title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah (5 December 1905 – 8 September 1982) was an Indian politician who played a central role in the politics of Jammu and Kashmir Abdullah was the founding leader of the All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference (later renamed Jammu and Kashmir National Conference) and the 1st elected Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir after its accession to India. He agitated against the rule of the Maharaja Hari Singh and urged self-rule for Kashmir.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: He served as the 1st elected Prime Minister of the Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir and was later jailed and exiled. He was dismissed from the position of Prime Ministership on 8 August 1953 and Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad was appointed as the new Prime Minister. The expressions 'Sadr-i-Riyasat' and 'Prime Minister' were replaced with the terms 'Governor' and 'Chief Minister' in 1965. Sheikh Abdullah again became the Chief Minister of the state following the 1974 Indira-Sheikh accord and remained in the top slot till his death on 8 September 1982.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Sheikh Abdullah was born on 5 December 1905 in Soura, a village on the outskirts of Srinagar, two weeks after the death of his father Sheikh Mohammed Ibrahim.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: As claimed by him in his autobiography Aatish-e-Chinar, his great- grandfather was a Hindu Brahmin (i.e. a Kashmiri Pandit) of the Sapru clan, who converted to Islam after getting influenced by a Sufi preacher. His father had been a middle class manufacturer and trader of Kashmiri shawls. Abdullah was the youngest of six siblings.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: He was first admitted to a traditional school or maktab in 1909, when he was four, where he learnt the recitation of the Quran and some basic Persian texts like Gulistan of Sa'di, Bostan and Padshanama. This was followed by a primary school run by the Anjuman Nusrat-ul-Islam, however the low standards of education resulted in Abdullah shifting to the district school at Visrarnaag. After five grades here he shifted to Government High School, Dilawar Bagh. He had to walk the distance of ten miles to school and back on foot, but in his own words, the joy of being allowed to obtain a school education made it seem a light work. He passed his matriculation (standard 12) examination from Punjab University in 1922.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: After matriculation he obtained admission in Shri Pratap (S. P.) College, a leading college of Kashmir. His aim was to go into the medical profession at the time. However, circumstances not permitting, he decided to try to study general science at Prince of Wales College in Jammu. He was denied admission. Then he took admission in Islamia College, Lahore and graduated from there. In 1930, he obtained an M.Sc. in Chemistry from Aligarh Muslim University. The political exposure in Lahore and Aligarh would inspire his later life.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: As a student at Aligarh Muslim University, he came in contact with and was influenced by persons with liberal and progressive ideas. He became convinced that the feudal system was responsible for the miseries of the Kashmiris and like all progressive nations of the world Kashmir too should have a democratically elected government.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: In the 1920s there were a couple of 'reading rooms' in Srinagar which consisted of the educated youth of the area and could only be formed after acquiring the permission of the government. Forming political associations the time was banned. In 1922, G. A. Ashai set up the Islamia School Old Boys Association (a reading room) with 20 members as part of the leadership, including Sheikh Abdullah. At this time Abdullah was still in college.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Permission to open the Fateh Kadal Reading Room Party was given in 1930 and Sheikh Abdullah became the Secretary of the party. During Abdullah's time the reading room party was located in the house of Mufti Ziauddin. For Abdullah, "the establishment of reading room(s) was an excuse"; rather it was an opportunity to get together to discuss different issues.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: One of the first incidents which led Abdullah's Reading Room Party to gain wider recognition was after writing a letter to the government related to government recruitment policies. Subsequently they were called to present their views in front of the Regency Council headed by G. E. C. Wakefield in October 1930. This was one of the first interactions of Sheikh Abdullah with the government and the favourable impression that Abdullah had left on Wakefield helped push his name into the public limelight.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Sheikh Abdullah and his colleagues were greatly influenced by the lectures of a Kashmiri polymath and lawyer Molvi Abdullah.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Molvi Abdullah's son Molvi Abdul Rahim, Sheikh Abdullah and Ghulam Nabi Gilkar were the first three educated Kashmiri youth to be arrested during the public agitation of 1931.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Kashmir's first political party the Kashmir Muslim Conference with Sheikh Abdullah as President, Chaudhary Ghulam Abbas as general secretary, and Molvi Abdul Rahim as Secretary was formed on 16 October 1932. In his presidential address Sheikh Abdullah categorically stated that the Muslim Conference had come into existence to struggle for the rights of all oppressed sections of the society and not Muslims alone. It was not a communal party and would struggle for the rights of the oppressed, whether Hindu, Muslim or Sikh, with the same fervor. He reasserted that the struggle of Kashmiris was not a communal struggle.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: In March 1933 the Muslim Conference constituted a committee which included Molvi Abdullah and nine other members for the purpose of establishing contacts with non-Muslim parties and exploring the possibility of forming a joint organisation. Those nine members were Khwaja Saad-ud-din Shawl, Khwaja Hassan Shah Naqshbandi, Mirwaiz Kashmir, Molvi Ahmad-Ullah, Mirwaiz Hamadani, Agha Syed Hussain Shah Jalali, Mufti Sharif-ud-din, Molvi Atiq-Ullah and Haji Jafar Khan. According to Abdullah Sheikh this effort was not successful because of the unfavourable reception of the idea by the non-Muslim parties. Sheikh Abdullah campaigned to change the name of the Muslim Conference to National Conference, under the influence of among others Jawaharlal Nehru. After a prolonged and vigorous campaign a special session of the Muslim Conference held in June 1939 voted to change the name of the party to National Conference. Of the 176 members attending the session, 172 members voted in favour of the resolution. According to Sheikh Abdullah the support of Chaudhary Ghulam Abbas of Jammu was very important in motivating the members to vote for this change.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: As a result of the 1931 agitation, the Maharajah appointed a Grievances Commission with an Englishman B.J. Glancy as President who submitted its report in March 1932. Subsequently, a Constitutional Reforms Conference also presided over by B.J. Glancy recommended the setting up of an elected Legislative Assembly (Praja Sabha). Consequently, a Praja Sabha with 33 elected and 42 nominated members elected on the basis of separate electorates for Hindus and Muslims was established in 1934. Women and illiterate men without sufficient property, or title, or annual income of less than Rupees four hundred did not have the right to vote. Roughly less than 10% (according to Justice Anand only 3%) of the population were enfranchised.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Even after the formation of Praja Sabha in 1934 as recommended by the Commission real power continued to remain in the hands of the Maharajah.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Seventeen years later in 1951, the government of Kashmir with Sheikh Abdullah as Prime Minister held elections to a Constituent Assembly on the basis of universal adult suffrage. Sheikh Abdullah's Government had been accused of rigging in these elections to the Constituent Assembly.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Sheikh Abdullah was introduced to Jawaharlal Nehru in 1937 and as he too was a leader of the Indian National Congress was demanding similar rights for people of British India and had formed The All India States Peoples Conference for supporting the people of Princely States in their struggle for a representative government the two became friends and political allies.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: He introduced a resolution in the working committee of the Muslim Conference for changing its name to National Conference on 24 June 1938 to allow people from all communities to join the struggle against the autocratic rule of the Maharaja. Meanwhile, he along with his liberal progressive friends, many of whom were not Muslim like Kashyap Bandhu, Jia Lal Kilam, Pandit Sudama Sidha, Prem Nath Bazaz and Sardar Budh Singh drafted the National Demands the forerunner of the famous Naya Kashmir (New Kashmir) Manifesto (which was a charter of demands for granting a democratic constitution committed to the welfare of the common people of Kashmir)


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: He presented these demands to the Maharajah in a speech on 28 August 1938. The Maharajah was not willing to accept these demands and so he along with many of his companions was arrested for defying prohibitory orders and sentenced to six months imprisonment and a fine. His arrest provoked a public agitation in which volunteers called Dictators (so called because they had the authority to defy laws that was forbidden for normal law-abiding party members) courted arrest. This agitation was called off on the appeal of Mohandas K. Gandhi. He was released after serving his sentence on 24 February 1939 and accorded a grand reception by the people of Srinagar on his return. Speeches were made at the reception stressing the importance of unity among Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. Subsequently the resolution for changing the name of Muslim Conference to National Conference was ratified with an overwhelming majority by the General Council of the Muslim Conference on 11 June 1939 and from that date Muslim Conference became National Conference.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: In May 1946 Sheikh Abdullah launched the Quit Kashmir agitation against the Maharajah Hari Singh and was arrested and sentenced to three years imprisonment but was released only sixteen months later on 29 September 1947.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Maharaja Hari Singh appealed to Lord Mountbatten of Burma the Governor-General of India for Indian military aid. In his Accession Offer dated 26 October 1947 which accompanied The Instrument of Accession duly signed by him on 26 October 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh wrote "I may also inform your Excellency's Government that it is my intention at once to set up an interim Government and ask Sheikh Abdullah to carry the responsibilities in this emergency with my Prime Minister."


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Lord Mountbatten accepted the accession after a meeting of the Defence Committee on 26 October 1947. In accepting the accession unconditionally he wrote, "I do hereby accept this Instrument of Accession. Dated this twenty seventh day of October, nineteen hundred and forty seven". In the covering letter to Hari Singh, he wrote "In consistence with their policy that in the case of any State where the issue of accession has been the subject of dispute, the question of accession should be decided in accordance with the wishes of the people of the State, it is my Government's wish that, as soon as law and order have been restored in Kashmir and its soil cleared of the invader, the question of the State's accession should be settled by a reference to the people". Also in his letter to the Maharaja Lord Mountbatten wrote "My Government and I note with satisfaction that your Highness has decided to invite Sheikh Abdullah to form an Interim Government to work with your Prime Minister." The support of Mahatma Gandhi and Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a key factor in getting Sheikh Abdullah appointed as Head of the emergency administration by the Maharaja.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: As a consequence, Sheikh Abdullah was appointed head of an emergency administration by an order issued by the Maharaja which was undated except for the mention October 1947 in place of the date. He took charge as Head of the Emergency Administration on 30 October 1947.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: He raised a force of local Kashmiri volunteers to patrol Srinagar and take control of administration after the flight of the Maharaja along with his family and Prime Minister Meher Chand Mahajan to Jammu even before the Indian troops had landed. This group of volunteers would serve as the nucleus for the subsequent formation of Jammu and Kashmir Militia. This, Sheikh Abdullah hoped, would take over the defence of Kashmir after the Indian army was withdrawn. This was articulated in his letter to Sardar Patel dated 7 October 1948 in which he wrote, "With the taking over of the State forces by the Indian Government, it was agreed that steps would be taken to reorganise and rebuild our army so that when the present emergency is over and the Indian forces are withdrawn the State will be left with a proper organised army of its own to fall back upon." (Sheikh Abdullah has alleged that most of the Muslim soldiers of the Militia were either discharged or imprisoned before his arrest in 1953. The Militia (dubbed as Dagan Brigade) was converted from a State Militia to a regular unit of the Indian Army on 2 December 1972 and redesignated the Jammu and Kashmir Light Infantry)


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Sheikh Abdullah spoke at the UN Security Council on 5 February 1948 thus: "The (tribal) raiders came to our land, massacred thousands of people — mostly Muslims abducted thousands of girls, looted our property and almost reached the gates of our summer capital, Srinagar."


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: On 8 August 1953 he was dismissed as Prime Minister by the then Sadr-i-Riyasat (Constitutional Head of State) Dr. Karan Singh, son of the erstwhile Maharajah Hari Singh, on the charge that he had lost the confidence of his cabinet (not the house). He was denied the opportunity to prove his majority on the floor of the house and his dissident cabinet minister Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed was appointed as Prime Minister. Sheikh Abdullah was immediately arrested and later jailed for eleven years, accused of conspiracy against the State in the infamous "Kashmir Conspiracy Case".


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: According to Sheikh Abdullah his dismissal and arrest were engineered by the central government headed by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. He has quoted B.N. Mullicks' statements in his book "My Years with Nehru" in support of his statement. A.G. Noorani writing in Frontline supports this view, as according to him Nehru himself ordered the arrest. On 8 April 1964 the State Government dropped all charges in the so-called "Kashmir Conspiracy Case". Sheikh Abdullah was released and returned to Srinagar where he was accorded an unprecedented welcome by the people of the valley".


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: After his release he was reconciled with Nehru. Nehru requested Sheikh Abdullah to act as a bridge between India and Pakistan and make President Ayub to agree to come to New Delhi for talks for a final solution of the Kashmir problem. President Ayub Khan also sent telegrams to Nehru and Sheikh Abdullah with the message that as Pakistan too was a party to the Kashmir dispute any resolution of the conflict without its participation would not be acceptable to Pakistan. This paved the way for Sheikh Abdullah's visit to Pakistan to help broker a solution to the Kashmir problem.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Sheikh Abdullah went to Pakistan in spring of 1964. President Ayub Khan of Pakistan held extensive talks with him to explore various avenues for solving the Kashmir problem and agreed to come to Delhi in mid June for talks with Nehru as suggested by him. Even the date of his proposed visit was fixed and communicated to New Delhi. However, before Ayub Khan could make his visit, Nehru died on 27 May 1964. The Sheikh was en route to Muzaffarabad in Pakistan-administered Kashmir when he received the news. He addressed a public rally at Muzaffarabad in Pakistan-administered Kashmir and returned to Delhi. On his suggestion, President Ayub Khan sent a high level Pakistani delegation led by his Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto along with him to take part in the last rites of Jawaharlal Nehru.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: After Nehru's death in 1964, Sheikh Abdullah was again interned from 1965 to 1968. The internment was ordered by Lal Bahadur Shastri and continued by Indira Gandhi. The Plebiscite Front was also banned. This was allegedly done to prevent him and the Plebiscite Front which was supported by him from taking part in elections in Kashmir. Again, he was exiled from Kashmir in 1971-72 for 18 months, during which period the Indo-Pak war of 1971 came to be waged.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: In 1971, the Bangladesh Liberation War broke out in erstwhile East Pakistan between Pakistan and Bangladesh joined later by India, and subsequently war broke out on the western border of India between India and Pakistan, both of which culminated in the creation of Bangladesh. Sheikh Abdullah watching the alarming turn of events in the subcontinent realised that for the survival of this region there was an urgent need to stop pursuing confrontational politics and promoting solution of issues by a process of reconciliation and dialogue rather than confrontation. Critics of Sheikh hold the view that he gave up the cherished goal of plebiscite for gaining Chief Minister's chair.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: He started talks with the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi for normalising the situation in the region and came to an accord called 1974 Indira-Sheikh accord with Indira Gandhi, then India's Prime Minister, by giving up the demand for a plebiscite in lieu of the people being given the right to self-rule by a democratically elected Government (as envisaged under article 370 of the Constitution of India) rather than the puppet government which till then ruled the State.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: He assumed the position of Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. The Central Government and the ruling Congress Party withdrew its support so that the State Assembly had to be dissolved and mid term elections called.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: The National Conference won an overwhelming majority in the subsequent elections and re-elected Sheikh Abdullah as Chief Minister. He remained as Chief Minister till his death in 1982.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Abdullah, described as a to tall man, was fluent in both Kashmiri and Urdu. His biography in Urdu entitled "Atish-e-Chinar" was written by the noted Kashmiri author M.Y. Taing and published after Sheikh Abdullah's death. It is often referred to as his autobiography as Taing claimed that he only acted as an amanuensis. It is based on extensive interviews that Taing had with Sheikh Abdullah and provides valuable information on Sheikh Abdullah's family background, early life, ringside glimpses of happenings in Kashmir at a crucial juncture in its history, and his viewpoint about the political events in Kashmir in which he himself played a central role.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: In 1933 he married Akbar Jahan, the daughter of Michael Harry Nedou, of Slovak and British descent, and his Kashmiri wife Mirjan. Michael Harry Nedou was himself the proprietor of a hotel at the tourist resort of Gulmarg (The writer Tariq Ali claims that Akbar Jehan was previously married in 1928 to an Arab Karam Shah who disappeared after a Calcutta newspaper "Liberty" reported that he was actually T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) a British Intelligence officer. He claims that Akbar Jehan was divorced by her first husband in 1929.)


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: The government of Pakistan in 1947 viewed Abdullah and his party as agents of Nehru and did not recognise his leadership of Kashmir. He spoke against Pakistani government in United Nations by comparing it with Hitler's rule, and he also endorsed Indian stand on Jammu and Kashmir. However, there was a change in Pakistan's viewpoint with the passage of time. When he visited Pakistan in 1964 he was awarded a tumultuous welcome by the people of Pakistan. Among the persons who received him was Chaudhary Ghulam Abbas his once colleague and later political enemy who earlier in his book "Kashmakash" had denounced Sheikh Abdullah as a turncoat and traitor. Chaudhary Ghulam Abbas embraced him and in his speech described him as one of the greatest leaders of the subcontinent and a great benefactor of the Muslims of the subcontinent. President Ayub Khan and his then Foreign minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto discussed the Kashmir problem with him. The government of Pakistan treated him as a state guest. Sheikh Abdullah had the rare distinction of having poems in his praise written by three major Pakistani Urdu poets namely Hafeez Jullundhri, Josh and Faiz Ahmed Faiz who admired his lifelong struggle against injustice and for democratic rights of the common man.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: Along with Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed, <bdi>Sheikh Abdullah has been called the "Architect of Modern Kashmir".</bdi>


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: The birth anniversary of Abdullah was a public holiday in the state until 2019. "Sher-e-Kashmir" has been dropped from a number of places, including a conference hall, the state award and police medal. There are a number of institutions and buildings named after him, such as the Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology in Kashmir and Jammu, the Sher-i-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences and the Sher-i-Kashmir Stadium. A name change for the stadium has also been aired however not implemented.


title: Sheikh Abdullah

text: "The Flame of the Chinar", a 1998 Indian feature documentary film directed by Zul Vellani covers his life and works. It was produced by the Government of India's Film Division. Anang Desai portrayed Abdullah in the 2013 Indian docudrama television series "Pradhanmantri", which covered the tenures of Indian PMs.


title: Product rule

text: In calculus, the product rule (or Leibniz rule or Leibniz product rule) is a formula used to find the derivatives of products of two or more functions. For two functions, it may be stated in Lagrange's notation as formula_1 or in Leibniz's notation as formula_2


title: Product rule

text: The rule may be extended or generalized to products of three or more functions, to a rule for higher-order derivatives of a product, and to other contexts.


title: Product rule

text: Discovery of this rule is credited to Gottfried Leibniz, who demonstrated it using differentials. (However, J. M. Child, a translator of Leibniz's papers, argues that it is due to Isaac Barrow.) Here is Leibniz's argument: Let "u"("x") and "v"("x") be two differentiable functions of "x". Then the differential of "uv" is


title: Product rule

text: and this is indeed the differential form of the product rule. If we divide through by the differential "dx", we obtain


title: Product rule

text: Let and suppose that and are each differentiable at . We want to prove that is differentiable at and that its derivative, , is given by . To do this, formula_7 (which is zero, and thus does not change the value) is added to the numerator to permit its factoring, and then properties of limits are used.


title: Product rule

text: By definition, if formula_10 are differentiable at formula_11, then we can write linear approximations:


title: Product rule

text: where the error terms are small with respect to "h": that is, formula_14 also written formula_15. Then:


title: Product rule

text: The "error terms" consist of items such as formula_17 and formula_18 which are easily seen to have magnitude formula_19 Dividing by formula_20 and taking the limit formula_21 gives the result.


title: Product rule

text: This proof uses the chain rule and the quarter square function formula_22 with derivative formula_23. We have:


title: Product rule

text: The product rule can be considered a special case of the chain rule for several variables, applied to the multiplication function formula_26:


title: Product rule

text: Let "u" and "v" be continuous functions in "x", and let "dx", "du" and "dv" be infinitesimals within the framework of non-standard analysis, specifically the hyperreal numbers. Using st to denote the standard part function that associates to a finite hyperreal number the real infinitely close to it, this gives


title: Product rule

text: This was essentially Leibniz's proof exploiting the transcendental law of homogeneity (in place of the standard part above).


title: Product rule

text: In the context of Lawvere's approach to infinitesimals, let formula_29 be a nilsquare infinitesimal. Then formula_30 and formula_31, so that


title: Product rule

text: Let formula_37. Taking the absolute value of each function and the natural log of both sides of the equation,


title: Product rule

text: Note: Taking the absolute value of the functions is necessary to allow logarithmic differentiation of functions that can have negative values, as logarithms are only defined for positive arguments. This works because formula_46, which justifies taking the absolute value of the functions for logarithmic differentiation.


title: Product rule

text: The product rule can be generalized to products of more than two factors. For example, for three factors we have


title: Product rule

text: The logarithmic derivative provides a simpler expression of the last form, as well as a direct proof that does not involve any recursion. The "logarithmic derivative" of a function , denoted here , is the derivative of the logarithm of the function. It follows that


title: Product rule

text: Using that the logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors, the sum rule for derivatives gives immediately


title: Product rule

text: The last above expression of the derivative of a product is obtained by multiplying both members of this equation by the product of the formula_52


title: Product rule

text: It can also be generalized to the general Leibniz rule for the "n"th derivative of a product of two factors, by symbolically expanding according to the binomial theorem:


title: Product rule

text: Furthermore, for the "n"th derivative of an arbitrary number of factors, one has a similar formula with multinomial coefficients:


title: Product rule

text: Suppose "X", "Y", and "Z" are Banach spaces (which includes Euclidean space) and "B" : "X" × "Y" → "Z" is a continuous bilinear operator. Then "B" is differentiable, and its derivative at the point ("x","y") in "X" × "Y" is the linear map "D""B" : "X" × "Y" → "Z" given by


title: Product rule

text: There are also analogues for other analogs of the derivative: if "f" and "g" are scalar fields then there is a product rule with the gradient:


title: Product rule

text: Such a rule will hold for any continuous bilinear product operation. Let "B" : "X" × "Y" → "Z" be a continuous bilinear map between vector spaces, and let "f" and "g" be differentiable functions into "X" and "Y", respectively. The only properties of multiplication used in the proof using the limit definition of derivative is that multiplication is continuous and bilinear. So for any continuous bilinear operation,


title: Product rule

text: In abstract algebra, the product rule is the defining property of a derivation. In this terminology, the product rule states that the derivative operator is a derivation on functions.


title: Product rule

text: In differential geometry, a tangent vector to a manifold "M" at a point "p" may be defined abstractly as an operator on real-valued functions which behaves like a directional derivative at "p": that is, a linear functional "v" which is a derivation,formula_66


title: Product rule

text: Generalizing (and dualizing) the formulas of vector calculus to an "n"-dimensional manifold "M," one may take differential forms of degrees "k" and "l", denoted formula_67, with the wedge or exterior product operation formula_68, as well as the exterior derivative formula_69. Then one has the graded Leibniz rule:formula_70


title: Product rule

text: when "n" is a positive integer (this rule is true even if "n" is not positive or is not an integer, but the proof of that must rely on other methods). The proof is by mathematical induction on the exponent "n". If "n" = 0 then "x" is constant and "nx" = 0. The rule holds in that case because the derivative of a constant function is 0. If the rule holds for any particular exponent "n", then for the next value, "n" + 1, we have


title: Product rule

text: Therefore, if the proposition is true for "n", it is true also for "n" + 1, and therefore for all natural "n".


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Eco-terrorism is an act of violence which is committed in support of environmental causes, against people or property.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: The United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines eco-terrorism as "...the use or threatened use of violence of a criminal nature against the people guilty of destroying the environment or their property by an environmentally-oriented, subnational group for environmental-political reasons, or aimed at an audience beyond the target, often of a symbolic nature." The FBI credited eco-terrorists with US $200 million in property damage between 2003 and 2008. A majority of states in the US have introduced laws aimed at penalizing eco-terrorism.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Eco-terrorism is a form of radical environmentalism that arose out of the same school of thought that brought about deep ecology, ecofeminism, social ecology, and bioregionalism.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: The term "ecoterrorism" was not coined until the 1960s. However, the history of ecoterrorism precedes that. Although not referred to as ecoterrorism at the time, there have been incidents in history of people using terror to protect or defend the environment. It can be seen in the War of Desmoiselles, or War of the Maidens. The War of the Demoiselles was a series of peasant revolts in response to the new forest codes implemented by the French government in 1827. In May 1829 groups of peasant men dressed in women's clothes and terrorized forest guards and charcoal-makers who they felt had wrongfully taken the land to exploit it. The revolts persisted for four years until May 1832.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: This particular instance is considered an act of eco-terrorism due to the fact that the peasants used tactics similar to modern day eco-terrorist groups. The peasants of Ariege masked their identities and committed acts of terror. They specifically targeted government officials who infringed on the rights of the forest. However, this is considered a pre-history rather than an actual act of eco-terrorism due to the fact that the peasants weren't environmentalist. The peasants committed their acts to protect the environment because they felt they had a claim to it due to it being their main source of income and way of life for generations.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Instances of pre-ecoterrorism can also be found in the age of colonialism and imperialism. Native and indigenous people didn't have the same view on land as property that Europeans did. When the Europeans colonized other foreign lands they believed that the natives were not using the land properly. Land was something that was meant to be profited and capitalized off of. Oftentimes natives would engage in warfare to protect their land. This is similar to the way that modern day environmentalists fight to protect land from major corporations aiming to deforest land to build factories. An example of Europeans infringing on the rights of natives can be found in the colonial administration of Algeria. When the French colonized Algeria they took the land from natives because they believed they were not using it properly. Claiming that their nomadic lifestyle as damaging to the environment in order to justify their usurping of the land. However, the natives of Algeria engaged in battles in order to try and keep their land and lifestyle.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Eco-terrorism is often defined as the use of violence carried out to further environmental policy change. Eco-terrorists are willing to inflict emotional and physical distress on their victims if they believe it will further their environmental goals. This more radical version of environmental action is illegal, as compared to its more moderate forerunner of eco-activism which is not illegal and would be classified as a form of civil disobedience and uses protests, sit ins and other civil actions to effect environmental change. Eco-terrorism can also include sabotage in the name of the environment, which is illegal as this includes crimes against property which could lead to harm to humans. Noting that in the United States, the FBI's definition of terrorism includes acts of violence against property, which makes most acts of sabotage fall in the realm of domestic terrorism.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Sabotage involves destroying, or threatening to destroy, property, and in this case is also known as monkeywrenching or ecotage. Many acts of sabotage involve the damage of equipment and unmanned facilities using arson.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: The thought behind eco-terrorism rises from the radical environmentalism movement, which gained currency during the 1960s. Ideas that arose from radical environmentalism are "based on the belief that capitalism, patriarchal society, and the industrial revolution and its subsequent innovations were responsible for the despoliation of nature". Radical environmentalism is also characterized by the belief that human society is responsible for the depletion of the environment and, if current society is left unchecked, will lead to the ultimate complete degradation of the environment.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Like deep ecologists, some eco-terrorists subscribe to the idea of biocentrism, which is described as "a belief that human beings are just an ordinary member of the biological community" and that all living things should have rights and deserve protection under the law. Other eco-terrorists are motivated by different aspects of deep ecology, like the goal to return the environment to its "natural", i.e., pre-industrial, state.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: There are a wide variety of tactics used by eco-terrorists and groups associated with eco-terrorism. Examples include:


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Organizations accused of eco-terrorism are generally grassroots organizations, do not have a hierarchal structure, and typically favor direct action approaches to their goals.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Stefan Leader characterizes these groups, namely ELF, with having "leaderless resistance" which he describes as "a technique by which terrorist groups can carry out violent acts while reducing the risk of infiltration by law enforcement elements. The basic principle of leaderless resistance is that there is no centralized authority or chain-of-command." Essentially this consists of independent cells which operate autonomously, sharing goals, but having no central leaders or formal organizational structure. Those who wish to join are typically encouraged to start their own cell, rather than seek out other members and jeopardize their secrecy.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Organizations that have been accused of eco-terrorism in the United States include the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, Earth First!, The Coalition to Save the Preserves, and the Hardesty Avengers. In 2010, the FBI was criticized in U.S. Justice Department reports for unjustified surveillance (and placement on the Terrorism Watchlist) between 2001 and 2006 of members of animal-rights groups such as Greenpeace and PETA.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: In a 2002 testimony to the US Congress, an FBI official mentioned the actions of Sea Shepherd Conservation Society in the context of eco-terrorism. The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society intervenes against whaling, seal hunting, and fishing operations with direct action tactics. In 1986, the group caused nearly US$1.8 million in damage to equipment used by Icelandic whalers. In 1992, they sabotaged two Japanese ships that were drift-net fishing for squid by cutting their nets and throwing stink bombs on board the boats.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Inspired by Edward Abbey, Earth First! began in 1980. Although the group has been credited with becoming more mainstream, its use of tree spiking during campaigns has been associated with the origins of eco-terrorism. In 1990, Earth First! organizers Judi Bari and Darryl Cherney were injured when a motion-detecting pipe bomb detonated beneath Bari's driver seat. Authorities alleged that the bomb was being transported and accidentally detonated. The pair sued investigators, alleging false arrest, illegal search, slanderous statements and conspiracy. In 2002, a jury found that FBI agents and Oakland police officers violated constitutional rights to free speech and protection from unlawful searches of Earth First! organizers.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: The Earth Liberation Front, founded in 1992, joined with the Animal Liberation Front, which had its beginnings in England in 1979. They have been connected primarily with arson but claim that they work to harm neither human nor animal. A recent example of ELF arson was the March 2008 "torching of luxury homes in the swank Seattle suburb of Woodinville". A banner left at the scene claimed the housing development was not green as advertised, and was signed ELF. In September 2009 ELF claimed responsibility for the destruction of two radio towers in Seattle. The FBI in 2001 named the ELF as "one of the most active extremist elements in the United States", and a "terrorist threat." The Coalition to Save the Preserves was mentioned in FBI testimony as a group that was responsible for a series of arsons in Arizona. Using similar tactics to the ELF, they have caused more than US$5 million in damages.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Media reports have tied Ted Kaczynski, also known as the Unabomber, to environmental activists, and say that the 23 injuries and three deaths through letter-bombs were the acts of an independent eco-terrorist. Among those making such accusations were ABC, "The New York Times", "Time" magazine, and "USA Today".


title: Eco-terrorism

text: A number of "local" organizations have also been indicted under US Federal laws related to eco-terrorism. These include, among others, the group Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Another example is the Hardesty Avengers who spiked trees in the Hardesty Mountains in Willamette National Forest in 1984.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: In 2008 the Federal Bureau of Investigation said eco-terrorists represented "one of the most serious domestic terrorism threats in the U.S. today" citing the sheer volume of their crimes (over 2,000 since 1979); the huge economic impact (losses of more than US$110 million since 1979); the wide range of victims (from international corporations to lumber companies to animal testing facilities to genetic research firms); and their increasingly violent rhetoric and tactics (one recent communiqué sent to a California product testing company said: "You might be able to protect your buildings, but can you protect the homes of every employee?").


title: Eco-terrorism

text: The National Animal Interest Alliance in their animal rights extremism archives compiled a comprehensive list of major animal rights extremist and eco-criminal acts of terrorism since 1983.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Spiking trees became a federal offense in the United States when it was added to the Drug Act in 1988.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: Under the Animal Enterprise Protection Act of 1992 it became a federal crime to "cause more than $10,000 in damage while engaged in "physical disruption to the functioning of an animal enterprise by intentionally stealing, damaging, or causing the loss of any property […] used by the animal enterprise." In 2006, this was updated and renamed the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act by the 109th congress. The updated act included causing personal harm and the losses incurred on "secondary targets" as well as adding to the penalties for these crimes.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: In 2003, a conservative legislative lobbying group, the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), proposed the "Animal and Ecological Terrorism Act" which defined an "animal rights or ecological terrorist organization" as "two or more persons organized for the purpose of supporting any politically motivated activity intended to obstruct or deter any person from participating in an activity involving animals or an activity involving natural resources." The legislation was not enacted.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: The FBI has stated that "since 2005…investigations have resulted in indictments against 30 individuals." In 2006, an FBI case labeled "Operation Backfire" brought charges of domestic terrorism to eleven people associated with the ELF and ALF. "The indictment includes charges related to arson, conspiracy, use of destructive devices, and destruction of an energy facility." Operation Backfire was a result of the 1998 burning of a ski resort in Vail, Colorado by the group, "The Family." The incident resulted in $26 million in damages. The FBI joined together with the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives to convict the individuals and any future eco-terrorist groups.


title: Eco-terrorism

text: However, the Bush Justice Department, including the FBI, was criticized in 2010 for improper investigations and prosecutions of left-leaning US protest groups such as Greenpeace. "The Washington Post" reported that the "FBI improperly opened and extended investigations of some U.S. activist groups and put members of an environmental advocacy organization on a terrorist watch list, even though they were planning nonviolent civil disobedience, the Justice Department said Monday."


title: Eco-terrorism

text: A report, filed by Inspector General Glenn A. Fine, found the FBI to be not guilty of the most serious charge — according to the "Post" — that "agents targeted domestic groups based on their exercise of First Amendment rights." The investigation was conducted in response to allegations that the FBI had targeted groups on such grounds during the Bush Administration. The "Post" continued:


title: Eco-terrorism

text: In 2008, Eric McDavid was convicted of plotting to attack several targets including a fish hatchery, a dam, power stations, and cell phone towers. An undercover FBI agent exposed the plan. In addition to McDavid, two others were also convicted. On March 6, 2008 Eric McDavid was sentenced to 20 years in prison for "conspiracy to damage or destroy property by fire and explosive." United States Attorney McGregor W. Scott stated: "Today's severe punishment of nearly 20 years in federal prison should serve as a cautionary tale to those who would conspire to commit life-threatening acts in the name of their extremist views."


title: Current density

text: In electromagnetism, current density is the amount of charge per unit time that flows through a unit area of a chosen cross section. The current density vector is defined as a vector whose magnitude is the electric current per cross-sectional area at a given point in space, its direction being that of the motion of the positive charges at this point. In SI base units, the electric current density is measured in amperes per square metre.


title: Current density

text: Assume that "A" (SI unit: m) is a small surface centred at a given point "M" and orthogonal to the motion of the charges at "M". If "I" (SI unit: A) is the electric current flowing through "A", then electric current density "j" at "M" is given by the limit:


title: Current density

text: with surface "A" remaining centered at "M" and orthogonal to the motion of the charges during the limit process.


title: Current density

text: The current density vector j is the vector whose magnitude is the electric current density, and whose direction is the same as the motion of the positive charges at "M".


title: Current density

text: At a given time "t", if v is the velocity of the charges at "M", and "dA" is an infinitesimal surface centred at "M" and orthogonal to v, then during an amount of time "dt", only the charge contained in the volume formed by "dA" and will flow through "dA". This charge is equal to , where "ρ" is the charge density at "M", and the electric current at "M" is . It follows that the current density vector can be expressed as:


title: Current density

text: The surface integral of j over a surface "S", followed by an integral over the time duration "t" to "t", gives the total amount of charge flowing through the surface in that time ():


title: Current density

text: The area required to calculate the flux is real or imaginary, flat or curved, either as a cross-sectional area or a surface. For example, for charge carriers passing through an electrical conductor, the area is the cross-section of the conductor, at the section considered.


title: Current density

text: The vector area is a combination of the magnitude of the area through which the charge carriers pass, "A", and a unit vector normal to the area, formula_4. The relation is formula_5.


title: Current density

text: where ⋅ is the dot product of the unit vectors. That is, the component of current density passing through the surface (i.e. normal to it) is , while the component of current density passing tangential to the area is , but there is "no" current density actually passing "through" the area in the tangential direction. The "only" component of current density passing normal to the area is the cosine component.


title: Current density

text: Circuit performance depends strongly upon the designed current level, and the current density then is determined by the dimensions of the conducting elements. For example, as integrated circuits are reduced in size, despite the lower current demanded by smaller devices, there is a trend toward higher current densities to achieve higher device numbers in ever smaller chip areas. See Moore's law.


title: Current density

text: At high frequencies, the conducting region in a wire becomes confined near its surface which increases the current density in this region. This is known as the skin effect.


title: Current density

text: High current densities have undesirable consequences. Most electrical conductors have a finite, positive resistance, making them dissipate power in the form of heat. The current density must be kept sufficiently low to prevent the conductor from melting or burning up, the insulating material failing, or the desired electrical properties changing. At high current densities the material forming the interconnections actually moves, a phenomenon called "electromigration". In superconductors excessive current density may generate a strong enough magnetic field to cause spontaneous loss of the superconductive property.


title: Current density

text: The analysis and observation of current density also is used to probe the physics underlying the nature of solids, including not only metals, but also semiconductors and insulators. An elaborate theoretical formalism has developed to explain many fundamental observations.


title: Current density

text: The current density is an important parameter in Ampère's circuital law (one of Maxwell's equations), which relates current density to magnetic field.


title: Current density

text: Charge carriers which are free to move constitute a free current density, which are given by expressions such as those in this section.


title: Current density

text: Electric current is a coarse, average quantity that tells what is happening in an entire wire. At position r at time "t", the "distribution" of charge flowing is described by the current density:


title: Current density

text: where j(r, "t") is the current density vector, v(r, "t") is the particles' average drift velocity (SI unit: m∙s), and


title: Current density

text: is the charge density (SI unit: coulombs per cubic metre), in which "n"(r, "t") is the number of particles per unit volume ("number density") (SI unit: m), "q" is the charge of the individual particles with density "n" (SI unit: coulombs).


title: Current density

text: A common approximation to the current density assumes the current simply is proportional to the electric field, as expressed by:


title: Current density

text: Conductivity "σ" is the reciprocal (inverse) of electrical resistivity and has the SI units of siemens per metre (S⋅m), and E has the SI units of newtons per coulomb (N⋅C) or, equivalently, volts per metre (V⋅m).


title: Current density

text: indicating the lag in response by the time dependence of "σ", and the non-local nature of response to the field by the spatial dependence of "σ", both calculated in principle from an underlying microscopic analysis, for example, in the case of small enough fields, the linear response function for the conductive behaviour in the material. See, for example, Giuliani & Vignale (2005) or Rammer (2007). The integral extends over the entire past history up to the present time.


title: Current density

text: The above conductivity and its associated current density reflect the fundamental mechanisms underlying charge transport in the medium, both in time and over distance.


title: Current density

text: In many materials, for example, in crystalline materials, the conductivity is a tensor, and the current is not necessarily in the same direction as the applied field. Aside from the material properties themselves, the application of magnetic fields can alter conductive behaviour.


title: Current density

text: In dielectric materials, there is a current density corresponding to the net movement of electric dipole moments per unit volume, i.e. the polarization P:


title: Current density

text: Similarly with magnetic materials, circulations of the magnetic dipole moments per unit volume, i.e. the magnetization M, lead to magnetization currents:


title: Current density

text: Together, these terms add up to form the bound current density in the material (resultant current due to movements of electric and magnetic dipole moments per unit volume):


title: Current density

text: There is also a displacement current corresponding to the time-varying electric displacement field D:


title: Current density

text: which is an important term in Ampere's circuital law, one of Maxwell's equations, since absence of this term would not predict electromagnetic waves to propagate, or the time evolution of electric fields in general.


title: Current density

text: Since charge is conserved, current density must satisfy a continuity equation. Here is a derivation from first principles.


title: Current density

text: The net flow out of some volume "V" (which can have an arbitrary shape but fixed for the calculation) must equal the net change in charge held inside the volume:


title: Current density

text: where "ρ" is the charge density, and dA is a surface element of the surface "S" enclosing the volume "V". The surface integral on the left expresses the current "outflow" from the volume, and the negatively signed volume integral on the right expresses the "decrease" in the total charge inside the volume. From the divergence theorem:


title: Current density

text: In electrical wiring, the maximum current density (for a given temperature rating) can vary from 4 A⋅mm for a wire with no air circulation around it, to over 6 A⋅mm for a wire in free air. Regulations for building wiring list the maximum allowed current of each size of cable in differing conditions. For compact designs, such as windings of SMPS transformers, the value might be as low as 2 A⋅mm. If the wire is carrying high-frequency alternating currents, the skin effect may affect the distribution of the current across the section by concentrating the current on the surface of the conductor. In transformers designed for high frequencies, loss is reduced if Litz wire is used for the windings. This is made of multiple isolated wires in parallel with a diameter twice the skin depth. The isolated strands are twisted together to increase the total skin area and to reduce the resistance due to skin effects.


title: Current density

text: For the top and bottom layers of printed circuit boards, the maximum current density can be as high as 35 A⋅mm with a copper thickness of 35 μm. Inner layers cannot dissipate as much heat as outer layers; designers of circuit boards avoid putting high-current traces on inner layers.


title: Current density

text: In the semiconductors field, the maximum current densities for different elements are given by the manufacturer. Exceeding those limits raises the following problems:


title: Current density

text: Even if manufacturers add some margin to their numbers, it is recommended to, at least, double the calculated section to improve the reliability, especially for high-quality electronics. One can also notice the importance of keeping electronic devices cool to avoid exposing them to electromigration and slow diffusion.


title: Current density

text: In biological organisms, ion channels regulate the flow of ions (for example, sodium, calcium, potassium) across the membrane in all cells. The membrane of a cell is assumed to act like a capacitor.


title: Current density

text: Current densities are usually expressed in pA⋅pF (picoamperes per picofarad) (i.e., current divided by capacitance). Techniques exist to empirically measure capacitance and surface area of cells, which enables calculation of current densities for different cells. This enables researchers to compare ionic currents in cells of different sizes.


title: Current density

text: In gas discharge lamps, such as flashlamps, current density plays an important role in the output spectrum produced. Low current densities produce spectral line emission and tend to favour longer wavelengths. High current densities produce continuum emission and tend to favour shorter wavelengths. Low current densities for flash lamps are generally around 10 A⋅mm. High current densities can be more than 40 A⋅mm.


title: The Last Five Years

text: The Last Five Years is a musical written by Jason Robert Brown. It premiered at Chicago's Northlight Theatre in 2001 and was then produced Off-Broadway in March 2002. Since then it has had numerous productions both in the United States and internationally.


title: The Last Five Years

text: The story explores a five-year relationship between Jamie Wellerstein, a rising novelist, and Cathy Hiatt, a struggling actress. The show uses a form of storytelling in which Jamie's story is told in chronological order (starting just after the couple have first met) and Cathy's story is told in reverse chronological order (beginning the show at the end of the marriage). The characters do not directly interact except for a wedding song in the middle as their timelines intersect.


title: The Last Five Years

text: In 2023, the musical will premiere in its first ever production in Greece, at the alternative stage of the Greek National Opera House.


title: The Last Five Years

text: "The Last Five Years" was inspired by Brown's failed marriage to Theresa O'Neill. O'Neill sued Brown on the grounds that the story of the musical violated non-disparagement and non-disclosure agreements within their divorce decree by representing her relationship with Brown too closely. Brown, in turn, sued O’Neill for interfering with his creative work and his creative process. As part of the legal settlement for both suits, Brown removed all references to the character being Irish Catholic, and changed the song "I Could Be in Love With Someone Like You" to "Shiksa Goddess" in order to reduce the similarity between the character, Cathy, and O'Neill.


title: The Last Five Years

text: Cathy is sitting alone lamenting the end of her marriage ("Still Hurting"). We shift to meet Jamie. It is five years earlier and he has just met Cathy. Jamie is overjoyed to be dating outside his Jewish heritage ("Shiksa Goddess").


title: The Last Five Years

text: Cathy and Jamie are in Ohio but not together. It is her birthday and he has come to visit her as she works in a show there ("See I'm Smiling"). She is anxious to fix any problems in their marriage but she becomes angry when Jamie tells her he has to go back early to New York. During breaks in the music, we see a younger Jamie, talking to a literary agent about his book.


title: The Last Five Years

text: Jamie is moving in with Cathy. He comments on how lucky he is that everything is going right for him; his book is being published and his life with Cathy seems too good to be true ("Moving Too Fast"). Elsewhere an older Cathy is making a call to her agent: it seems her career isn't going the way she planned it.


title: The Last Five Years

text: Cathy is attending Jamie's book party. She sings about how he ignores her for his writing but she will always be in love with him ("I'm a Part of That").


title: The Last Five Years

text: Jamie and Cathy celebrate their second Christmas. He tells her a new story he has written about an old tailor named Schmuel and he gives her a Christmas present: a watch, promising to support her as she follows her dreams of acting. ("The Schmuel Song").


title: The Last Five Years

text: Cathy is in Ohio and writing to Jamie. She describes to Jamie her disappointing life in Ohio among her eccentric colleagues ("A Summer in Ohio").


title: The Last Five Years

text: Jamie is sitting with Cathy in Central Park. Jamie proposes to her and, for the first time in the musical, they sing together ("The Next Ten Minutes"). They get married, exchanging vows to stay together forever.


title: The Last Five Years

text: Jamie is facing temptation from other women, especially now his career as a writer has escalated ("A Miracle Would Happen"). Cathy, meanwhile, is auditioning for a role ("When You Come Home to Me"). She is getting down about the rejection she faces as an actress and complains to Jamie ("Climbing Uphill").


title: The Last Five Years

text: Jamie speaks to Cathy on the phone, trying to convince her that there is nothing going on with him and his editor, Elise. He wants to celebrate a book review but Cathy refuses to go out.


title: The Last Five Years

text: Jamie is fighting with Cathy, trying to get her to listen to him. He accuses her of being unsupportive of his career just because hers is failing. Though his words are harsh, he promises her that he believes in her ("If I Didn't Believe in You").


title: The Last Five Years

text: A younger Cathy is in the car with Jamie, who is going to meet her parents. She tells him about her past relationships and hopes not to end up in a small town life like her friend from high school ("I Can Do Better Than That"). She asks Jamie to move in with her.


title: The Last Five Years

text: Near the end of the relationship Jamie wakes up beside another woman ("Nobody Needs to Know"). He tries to defend his actions and blames Cathy for destroying his privacy and their relationship. Jamie promises not to lie to this woman and tells her that "I could be in love with someone like you," just as he does to Cathy in "Shiksa Goddess."


title: The Last Five Years

text: Cathy is ecstatic after her first date with Jamie. She sings goodbye ("Goodbye Until Tomorrow"). She proclaims that she has been waiting for Jamie her whole life. Simultaneously but five years forward, Jamie sits in their shared apartment writing laments over the relationship ("I Could Never Rescue You"). As Cathy waves Jamie "goodbye until tomorrow", Jamie wishes Cathy simply "goodbye".


title: The Last Five Years

text: The musical style draws on a number of musical genres, including pop, jazz, classical, Klezmer, Latin, Blues, Rock, and Folk. The orchestration consists of piano, acoustic guitar, fretless bass, two cellos, one doubling on celesta and tubular bell, and violin, doubling cymbal.


title: The Last Five Years

text: The show debuted at Northlight Theatre in Skokie, Illinois, in 2001, running from May 23 – July 1. The production starred Lauren Kennedy as Cathy and Norbert Leo Butz as Jamie.


title: The Last Five Years

text: The show opened Off-Broadway at the Minetta Theatre on March 2, 2002, and closed May 5, 2002, directed by Daisy Prince, with Butz again starring alongside Sherie Rene Scott. (Kennedy was unable to reprise her role due to taking a role in "South Pacific" in London.) The production won the 2002 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Music and Lyrics, as well as receiving Drama Desk nominations for Outstanding Musical, Outstanding Actor, Outstanding Actress, Outstanding Orchestrations, and Outstanding Set Design. It also received the Lucille Lortel Award nomination for Outstanding Musical and Outstanding Actor, and the Outer Critics Circle Award nomination for Outstanding Off-Broadway Musical.


title: The Last Five Years

text: The show was revived in 2013 Off-Broadway at the Second Stage Theater for a limited engagement with Adam Kantor and Betsy Wolfe in the roles of Jamie and Cathy, respectively. Brown himself directed. In March 2015, Kantor and Wolfe reprised their roles in a two-night-only concert production of the show at the American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco.


title: The Last Five Years

text: The 2016 production was headlined by Jonathan Bailey as Jamie and Samantha Barks as Cathy at St. James Theatre, with direction by Brown himself. "The Stage"s Mark Shenton called the production "poignant" turning "each song into a masterclass of storytelling" with Bailey "a real vocal surprise with his haunting renditions of 'If I Didn’t Believe in You' and 'Nobody Needs to Know'." Edward Seckerson of The Arts Desk called the production a "knockout" and a "two-handed tour-de-force" in his five-star review.


title: The Last Five Years

text: It won the WhatsOnStage Award for Best Off-West End Production in 2017. A video of Bailey's audition singing "If I Didn't Believe In You" was uploaded on YouTube in 2017, and has since gone viral.


title: The Last Five Years

text: An adaptation starring Anna Kendrick and Jeremy Jordan was directed by "P.S. I Love You" director Richard LaGravenese. The film premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival and had a limited release in theatres in 2015. It received mixed to positive reviews; the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 60% approval rating.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: The special forces of Ukraine are the special forces units of Ukraine. Like all post-Soviet states, Ukraine inherited its special forces (Spetsnaz) units from the remnants of the Soviet armed forces, GRU and KGB units. Ukraine now maintains its own Spetsnaz structure under the control of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and under the Ministry of Defence, while the Security Service of Ukraine maintains its own Spetsnaz force, the Alpha group. In 2016 the Special Operations Forces were created as an independent branch of the Armed Forces of Ukraine formed only by special forces units.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: The Special Operations Forces (SSO) are one of the five branches of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Special Forces Command numbers over 4,000 spetsnaz operatives, all of whom are professional soldiers. In 2021 the end strength of the SSO was increased by 1,000 troops.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Many former special designated units of the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine have been disbanded or converted into "Operational" (combat) or "Public Security Protection and Patrol" units (police) units. After reorganization, the following special purpose units are active within the National Guard:


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: The Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) maintains its own elite special forces unit called Alpha Group which was created from the Kyiv territorial unit of the Soviet era Alpha Group where it became Service "C" of the SBU in 1992.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: The date of the creation of an Alpha detachment in Ukraine is 3 March 1990. That's when the order was given to the chief of the 7th Directorate of the KGB to establish 10th group (Kyiv) Group 'A' Services EIR 7th Directorate of the KGB. The term 'Alpha' is also used by many other post-Soviet states (such as Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan), as these units are based on the Soviet Union's Alpha Group. The selection process was rigorous. Of the initial 120 KGB candidates, only 15 passed the rigorous selection course to establish the first detachment under the leadership of commander Peter Feliksovich Zakrevskii.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Ukraine's Berkut ("eagle"), a special police force, was perhaps the nation's most well known Spetsnaz unit and served under the Ministry of Internal Affairs until its dissolution in 2014. Following the Crimea Crisis, the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs absorbed the Crimean Berkut unit.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: The force came to worldwide attention during the Ukraine without Kuchma riots, as well as the 2014 Ukrainian Revolution. Berkut is essentially a successor to the OMON special police units of the Soviet Union and is analogous to SWAT teams in the United States. A Berkut unit was stationed in most cities of regional significance. The unit specialized in riot control and tactical law enforcement. Due to Berkut units being stationed in most regions of Ukraine, the term became synonymous with Spetsnaz or law enforcement and many special police units were referred to by the name.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Berkut had been accused of excessive brutality, intimidation, and being involved in various criminal activity throughout its history. Some examples include:


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Due to their history of brutality, as well as their involvement in the 2014 Ukrainian revolution, the unit developed a dubious history and was disbanded by Ukraine in 2014.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Ukraine's Berkut special police force gained mainstream attention during the 2014 Ukrainian revolution as it was one of the main forces used by the government to quell the uprising. Ukraine relies on Spetsnaz forces for various activities like intelligence gathering, fighting fraud and organized crime, responding to terrorism, electronic warfare, as well as responding to mass protests. Spetsnaz units were extensively used during the 2014 Ukrainian Revolution by the Yanukovych regime to suppress Euromaidan protesters. During the subsequent Crimea Crisis and the war in Donbas the new government was hesitant to use these forces as they were seen as symbols of the previous regime.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Many Spetsnaz members found a purpose by joining a territorial defense battalion or the National Guard of Ukraine; ironically they often fought side by side with Euromaidan protesters with whom they recently clashed. Spetsnaz units were eventually deployed to combat separatist forces as they began to gain ground. Ukraine's 3rd Separate Spetsnaz Regiment has been responsible for defending the Donetsk International Airport which has faced nearly daily battles since May 2014.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Many special police units were active in responding to the protests of the 2014 Ukrainian revolution including the Tiger and Leopard special forces groups of the Ministry of Interior, Berkut special police force, and SBU Alpha Group. On 18 February, after months of civil unrest protests took a harsher turn storming parliament. Troops thought to be SBU Alpha were seen heavily armed and carrying AKM rifles; military jets could also be seen flying over Kyiv. By 20 February there were reports of snipers appearing on rooftops. This led to perhaps the most bloody standoff of the revolution, which resulted in over 100 deaths from snipers which SBU is also suspected of covering up.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: By 23 February the police presence in Independence Square had dissipated, which was unusual as it was not part of an agreement signed by the new government. This corresponded to the disappearance of president Yanukovich. Sensing a change in power, police forces likely abandoned their post. Throughout the revolution, police units were holding back protesters, however, having pulled units in from all over Ukraine into Kyiv, protests flared up across the country eventually resulting in a change of government.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Due to the corruption of the Ministry of Interior many Spetsnaz units and commanders were sacked, Berkut being the most notable. However, Russian Spetsnaz units soon recruited many of the released members. During the Crimea Crisis Berkut members could be seen alongside Russian "little green men" who later admitted to being Russian Spetsnaz members. SBU also reported that about 30% of its Alpha group members in Donetsk and Luhansk regions were unaccounted for and were likely fighting alongside Donetsk or Luhansk insurgent groups and in March 2014 the Alpha group only had about 200 active members still loyal to Ukraine.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: At the beginning of the Crimea Crisis and the war in Donbas Ukraine's parliament stated that their forces only had 6,000 combat ready infantrymen, this compared with approximately 20,000 troops stationed at Russian bases in Crimea alone. At the time Ukraine also had a sizable number of units deployed across the world as part of missions such as Operation Atalanta, ISAF, Kosovo Force, and over 200 troops attached to a UN peacekeeping mission in the Congo.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: This meant that Ukraine's most experienced and well trained troops were deployed and unavailable at the start of the conflict. Ukrainian government immediately began a process of mobilization and the creation of reserve forces such as a National Guard. However it would be several months until these units would be trained. Therefore, Ukraine's depleted Spetsnaz forces, without the aid of a larger conventional force, or an effective local police force, were called to defend the state. According to Ukraine's Minister of Defense Stepan Poltorak, Spetsnaz forces operated largely alone during the first period of the war in Ukraine's Donbas region as they were the only units fit for duty at the time.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: A group of heavily armed men appeared in Donetsk on 3 March 2014. These were dubbed as Russian Spetsnaz operatives invading Ukraine by some, or American Blackwater operatives by others. However, it was revealed that it was actually members of Ukraine's Alpha group escorting Andrey Shishatskiy, the ex-governor of Donetsk, after he was attacked by a group of pro-Russian separatists. Several months later Mariupol was declared the administrative center of Donetsk oblasts due to unrest, and most administrative functions were transferred there.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Despite having lost many members, Ukrainian Spetsnaz was called to service in April 2014 once Russian insurgents began to advance into Ukraine. One of the first large scale missions was to retake the Kramatorsk airfield as a pivot point to put pressure on Donetsk, which had largely been taken over by insurgents. On 15 April, Spetsnaz unit Omega stormed the airfield retaking it and capturing an undisclosed number of pro-Russian insurgents in the process. Kramatorsk airfield was the scene of prolonged fighting even after its recapture. On 25 April insurgents launched a failed attempt to retake the airfield destroying a Mil Mi-8 helicopter and an An-2 transport. The airfield was surrounded by insurgents for several months until the liberation of Kramatorsk from insurgents in July 2014.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: On 25 April 2014, Ukraine's Spetsnaz units were some of the first units to encounter insurgents in Sloviansk, which was to become a rebel stronghold. Ukrainian Spetsnaz units began to systematically destroy rebel checkpoints around the city in April so that regular forces could break through into the city, however it would be several more months until the main components of the Ground Forces of Ukraine were able to break through into the city.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: On 26 May 2014 Russian insurgents launched an attack taking Donetsk Airport, the nation's second busiest airport at the time. For the first time in the conflict Ukrainian forces responded almost immediately instead of waiting several days by launching airstrikes from Su-25 aircraft and launching Mi-24 gunships to suppress the attackers. Spetsnaz forces as well as airborne troops were airlifted to the scene to battle the insurgents for the airport starting the First Battle of Donetsk Airport.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: With the help of air support government forces drove out insurgents by the next day and took control of the airport. This was the first successful operation in the war in Donbas, as prior to this insurgent forces were accustomed to quick victories and government forces typically took several days to respond to attacks. After the battle many foreigners including Chechen terrorists were revealed to have fought against Ukrainian forces.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: In May and June 2014 Special Forces units were involved in aiding regular army and National Guard Units in the First Battle of Mariupol. By this time Russian separatists had captured most of Donetsk Oblast as far north as Yampil', although government troops retained control of key points such as Kramatorsk and Donetsk airfields. Insurgents then spread south toward Mariupol, the second largest city in the Donbas.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: On 17 April 2014, a large group of several hundred separatists attempted to storm a military base in Mariupol. The Ukrainian military counterattacked and an Omega special forces unit was air lifted unto the scene to help local troops drive back the attackers. During the failed assault 63 separatists were captured and three killed. The Omega special forces group was then tasked with protecting Mariupol for the remainder of the First Battle of Mariupol.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: On 9 May separatists stormed the city police headquarters. Omega and National Guard Units attempted to recapture the building but Ukrainian forces eventually retreated outside the city and cordoned off the city limits with check points. On 13 June Omega special forces, along with National Guard units, Azov Battalion and Dnipro Battalion stormed the city. In the ensuing 6 hour battle government troops recaptured all buildings from separatists and hoisted the Ukrainian flag over the city hall.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Ukraine's special forces have also carried out several operations deep into rebel held territory, operating in the cities of Donetsk and Luhansk.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Spetsnaz forces have also been responsible for locating and neutralizing terrorist cells operating deep inside of Ukraine, clearing cities that had been recaptured from insurgents, as well as searching for potential saboteurs. In May, the SBU raided and arrested several potential saboteurs in the Odessa region.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: The Ukrainian Naval Infantry maintains its own small Spetsnaz force in the form of the 73rd marine Spetsnaz detachment; the detachment is named "Seals" after the United States Navy SEALs and is built around the same purpose. In August 2014 the commander of the 73rd marine Spetsnaz detachment was killed in an operation near Donetsk, Ukraine. Major Alexei Zinchenko was the first loss for the 73rd marine Spetsnaz detachment as well as the first marine killed in the war in Donbas.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: While forces from the Ministry of Interior are often involved in locating spies and saboteurs, the Spetsnaz units of the Ministry of Defense have been more directly involved in the war. Perhaps the most well known are the Spetsnaz units responsible for defending Donetsk International Airport. The Airport was raided on 18 April, but maintained operations until 25 May 2014, after which it faced nearly daily attacks. The 3rd Separate Spetsnaz Regiment earned the nickname "Cyborgs" and has been involved in the Second Battle of Donetsk Airport.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: Rebels on multiple occasions stated that they captured the airport. However the flag of Ukraine has been flying over the dispatch tower, suggesting the airport was actually not captured. The airport's garrison has been able to withstand attacks by Russian T-72 tanks, Grad and Uragan rocket artillery, as well as 2S4 Tyulpan heavy mortars without any air support. By September, Russian Spetsnaz forces began to actively aid the rebels in assaulting the airport, however, they only managed to advance 500 meters closer to the complex by the end of the month.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: On 22 November 2014 Spetsnaz groups Cheetah and Titan stormed the Odessa oil refinery. There were no injuries during the operation. A statement from the prosecutor's office of the Odessa Oblast stated that Spetsnaz forces were used to secure the refinery's assets. In April a Ukrainian court ruled that the refinery's assets were to be liquidated, however it was suspected management was trying to profit by illegally selling ₴55 million worth of assets without court approval. Prosecutors attempted to enter the refinery on 17 October 2014 to enforce a court decision to confiscate the refinery's assets but were stopped by security, therefore the decision to use Spetsnaz forces to secure the premises and carry out the previous court order was made by the prosecutor's office.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: On 10 August 2016 Russia accused the Special Forces of Ukraine of conducting a raid near the Crimea town of Armyansk which killed 2 Russian servicemen; the government of Ukraine denied any involvement. Ukrainian intelligence services reported that there was indeed a border clash, but stated it was a friendly fire incident between the Russian military and the border service of Russia's Federal Security Service.


title: Special forces of Ukraine

text: On 5 December 2016, Ukrainian separatist media claimed a Canadian national, reportedly serving with the 73rd Special Naval Center, was killed during an operation near Vodyanoye. Overall, the special forces community of Ukraine lost 73 of its members during the war as off 28 October 2017. The breakdown of casualties is as follows:


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: Kim Dong-young (; born February 1, 1996), professionally known as Doyoung (), is a South Korean singer, actor and host. He is best known as a member of the South Korean boy group NCT and its sub-units NCT U and NCT 127. Doyoung made his debut in April 2016 as a member of rotational unit NCT U and became a member of Seoul-based fixed unit NCT 127 in January 2017. In 2021, he starred in the television drama "Midnight Cafe Season 3 -The Curious Stalker" and appeared in the musical "Marie Antoinette".


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: Kim Dong-young was born on February 1, 1996 in Guri, Gyeonggi, South Korea. He is the younger brother of actor Gong Myung.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: In late 2013, Doyoung became a trainee under SM Entertainment<nowiki>'s Casting System after being scouted at a "Guri City Youth Art Festival"</nowiki> singing competition.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: For Chanyeol's music video remake of H.O.T "Hope" on "," Doyoung took part in the remake version of the song by EXO's Chen alongside his co-members Johnny, and Jaehyun, which was aired on August 15, 2014.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: On January 15, 2015, Doyoung was officially introduced as a member of SM Rookies, which is a pre-debut team consisted of trainees under SM Entertainment. He was also announced as an MC on MBC Music's television music show, Show Champion alongside fellow member Jaehyun. They hosted the program from January 21 to July 1, 2015.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: He made a special appearance in episode 11 of the Korean remake of , singing "Beauty & the Beast" as a duet with then-SM Rookies member Koeun, which aired on Disney Channel Korea on December 13, 2015.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: On February 15, 2016, he was selected as a model for the "Design United" brand along with Taeyong and Yuta.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: On April 5, 2016, Doyoung was confirmed as a member of boy group NCT, in the first sub-unit, NCT U, alongside five other members of the SM Rookies program. They officially debuted with the digital singles "The 7th Sense" alongside Taeyong, Ten, Jaehyun and Mark on April 8 and "Without You", alongside Taeil and Jaehyun on April 9.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: In July 2016, Doyoung collaborated with Shinee's Key on the song "Cool" for the soundtrack of OCN drama "38 Squad". This marked his first solo endeavor since debuting under NCT. In November, Doyoung joined the main cast of OnStyle's beauty variety show, "Lipstick Prince".


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: In December 2016, he was announced as a new member of NCT 127, the second sub-unit of NCT, which previously debuted in July. He officially debuted with the unit in January 2017 with the release of the EP "Limitless".


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: He also participated in the SM Station project "Sound of Your Heart (너의 목소리)" with fellow NCT member Taeil and labelmates Yesung, Sunny, Seulgi, Wendy, and Lee Dong-woo as part of SM Town.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: In February 2017, he joined "Inkigayo" as an MC alongside Got7's Jinyoung and Blackpink's Jisoo. In March of the same year, he made an appearance on the MBC program "We Got Married" alongside his brother.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: In August, he released "Stay in my Life" for the "School 2017" soundtrack with fellow NCT members Taeil and Taeyong. In October, he collaborated with Gugudan's Sejeong to release "Star Blossom (별빛 이 피면)" through the second season of SM Station.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: In June 2018, he released the song "Hard for Me" for the drama "Rich Man". "Hard for Me" was originally sung by CHEEZE and was the first song released for the drama, later re-recorded by Doyoung.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: In March 2019, Doyoung collaborated with indie duo Rocoberry on the song "Don't Say Goodbye (헤어 지지 말아요, 우리)". Doyoung appeared on the show "King of Mask Singer" under the name "Assistant Manager" in July 2019. He advanced to the final round based on his renditions of "Beautiful" by Crush and "Time Spent Walking Through Memories" by Nell, competing alongside the reigning champion, Nightingale. The following month, he was added to the regular cast of "Law of the Jungle in Sunda Islands". In November, Doyoung collaborated with labelmates BoA, Siwon, J-Min, Sunny, Taemin, Suho and Wendy as part of SM Town on the song "This is Your Day (for every child, UNICEF)".


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: In September 2020, SM Entertainment announced that NCT would be releasing their second studio album as a group, "NCT 2020 Resonance Pt. 1", with the second part "NCT 2020 Resonance Pt. 2" following in November. In the first part, Doyoung participated in both of the title tracks, "Make a Wish" and "From Home" by NCT U, the only member to do so. He also participated in the B-sides "Volcano" and "Lightbulb" by NCT U and "Music, Dance" by NCT 127. In the second part, Doyoung participated in the B-side track "I.O.U" along with the other vocalists within the group.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: In March 2021, Doyoung appeared in his first television drama as lead, "Midnight Cafe Season 3 - The Curious Stalker".


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: On April 19, it was announced that Doyoung had been cast in his first musical, "Marie Antoinette", as one of the three actors playing the male lead role of Count Axel von Fersen. The musical ran from July 13 to October 3 at the Charlotte Theatre. On August 5, producer Ryan S. Jhun announced through his personal Instagram that Doyoung and fellow member Haechan would participate in the first single from his first album. The song, "Maniac", was released on August 12.


title: Doyoung (singer)

text: On March 8, 2022, Doyoung donated million to the Hope Bridge Disaster Relief Association to help the victims of the massive wildfire that started in Uljin, Gyeongbuk and has spread to Samcheok, Gangwon.


title: Peel P50

text: The Peel P50 is a three-wheeled microcar originally made from 1962 to 1965 by the Peel Engineering Company on the Isle of Man, and then from 2011 to present. It was listed in the 2010 Guinness World Records as the smallest production car ever made. The original model has no reverse gear, but a handle at the rear allows the very lightweight car to be maneuvered physically when required.


title: Peel P50

text: Designed as a city car, it was advertised in the 1960s as capable of seating "one adult and a shopping bag." The vehicle's only door was on its left side and equipment included a single windscreen wiper and one headlight. Standard colours were Daytona White, Dragon Red, and Dark Blue. The 1963 model retailed for £199 when new (about £6,600 in 2019, or US$8,500). The company produced 50 P50s, of which 27 are known to still exist, one of which was sold for a record US$176,000 at a Sotheby's auction in March 2016.


title: Peel P50

text: In 2010 Peel Engineering Ltd. in England reinstated manufacturing of the P50 and Trident models from its premises in Sutton-in-Ashfield, England. Externally this car is very similar to the original, with the same dimensions and kerb weight as the original, but with mechanical differences in the suspension, steering, and drive-train, and a fully functioning reverse gear, ensuring they are road-legal under today's rules. Production included petrol models with a 49 cc four-stroke engine and electric models with an electric moped motor and gelled-electrolyte batteries. The top speed of both cars is about .


title: Peel P50

text: At long and wide and with an unladen weight of , the P50 holds the record as the smallest car ever to go into production. The Peel P50's diminutive size and width means that it can quite easily fit through doorways and enter buildings, as demonstrated by Jeremy Clarkson during a sequence on a 2007 episode of Top Gear, where a blue P50 was driven through the BBC's Television Centre.


title: Peel P50

text: The original P50 used a DKW single-cylinder engine, which gave it a top speed of approximately , and was equipped with a three-speed manual transmission that had no reverse gear. Consequently, turning in a confined area could be achieved only by pushing, or lifting the car using the handle on the rear and physically pulling it round. The makers and users claim fuel consumption of .


title: Peel P50

text: In 1963, as a publicity stunt, a Peel P50 was taken to the top of Blackpool Tower in the lift and driven around the observation balcony.


title: Peel P50

text: At least one prototype, the "Peel P55 Saloon Scooter", has also survived. Unlike the production Peel P50 (along with all developments and replicas thereof), this prototype used the less stable layout of a single wheel at the front and two at the back.


title: Peel P50

text: On 15 February 2013 at the Bruce Weiner RM Auction a genuine 1964 Peel P50 (Registration number ARX 37B) achieved in excess of ().


title: Peel P50

text: In 2011 businessmen Gary Hillman and Faizal Khan went to the "Dragons' Den" asking for £80,000. They got the investment and started a new company to put their revised models into production. Three replica models were available initially: Gas, Eco and Fun. The line was later reduced to two: the Petrol and Electric models. These are hand-built to order in Sutton-in-Ashfield by Micro Car Specialists for the domestic and export markets.


title: Peel P50

text: In 2018 it was reported that Peel Engineering sells around fifteen P50s annually, plus ten or so continuations of its bigger sister, the two-seat bubblecar Peel Trident. The conventional piston engined P50 is more requested in the UK, priced at £14,879 – whereas greater demand for the Peel comes from the US, where the electric model (at £13,679) helps owners to comply with emissions regulations.


title: Peel P50

text: The original Peel P50 has always been road-legal in the UK, though the many replica versions are classed as Kitcars and as such, require MSVA inspection for 3 wheel Moped or 4 wheel Quadricycle. It is street-legal in the US. Cars were exported to other countries, sometimes being classified as a moped (e.g. the P50 that went to Finland).


title: Peel P50

text: In the Netherlands there are two original Tridents registered as tricycles, but the Trident replica with the 50cc engine and top speed was registered as a moped. In Amsterdam the Ripley's Believe It Or Not museum has one. Due to local traffic rules it may not be driven on the cycle path. In Wassenaar the Louwman Museum had an original P50 on display; it was on the poster of the "Dwarfcar" themed exhibition.


title: Baby Got Back

text: "Baby Got Back" is a 1992 hip hop song written and recorded by American rapper Sir Mix-a-Lot, which appeared on his third album, "Mack Daddy". The song samples the 1986 Detroit techno single "Technicolor" by Channel One.


title: Baby Got Back

text: At the time of its original release, the song caused controversy with its outspoken and blatantly sexual lyrics about women, as well as specific references to the female buttocks, which some people found objectionable. The song's music video was briefly banned by MTV.


title: Baby Got Back

text: It was the second best-selling song in the US in 1992, behind Boyz II Men's "End of the Road". In 2008, it was ranked number 17 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop.


title: Baby Got Back

text: The song debuted at number 75 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart dated April 11, 1992 and hit number one twelve weeks later. The single spent five weeks at the top of the chart.


title: Baby Got Back

text: The first verse begins with "I like big butts and I cannot lie" and most of the song is about the rapper's attraction to women with large buttocks. The second and third verse challenge mainstream norms of beauty: "I ain't talkin' 'bout "Playboy". Cause silicone parts are made for toys." and "So "Cosmo" says you're fat. Well I ain't down with that!"


title: Baby Got Back

text: The song came from a meeting between Sir Mix-a-Lot and Amylia Dorsey, who saw little representation of full-figured women in media. The idea came from a 1980s-era Budweiser commercial featuring very thin, Valley girl-esque models with different skin colors. They decided to dedicate a song to the opposite extreme, featuring curvy women of color. Mix and Dorsey sought to "broaden the definition of beauty."


title: Baby Got Back

text: Sir Mix-a-Lot commented in a 1992 interview: "The song doesn't just say I like large butts, you know? The song is talking about women who damn near kill themselves to try to look like these beanpole models that you see in "Vogue" magazine." He explains that most women respond positively to the song's message, especially black women: "They all say, 'About time.'"


title: Baby Got Back

text: In the song's prelude there is a conversation between two (presumably) thin, white Valley girls, similar to girl talk in Frank Zappa's "Valley Girl". One girl (dubbed Linda by Amylia Dorsey) remarks to her friend, "Oh, my, God Becky, look at her butt! It is so big... She's just so black!", at which point Sir Mix-a-Lot begins rapping.


title: Baby Got Back

text: The dialogue of actress Papillon Soo Soo saying "Me so horny" is sampled from the 1987 film "Full Metal Jacket" to complete Sir Mix-a-Lot's lyric, "That butt you got makes..."


title: Baby Got Back

text: In 2014, according to TMZ, Sir Mix-a-Lot says it was Jennifer Lopez's moves as a Fly Girl on the 90s show "In Living Color" that first inspired him to write "Baby Got Back".


title: Baby Got Back

text: Larry Flick from "Billboard" wrote, "First offering from rapper's major-label debut, "Mack Daddy", cheekily rhapsodizes about the joys of women with prominent backsides. Cute rhymes and slammin' beats add up to a potential smash at several formats." In 2020, Cleveland.com ranked "Baby Got Back" number 24 in their list of the best ""Billboard" " Hot 100 No. 1 song of the 1990s. They described it as "the novelty song that never went away", adding, "You could put this on at a wedding today and women will recite the opening word for word before the rap breaks in and everyone (and I mean everyone) joins in. Sir Mix-a-Lot was never shy about playing up the songs "playful" nature, rapping on top of a giant butt in the video." James Bernard from "Entertainment Weekly" noted that the song "alternates deftly between a critique of the "Cosmo"/"Playboy" narrow-minded — and narrow-hipped — standard of female beauty and a bawdy appreciation of, er, generous rear ends."


title: Baby Got Back

text: The song has been cited as a limitations of Bechdel test. It has been described as passing the test because it begins with a valley girl saying to another "oh my god, Becky, look at her butt".


title: Baby Got Back

text: Sir Mix-a-Lot's best known song, "Baby Got Back" reached number 1 on the United States "Billboard" Hot 100 chart for five weeks in the summer of 1992, and won a 1993 Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance. In the years following the song's release on the album "Mack Daddy", it has continued to appear in many movies, television shows, and commercials, as detailed below. It was number 6 on VH1's Greatest Songs of the '90s, and number 1 on VH1's Greatest One Hit Wonders of the '90s.


title: Baby Got Back

text: In the third-season episode "Chirlaxx" of the stop-motion animated sketch comedy series "Robot Chicken", Sir Mix-a-Lot guest starred as himself in a sketch titled "Table Be Round", which sees him performing the titular song - a parody of "Baby Got Back" - for King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, as response to their difficulty of communication with one another when seated at their elongated table, also replacing it with the Round Table.


title: Baby Got Back

text: In the 1993 Joel Schumacher film "Falling Down", a giant inflatable butt promoting the single is visible in a scene where D-Fens (Michael Douglas) destroys a pay phone booth with a submachine gun.


title: Baby Got Back

text: In the 1999 "Futurama" episode A Fishful of Dollars, Fry plays the song on an 'antique' stereo until Leela shuts it off, referring to it as 'classical music'.


title: Baby Got Back

text: In the 2002 "Friends" episode The One with Ross's Inappropriate Song, Ross was singing the song to his baby daughter Emma, which made her laugh for the first time.


title: Baby Got Back

text: The song briefly plays in the 2004 animated film "Shark Tale" when Don Lino's octopus assistant Luca adjusts the needle on the phonograph, leading to the aforementioned song being played.


title: Baby Got Back

text: The song plays during the credit sequence of the 2009 video game "Fat Princess" while the player is attacking the staff with a scythe.


title: Baby Got Back

text: In 2019, former governor of Alaska and Republican vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin performed the song on Fox's "The Masked Singer" while dressed as a bear.


title: Baby Got Back

text: Jonathan Coulton released a cover of "Baby Got Back" during his Thing a Week project in October 2005, with the song being released as part of the first "Thing A Week" compilation album the next year.


title: Baby Got Back

text: In late January 2013, a preview of the television show "Glee" included a cover of "Baby Got Back" that would be part of an upcoming episode. Coulton and others noted that the backing music was at least extremely similar to his recorded version—and possibly used his original musical composition or even the audio track. Coulton reported that the Fox Broadcasting Network had not asked him about using the recording, nor responded to his inquiries before the episode aired. The episode, "Sadie Hawkins", aired unchanged on January 24, 2013; further analysis of the aired version showed the "Glee" cover appeared to use Coulton's original musical arrangement; it included Coulton's original melody and a changed line in Coulton's version ("Johnny C's in trouble" instead of the original "Mix-a-Lot's in trouble"). Fox officials later contacted agents for Coulton, claiming, in his words, "they're within their legal rights to do this, and that [Coulton] should be happy for the exposure", even though Coulton is not credited within the episode. Coulton has been exploring legal options; while musical covers do not have copyright legal protection in the United States, Coulton may have legal rights if the "Glee" version is found to have used his audio track or original composition directly. Coulton has since released his cover of "Baby Got Back" to iTunes, what he calls "a cover of Glee's cover of my cover of Sir Mix-a-Lot's song", with proceeds going to charity. Coulton's experience led other artists who believe that "Glee" used their cover arrangements as backing within the show to step forward with similar claims.


title: Baby Got Back

text: In a 2000 interview, Sir Mix-a-Lot reflected, "There's always butt songs. Hell, I got the idea sitting up here listening to old Parliament records: "Motor Booty Affair". Black men like butts. That's the bottom line." The song is part of a tradition of 1970s–90s African-American music celebrating the female posterior, including "Da Butt", "Rump Shaker", and "Shake Your Groove Thing".


title: Baby Got Back

text: In 2014, Trinidadian-American rapper Nicki Minaj sampled the basis and some verses of "Baby Got Back" for her hit "Anaconda", from the album "The Pinkprint". The song has been viewed by some as a diss track, in answer to "Baby Got Back". Whereas Sir Mix-a-Lot focuses on a woman's body and the pleasure it gives him, Minaj raps from the perspective of the unnamed woman, and shows how she uses her callipygian physique to profit and empower herself.