the Middle English word "keep", meaning to hold or to protect.


title: Keep

text: Early on, the use of the word "keep" became associated with the idea of a tower in a castle that would serve both as a fortified, high-status private residence and a refuge of last resort. The issue was complicated by the building of fortified Renaissance towers in Italy called "tenazza" that were used as defences of last resort and were also named after the Italian for "to hold" or "to keep". By the 19th century, Victorian historians incorrectly concluded that the etymology of the words "keep" and "tenazza" were linked and that all keeps had fulfilled this military function.


title: Keep

text: As a result of this evolution in meaning, the use of the term "keep" in historical analysis today can be problematic. Contemporary medieval writers used various terms for the buildings we would today call keeps. In Latin, they are variously described as "turris", "turris castri" or "magna turris" – a "tower", a "castle tower", or a "great tower". The 12th-century French came to term them a donjon, from the Latin "dominarium" "lordship", linking the keep and feudal authority. Similarly, medieval Spanish writers called the buildings "", or "tower of homage". In England, "donjon" turned into "dungeon", which initially referred to a keep, rather than to a place of imprisonment.


title: Keep

text: While the term remains in common academic use, some academics prefer to use the term "donjon", and most modern historians warn against using the term "keep" simplistically. The fortifications that we would today call keeps did not necessarily form part of a unified medieval style, nor were they all used in a similar fashion during the period.


title: Keep

text: The earliest keeps were built as part of motte-and-bailey castles from the 10th century onwards – a combination of documentary and archaeological evidence places the first such castle, built at Vincy, in 979. These castles were initially built by the more powerful lords of Anjou in the late 10th and 11th centuries, in particular Fulk III and his son, Geoffrey II, who built a great number of them between 987 and 1060. William the Conqueror then introduced this form of castle into England when he invaded in 1066, and the design spread through south Wales as the Normans expanded up the valleys during the subsequent decades.


title: Keep

text: In a motte-and-bailey design, a castle would include a mound called a motte, usually artificially constructed by piling up turf and soil, and a bailey, a lower walled enclosure. A keep and a protective wall would usually be built on top of the motte. Some protective walls around a keep would be large enough to have a wall-walk around them, and the outer walls of the motte and the wall-walk could be strengthened by filling in the gap between the wooden walls with earth and stones, allowing it to carry more weight – this was called a "garillum". Smaller mottes could only support simple towers with room for a few soldiers, whilst larger mottes could be equipped with a much grander keep. Many wooden keeps were designed with a "bretasche", a square structure that overhung from the upper floors of the building, enabling better defences and a more sturdy structural design. These wooden keeps could be protected by skins and hides to prevent them from being easily set alight during a siege.


title: Keep

text: One contemporary account of these keeps comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130, who described how the nobles of the Calais region would build "a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible. The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs, strengthened at intervals by as many towers as their means can provide. Inside the enclosure is a citadel, or keep, which commands the whole circuit of the defences. The entrance to the fortress is by means of a bridge, which, rising from the outer side of the moat and supported on posts as it ascends, reches to the top of the mound." At Durham Castle, contemporaries described how the keep arose from the "tumulus of rising earth" with a keep reaching "into thin air, strong within and without", a "stalwart house...glittering with beauty in every part". As well as having defensive value, keeps and mottes sent a powerful political message to the local population.


title: Keep

text: Wooden keeps could be quite extensive in size and, as Robert Higham and Philip Barker have noted, it was possible to build "...very tall and massive structures." As an example of what these keeps may have comprised, the early 12th-century chronicler Lambert of Ardres described the wooden keep on top of the motte at the castle of Ardres, where the "...first storey was on the surface of the ground, where were cellars and granaries, and great boxes, tuns, casks, and other domestic utensils. In the storey above were the dwelling and common living-rooms of the residents in which were the larders, the rooms of the bakers and butlers, and the great chamber in which the lord and his wife slept...In the upper storey of the house were garret rooms...In this storey also the watchmen and the servants appointed to keep the house took their sleep."


title: Keep

text: In the Holy Roman Empire, tall, free-standing, wooden (later stone), fighting towers called "Bergfriede" were commonly built by the 11th century, either as part of motte-and-bailey designs or, as part of "Hohenburgen" castles, with characteristic inner and outer courts. "Bergfriede", which take their name from the German for a belfry, had similarities to keeps, but are usually distinguished from them on account of "Bergfriede" having a smaller area or footprint, usually being non-residential and being typically integrated into the outer defences of a castle, rather than being a safe refuge of last resort.


title: Keep

text: During the 10th century, a small number of stone keeps began to be built in France, such at the Château de Langeais: in the 11th century, their numbers increased as the style spread through Normandy across the rest of France and into England, South Italy and Sicily. Some existing motte-and-bailey castles were converted to stone, with the keep amongst usually the first parts to be upgraded, while in other cases new keeps were built from scratch in stone. These stone keeps were introduced into Ireland during the 1170s following the Norman occupation of the east of the country, where they were particularly popular amongst the new Anglo-Norman lords. Two broad types of design emerged across France and England during the period: four-sided stone keeps, known as Norman keeps or great keeps in English – a "donjon carré" or "donjon roman" in French – and circular shell keeps.


title: Keep

text: The reasons for the transition from timber to stone keeps are unclear, and the process was slow and uneven, taking many years to take effect across the various regions. Traditionally it was believed that stone keeps had been adopted because of the cruder nature of wooden buildings, the limited lifespan of wooden fortifications and their vulnerability to fire, but recent archaeological studies have shown that many wooden castles were as robust and as sophisticated as their stone equivalents. Some wooden keeps were not converted into stone for many years and were instead expanded in wood, such as at Hen Domen. Nonetheless, stone became increasingly popular as a building material for keeps for both military and symbolic reasons.


title: Keep

text: Stone keep construction required skilled craftsmen. Unlike timber and earthworks, which could be built using unfree labour or serfs, these craftsmen had to be paid and stone keeps were therefore expensive. They were also relatively slow to erect, due to the limitations of the lime mortar used during the period – a keep's walls could usually be raised by a maximum of only 12 feet (3.6 metres) a year; the keep at Scarborough was not atypical in taking ten years to build. The number of such keeps remained relatively low: in England, for example, although several early stone keeps had been built after the conquest, there were only somewhere between ten and fifteen in existence by 1100, and only around a hundred had been built by 1216.


title: Keep

text: Norman keeps had four sides, with the corners reinforced by pilaster buttresses; some keeps, particularly in Normandy and France, had a "barlongue" design, being rectangular in plan with their length twice their width, while others, particularly in England, formed a square. These keeps could be up to four storeys high, with the entrance placed on the first storey to prevent the door from being easily broken down; early French keeps had external stairs in wood, whilst later castles in both France and England built them in stone. In some cases the entrance stairs were protected by additional walls and a door, producing a forebuilding. The strength of the Norman design typically came from the thickness of the keep's walls: usually made of rag-stone, these could be up to 24 feet (7.3 metres) thick, immensely strong, and producing a steady temperature inside the building throughout summer and winter. The larger keeps were subdivided by an internal wall while the smaller versions had a single, slightly cramped chamber on each floor. Usually only the first floor would be vaulted in stone, with the higher storeys supported with timbers.


title: Keep

text: There has been extensive academic discussion of the extent to which Norman keeps were designed with a military or political function in mind, particularly in England. Earlier analyses of Norman keeps focused on their military design, and historians such as R. Brown Cathcart King proposed that square keeps were adopted because of their military superiority over timber keeps. Most of these Norman keeps were certainly extremely physically robust, even though the characteristic pilaster buttresses added little real architectural strength to the design. Many of the weaknesses inherent to their design were irrelevant during the early part of their history. The corners of square keeps were theoretically vulnerable to siege engines and galleried mining, but before the introduction of the trebuchet at the end of the 12th century, early artillery stood little practical chance of damaging the keeps, and galleried mining was rarely practised. Similarly, the corners of a square keep created dead space that defenders could not fire at, but missile fire in castle sieges was less important until the introduction of the crossbow in the middle of the 12th century, when arrowslits began to be introduced.


title: Keep

text: Nonetheless, many stone Norman keeps made considerable compromises to military utility. Norwich Castle, for example, included elaborate blind arcading on the outside of the building and appears to have had an entrance route designed for public ceremony, rather than for defence. The interior of the keep at Hedingham could certainly have hosted impressive ceremonies and events, but contained numerous flaws from a military perspective. Important early English and Welsh keeps such as the White Tower, Colchester, and Chepstow were all built in a distinctive Romanesque style, often reusing Roman materials and sites, and were almost certainly intended to impress and generate a political effect amongst local people. The political value of these keep designs, and the social prestige they lent to their builders, may help explain why they continued to be built in England into the late 12th century, beyond the point when military theory would have suggested that alternative designs were adopted.


title: Keep

text: The second early stone design, emerging from the 12th century onwards, was the shell keep, a "donjon annulaire" in French, which involved replacing the wooden keep on a motte, or the palisade on a ringwork, with a circular stone wall. Shell keeps were sometimes further protected by an additional low protective wall, called a chemise, around their base. Buildings could then be built around the inside of the shell, producing a small inner courtyard at the centre. The style was particularly popular in south-east England and across Normandy, although less so elsewhere. Restormel Castle is a classic example of this development, as is the later Launceston Castle; prominent Normandy and Low Country equivalents include Gisors and the Burcht van Leiden – these castles were amongst the most powerful fortifications of the period. Although the circular design held military advantages over one with square corners, as noted above these really mattered from only the end of the 12th century onwards; the major reason for adopting a shell keep design, in the 12th century at least, was the circular design of the original earthworks exploited to support the keep; indeed, some designs were less than circular in order to accommodate irregular mottes, such as that found at Windsor Castle.


title: Keep

text: During the second half of the 12th century, a range of new keep designs began to appear across France and England, breaking the previous unity of the regional designs. The use of keeps in castles spread through Iberia, but some new castles never incorporated keeps in their designs. One traditional explanation for these developments emphasises the military utility of the new approaches, arguing, for example, that the curved surfaces of the new keeps helped to deflect attacks, or that they drew on lessons learnt during the Crusades from Islamic practices in the Levant. More recent historical analysis, however, has emphasised the political and social drivers that underlay these mid-medieval changes in keep design.


title: Keep

text: Through most of the 12th century, France was divided between the Capetian kings, ruling from the Île-de-France, and kings of England, who controlled Normandy and much of the west of France. Within the Capetian territories, early experimentation in new keep designs began at Houdan in 1120, where a circular keep was built with four round turrets; internally, however, the structure remained conventionally square. A few years later, Château d'Étampes adopted a quatrefoil design. These designs, however, remained isolated experiments.


title: Keep

text: In the 1190s, however, the struggle for power in France began to swing in favour of Philip II, culminating in the Capetian capture of Normandy in 1204. Philip II started to construct completely circular keeps, such as the Tour Jeanne d'Arc, with most built in his newly acquired territories. The first of Philip's new keeps was begun at the Louvre in 1190 and at least another twenty followed, all built to a consistent standard and cost. The architectural idea of circular keeps may have come from Catalonia, where circular towers in castles formed a local tradition, and probably carried some military advantages, but Philip's intention in building these new keeps in a fresh style was clearly political, an attempt to demonstrate his new power and authority over his extended territories. As historian Philippe Durand suggests, these keeps provided military security and were a physical representation of the "renouveau capétien", or Capetian renewal.


title: Keep

text: Keep design in England began to change only towards the end of the 12th century, later than in France. Wooden keeps on mottes ceased to be built across most of England by the 1150s, although they continued to be erected in Wales and along the Welsh Marches. By the end of the 12th century, England and Ireland saw a handful of innovative angular or polygonal keeps built, including the keep at Orford Castle, with three rectangular, clasping towers built out from the high, circular central tower; the cross-shaped keep of Trim Castle and the famous polygonal design at Conisborough. Despite these new designs, square keeps remained popular across much of England and, as late as the 1170s, square Norman great keeps were being built at Newcastle. Circular keep designs similar to those in France really became popular in Britain in the Welsh Marches and Scotland for only a short period during the early 13th century.


title: Keep

text: As with the new keeps constructed in France, these Anglo-Norman designs were informed both by military thinking and by political drivers. The keep at Orford has been particularly extensively analysed in this regard, and although traditional explanations suggested that its unusual plan was the result of an experimental military design, more recent analysis concludes that the design was instead probably driven by political symbolism and the need for Henry to dominate the contested lands of East Anglia. The architecture would, for mid-12th century nobility, have summoned up images of King Arthur or Constantinople, then the idealised versions of royal and imperial power. Even formidable military designs such as that at Château Gaillard were built with political effect in mind. Gaillard was designed to reaffirm Angevin authority in a fiercely disputed conflict zone and the keep, although militarily impressive, contained only an anteroom and a royal audience chamber, and was built on soft chalk and without an internal well, both serious defects from a defensive perspective.


title: Keep

text: During most of the medieval period, Iberia was divided between Christian and Islamic kingdoms, neither of which traditionally built keeps, instead building watchtowers or mural towers. By the 12th century, however, the influence of France and the various military orders was encouraging the development of square keeps in Christian castles across the region, and by the second half of the century this practice was spread across into the Islamic kingdoms.


title: Keep

text: By contrast, the remainder of Europe saw stone towers being used in castles, but not in a way that fulfilled the range of functions seen in the western European keeps. In the Low Countries, it became popular for the local nobility to build stand-alone, square towers, but rarely as part of a wider castle. Similarly, square stone towers became popular in Venice, but these did not fulfil the same role as western keeps. In Germany, rectangular stone castles began to replace motte-and-bailey castles from the 12th century onwards. These designs included stone versions of the traditional "Bergfriede", which still remained distinct from the domestic keeps used in more western parts of Europe, with the occasional notable exception, such as the large, residential "Bergfried" at Eltville Castle.


title: Keep

text: Several designs for new castles emerged that made keeps unnecessary. One such design was the concentric approach, involving exterior walls guarded with towers, and perhaps supported by further, concentric layered defenses: thus castles such as Framlingham never had a central keep. Military factors may well have driven this development: R. Brown, for example, suggests that designs with a separate keep and bailey system inherently lacked a co-ordinated and combined defensive system, and that once bailey walls were sophisticated enough, a keep became militarily unnecessary. In England, gatehouses were also growing in size and sophistication until they too challenged the need for a keep in the same castle. The classic Edwardian gatehouse, with two large, flanking towers and multiple portcullises, designed to be defended from attacks both within and outside the main castle, has been often compared to the earlier Norman keeps: some of the largest gatehouses are called gatehouse keeps for this reason.


title: Keep

text: The quadrangular castle design that emerged in France during the 13th century was another development that removed the need for a keep. Castles had needed additional living space since their first emergence in the 9th century; initially this had been provided by halls in the bailey, then later by ranges of chambers alongside the inside of a bailey wall, such as at Goodrich. But French designs in the late 12th century took the layout of a contemporary unfortified manor house, whose rooms faced around a central, rectangular courtyard, and built a wall around them to form a castle. The result, illustrated initially at Yonne, and later at Château de Farcheville, was a characteristic quadrangular layout with four large, circular corner towers. It lacked a keep, which was not needed to support this design.


title: Keep

text: The end of the medieval period saw a fresh resurgence in the building of keeps in western castles. Some castles continued to be built without keeps: the Bastille in the 1370s, for example, combined a now traditional quadrangular design with machicolated corner towers, gatehouses and moat; the walls, innovatively, were of equal height to the towers. This fashion became copied across French and in England, particularly amongst the "nouveau riche", for example at Nunney. The royalty and the very wealthiest in France, England and Spain, however, began to construct a small number of keeps on a much larger scale than before, in England sometimes termed tower keeps, as part of new palace fortresses. This shift reflected political and social pressures, such as the desire of the wealthiest lords to have privacy from their growing households of retainers, as well as the various architectural ideas being exchanged across the region, despite the ongoing Hundred Years War between France and England.


title: Keep

text: The resurgence in French keep design began after the defeat of the royal armies at the battles of Crécy in 1346 and Poitiers in 1356, which caused high levels of social unrest across the remaining French territories. Charles V of France attempted to restore French royal authority and prestige through the construction of a new range of castles. The Château de Vincennes, where a new keep was completed under Charles by 1380, was the first example of these "palace fortresses". The keep at Vincennes was highly innovative: six stories high, with a "chemin de ronde" running around the machicolated battlements; the luxuriously appointed building was protected by an "enceinte" wall that formed a "fortified envelope" around the keep. The Vincennes keep was copied elsewhere across France, particularly as the French kings reconquered territories from the English, encouraging a style that emphasised very tall keeps with prominent machicolations. No allowance for the emerging new gunpowder weapons was made in these keeps, although later in the century gunports were slowly being added, as for example by Charles VI to his keep at Saint-Malo.


title: Keep

text: The French model spread into Iberia in the second half of the century, where the most powerful nobles in Castile built a number of similar tall keeps, such as that at Peñafiel, taking advantage of the weakness of the Castilian Crown during the period. Henry IV of Castile responded in the 15th century by creating a sequence of royal castles with prominent keeps at the Castle of La Mota, Portillo, and Alcázar of Segovia: built to particular proportions, these keeps became known as a key element of the Valladolid school of Spanish castle design. Smaller versions of these keeps were subsequently built by many aspiring new aristocracy in Spain, including many converted Jews, keen to improve their social prestige and position in society. The French model of tall keeps was also echoed in some German castles, such as that at Karlštejn, although the layout and positioning of these towers still followed the existing "bergfried" model, rather than that in western castles.


title: Keep

text: The 15th and 16th centuries saw a small number of English and occasional Welsh castles develop still grander keeps. The first of these large "tower keeps" were built in the north of England during the 14th century, at locations such as Warkworth. They were probably partially inspired by designs in France, but they also reflected the improvements in the security along the Scottish border during the period, and the regional rise of major noble families such as the Percies and the Nevilles, whose wealth encouraged a surge in castle building at the end of the 14th century. New castles at Raby, Bolton, and Warkworth Castle took the quadrangular castle styles of the south and combined them with exceptionally large tower keeps to form a distinctive, northern style. Built by major noble houses, these castles were typically even more opulent than the smaller castles like Nunney, built by the "nouveau riche". They marked what historian Anthony Emery has described as a "...second peak of castle building in England and Wales," following on from the Edwardian designs at the end of the 14th century.


title: Keep

text: In the 15th century, the fashion for the creation of very expensive, French-influenced palatial castles featuring complex tower keeps spread, with new keeps being built at Wardour, Tattershall, and Raglan Castle. In central and eastern England, some keeps began to be built in brick, with Caister and Tattershall forming examples of this trend. In Scotland, the construction of Holyrood Great Tower between 1528 and 1532 drew on this English tradition, but incorporated additional French influences to produce a highly secure but comfortable keep, guarded by a gun park. These tower keeps were expensive buildings to construct, each built to a unique design for a specific lord and, as historian Norman Pounds has suggested, they "...were designed to allow very rich men to live in luxury and splendour."


title: Keep

text: At the same time as these keeps were being built by the extremely wealthy, much smaller, keep-like structures called tower houses or peel towers were built across Ireland, Scotland, and northern England, often by relatively poorer local lords and landowners. It was originally argued that Irish tower houses were based on the Scottish design, but the pattern of development of such castles in Ireland does not support this hypothesis. A tower house would typically be a tall, square, stone-built, crenelated building; Scottish and Ulster tower houses were often also surrounded by a barmkyn or bawn wall. Most academics have concluded that tower houses should not be classified as keeps but rather as a form of fortified house.


title: Keep

text: As the 16th century progressed, keeps fell out of fashion once again. In England, the gatehouse also began to supplant the keep as the key focus for a new castle development. By the 15th century, it was increasingly unusual for a lord to build both a keep and a large gatehouse at the same castle, and by the early 16th century, the gatehouse had easily overtaken the keep as the more fashionable feature: indeed, almost no new keeps were built in England after this period. The classical Palladian style began to dominate European architecture during the 17th century, causing a further move away from the use of keeps. Buildings in this style usually required considerable space for the enfiladed formal rooms that became essential for modern palaces by the middle of the century, and this style was impossible to fit into a traditional keep. The keep at Bolsover Castle in England was one of the few to be built as part of a Palladian design.


title: Keep

text: From the 17th century onwards, some keeps were deliberately destroyed. In England, many were destroyed after the end of the Second English Civil War in 1649, when Parliament took steps to prevent another royalist uprising by slighting, or damaging, castles so as to prevent them from having any further military utility. Slighting was quite expensive and took considerable effort to carry out, so damage was usually done in the most cost efficient fashion with only selected walls being destroyed. Keeps were singled out for particular attention in this process because of their continuing political and cultural importance, and the prestige they lent their former royalist owners – at Kenilworth, for example, only the keep was slighted, and at Raglan, the keep was the main focus of parliamentary activity. There was some equivalent destruction of keeps in France in the 17th and 18th centuries, such as the slighting of Montaiguillon by Cardinal Richelieu in 1624, but the catalogue of damage was far less than that of the 1640s and early 1650s in England.