title: Atari 8-bit family

text: Atari had difficulty in transitioning manufacturing to Asia after closing its US factory. Originally intended to replace the 1200XL in mid-1983, the new models did not arrive until late that year. Although the 600XL/800XL were well positioned in terms of price and features, during the critical Christmas season they were available only in small numbers while the Commodore 64 was widely available. Brian Moriarty stated in "ANALOG Computing" that Atari "fail[ed] to keep up with Christmas orders for the 600 and 800XLs", reporting that as of late November 1983 the 800XL had not appeared in Massachusetts stores while 600XL "quantities are so limited that it's almost impossible to obtain".


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: Although the 800XL would ultimately be the most popular computer sold by Atari, the company was unable to defend its market share, and the ongoing race to the bottom reduced Atari's profits. Prices continued to erode; by November 1983 one toy store chain sold the 800XL for , above the wholesale price. After losing in the first nine months of the year, Atari that month announced that prices would rise in January, stating that it "has no intention of participating in these suicidal price wars". The 600XL and 800XL's prices in early 1984 were $50 higher than for the VIC-20 and Commodore 64, and a rumor stated that the company planned to discontinue hardware and only sell software. Combined with the simultaneous effects of the video game crash of 1983, Atari was soon losing millions of dollars a day. Its owner, Warner Communications, became desperate to sell off the division.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: "ANALOG Computing", writing about the 600XL in January 1984, stated that "the Commodore 64 and Tandy CoCo look like toys by comparison." The magazine approved of its not using the 1200XL's keyboard layout, and predicted that the XL's parallel bus "actually makes the 600 "more" expandable than a 400 or 800". While disapproving of the use of an operating system closer to the 1200XL's than the 400 and 800's, and the "inadequate and frankly disappointing" documentation, "ANALOG" concluded that "our first impression ... is mixed but mostly optimistic". The magazine warned, however, that because of "Atari's sluggish marketing", unless existing customers persuaded others to buy the XL models, "we'll all end up marching to the beat of a drummer whose initials are IBM".


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The high-end 1400XL were announced alongside the 600XL and 800XL. They added a built-in 300 baud modem and a voice synthesizer, and the 1450XLD has a built-in double-sided floppy disk drive in an enlarged case, with a slot for a second drive. Atari BASIC is built into the ROM and the PBI at the back for external expansion.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The 1400XL and the 1450XLD had their delivery dates pushed back, and in the end, the 1400XL was canceled outright, and the 1450XLD so delayed that it would never ship. Other prototypes which never reached market include the 1600XL, 1650XLD, and 1850XLD. The 1600XL was to have been a dual-processor model capable of running 6502 and 80186 code, and the 1650XLD is a similar machine in the 1450XLD case. These were canceled when James J. Morgan became CEO and wanted Atari to return to its video game roots. The 1850XLD was to have been based on the custom chipset in the Amiga Lorraine, which became the Commodore Amiga.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: Commodore founder Jack Tramiel resigned in January 1984 and in July, he purchased the Atari consumer division from Warner for an extremely low price. When Tramiel took over, the high-end XL models were canceled and the low-end XLs were redesigned into the XE series. Nearly all research, design, and prototype projects were canceled, including the Amiga-based 1850XLD. Tramiel focused on developing the 68000-based Atari ST computer line and recruiting former Commodore engineers to work on it.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: Atari sold about 700,000 computers in 1984 compared to Commodore's two million. As his new company prepared to ship the Atari ST in 1985, Tramiel stated that sales of Atari 8-bit computers were "very, very slow". They were never an important part of Atari's business compared to video games, and it is possible that the 8-bit line was never profitable for the company though almost 1.5 million computers had been sold by early 1986.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: By that year, the Atari software market was decreasing in size. "Antic" magazine stated in May 1985 that it had received many letters complaining that software companies were ignoring the Atari market, and urged readers to contact the companies' leaders. "The Atari 800 computer has been in existence since 1979. Six years is a pretty long time for a computer to last. Unfortunately, its age is starting to show", "ANALOG Computing" wrote in February 1986. The magazine stated that while its software library was comparable in size to that of other computers, "now—and even more so in the future—there is going to be less software being made for the Atari 8-bit computers", warning that 1985 only saw a "trickle" of major new titles and that 1986 "will be even leaner".


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: "Computer Gaming World" that month stated "games don't come out for the Atari first anymore". In April, the magazine published a survey of ten game publishers which found that they planned to release 19 Atari games in 1986, compared to 43 for Commodore 64, 48 for Apple II, 31 for IBM PC, 20 for Atari ST, and 24 for Amiga. Companies stated that one reason for not publishing for Atari was the unusually high amount of software piracy on the computer, partly caused by the Happy Drive. The magazine warned later that year, "Is this the end for Atari 800 games? It certainly looks like it might be from where I write". In 1987, MicroProse confirmed that it would not release "Gunship" for the Atari 8-bits, stating that the market was too small.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The 65XE and 130XE (XE stands for XL-Compatible Eight-bit) were announced in 1985 at the same time as the initial models in the Atari ST series, and they visually resembled the ST. The 65XE has 64 KB of RAM and is functionally equivalent to the 800XL minus the PBI connection. The 130XE has 128 KB of memory, accessible through bank-selection. The 130XE was aimed to appeal at the mass market.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The 130XE added the Enhanced Cartridge Interface (ECI), which is almost compatible with the Parallel Bus Interface (PBI), but physically smaller, since it is located next to the standard 400/800-compatible Cartridge Interface. It provides only those signals that did not exist in the latter. ECI peripherals were expected to plug into both the standard Cartridge Interface and the ECI port. Later revisions of the 65XE contain the ECI port.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The 65XE was marketed as 800XE in Germany and Czechoslovakia, to ride on the popularity of the 800XL in those markets. All 800XE units contain the ECI port.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The Atari XEGS (XE Game System) was launched in 1987. A repackaged 65XE with a removable keyboard, it boots to the 1981 port of "Missile Command" instead of BASIC if the keyboard is disconnected.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: In 2006, Curt Vendel, who designed the Atari Flashback for Atari in 2004, claimed that Atari released the 8-bit chipset into the public domain.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: There is agreement in the community that Atari authorized the distribution of the Atari 800's ROM with the Xformer 2.5 emulator, which makes the ROM legally available today as freeware.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The Atari machines consist of a 6502 as the main processor, a combination of ANTIC and GTIA chips to provide graphics, and the POKEY chip to handle sound and serial input/output. These support chips are controlled via a series of registers that can be user-controlled via memory load/store instructions running on the 6502. For example, the GTIA uses a series of registers to select colors for the screen; these colors can be changed by inserting the correct values into its registers, which are mapped into the address space that is visible to the 6502. Some of the coprocessors use data stored in RAM, such as ANTIC's display buffer and display list, and GTIA's Player/Missile (sprite) information.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The custom hardware features enable the computers to perform many functions directly in hardware, such as smooth background scrolling, that would need to be done in software in most other computers. Graphics and sound demos were part of Atari's earliest developer information and used as marketing materials with computers running in-store demos.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: ANTIC is a microprocessor which processes a sequence of instructions known as a display list. An instruction adds one row of the specified graphics mode to the display. Each mode varies based on whether it represents text or a bitmap, the resolution and number of colors, and its vertical height in scan lines. An instruction also indicates if it contains an interrupt, if fine scrolling is enabled, and optionally where to fetch the display data from memory.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: Since each row can be specified individually, the programmer can create displays containing different text or bitmapped graphics modes on one screen, where the data can be fetched from arbitrary, non-sequential memory addresses.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: ANTIC reads this display list and the display data using DMA (Direct Memory Access), then translates the result into a pixel data stream representing the playfield text and graphics. This stream then passes to GTIA which applies the playfield colors and incorporates Player/Missile graphics (sprites) for final output to a TV or composite monitor. Once the display list is set up, the display is generated without any CPU intervention.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: There are 15 character and bitmap modes. In low-resolution modes, 2 or 4 colors per display line can be set. In high-resolution mode, one color can be set per line, but the luminance values of the foreground and background can be adjusted. High resolution bitmap mode (320x192 graphics) produces NTSC artifacts which are "tinted" depending on the color values; it was normally impossible to get color with this mode on PAL machines.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: For text modes, the character set data is pointed to by a register. It defaults to an address in ROM, but if pointed to RAM then a programmer can create custom characters. Depending on the text mode, this data can be on any 1K or 512 byte boundary. Additional registers flip all characters upside down and toggle inverse video.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The Color Television Interface Adaptor (CTIA) is the graphics chip originally used in the Atari 400 and 800. It is the successor to the TIA chip of the 1977 Atari VCS. According to Joe Decuir, George McLeod designed the CTIA in 1977. It was replaced with the Graphic Television Interface Adaptor (GTIA) in later revisions of the 400 and 800 and all later 8-bit models. GTIA, also designed by McLeod, adds three new playfield graphics modes to ANTIC which enable more colors.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The CTIA/GTIA receives Playfield graphics information from ANTIC and applies colors to the pixels from a 128 or 256 color palette depending on the color interpretation mode in effect. CTIA/GTIA controls Player/Missile Graphics (sprites) including collision detection between players, missiles, and the playfield; display priority for objects; and color/luminance control of all displayed objects. CTIA/GTIA outputs separate digital luminance and chroma signals, which are mixed to form an analog composite video signal.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: CTIA/GTIA reads the joystick triggers and the , , keys, and controls the keyboard speaker in the Atari 400/800. In later computer models the audio output for the keyboard speaker is mixed with the audio out for transmission to the TV/video monitor.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: POKEY is the third custom support chip, responsible for reading the keyboard, generating sound and serial communications (in conjunction with the PIA chip (Peripheral Interface Adapter, 6520) commands and IRQs, plus controlling the 4 joystick movements on 400/800 and later RAM banks or ROM (OS/BASIC/Self-test) enables for XL/XE lines. It provides timers, a random number generator for generating acoustic noise and random numbers, and maskable interrupts. POKEY has four semi-independent audio channels, each with its own frequency, noise and volume control. Each 8-bit channel has its own audio control register which select the noise content and volume. For higher sound frequency resolution (quality), two of the audio channels can be combined for more accurate sound (frequency can be defined with 16-bit value instead of usual 8-bit). The name POKEY comes from the words "POtentiometer" and "KEYboard", which are two of the I/O devices that POKEY interfaces with (the potentiometer is the mechanism used by the paddle). The POKEY chip—and its dual- and quad-core versions—was used in many Atari coin-op arcade machines of the 1980s, including "Centipede" and "Millipede", "Missile Command", "Asteroids Deluxe", "Major Havoc", and "".


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: "Production timeline dates retrieved from Atari 8-Bit Computers F.A.Q.", "and Chronology of Personal Computers".


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: During the lifetime of the 8-bit series, Atari released a large number of peripherals including cassette tape drives, 5.25-inch floppy drives, printers, modems, a touch tablet, and an 80-column display module.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: Atari's peripherals use the proprietary Atari SIO port, which allows them to be daisy chained together. A primary goal of the Atari computer design was user-friendliness which was assisted by the SIO bus. Since only one kind of connector plug is used for all devices the Atari computer was easy for novice users to expand. Atari SIO devices use an early form of plug-n-play. Peripherals on the bus have their own IDs, and can deliver downloadable drivers to the Atari computer during the boot process. The additional electronics in these peripherals made them cost more than the equivalent "dumb" devices used by other systems of the era.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: Atari did not initially disclose technical information for its computers, except to software developers who agreed to keep it secret, possibly to increase its own software sales. Cartridge software was so rare at first that "InfoWorld" joked in 1980 that Atari owners might have considered turning the slot "into a fancy ashtray". The magazine advised them to "clear out those cobwebs" for Atari's "Star Raiders", which became the platform's killer app, akin to VisiCalc for the Apple II in its ability to persuade customers to buy the computer.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: Chris Crawford and others at Atari published detailed technical information in "De Re Atari". In 1982, Atari published both the "Atari Home Computer System Hardware Manual" and an annotated source listing of the operating system. These resources resulted in many books and articles about programming the computer's custom hardware.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: Because of graphics superior to those of the Apple II and Atari's home-oriented marketing, games dominated its software library. A 1984 compendium of reviews used 198 pages for games compared to 167 for all others.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The Atari 8-bit computers come with an operating system built into the ROM. The Atari 400/800 has two versions:


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The XL/XE all have OS revisions, which created compatibility issues with certain software. Atari responded with the Translator Disk, a floppy disk which loads the older 400/800 Rev. 'B' or Rev. 'A' OS into the XL/XE computers.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The XL/XE models that followed the 1200XL also have the Atari BASIC ROM built-in, which can be disabled at startup by holding down the silver codice_2 key. Originally this was revision B, which has some serious bugs. Later models have revision C.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The standard Atari OS only contained very low-level routines for accessing floppy disk drives. An extra layer, a disk operating system, was required to assist in organizing file system-level disk access. This was known as Atari DOS, and like most home computer DOSes of the era, had to be booted from floppy disk at every power-on or reset. Atari DOS was entirely menu-driven.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: While the ANTIC chip allows a variety of different Playfield modes and widths, the original Atari Operating System included with the Atari 800/400 computers provides easy access to a limited subset of these graphics modes. These are exposed to users through Atari BASIC via the "GRAPHICS" command, and to some other languages, via similar system calls. Oddly, the modes not directly supported by the original OS and BASIC are the modes most useful for games. The later version of the OS used in the Atari 8-bit XL/XE computers added support for most of these "missing" graphics modes.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: ANTIC text modes support soft, redefineable character sets. ANTIC has four different methods of glyph rendering related to the text modes: Normal, Descenders, Single color character matrix, and Multiple colors per character matrix.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The ANTIC chip uses a Display List and other settings to create these modes. Any graphics mode in the default CTIA/GTIA color interpretation can be freely mixed without CPU intervention by changing instructions in the Display List.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The actual ANTIC screen geometry is not fixed. The hardware can be directed to display a narrow Playfield (128 color clocks/256 hi-res pixels wide), the normal width Playfield (160 color clocks/320 hi-res pixels wide), and a wide, overscan Playfield (192 color clocks/384 hi-res pixels wide) by setting a register value. While the Operating System's default height for creating graphics modes is 192 scan lines ANTIC can display vertical overscan up to 240 TV scan lines tall by creating a custom Display List.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The Display List capabilities provide horizontal and vertical coarse scrolling requiring minimal CPU direction. Furthermore, the ANTIC hardware supports horizontal and vertical fine scrolling—shifting the display of screen data incrementally by single pixels (color clocks) horizontally and single scan lines vertically.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: The video display system was designed with careful consideration of the NTSC video timing for color output. The system CPU clock and video hardware are synchronized to one-half the NTSC clock frequency. Consequently, the pixel output of all display modes is based on the size of the NTSC color clock which is the minimum size needed to guarantee correct and consistent color regardless of the pixel location on the screen. The fundamental accuracy of the pixel color output allows horizontal fine scrolling without color "strobing"—unsightly hue changes in pixels based on horizontal position caused when signal timing does not provide the TV/monitor hardware adequate time to reach the correct color.


title: Atari 8-bit family

text: GTIA modes are Antic Mode F displays with an alternate color interpretation option enabled via a GTIA register. The full color expression of these GTIA modes can be engaged in Antic text modes 2 and 3, though these will also requires a custom character set to achieve practical use of the colors.


title: The Vivienne

text: James Lee Williams (born 12 April 1992), better known by the stage name The Vivienne, is a Welsh drag queen, known for being appointed the first UK "RuPaul's Drag Race" ambassador in 2015, winning the first series of "RuPaul's Drag Race UK" in 2019, and later returning to compete in the seventh season of "RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars" in 2022. As part of her victory, she was awarded her own online television series, later titled "The Vivienne Takes on Hollywood". The series premiered on 9 April 2020 on BBC Three and follows her trip to Hollywood to produce her own music video.


title: The Vivienne

text: The Vivienne chose her name because she was known for wearing Vivienne Westwood clothing, adding the definite article to make it unique. She has worked in many Liverpool bars, including Superstar Boudoir, GBar and Heaven. In May 2015, she was crowned the UK Ambassador of "RuPaul's Drag Race".


title: The Vivienne

text: On 21 August 2019, The Vivienne was announced as one of the ten contestants to be competing in the first series of "RuPaul's Drag Race UK". In September 2019, she participated in "Jag Race", a racing competition in collaboration with Jaguar Cars, and raced for Sahir House, a charity based in her hometown of Liverpool that provides a space in which people can speak freely without fear of prejudice, stigma, abuse or exploitation in relation to HIV. In November 2019, she was crowned the first winner of RuPaul's Drag Race UK. In November to December 2019, The Vivienne, alongside the cast of the first series of "RuPaul's Drag Race UK" embarked on a tour hosted by "Drag Race" alum Alyssa Edwards.


title: The Vivienne

text: In December 2019, The Vivienne alongside fellow "RuPaul's Drag Race UK" contestant Baga Chipz began starring in "Morning T&T" on WOW Presents Plus. The show saw The Vivienne and Baga reprise their Snatch Game impersonations of Donald Trump and Margaret Thatcher respectively, to host a fictional television news show, and consisted of six episodes as of January 2020. At DragCon UK in January 2020 an additional episode was filmed with The Vivienne and Baga appearing as themselves. Guests on the web series included fellow "Drag Race UK" alumni Sum Ting Wong as Queen Elizabeth II and Cheryl Hole as Gemma Collins.


title: The Vivienne

text: In March 2020, World of Wonder announced six-part series "The Vivienne Takes on Hollywood", documenting The Vivienne travelling to Los Angeles in order to make a music video. The show premiered on BBC Three on 9 April, and simultaneously started streaming on WOW Presents Plus. The same month, The Vivienne, once again alongside Baga Chipz, started presenting the UK version of "I Like to Watch", a web series produced by Netflix in which they humorously review Netflix programming. She has since appeared on Celebrity Juice.


title: The Vivienne

text: In July 2020, The Vivienne voiced as Donald Trump in the BBC Three documentary "Trump in Tweets". She was one of the four competitors who appeared in the special Christmas edition of " The Great British Sewing Bee" that was transmitted on New Year's Eve 2020 on BBC 1.


title: The Vivienne

text: In April 2022, The Vivienne was announced as part of the seventh season of "RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars", whereby former winners of the franchise returned for the title of "Queen of All Queens". In October 2022, she was announced to be competing in the fifteenth series of ITV ice-skating reality show, "Dancing on Ice", setting her to be the first drag artist to participate in the show.


title: The Vivienne

text: Williams was born and raised in North Wales and moved to Liverpool at 16 years old. He is of Welsh and Romani heritage.


title: Greg James

text: Gregory James Alan Milward (born 17 December 1985) is an English radio and television presenter, comedian and author. He is the host of BBC Radio 1's breakfast show, co-presenter on the cricket podcast "Tailenders" alongside Felix White and James Anderson and writer of the "Kid Normal" book series alongside Chris Smith.


title: Greg James

text: James was born to Alan and Rosemary Milward on 17 December 1985 in Lewisham, London. His parents were both teachers; Alan a headteacher, and Rosemary a special-needs teacher. He has one sister, Catherine. As a baby, he received three life-saving blood transfusions and was in an incubator for a week.


title: Greg James

text: James first broadcast on hospital radio aged 14, however, he later discovered that the transmitter was broken and none of his shows actually went out.


title: Greg James

text: James is an alumnus of The Bishop's Stortford High School, where he was deputy head boy. He studied drama at the University of East Anglia in Norwich and achieved a 2:1.


title: Greg James

text: While at university, he presented several shows on the students' union radio station Livewire 1350AM, becoming the station manager in 2006. He later said that being station manager was a job he did not enjoy. He also presented several breakfast shows on Future Radio in Norwich and also on Pulse Rated in Salhouse before he got his break at BBC Radio 1. He won 'Best Male Presenter' at the Student Radio Awards 2005. During university holidays he presented stints on Galaxy North East.


title: Greg James

text: James joined BBC Radio 1 in June 2007 to present Early Breakfast on Friday and cover for other presenters such as Sara Cox and Vernon Kay. He presented his first show on Friday 1 June 2007, the day after graduating from university. In October 2007, he was awarded the Early Breakfast Show (4:30am7am, which was soon changed to 4am6:30am) five days a week. He presented his first full-time show on Monday 1 October 2007, and his first ever Record of the Week was Hometown Glory by Adele.


title: Greg James

text: On 21 September 2009, a new schedule was launched on Radio 1, and it was announced that James would move to an early afternoon slot – 1pm to 4pm - replacing Edith Bowman, who moved to the weekend breakfast slot.


title: Greg James

text: James was the host of The Official Chart Update, on Wednesday afternoons between 3:30pm and 4pm, and 4pm to 4:30pm when he moved to drivetime, from its inception in March 2010 until January 2013 when Scott Mills took it over, at the original time of 3:30pm.


title: Greg James

text: James also co-hosts "Not Just Cricket" on 5 Live with England cricketers Graeme Swann and James Anderson that is broadcast once every few months. The show's main focus is cricket, but topics are varied.


title: Greg James

text: He also hosts the weekly podcast "That's What He Said" with BBC Radio 1 Newsbeat presenter Chris Smith. The podcast features the best bits of James' show each week, guest interviews, and special bonus content just for the podcast. Greg and Chris play 'Cheeseball' each week - a game which involves throwing Babybell into the centre of a cheese 'court' and the closest to the centre wins. The pair also do birthday, engagement, and wedding announcements to the theme of Jurassic Park. Each podcast also comes with an e-mail from Julia from Germany - the show clerk - who provides the pair with a weekly agenda. More recent podcast features include 'Friendly Foreigners', 'Julia's word of the week' and 'Dr. Tiny's Science fact'.


title: Greg James

text: James guest hosted the edition of 16 February 2013 of the 5 Live comedy sport programme "Fighting Talk", standing in for Colin Murray.


title: Greg James

text: On 15 November 2017, James along with Felix White, Jimmy Anderson, faded up producer Mark 'Sharky' Sharman (AKA Sharknado the Movie), and regular input from Bristolian Matt ‘Mattchin’ Horan began hosting a cricketing podcast "Tailenders". This was initially a weekly podcast covering the 2017–18 Ashes series, since 23 May 2018 it was renewed to continue on a 'weekly' basis. Features include 'General Cricketing Sadness', 'Mattchin's Quiz' and 'Black Wednesday/Xmas Show/App Launch'.


title: Greg James

text: Since 2019, James has also presented the BBC Radio 4 series "Rewinder", a show where he digs through the BBC archives to find classic stuff to reflect on current stories of the week.


title: Greg James

text: On 28 February 2012, it was announced that James and Scott Mills would swap shows as of 2 April 2012, meaning James would host the drivetime show (1600-1900) from that date. James's show had a variety of recurring features including: "The 10 Minute Takeover" (Mon-Thurs 1800), "Impossible Karaoke", "Rage against the Answer Machine", "Mayor of Where", "Ask The Nation", "Wrong Uns", "What's My Age Again" prior to "The Official Chart" moving to Fridays, celebrity guests on Thursdays, and Film Reviews with reviewer Ali Plumb. Off the cuff improv games typically include Chris Smith aka: 'Chris Smith with the news' the main afternoon "Newsbeat" reader.


title: Greg James

text: James once hosted his show for an entire week broadcasting from the BFBS radio studio in Camp Bastion, Afghanistan; he also staged "G In the Park", a mini-music festival from the BBC in Glasgow prior to the T in the Park festival.


title: Greg James

text: Due to changes in release dates of music worldwide, since 10 July 2015 James' former Friday show was taken up by "The Official Chart" between 1600 and 1745, followed by "Dance Anthems" between 1800 and 1900.


title: Greg James

text: The drive time show is traditionally split into two halves, with a fifteen-minute break between 1745 and 1800 for the evening Newsbeat broadcast.


title: Greg James

text: On 19 June 2017, James chose the name "RoboCrop" from "thousands and thousands" of listeners' suggestions for a tractor on loan to Dorset Police to tour agricultural shows to raise awareness of rural crime. Dorset Police said the tractor, equipped with a siren, had a top speed of and was "not built for response policing".


title: Greg James

text: On 20 August 2018, James took over "Radio 1 Breakfast" from Nick Grimshaw. The pair switched shows, with Grimshaw taking on the Drivetime show from 4pm-7pm. It was announced by the two presenters on Grimshaw's Breakfast Show on 31 May, with Grimshaw joking "It's time for a change, time for a new show and, most importantly, it's going to be time for a new wake-up time... preferably around 11:30am". Both presenters were very excited about the change, with James saying that taking over would be a "big challenge" but he was ready and willing "to give it a go". His first guest on the show was Wallace the Lion from Blackpool Zoo. The show was broadcast four days a week, until December 2020 when the BBC announced changes to the Radio 1 schedule, with James' Breakfast Show now being five days a week, whilst Matt Edmondson and Mollie King moved from the weekend breakfast show to the weekend afternoon slot.


title: Greg James

text: James is also a TV presenter. In 2009, he presented a TV show for BBC Three called "Sun, Sex and Holiday Madness", about British tourists in Magaluf and "Young, Jobless and Living at Home", also for BBC Three. He has presented "Sound" on BBC Two's "Switch" and he hosted the backstage winners' podium at the 2009 BRIT Awards, which he did again in 2010.


title: Greg James

text: In 2011, James started presenting the BBC Three's coverage of Glastonbury and in August 2012, the Reading and Leeds Festival (both with Fearne Cotton). He presented coverage of T in the Park 2012, alongside Edith Bowman in July. In 2013, James co-presented extensive coverage of Radio 1's Big Weekend on BBC Three with Alice Levine. In June 2013, James once again hosted BBC Three's coverage of Glastonbury, alongside Gemma Cairney.


title: Greg James

text: He again hosted the BBC's coverage of festivals including Radio 1's Big Weekend, T in The Park, Reading, and Glastonbury in the summer of 2014.


title: Greg James

text: In 2012, James co-presented two series of "Unzipped" (originally named "Britain Unzipped") on BBC Three with Russell Kane and later "How to Win Eurovision", a special two-hour show, on 11 May 2013. In December 2012, James and Gabby Logan presented "50 Greatest London 2012 Olympics Moments" on BBC Three. The show was broadcast on his 27th birthday.


title: Greg James

text: On 25 September 2013, James along with Kane starred in their chat show "Staying in with Greg and Russell" on BBC Three. Both later appeared on the Children in Need 2013 appeal night during a Lip Sync Challenge, which James won by performing 'The Circle of Life' from 'The Lion King'.


title: Greg James

text: In September 2014, James hosted the closing ceremony of The Invictus Games with Clare Balding live on BBC Two. In 2015, he presented the BBC Three reality game show "I Survived a Zombie Apocalypse".


title: Greg James

text: In May 2015, he played a police officer in the BBC Three comedy murder mystery series "Murder in Successville". Also in 2015, James co-wrote and starred in the Comedy Feeds episode "Dead Air".


title: Greg James

text: In March 2016, he hosted a segment of the "Sport Relief" telethon with Alesha Dixon. James has guest presented several episodes of "The One Show".


title: Greg James

text: In November 2016, James co-presented the BBC's "Children in Need" appeal for the first time. He also presented the "Children in Need Rocks for Terry" concert at the Royal Albert Hall with Fearne Cotton.


title: Greg James

text: Between 2016 and 2017, Greg presented BT Sport's cricket coverage of the South Africa tour to Australia.


title: Greg James

text: In 2017 and 2018, he co-presented the primetime BBC One music show "Sounds Like Friday Night" with A.Dot. The show wasn't renewed for a third series.


title: Greg James

text: In 2022, James became an executive producer for the Sky documentary series "The Man Who Bought Cricket", focusing on billionaire and fraudster Allen Stanford. It was based on a BBC Sounds podcast presented by James on the same subject, in a series called "Sport's Strangest Crimes".


title: Greg James

text: Together with newsreader Chris Smith, James wrote the children's book series "Kid Normal" which is a 6-book series about a normal boy in a superhero world. The first one was published by Bloomsbury and released on 13 July 2017 in the UK and the second one the following March. The first book was the biggest selling children's debut of the year and have sold over 100,000 copies combined. The books have also been released in 19 other languages around the world.


title: Greg James

text: In January 2013, along with Jack Dee, Melanie C, Dara Ó Briain, Philips Idowu and Chelsee Healey, James took part in the Red Nose Day 'Hell and High Water Challenge'. They journeyed along the Zambezi River for 5 days raising money to build a new school in the region. They raised well over £1 million for the charity.


title: Greg James

text: On 2 March 2013, James appeared on the "Let's Dance for Comic Relief" judging panel alongside Arlene Phillips and Lee Mack.


title: Greg James

text: In 2014, James was part of 'Team Coe' in the Sport Relief 'Clash of The Titans'. His team won the competition held at the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park. He took part in the cycling, synchronized swimming and swimming relay.


title: Greg James

text: In February 2015, he, Chris Smith, Yasmin Evans and Alex Jones traveled to Uganda to take part in Operation Health. There, they helped to rebuild the Iyolwa Health Centre in Eastern Uganda, using money raised by Comic Relief. He blogged about it here. In total, the Radio 1 audience raised £551,405.


title: Greg James

text: In February 2016, for Sport Relief, Greg underwent the tough challenge, dubbed the 'Gregathlon', of completing five Triathlons in 5 days, in 5 different cities across the UK, hosting his Drivetime Radio 1 show after completing his daily Triathlon, raising £1 million for charity.


title: Greg James

text: In February 2018, Greg did his second 'Gregathlon' for Sport Relief: "Pedal to the Peaks." He cycled over 500 miles and climbed Snowdon and Scafell Pike, before the challenge had to be postponed because extreme weather conditions caused by the 'Beast from the East' made the challenge too dangerous to continue. Greg returned to complete the challenge and climbed Ben Nevis on 16 March 2018, raising over £1 million.


title: Greg James

text: He is a keen cricket fan, and used to play for Hertfordshire Under-18s. He is also a keen supporter of Aviva Premiership Rugby Club Bath Rugby. He is also a football fan and supports Arsenal.


title: Greg James

text: He is an ambassador for two charities; The Stroke Association and The Lord's Taverners. He also took part in the 2012 NHS Team Give Blood campaign, representing O+.


title: Greg James

text: On 1 June 2018, James announced his engagement to his girlfriend Bella Mackie, the daughter of newspaper editor Alan Rusbridger. They married in September of the same year. They live in London.


title: Jan de Bont

text: Jan de Bont (; born 22 October 1943) is a Dutch cinematographer, director and film producer. He is best known for directing the films "Speed" (1994) and "Twister" (1996). As a director of photography, de Bont also worked on numerous blockbusters and genre films, including "Cujo", "Flesh and Blood", "Die Hard", "The Hunt for Red October", and "Basic Instinct".


title: Jan de Bont

text: De Bont was born to a Catholic family in Eindhoven, Netherlands, one of 17 children. His earliest works were made while studying at the Amsterdam Film Academy with Dutch avant-garde director Adriaan Ditvoorst. He first became known in the Netherlands as the cinematographer for the infamous 1971 film "Blue Movie", followed by the 1973 film "Turkish Delight" (1973), directed by Paul Verhoeven, starring Rutger Hauer and Monique van de Ven. Since the early 1980s, he has worked frequently in Hollywood, often collaborating with directors including Verhoeven and John McTiernan.


title: Jan de Bont

text: While serving as cinematographer for the 1981 film "Roar", de Bont experienced one of many on-set injuries during filming, when a lion lifted his scalp, requiring 220 stitches. After "Roar", de Bont shot the 1983 horror film "Cujo", an adaptation of the Stephen King novel of the same name.


title: Jan de Bont

text: In 1988, he was director of photography on the critically acclaimed action film "Die Hard". The following year, de Bont shot the Ridley Scott-directed action thriller "Black Rain".


title: Jan de Bont

text: De Bont made his directorial debut with the action thriller "Speed" in 1994, which was a sleeper hit. He followed this up with the even more successful "Twister" in 1996. His output since has had mixed commercial and critical success. In 1997, he returned to direct the sequel" ", which was a commercial and critical failure. In 1999, he oversaw the commercially successful but critically derided remake of "The Haunting", which received five Razzie nominations, including Worst Picture. His most recent directorial outing was the 2003 action adventure film "", based on the video game series of the same name, and starring Angelina Jolie as the eponymous Lara Croft.


title: Jan de Bont

text: De Bont began pre-production on an American "Godzilla" film for a summer 1996 release, but quit at the end of 1994 when Sony Pictures Entertainment (Columbia Pictures and TriStar Pictures's parent company) refused to approve his budget request. He was eventually replaced by Roland Emmerich, who rewrote the script in addition to directing. While critically panned, Emmerich's "Godzilla" was moderately successful at the box-office.


title: Jan de Bont

text: He was married to Dutch actress Monique van de Ven from 1973 to 1988. Monique starred in the 1973 film "Turkish Delight", for which de Bont did the cinematography. De Bont has two children from his second marriage with Trish Reeves.


title: Jan de Bont

text: De Bont is an avid collector of photography, owning hundreds of photographic prints by famous and influential photographers.


title: Goods and services

text: Goods are items that are usually (but not always) tangible, such as pens, physical books, salt, apples, and hats. Services are activities provided by other people, who include architects, suppliers, contractors, technologists, teachers, doctors, lawn care workers, dentists, barbers, waiters, online servers, a digital book, a digital video game or a digital movie. Taken together, it is the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services which underpins all economic activity and trade. According to economic theory, consumption of goods and services is assumed to provide utility (satisfaction) to the consumer or end-user, although businesses also consume goods and services in the course of producing other goods and services (see: Distribution: Channels and intermediaries).


title: Goods and services

text: Physiocratic economists categorized production into productive labour and unproductive labour. Adam Smith expanded this thought by arguing that any economic activities directly related to material products (goods) were productive, and those activities which involved non-material production (services) were unproductive. This emphasis on material production was adapted by David Ricardo, Thomas Robert Malthus and John Stuart Mill, and influenced later Marxian economics. Other, mainly Italian, 18th-century economists maintained that all desired goods and services were productive.


title: Goods and services

text: The division of consumables into services is a simplification: these are not discrete categories. Most business theorists see a continuum with pure service at one endpoint and pure tangible commodity goods at the other. Most products fall between these two extremes. For example, a restaurant provides a physical good (prepared food), but also provides services in the form of ambience, the setting and clearing of the table, etc. Although some utilities, such as electricity and communications service providers, exclusively provide services, other utilities deliver physical goods, such as water utilities. For public sector contracting purposes, the electricity supply is defined among goods rather than services in the European Union, whereas under United States federal procurement regulations, it is treated as a service.


title: Goods and services

text: Goods are normally structural and can be transferred in an instant while services are delivered over a period of time. Goods can be returned while a service, once delivered cannot. Goods are not always tangible and may be virtual e.g. a book may be paper or electronic.


title: Goods and services

text: Marketing theory makes use of the service-goods continuum as an important concept which 'enables marketers to see the relative goods/services composition of total products.


title: Goods and services

text: In a narrower sense, service refers to quality of customer service: the measured appropriateness of assistance and support provided to a customer. This particular usage occurs frequently in retailing.


title: Goods and services

text: Distinctions are made between goods and services in the context of international trade liberalization. For example, the World Trade Organization's General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) covers international trade in goods and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) covers the services sector.


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: Mira, Royal Detective is an American CGI-animated mystery children's television series produced by Wild Canary Animation, which is inspired by Indian culture and customs. The show's protagonist, Mira, is the first South Asian protagonist in a Disney Junior show. It debuted on Disney Junior channel and programming block in United States on March 20, 2020, and in Canada on March 22.


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: On December 12, 2019, the show was renewed for a second season prior to the first season's debut. The second season premiered April 5, 2021 on Disney Junior and DisneyNOW. The series finale aired on June 20, 2022.


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: Set in a fictional kingdom called Jalpur which resembles a late 19th century India, the series follows the brave and resourceful girl Mira, a commoner who is appointed to the role of royal detective by the queen and travels throughout her kingdom to help royals and commoners alike. Joining Mira are her two mongoose sidekicks Mikku and Chikku.


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: Sascha Paladino, previously a writer for "Doc McStuffins", told the "Associated Press" in March 2020 that they wanted the series to "feel authentic" and that they did that by including "as many South Asian voices in the process as possible." He hoped that the show would, for those who aren't South Asian, allow them to see "a new and interesting culture that hopefully they'll want to explore," and said that he believed that the characters are universal enough that "all kids can relate to the stories." Shagorika Ghosh Perkins of IW Group as a cultural consultant, a Bollywood dancer named Nakul Dev Mahajan, and other designers, musicians, writers, those working in the animation studio in India, were consulted in making the show. The series was created for kids ages 2 to 7, with each of Mira's decisions encouraging "critical thinking and deductive reasoning in young viewers" in the view of "Romper.


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: The show is developed by Becca Topol, who previously worked on "Elena of Avalor", who is also the story editor. Perkins, the show's cultural consultant, called the show a "celebration of Indian and South Asian culture," and added that she is glad that her daughter's generation will "have a character and role model to identify with and look up to." She further said the show allows South Asian children to "see themselves on television" and that those new to the culture will be "exposed to it in a fun and accessible way."


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: Deepak Ramapriyan, a Baltimore-born musician, whose parents are immigrants from India, is the orchestrator and music consultant for the show. In March 2020, he told the "Baltimore Sun" that when listening to the music score for the series he sometimes feels like he is dreaming and said that seeing everything about the series is "mindblowing." He also described the show, to the Sun, as a "full-on sharing Indian culture in all of its aspects," saying that viewers are now able to "see the vast and rich magic and color of India, and have it expressed in such a beautiful way," calling this a major positive. One of the voice actors, Shah, called the music catchy and easy to dance to, while Cheena, another voice actor, was happy that the music is dine in such a way that parents, and kids, can be involved and interested in it. Apart from this, Amritha Vaz is the music composer for the series.


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: Paladino also said that to prepare for the show they watched a lot of Bollywood films which have huge musical numbers, so they decided to depict that in the animation with dancing by lots of characters while using "authentic Indian music and instruments." Nakul Dev Mahajan, a Bollywood choreographer, who worked on the show, said he gets the script and music, talks with the writers and crew of the show, choreographs the piece, videotapes himself and assistants, then send those videos to the team, with the artists animating the movements of his body and that of his assistants. He was also appreciative that the team working on the show, with many interested in Bollywood dancing, and said that the show celebrates styles of Indian dance from various regions across the country.


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: The art director for the series, Dorothea Gerassimova, says that she was inspired and energized to convey the beautiful patterns, culture, and art in India, calling it a "fantastic opportunity to create this wonderful, stylized world." She also noted that the show was able to weave in inspiration from "Indian architecture, art, colors, fabrics and patterns" along with detailed architecture and art from India.


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: Ladnier, when interviewed by the Associated Press, called the show a "pretty good start to a career" and said that the show is a reminder of "how beautiful" Indian culture is. Additionally, Kal Penn expressed his excitement over the show, saying that the current generation is going be a group of kids "for whom this is going to be normal," without the emotional baggage of a lack of representation in the past. Frieda Pinto called the show important for Indian, South Asian, and Desi kids, while Utkarsh Ambudkar hoped that the show created the space where "young brown children can watch TV and see themselves," Karan Brar said that it was exciting to push forward more diverse content, while Maulik Pancholy hoped that the show will encourage children to celebrate and explore Indian culture. Sonal Shah called the show special, as it has a lot of meaning behind it, and said that the show is "so awesome" while Parvesh Cheena agreed with her assessment of the show. Shah said that her friend suggested her for the part, and Cheena said that his older brother, Danny Pudi, is also part of the show, noting he did "a normal audition" but that the producers offered that he be a bandit with Sonal, which he accepted. In another interview, Cheena said that playing a bandit was a lot of fun. Jameela Jamil, another voice actor, praised that the show is representing "different people from different cultures around the world." The cast of the show is "completely South Asian" and all are from the Indian diaspora as noted by Cheena.


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: It premiered on Disney Junior in the United States on March 20, 2020, while it premiered in India on March 22. The show had its first international debut in Canada on March 22. It premiered in South Korea on April 29. The following month, on May 24, it premiered on Disney+ Hotstar Premium. It premiered in Disney Junior Asia & Hong Kong on July 3, 2020. (Also known as the final program before closing on October 1, 2021.) It premiered in Brazil on July 20, 2020. Later that year, it premiered in Israel on October 2 with Hebrew dubbing, and in Spain and Poland on November 9. It premiered in United Kingdom, Ireland and Italy on Disney+ on April 2, 2021. It will premiere in France and Netherlands in 2022.


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: From May 2 to June 20, four specials which celebrate music and dancing from Bollywood will be presented on Disney Junior, consisting of the third and final season of "Mira, Royal Detective".


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: Shagorika Ghosh Perkins of "ColorLines" praised the diversity of the series, saying, "Bringing these experiences and stories to a new generation of children will enrich their lives, help to bridge the geographical divide and hopefully activate viewers’ imaginations, stimulate curiosity, and empower young minds to build trust, respect and friendships." Burkely Hermann of "I Love Libraries" praised the series for positively portraying libraries, as shows like "She-Ra and the Princesses of Power", "Hilda", "Cleopatra in Space", and "Too Loud" have done, noting specific episodes with library scenes which show the value of libraries and the organization of these institutions. He specifically highlights an episode where Mira is tasked with solving a "library-related mystery" as she peddles a bookmobile across the city, with the characters singing a "sweet song about the importance of reading and libraries" and Mira saying that library materials should be checked out correctly so the "library can keep track of their materials," allowing them to be available to others. Emily Ashby of "Common Sense Media" rated the show a 4 out of 5 stars. She further noted that the sources authentically incorporates various aspects of Indian culture, while stories challenge Mira and her friends to solve mysteries, and her extended family members are important part of her life, making clear that family isn't limited to her nuclear family. Ashby also praised the lively music and the "right touch of fantasy" like talking animals and flying vehicles for its "young audience."


title: Mira, Royal Detective

text: Some people from the Indian-American community praised the series, calling it "incredible" and "pretty cool" to see representation of themselves on TV, praising the involvement of South Asians in the production process, and singing along with people of all ages and races singing along with the "We're on the case" song.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: The Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) () is an Indian right-wing Hindu organization based on Hindu nationalism. The VHP was founded in 1964 by M. S. Golwalkar and S. S. Apte in collaboration with Swami Chinmayananda. Its stated objective is "to organise, consolidate the Hindu society and to serve and protect the Hindu Dharma". It was established to construct and renovate Hindu temples, and deal with matters of cow slaughter and religious conversion. The VHP is a member of the Sangh Parivar group, the family of Hindu nationalist organisations led by the RSS.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: The VHP has been criticized for contributing to violence against Muslims in India, most notably for its role in the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992 over the Ayodhya dispute.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: The VHP was founded in 1964 by RSS leaders M. S. Golwalkar and S. S. Apte in collaboration with the Hindu spiritual leader Chinmayananda Saraswati. According to Chinmayananda, the objective of the VHP was to awaken Hindus to their place in the comity of nations.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: Chinmayananda was nominated as its founding President, while Apte was nominated as its founding General Secretary. It was decided at the meeting that the name of the proposed organization would be "Vishva Hindu Parishad" and that a world convention of Hindus was to be held at Prayag (Allahabad) during the Kumbh Mela of 1966 for its launch. It was further decided that it would be a non-political organisation and that no office bearer of any political party shall be simultaneously an office bearer in the Parishad. The delegation of the founders also included Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan founder K. M. Munshi, Gujarati scholar Keshavram Kashiram Shastri, Sikh leader Tara Singh, Namdhari Sikh leader Satguru Jagjit Singh and eminent politicians such as C. P. Ramaswami Iyer.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: In the mid 1990s, VHP had 1.6 million members worldwide. According to a 2008 estimate, VHP claimed 6.8 million members.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: The VHP was first mooted at a conference in Pawai, Sandipani Sadhanalaya, Bombay on 29 August 1964. The conference was hosted by RSS chief M. S. Golwalkar. The date was chosen to coincide with the festival of Janmashtami. Several representatives from the Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist and Jain faiths were present in the meeting, as well as the Dalai Lama. Golwalkar explained that "all faiths of Indian origins need to unite", saying that the word "Hindu" (people of "Hindustan") also applied to adherents of all the above religions. Apte declared:


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: Its main objective is "to organise, consolidate the Hindu society and to serve, protect the Hindu Dharma". It has been involved in social service projects and in encouraging the construction and renovation of Hindu temples. It is against the caste system, and opposes cow slaughter. Defending Hindus around the world and Hindu rights has been one of its stated objectives. The VHP considers Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs as well as native tribal religions as part of the greater Hindu fraternity.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: The VHP promotes the education and involvement of members of Hindu diaspora in their "cultural duties and spiritual values." This view was first promoted by Chinmayananda, and is reflected in the promulgation of VHP organizations in Indo-Caribbean countries Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: The VHP is against religious conversion, and uses trained members known as "Dharma Prasaar Vibhag" (Dharma Propagation Unit) to meet their ends. The VHP also provides means for reconversion back to Hinduism. From 1982 to 1985, over 66,000 people were reconverted to Hinduism following the efforts of VHP.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: VHP claimed to have converted 5,000 people to Hinduism in 2002. In 2004, VHP claimed to have converted 12,857 people to Hinduism. 3,727 of these were Muslims and 9,130 were Christians.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: In Punjab, the VHP has played an active role to prevent conversions of Sikhs. Majority of them are low caste Sikhs converting to Christianity. This may be a result of oppression by high caste Sikhs but there are considerable free will conversions among the higher class Sikhs too; however, the VHP have forcibly stopped Christian missionaries from converting Sikhs.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: VHP engaged in "re-conversion" program in the state of Orissa. In June 2002, VHP converted 143 tribal Christians into Hinduism in Tainser village of Sundergarh district. In 2005, VHP in Bargarh carried out reconversion ceremony for 567 Christians. The new converts had signed affidavits, confirming their intention to change their religion. Another 600 Dalit tribal Christians were converted to Hinduism in Bijepur, Odisha.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: In April 2005, in West Bengal members of 45 tribal families converted to Hinduism from Christianity in a ceremony organised by Akhil Bhartiya Sanatan Santhal, allied to VHP.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: In March 2021, a Freedom to Religion Bill was passed in Madhya Pradesh, and the VHP plans to organize for action in other states.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: is a campaign planned by the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) and its affiliates Bajrang Dal etc., that claimed to marry young Muslim girls to Hindu men.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: In 2016, journalist Rahul Kotiyal of Scroll.in was awarded Ramnath Goenka Award for reporting on a campaign by RSS and Bajrang Dal named "Beti Bachao, Bahu Lao". The campaign attempted to stop Hindu girls from marrying non-Hindus. If RSS members get information of a Hindu girl planning to marry a Muslim man, then the RSS members would track the girl and would inform the parents of the girl accusing this to be a case of Love Jihad.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: In 2005, after the protests organised by VHP, the Jharkhand Legislative Assembly passed a Cow Protection Commission Bill that made the killing of, cruelty to and illegal trading of cows a crime.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: In 2007, VHP had launched nationwide protest against demolition of the Rama Setu. On 12 September 2007, the VHP, with the aid of BJP and the Rameswaram Sreeramsetu Surakshaya Manch, had blocked road and rail traffic in Orissa. Thousands of activists participated in these protests in Bhubaneswar, Jatani, Rourkela, and Sambalpur.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: The Bajrang Dal founded in 1984, is organised in many states in major training camps called "shakhas", where thousands of youths simultaneously train in various activities, receive sports, education in Hindutva and cultural indoctrination. The Durga Vahini, founded in 1991 under the tutelage of Sadhvi Rithambara as its founding chairperson and the support of the VHP, is described as the "female arm of the Dal". Members of the Vahini contend that the portrayal of their group as a branch of the Bajrang Dal is an oversimplification, and that their goals are to "dedicate ourselves to spiritual, physical, mental and knowledge development". The VHP also have divisions made up of women. VHP secretary Giri Raj Kishore charted out highly visible roles for women in the group. He charted out two "satyagrahas" for women during their demonstrations.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: The VHP has been a prime backer of the World Hindu Conference in which issues such as casteism, sectarianism, and the future of Hindus were discussed. Prior Conferences have included Hindu Groups such as Parisada Hindu Dharma.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: Vishwa Hindu Parishad has presence in 29 countries outside of India. The Australia wing of Vishva Hindu Parishad conducts activities such as conducting weekend schools, language classes, cultural workshops, festivals. The festivals are also organised for open to all communities promoting Unity in Diversity. The press release from city council of Holroyd states that Vishva Hindu Parishad is active in supporting multiculturalism in the same region.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: Hindu Students Council (also known as HSC) is an organization of Hindu students in the US and Canada. The HSC was set up in 1990 with support from the Vishwa Hindu Parishad of America. Although the HSC says that it became fully independent in 2003, its association with that body was a matter of some debate. Prior to its separation from its parent organization, it was considered to be the student-wing of the VHP.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: The VHP had been aggressively involved in the Ayodhya dispute over the Ram Janmabhoomi, or Babri Masjid before its demolition, since March 1984, after getting encouraged by the strong response it had got from "ekatmata yatra" programme, it organised in 1983, which was aimed at Hindu unity and self-protection against Islam and Christianity. This activity in the Ayodhya issue involved demonstrations, petitions and litigation, along with militant processions, forceful conversion ceremonies and incidents of violence and vandalism, particularly targeting Muslims. The VHP is also said to have sought the destruction of the Babri mosque. According to the VHP and its affiliated organisations, the Babri Mosque was built by demolishing the temple at the birthplace of Rama (Ram Janmabhoomi) by the Mughal Emperor Babur in early 16th century. It further stated in Allahabad court documentation that the building was in a dilapidated condition. It was in ruins and could not be used for worship or any activities. In 1989 , the VHP, keeping in view the impending Loksabha elections, organized a massive movement to start the construction of a Ram temple at the disputed site. The BJP-VHP organized a huge rally of 200000 volunteers at this site on 6 December, 1992 and set out to demolish the mosque.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: According to the Human Rights Watch, the VHP and Bajrang Dal, in collaboration with BJP had been involved in 2002 Gujarat riots. Though VHP has denied these claims, VHP spokesman Kaushikbahi Mehta said, "We in the VHP had nothing to do with the violence except to take care of widows and victims of the Godhra mayhem."


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: In 2015, VHP defended the demolition of a church in Haryana, although it has denied involvement in the incident. VHP joint general secretary Surendra Jain alleged that the church was built "for the purpose of aggressive conversion" and likened its destruction to the violence of the 1857 war which he claimed "was fought for the cause of religion".


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: On 4 June 2018, the VHP was classified as a militant religious organization by the CIA in its "World Factbook"s entry for India, under the category of political pressure groups, along with Bajrang Dal. The VHP reportedly explored legal options to have this tag removed. "The World Factbook" removed the mentions of the VHP and the Bajrang Dal from the entry by 25 June 2018.


title: Vishva Hindu Parishad

text: On 15th August, BJP Government in Gujarat released 4 rapist who raped 5 months pregnant Bilkis Bano during 2002 Gujarat Riots.


title: Current transformer

text: A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used to reduce or multiply an alternating current (AC). It produces a current in its secondary which is proportional to the current in its primary.


title: Current transformer

text: Current transformers, along with voltage or potential transformers, are instrument transformers. Instrument transformers scale the large values of voltage or current to small, standardized values that are easy to handle for measuring instruments and protective relays. The instrument transformers isolate measurement or protection circuits from the high voltage of the primary system. A current transformer provides a secondary current that is accurately proportional to the current flowing in its primary. The current transformer presents a negligible load to the primary circuit.


title: Current transformer

text: Current transformers are the current-sensing units of the power system and are used at generating stations, electrical substations, and in industrial and commercial electric power distribution.


title: Current transformer

text: A current transformer has a primary winding, a core, and a secondary winding, although some transformers, including current transformers, use an air core. While the physical principles are the same, the details of a "current" transformer compared with a "voltage" transformer will differ owing to different requirements of the application. A current transformer is designed to maintain an accurate ratio between the currents in its primary and secondary circuits over a defined range.


title: Current transformer

text: The alternating current in the primary produces an alternating magnetic field in the core, which then induces an alternating current in the secondary. The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. Accurate current transformers need close coupling between the primary and secondary to ensure that the secondary current is proportional to the primary current over a wide current range. The current in the secondary is the current in the primary (assuming a single turn primary) divided by the number of turns of the secondary. In the illustration on the right, 'I' is the current in the primary, 'B' is the magnetic field, 'N' is the number of turns on the secondary, and 'A' is an AC ammeter.


title: Current transformer

text: Current transformers typically consist of a silicon steel ring core wound with many turns of copper wire, as shown in the illustration to the right. The conductor carrying the primary current is passed through the ring. The CT's primary, therefore, consists of a single 'turn'. The primary 'winding' may be a permanent part of the current transformer, i.e., a heavy copper bar to carry current through the core. Window-type current transformers are also common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding. To assist accuracy, the primary conductor should be centered in the aperture.


title: Current transformer

text: CTs are specified by their current ratio from primary to secondary. The rated secondary current is normally standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT secondary winding will supply an output current of 5 amperes when the primary winding current is 4000 amperes. This ratio can also be used to find the impedance or voltage on one side of the transformer, given the appropriate value at the other side. For the 4000:5 CT, the secondary impedance can be found as , and the secondary voltage can be found as . In some cases, the secondary impedance is "referred" to the primary side, and is found as . Referring the impedance is done simply by multiplying initial secondary impedance value by the current ratio. The secondary winding of a CT can have taps to provide a range of ratios, five taps being common.


title: Current transformer

text: Current transformer shapes and sizes vary depending on the end-user or switch gear manufacturer. Low-voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either a ring type or plastic molded case.


title: Current transformer

text: Split-core current transformers either have a two-part core or a core with a removable section. This allows the transformer to be placed around a conductor without disconnecting it first. Split-core current transformers are typically used in low current measuring instruments, often portable, battery-operated, and hand-held (see illustration lower right).


title: Current transformer

text: Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the operation of the power grid. Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the electrical utility's watt-hour meter on many larger commercial and industrial supplies.


title: Current transformer

text: High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain or polymer insulators to isolate them from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT window.


title: Current transformer

text: Current transformers can be mounted on the low voltage or high voltage leads of a power transformer. Sometimes a section of a bus bar can be removed to replace a current transformer.


title: Current transformer

text: Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For example, protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide isolation between metering and protection circuits and allows current transformers with different characteristics (accuracy, overload performance) to be used for the devices.


title: Current transformer

text: In the United States, the National Electrical Code (NEC) requires residual current devices in commercial and residential electrical systems to protect outlets installed in "wet" locations such as kitchens and bathrooms, as well as weatherproof outlets installed outdoors. Such devices, most commonly ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), typically run both the 120-volt energized conductor and the neutral return conductor through a current transformer, with the secondary coil connected to a trip device.


title: Current transformer

text: Under normal conditions, the current in the two circuit wires will be equal and flow in opposite directions, resulting in zero net current through the CT and no current in the secondary coil. If the supply current is redirected downstream into the third (ground) circuit conductor (e.g., if the grounded metallic case of a power tool contacts a 120-volt conductor), or into earth ground (e.g., if a person contacts a 120-volt conductor), the neutral return current will be less than the supply current, resulting in a positive net current flow through the CT. This net current flow will induce current in the secondary coil, which will cause the trip device to operate and de-energize the circuit - typically within 0.2 seconds.


title: Current transformer

text: The burden (load) impedance should not exceed the specified maximum value to avoid the secondary voltage exceeding the limits for the current transformer. The primary current rating of a current transformer should not be exceeded, or the core may enter its non-linear region and ultimately saturate. This would occur near the end of the first half of each half (positive and negative) of the AC sine wave in the primary and compromise accuracy.


title: Current transformer

text: Current transformers are often used to monitor high currents or currents at high voltages. Technical standards and design practices are used to ensure the safety of installations using current transformers.


title: Current transformer

text: The secondary of a current transformer should not be disconnected from its burden while current is in the primary, as the secondary will attempt to continue driving current into an effective infinite impedance potentially generating high voltages and thus compromising operator safety. For certain current transformers, this voltage may reach several kilovolts and may cause arcing. Exceeding the secondary voltage may also degrade the accuracy of the transformer or destroy it. Output voltage in open operation is limited by core saturation since the primary flux is no longer canceled by secondary flux, smaller current transformers may not actually incur dangerous voltages when operating nominally. Faster current transients from loads being switched on etc. can however still induce dangerous voltage levels due to high current slope.


title: Current transformer

text: Accuracy classes for various types of measurement and at standard loads in the secondary circuit (burdens) are defined in IEC 61869-1 as classes 0.1, 0.2s, 0.2, 0.5, 0.5s, 1 and 3. The class designation is an approximate measure of the CT's accuracy. The ratio (primary to secondary current) error of a Class 1 CT is 1% at rated current; the ratio error of a Class 0.5 CT is 0.5% or less. Errors in phase are also important, especially in power measuring circuits. Each class has an allowable maximum phase error for a specified load impedance.


title: Current transformer

text: Current transformers used for protective relaying also have accuracy requirements at overload currents in excess of the normal rating to ensure accurate performance of relays during system faults. A CT with a rating of 2.5L400 specifies with an output from its secondary winding of twenty times its rated secondary current (usually ) and 400 V (IZ drop) its output accuracy will be within 2.5 percent.


title: Current transformer

text: The secondary load of a current transformer is termed the "burden" to distinguish it from the primary load.


title: Current transformer

text: The burden in a CT metering electrical network is largely resistive impedance presented to its secondary winding. Typical burden ratings for IEC CTs are 1.5 VA, 3 VA, 5 VA, 10 VA, 15 VA, 20 VA, 30 VA, 45 VA and 60 VA. ANSI/IEEE burden ratings are B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5, B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a burden rating of B-0.2 will maintain its stated accuracy with up to 0.2 Ω on the secondary circuit. These specification diagrams show accuracy parallelograms on a grid incorporating magnitude and phase angle error scales at the CT's rated burden. Items that contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit are switch-blocks, meters and intermediate conductors. The most common cause of excess burden impedance is the conductor between the meter and the CT. When substation meters are located far from the meter cabinets, the excessive length of cable creates a large resistance. This problem can be reduced by using thicker cables and CTs with lower secondary currents (1 A), both of which will produce less voltage drop between the CT and its metering devices.


title: Current transformer

text: The knee-point voltage of a current transformer is the magnitude of the secondary voltage above which the output current ceases to linearly follow the input current within declared accuracy. In testing, if a voltage is applied across the secondary terminals the magnetizing current will increase in proportion to the applied voltage, until the knee point is reached. The knee point is defined as the voltage at which a 10% increase in applied voltage increases the magnetizing current by 50%. For voltages greater than the knee point, the magnetizing current increases considerably even for small increments in voltage across the secondary terminals. The knee-point voltage is less applicable for metering current transformers as their accuracy is generally much higher but constrained within a very small range of the current transformer rating, typically 1.2 to 1.5 times rated current. However, the concept of knee point voltage is very pertinent to protection current transformers, since they are necessarily exposed to fault currents of 20 to 30 times rated current.


title: Current transformer

text: Ideally, the primary and secondary currents of a current transformer should be in phase. In practice, this is impossible, but, at normal power frequencies, phase shifts of a few tenths of a degree are achievable, while simpler CTs may have phase shifts up to six degrees. For current measurement, phase shift is immaterial as ammeters only display the magnitude of the current. However, in wattmeters, energy meters, and power factor meters, phase shift produces errors. For power and energy measurement, the errors are considered to be negligible at unity power factor but become more significant as the power factor approaches zero. At zero power-factor, any indicated power is entirely due to the current transformer's phase error. The introduction of electronic power and energy meters has allowed current phase error to be calibrated out.


title: Current transformer

text: Bar-type current transformers have terminals for source and load connections of the primary circuit, and the body of the current transformer provides insulation between the primary circuit and ground. By use of oil insulation and porcelain bushings, such transformers can be applied at the highest transmission voltages.


title: Current transformer

text: Ring-type current transformers are installed over a bus bar or an insulated cable and have only a low level of insulation on the secondary coil. To obtain non-standard ratios or for other special purposes, more than one turn of the primary cable may be passed through the ring. Where a metal shield is present in the cable jacket, it must be terminated so no net sheath current passes through the ring, to ensure accuracy. Current transformers used to sense ground fault (zero sequence) currents, such as in a three-phase installation, may have three primary conductors passed through the ring. Only the net unbalanced current produces a secondary current - this can be used to detect a fault from an energized conductor to ground. Ring-type transformers usually use dry insulation systems, with a hard rubber or plastic case over the secondary windings.


title: Current transformer

text: For temporary connections, a split ring-type current transformer can be slipped over a cable without disconnecting it. This type has a laminated iron core, with a hinged section that allows it to be installed over the cable; the core links the magnetic flux produced by the single turn primary winding to a wound secondary with many turns. Because the gaps in the hinged segment introduce inaccuracy, such devices are not normally used for revenue metering.


title: Current transformer

text: Current transformers, especially those intended for high voltage substation service, may have multiple taps on their secondary windings, providing several ratios in the same device. This can be done to allow for reduced inventory of spare units, or to allow for load growth in an installation. A high-voltage current transformer may have several secondary windings with the same primary, to allow for separate metering and protection circuits, or for connection to different types of protective devices. For example, one secondary may be used for branch overcurrent protection, while a second winding may be used in a bus differential protective scheme, and a third winding used for power and current measurement.


title: Current transformer

text: Specially constructed "wideband current transformers" are also used (usually with an oscilloscope) to measure waveforms of high frequency or pulsed currents within pulsed power systems. Unlike CTs used for power circuitry, wideband CTs are rated in output volts per ampere of primary current.


title: Current transformer

text: If the burden resistance is much less than inductive impedance of the secondary winding at the measurement frequency then the current in the secondary tracks the primary current and the transformer provides a current output that is proportional to the measured current. On the other hand, if that condition is not true, then the transformer is inductive and gives a differential output. The Rogowski coil uses this effect and requires an external integrator in order to provide a voltage output that is proportional to the measured current.


title: Current transformer

text: Ultimately, depending on client requirements, there are two main standards to which current transformers are designed. IEC 61869-1 (in the past IEC 60044-1) & IEEE C57.13 (ANSI), although the Canadian and Australian standards are also recognised.


title: Current transformer

text: Current transformers are used for protection, measurement and control in high-voltage electrical substations and the electrical grid. Current transformers may be installed inside switchgear or in apparatus bushings, but very often free-standing outdoor current transformers are used. In a switchyard, "live tank" current transformers have a substantial part of their enclosure energized at the line voltage and must be mounted on insulators. "Dead tank" current transformers isolate the measured circuit from the enclosure. Live tank CTs are useful because the primary conductor is short, which gives better stability and a higher short-circuit current rating. The primary of the winding can be evenly distributed around the magnetic core, which gives better performance for overloads and transients. Since the major insulation of a live-tank current transformer is not exposed to the heat of the primary conductors, insulation life and thermal stability is improved.


title: Current transformer

text: A high-voltage current transformer may contain several cores, each with a secondary winding, for different purposes (such as metering circuits, control, or protection). A neutral current transformer is used as earth fault protection to measure any fault current flowing through the neutral line from the wye neutral point of a transformer.


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: The Mobile Protected Firepower (MPF) system is a U.S. Army program to procure a light tank that is capable of providing mobile, protected, direct, offensive fire capability. The program is part of the Next Generation Combat Vehicle program. A previous light tank development for the Army, the M8 Armored Gun System, was canceled in 1996.


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: The Army downselected General Dynamics Land Systems' (GDLS) Griffin II and BAE Systems' M8 AGS to go forward with evaluation. Both companies delivered prototypes of their vehicles in 2020. BAE's submission was disqualified in 2022. The Army selected the GDLS model later that year. The Army has a requirement for 504 units.


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: In November 2017, the Army issued Request for Proposal (RFP) for the Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) phase and, in order to maximize competition, planned to award up to two Middle Tier Acquisition (MTA) contracts for the EMD phase in early 2019. The expected buy was 504 MPF systems.


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: SAIC partnered with ST Kinetics and CMI Defence to offer its Next Generation Armored Fighting Vehicle. BAE Systems offered a vehicle based on the M8 Armored Gun System. General Dynamics Land Systems offered a variant of the Griffin II.


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: In December 2018, the Army downselected BAE and GDLS's proposals to move forward. The Army awarded Rapid Prototyping contracts for MPF to these two companies.


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: GDLS delivered its prototypes (based on the Griffin II) in December 2020. BAE faced production difficulties and supplier issues related to the COVID-19 pandemic, which delayed delivery until March 2021. The assessment phase began in January 2021 at Fort Bragg, NC, with testing scheduled to run through June 2021. In March 2022, Janes reported that BAE was disqualified from the competition due to "noncompliance issues", leaving GDLS as the only remaining option.


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: The GDLS Griffin II light tank was selected in June 2022. The initial contract is for 96 vehicles with first delivery by the end of 2023. The first units are expected to be equipped with it by Q4 of FY25.


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: The GDLS light tank incorporates components and systems from the British Ajax tank (itself based on the Austrian–Spanish ASCOD). It was publicly unveiled on April 22, 2020.


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: BAE Systems' proposal was a lighter updated version of the M8 Armored Gun System, which was canceled in 1996. The Army reportedly disqualified BAE's proposal in March 2022.


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: The Army stated in its request for proposals in 2015 that it expected MPF to operate in concert with the Army Ground Mobility Vehicle and Light Reconnaissance Vehicle. The Army said the MPF will operate in "austere and unpredictable locations."


title: Mobile Protected Firepower

text: The Army opted not to add a requirement for an air-drop capability unlike the M8 Armored Gun System, which had this capability. According to an Army Futures Command official, as of 2021, one of the two competing team's bids was potentially light enough to airdrop due to its "significantly" lighter weight.


title: Bamar people

text: The Bamar (, ; also known as the Burmans) are a Sino-Tibetan ethnic group native to Myanmar (formerly Burma) in Southeast Asia. With approximately 35 million people, the Bamar make up the largest ethnic group in Myanmar, constituting 68% of the country's population. The geographic homeland of the Bamar is the Irrawaddy River basin. Burmese is the native language of the Bamar, as well as the national language and lingua franca of Myanmar.


title: Bamar people

text: In the Burmese language, Bamar (ဗမာ, also transcribed Bama) and Myanmar (မြန်မာ, also transliterated Mranma and transcribed Myanma) have historically been interchangeable endonyms. Burmese is a diglossic language; "Bamar" is the diglossic low form of "Myanmar," which is the diglossic high equivalent. The term "Myanmar" is extant to the early 1100s, first appearing on a stone inscription, where it was used as a cultural identifier, and has continued to be used in this manner. From the onset of British colonial rule to the Japanese occupation of Burma, "Bamar" was used in Burmese to refer to both the country and its majority ethnic group. Since the country achieved independence in 1948, "Myanmar" has been officially used to designate both the nation-state and its official language, while "Bamar" has been used to designate the majority ethnic group, especially in written contexts. In spoken usage, "Bamar" and "Myanmar" remain interchangeable, especially with respect to referencing the language and country.


title: Bamar people

text: In the English language, the Bamar are known by a number of exonyms, including Burmans and Burmese, both of which were interchangeably used by the British. In June 1989, in an attempt to indigenise both the country's place names and ethnonyms, the military government changed the official English names of the country (from Burma to Myanmar), the language (from Burmese to Myanmar), and the country's majority ethnic group (from Burmans to Bamar).


title: Bamar people

text: The Bamar's northern origins are evidenced by the extant distribution of Burmish languages to the north of the country, and the fact that "taung" (တောင်), the Burmese word for 'south' also means 'mountain,' which suggests that at one point ancestors of the Bamar lived north of the Himalayas. Until a thousand years ago, ancestors of the Bamar and Yi were much more widespread across Yunnan, Guizhou, southern Sichuan, and northern Burma. During the Han dynasty in China, Yunnan was ruled primarily by the Burmese-Yi speaking Dian and Yelang kingdoms. During the Tang dynasty in China, Yunnan and northern Burma were ruled by the Burmese-Yi speaking Nanzhao kingdom. Between the 600s to 800s, the Bamar had cut through the Himalayas, and down the Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) and Salween (Thanlwin) Rivers in large numbers, establishing the outpost of Pagan (Bagan). The Bamar gradually settled in the fertile Irrawaddy and Salween river valleys that were home to Pyu city-states, where they established the Pagan Kingdom. Between the 1050s to 1060s, King Anawrahta founded the Pagan Empire, for the first time unifying the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery under one polity. By the 1100s, the Burmese language and culture had become dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing Pyu (formerly called Tircul) and Pali norms. Conventional Burmese chronicles state that the Pyu were assimilated into the Bamar population.


title: Bamar people

text: By the 1200s, Bamar settlements were found as far south as Mergui (Myeik) and Tenasserim (Taninthayi), whose inhabitants continue to speak archaic Burmese dialects. Beginning in the 900s, Burmese speakers began migrating westward, crossing the Arakan Mountains and settling in what is now Rakhine State. By the 1100s, they had consolidated control of the region, becoming a tributary state of the Pagan Empire until the 13th century. Over time, these Bamar migrants formed a distinct cultural identity, becoming the Rakhine people (also known as the Arakanese).


title: Bamar people

text: A 2014 DNA analysis found that the Bamar exhibited 'extraordinary' genetic diversity, with 80 different mitochondrial lineages and indications of recent demographic expansion. As the Bamar expanded their presence in the region following their arrival by the 800s, they likely incorporated older haplogroups including those of the Pyu and Mon. Another genetic study of G6PD mutations in Mon and Bamar men found that the two groups likely share a common ancestry, despite speaking languages that belong to different language families. Another 2022 study found that Central and Southern Thais had a large proportion of Bamar-related ancestry (at 24% and 11% respectively), while Bamar ancestry was also detected among the Palaung and Shan groups.


title: Bamar people

text: Modern-day Bamar identity remains permeable and dynamic and is generally distinguished by language and religion, i.e., the Burmese language and Theravada Buddhism. There is considerable variation among individuals who identify as Bamar, and members of other ethnic groups, particularly the Mon, Shan, Karen, and Sino-Burmese, self-identify as Bamar to various degrees, some to the extent of complete assimilation. To this day, the Burmese language does not have precise terminology that distinguishes the Western concepts of race, ethnicity and religion; the term "lu-myo" (, ) can reference all three. For instance, many Bamar self-identify as members of the 'Buddhist "lu-myo"' or the 'Myanmar "lu-myo",' which has posed a significant challenge for census-takers.


title: Bamar people

text: In the pre-colonial era, ethnic identity was fluid and dynamic, marked by patron-client relationships, religion, and regional origins. Consequently, many non-Bamar assimilated and adopted a Bamar identity and norms for sociopolitical purposes. Between the 1500s and 1800s, the notion of Bamar identity expanded significantly, driven by intermarriage with other communities and voluntary changes in self-identification, especially in Mon and Shan-speaking regions. Bamar identity was also more inclusive in the precolonial era, especially during 1700s when Konbaung kings embarked on major territorial expansion campaigns, to Manipur, Assam, Mrauk U, and Pegu. These campaigns paralleled those in other Southeast Asian kingdoms, such as Vietnam's southward expansion (Nam tiến), which wrested control of the Mekong delta from the Champa during the same period.


title: Bamar people

text: In the early 1900s, a narrower strain of Bamar nationalism developed in response to British colonial rule, which failed to address Bamar grievances and actively marginalised the Bamar from public spheres such as education and the armed forces. The British employed divide and rule tactics which fostered mistrust between the Bamar and ethnic minorities, and would have consequential effects on Burmese ethnic identity and politics in the post-colonial era. In 1925, the British discharged all Bamar soldiers from the colonial army, and adopted an exclusionary policy of recruiting only among the Chin, Kachin and Karen minorities, and by 1930 the Dobama Asiayone, a leading Burmese nationalist group had emerged, from which independence leaders like U Nu and Aung San would launch their political careers. For most of its colonial history, Burma was administered as a province of British India. It was not until 1937 that Burma was formally separated and became directly administered by the British Crown, after a long struggle for direct colonial representation.


title: Bamar people

text: The Burmese government officially classifies nine 'ethnic groups' under the Bamar 'national race.' Of these nine groups, the Bamar, Dawei (Tavoyan), Myeik or Beik (Merguese), Yaw, and Yabein, all speak dialects of the Burmese language. One group, the Hpon, speak a Burmish language closely related to Burmese. Two groups, the Kadu and Ganan, speak more distantly related Sino-Tibetan languages. The last group, the Moken (Salon in Burmese), speak an unrelated Austronesian language. The Burmese-speaking Danu and Intha are classified under the Shan 'national race.'


title: Bamar people

text: The Bamar predominantly live at the confluence of the Irrawaddy, Salween, and Sittaung River valleys in the centre of the country, which roughly encompass the country's seven administrative regions, namely Sagaing, Magwe, Mandalay in Upper Myanmar, as well as Bago, Yangon, Ayeyarwady and Taninthayi Regions in Lower Myanmar. However, the Bamar, particularly labour migrants, are found throughout all 14 of Myanmar's regions and states.


title: Bamar people

text: The cultural heartland of the Bamar is called Anya (, , also spelt Anyar), which is the area adjoining the upper reaches of the Irrawaddy River, and centred around Sagaing, Magwe, and Mandalay. The Anya region () is often called the 'central dry zone' in English due to its paucity of rainfall and reliance on water irrigation. For 1,100 years, this region was home to a series of Burmese royal capitals, until the British annexed Upper Burma (the last remaining part of the Konbaung Kingdom) in 1885. Bamar from this region are called "anyar thar" (အညာသား) in Burmese.


title: Bamar people

text: In the 1500s, with the expansion of the Toungoo Empire, the Bamar began populating the lower stretches of the Irrawaddy River valley, including Taungoo and Prome (now Pyay), helping to disseminate the Burmese language and Bamar social customs. This influx of migration to historically Mon-speaking regions coincided with the rise of King Tabinshwehti. This pattern of migration intensified during the Konbaung dynasty, particularly among men specialised in wet rice cultivation, as women and children were generally prohibited from emigrating. Following the British annexation of Lower Burma in 1852, millions of Bamar from the Anya region resettled in the sparsely populated Irrawaddy delta between 1858 and 1941. The Bamar were drawn to this 'rice frontier' by the British colonial authorities, who were eager to scale rice cultivation in the colony, and attract skilled Bamar farmers. By the 1890s, the British had established another centre of power and political economy in the Irrawaddy delta.


title: Bamar people

text: The Bamar have emigrated to neighbouring Asian countries as well as Western countries, mirroring the migration patterns of the broader Burmese diaspora. Significant migration began at the start of World War II, and has continued through decades of military rule, economic decline and political instability. Many have settled in Europe, particularly in Great Britain. Following Myanmar's Independence (1948–1962), many Bamar have emigrated to Asian countries like Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, China, Taiwan, and Japan as well as to English-speaking countries like the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.


title: Bamar people

text: Burmese, a member of the Sino-Tibetan language family, is the native language of the Bamar, and the national language of Myanmar. Burmese is the most widely spoken Tibeto-Burman language, and used as a lingua franca in Myanmar by 97% of the country's population. Burmese is a diglossic language with literary high and spoken low forms. The literary form of Burmese preserves many conservative classical forms and grammatical particles traced back to Old Burmese stone inscriptions, but are no longer used in spoken Burmese.


title: Bamar people

text: Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, is the primary source of Burmese loanwords. British colonisation also introduced numerous English loanwords to the Burmese lexicon. As a lingua franca, Burmese has been the source and intermediary of loanwords to other Lolo-Burmese languages and major regional languages, including Shan, Kachin, and Mon.


title: Bamar people

text: The Burmese language has a longstanding literary tradition and tradition of widespread literacy. Burmese is the fifth Sino-Tibetan language to develop a writing system, after Chinese, Tibetan, Pyu, and Tangut. The oldest surviving written Burmese document is the Myazedi inscription, which is dated to 1113. The Burmese script is an Indic writing system, and modern Burmese orthography retains features of Old Burmese spellings. The Shan, Ahom, Khamti, Karen, and Palaung scripts are descendants of the Burmese script.


title: Bamar people

text: Standard Burmese is based on the language spoken in the urban centres of Yangon and Mandalay, although more distinct Burmese dialects, including Yaw, Dawei (Tavoyan), Myeik, Palaw, Intha-Danu, Arakanese (Rakhine), and Taungyo, emerge in more peripheral and remote areas of the country. These dialects differ from Standard Burmese in pronunciation and lexical choice, not grammar. For instance, Arakanese retains the sound, which had merged into the sound in standard Burmese between the 1700s and 1800s (although the former sound is still represented in modern Burmese orthography), while the Dawei and Intha dialects retain a medial that had disappeared in standard Burmese orthography by the 1100s. The pronunciation distinction is reflected in the word for 'ground,' which is pronounced in standard Burmese, in Arakanese (both spelt ), and in Dawei (spelt ).


title: Bamar people

text: Bamar culture, including traditions, literature, cuisine, music, dance, and theatre, has been significantly enriched by Theravada Buddhism and by historical contact and exchange with neighbouring societies, and more recently shaped by Myanmar's colonial and post-colonial history.


title: Bamar people

text: A pivotal Bamar societal value is the concept of "anade", which is manifested by very strong inhibitions (e.g., hesitation, reluctance, restraint, or avoidance) against asserting oneself in human relations based on the fear that it will offend someone or cause someone to lose face, or become embarrassed, or be of inconvenience. Charity and almsgiving are also central to Bamar society, best exemplified by Myanmar's consistent presence among the world's most generous countries according to the World Giving Index, since rankings were first introduced in 2013.