title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: In the latter part of the 19th century Morocco's instability resulted in European countries intervening to protect investments and to demand economic concessions. Sultan Hassan I called for the Madrid Conference of 1880 in response to France and Spain's abuse of the "protégé" system, but the result was an increased European presence in Morocco—in the form of advisors, doctors, businessmen, adventurers, and even missionaries.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: After Sultan Abdelaziz appointed his brother Abdelhafid as viceroy of Marrakesh, the latter sought to have him overthrown by fomenting distrust over Abdelaziz's European ties. Abdelhafid was aided by Madani el-Glaoui, older brother of T'hami, one of the Caids of the Atlas. He was assisted in the training of his troops by Andrew Belton, a British officer and veteran of the Second Boer War. For a brief period, Abdelaziz reigned from Rabat while Abdelhafid reigned in Marrakesh and Fez and a conflict known as the Hafidiya (1907–1908) ensued. In 1908 Abdelaziz was defeated in battle. In 1909, Abdelhafid became the recognized leader of Morocco.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: In 1911, rebellion broke out against the sultan. This led to the Agadir Crisis, also known as the Second Moroccan Crisis. These events led Abdelhafid to abdicate after signing the Treaty of Fes on 30 March 1912, which made Morocco a French protectorate. He signed his abdication only when on the quay in Rabat, with the ship that would take him to France already waiting. When news of the treaty finally leaked to the Moroccan populace, it was met with immediate and violent backlash in the Intifada of Fez. His brother Youssef was proclaimed Sultan by the French administration several months later (13 August 1912). At the same time a large part of northern Morocco was placed under Spanish control.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: Under colonial rule the institution of the sultan was formally preserved as part of a French policy of indirect rule, or at least the appearance of indirect rule. Under the French Protectorate, the 'Alawi sultans still had some prerogatives such as the power to sign or veto "dahirs" (decrees). In the Spanish zone, a Khalifa ("deputy") was appointed who acted as a representative of the sultan. In practice, however, the sultan was a puppet of the new regime and many parts of the population saw the dynasty as collaborators with the French. The French colonial administration was headed by the French resident-general, the first of whom was Hubert Lyautey, who enacted many of the policies that set the tone for France's colonial regime in Morocco.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: Mawlay Youssef died unexpectedly in 1927 and his youngest son, Muhammad (Mohammed ben Youssef or Mohammed V), was acclaimed as the new sultan, at the age of 18. By the guidance of the French regime, he had spent most of his life growing up in relative isolation inside the royal palace in Meknes and Rabat. These restrictions on his interactions with the outside world continued in large part even after he ascended to the throne. However, over the course of his reign he became increasingly associated with the Moroccan nationalist movement, eventually becoming a strong symbol in the cause for independence. The nationalists, for their part, and in contrast with other anti-colonial movements like the Salafis, saw the sultan as a potentially useful tool in the struggle against French rule.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: Some of Mohammed V's initial interactions with nationalists came during the crisis caused by the so-called "Berber Dahir". Among other things at this time, the sultan received a delegation from Fez which presented a list of grievances about the new French policy, and had discussions with Allal al-Fassi where he apparently expressed that he had been misled by the French residency when signing it and vowed to cede no further rights of his country. The sultan refrained from openly associating with the nationalist movement in the 1930s, but nonetheless resisted French attempts to shift the terms of the Protectorate during the interwar years. He reaffirmed Morocco's loyalty to France in 1939, at the beginning of the World War II. After the fall of France to the Germans and the advent of the Vichy regime, however, the sultan increasingly charted his own course, successfully pushing some reform initiatives related to education, even as the Vichy regime encouraged him to make several well-publicized trips abroad to bolster his legitimacy and that of the colonial system. In 1942 the Allies landed on the Moroccan Atlantic coast as part of their invasion of North Africa against Axis occupation. This momentous change also allowed the sultan more political manoeuvring room, and during the Anfa Conference in 1943, which Allied leaders attended, Mohammed V was left alone at one time with President Roosevelt, who expressed support for Moroccan independence after the war. The encounter was the sultan's first face-to-face interaction with another head of state without the mediating presence of the French officials. In the fall of the same year, the sultan encouraged the formation of the official Istiqlal ("Independence") Party and the drafting of the Manifesto of Independence that called for a constitutional monarchy with democratic institutions.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: These moves were strongly opposed by the French, but the sultan continued to steadily defy them. Another watershed event was the Tangier Speech of 1947, delivered in the Mendoubia Gardens of Tangier during the first visit of a Moroccan sultan to the city since Mawlay Hassan I in 1889. The speech made a number of significant points including support for Arab nationalism, a generally anti-colonial ideology, and an expression of gratitude for American support of Moroccan aspirations while omitting the usual statements of support for the French Protectorate. In the following years the tensions increased, with French officials slowly acknowledging the need for Moroccan independence but stressing for slower reforms rather than rapid sovereignty. The French enlisted many powerful collaborators such Thami el-Glaoui to organize a campaign of public opposition to the sultan and demands for his abdication – also known as the ""Qa'id" Affair" – in the spring of 1953. The political confrontation came to a head in August of that year. On August 13 the royal palace in Rabat was surrounded and closed off by Protectorate military forces and police, and on August 16 Thami and allied Moroccan leaders formally declared Mohammed Ben 'Arafa, a little-known member of the 'Alawi family, as sultan. On August 20 the French resident-general, Auguste Guillaume, presented demands to the sultan for his abdication and his agreement to go into exile. The sultan refused to abdicate, and that afternoon he and his sons were escorted at gunpoint from the palace and onto a plane. He and his family were eventually exiled to Madagascar.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: The exile of the sultan did not alleviate French difficulties in Morocco, and an insurgency broke out which targeted both the regime and its collaborators with boycott campaigns as well as acts of violence. Several assassination attempts were made against the new puppet sultan, Mohammed Ben 'Arafa, and one of the boycott campaigns was aimed at the country's mosques due to prayers being said in the new sultan's name. Eventually, with the decolonialization process under way in Tunisia and the independence war in Algeria, the French agreed to negotiate Morocco's independence at a conference on August 23, 1955. By October 1 Mohammed Ben 'Arafa had abdicated and later that month even Thami el-Glaoui supported Mohammed V's return. The sultan landed at Rabat-Salé Airport at 11:42 am on November 16, greeted by cheering crowds. The French-Moroccan Declaration of Independence was formally signed on March 2, 1956, and Tangier was reintegrated to Morocco later that year. In 1957 Mohammed V adopted the official title of "King", which has since been used by his successors, Hassan II and Mohammed VI.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: At independence, the Moroccan "makhzen" (royal government) remained underdeveloped and urgent reforms were needed to resolve problems arising from decades of colonial rule. Political friction existed between the nationalist Istiqlal Party, which pushed for more democratic institutions, and the king, Mohammed V, who now hesitated on endorsing radical political changes. By the end of the decade in 1960, the Istiqlal Party was weakened by splinter factions and the growing number of political parties were unable to act together as an effective counterbalance to the king. A formal constitution also remained lacking. As a result, the monarch emerged as the main pillar of political stability in the state and there was a revival of absolutism under royal rule. Mohammed V died in 1961 and was succeeded by his son, Hassan II.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: Hassan was soon compelled to promulgate a constitution, which was approved by popular referendum in 1962. The constitution had been written by officials appointed by the king and in practice it cemented the monarchy's rule by granting it far-reaching executive powers. Hassan II worked to improve relations with France and position Morocco as an ally of the West, but relations with neighboring Algeria deteriorated over border issues and resulted in the Sand War in 1963. Tensions also rose internally during the 1960s and 1970s, with leftist opposition mounting against the conservative monarchy. This in turn was met with increased political repression and Hassan II largely relied on the army and police as instruments of power. The period from roughly 1975 to 1990 is known as the "Years of Lead", as state violence was regularly deployed against dissenters and political opponents were jailed or disappeared. Two attempted "coups d'état" against the king failed in 1971 and 1972.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: Upon the withdrawal of the Spanish occupation of the Western Sahara in 1975, Hassan II used the opportunity to publicly galvanize nationalist sentiment by pressing Morocco's claims to the territory, over the objections of the local Sahrawi people and of the Algerian and Mauritanian governments. He organized the Green March, which saw around 350,000 Moroccans crossing the southern border to settle inside the territory, triggering a war with the Polisario, the armed front of the Sahrawi people. A ceasefire was negotiated in 1989, but the conflict remains unresolved today, with most of the territory under "de facto" Moroccan control while the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic controls the easternmost zones. During the 1990s Hassan II change course in domestic politics and publicly promoted an agenda of reform. A new constitutional reform, approved by referendum, was enacted in 1993. Another amendment to the constitution was passed in 1996 to create a bi-cameral legislature, with the lower house elected directly by voters and an upper house chosen indirectly by regional assemblies and professional organizations.


title: 'Alawi dynasty

text: Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed VI, the current reigning king. The new monarch's reign began with promises of further liberalization and reform; however, the extent of political reforms has been limited and popular engagement with electoral politics has been inconsistent. Another constitutional reform was passed by a referendum in 2011 in response to protests inside the country, in the wider context of the Arab Spring. Today, the 'Alawis remain the only monarchy in North Africa. They officially rule in a parliamentary constitutional monarchy, but authoritarian and absolutist characteristics are still noted by scholars and observers, with effective power largely remaining in the hands of the king, a situation that has been compared to the pattern of Hashemite monarchy in Jordan.


title: Deathstalker

text: The deathstalker ("Leiurus quinquestriatus") is a species of scorpion, a member of the family Buthidae. It is also known as the Palestine yellow scorpion, Omdurman scorpion, Naqab desert scorpion and by many other colloquial names, which generally originate from the commercial captive trade of the animal. To eliminate confusion, especially important with potentially dangerous species, the scientific name is normally used to refer to them. The name "Leiurus quinquestriatus" roughly translates into English as "five-striped smooth-tail". In 2014, the subspecies "L. q. hebraeus" was separated from it and elevated to its own species "Leiurus hebraeus". Other species of the genus "Leiurus" are also often referred to as "deathstalkers". "Leiurus quinquestriatus" is yellow, and long, with an average of .


title: Deathstalker

text: "Leiurus quinquestriatus" can be found in desert and scrubland habitats ranging from North Africa through to the Middle East. Its range covers a wide sweep of territory in the Sahara, Arabian Desert, Thar Desert, and Central Asia, from Algeria and Mali in the west through to Egypt, Ethiopia, Asia Minor and the Arabian Peninsula, eastwards to Kazakhstan and western India in the northeast and southeast.


title: Deathstalker

text: The deathstalker is one of the most dangerous species of scorpions. Its venom is a powerful mixture of neurotoxins, with a low lethal dose. While a sting from this scorpion is extraordinarily painful, it normally would not kill a healthy adult human. However, young children, the elderly, or infirm (such as those with a heart condition and those who are allergic) are at much greater risk. Any envenomation runs the risk of anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening allergic reaction to the venom. A study from Israel shows a high rate of pancreatitis following envenomation. If a sting from "Leiurus quinquestriatus" does prove deadly, the cause of death is usually pulmonary edema.


title: Deathstalker

text: Antivenom for the treatment of deathstalker envenomations is produced by pharmaceutical companies Twyford (German) and Sanofi Pasteur (French), and by the Antivenom and Vaccine Production Center in Riyadh. Envenomation by the deathstalker is considered a medical emergency even with antivenom treatment, as its venom is unusually resistant to treatment and typically requires large doses of antivenom.


title: Deathstalker

text: In the United States and other countries outside of the typical range of the deathstalker, there is the additional complicating factor that none of the existing antivenoms are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (or equivalent agencies) and are only available as investigational drugs (INDs). The US Armed Forces maintain an investigational drug application for the AVPC-Riyadh antivenom in the event of envenomation of soldiers in the Gulf War theater of operations, and the Florida Antivenin Bank, managed by the Miami-Dade Fire Rescue Department, maintains Sanofi Pasteur's Scorpifav antivenom for the deathstalker.


title: Deathstalker

text: A component of the deathstalker's venom, the peptide chlorotoxin, has shown potential for treating human brain tumors. There has also been some evidence to show that other components of the venom may aid in the regulation of insulin and could be used to treat diabetes.


title: Deathstalker

text: In 2015 clinical trials were beginning of the use of chlorotoxin with a fluorescent molecule attached as brain tumour "paint" (BLZ-100), to mark cancerous cells in real time during an operation. This is important in brain cancer surgery, where it is vital both to remove as many cancerous cells as possible, but not to remove healthy tissue necessary for brain functioning. In preclinical animal trials the technique could highlight extremely small clusters of as few as 200 cancer cells, compared to the standard use of MRI, with a lower limit in excess of 500,000.


title: Deathstalker

text: Possession of "L.quinquestriatus" may be illegal or regulated in countries with laws prohibiting the keeping of dangerous animals in general. Jurisdictions are increasingly and explicitly including "L.quinquestriatus" in laws requiring permits to keep animals which are not usual pets, or restricting possession of dangerous animals, and in some cases have prohibited the keeping of "L.quinquestriatus" save by licensed zoos and educational facilities.


title: Deathstalker

text: In several jurisdictions departments of fish and wildlife require permits for many animals, and a number of cities and municipal governments have prohibited their possession in their bylaws.


title: Austrians

text: Austrians () are the citizens and nationals of Austria. The English term "Austrians" was applied to the population of Habsburg Austria from the 17th or 18th century. Subsequently, during the 19th century, it referred to the citizens of the Empire of Austria (1804–1867), and from 1867 until 1918 to the citizens of Cisleithania. In the closest sense, the term "Austria" originally referred to the historical March of Austria, corresponding roughly to the Vienna Basin in what is today Lower Austria.


title: Austrians

text: Historically, Austrians were regarded as ethnic Germans and viewed themselves as such. The Austrian lands (including Bohemia etc) were part of the Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 which resulted in Prussia expelling the Austrian Empire from the Confederation. Thus, when Germany was founded as a nation-state in 1871, Austria was not a part of it. In 1867, Austria was reformed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 at the end of World War I, Austria was reduced to a rump state and adopted and briefly used the name the Republic of German-Austria () in an attempt for union with Germany, but was forbidden due to the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919). The First Austrian Republic was founded in 1919. Nazi Germany annexed Austria with the "Anschluss" in 1938.


title: Austrians

text: After the defeat of Nazi Germany and the end of World War II in Europe, both the political ideology of pan-Germanism and the union with Germany have become associated with Nazism, resulting in Austrians developing their own separate and distinct national identity. Today, the vast majority of Austrians do not identify as "German".


title: Austrians

text: The English word "Austrian" is a derivative of the proper name Austria, which is a latinization of "Österreich", the German name for Austria. This word is derived from "Ostarrîchi", which first appears in 996. This, in turn, is probably a translation of the Latin "Marcha Orientalis", which means "eastern borderland" (viz. delimiting the eastern border of the Holy Roman Empire). It was a margraviate of the Duchy of Bavaria, ruled by the House of Babenberg from AD 976.


title: Austrians

text: During the 12th century, the "Marcha Orientalis" under the Babenbergs became independent of Bavaria. What is today known as Lower Austria corresponds to the "Marcha Orientalis", while Upper Austria corresponds to the eastern half of the core territory of Bavaria (the western half forming part of the German state of Bavaria).


title: Austrians

text: The adjective "Austrian" entered the English language in the early 17th century, at the time referring to Habsburg Austria in the sense of "members of the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg" (the junior branch emerging from the dynastic split into Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs in 1521), but from the 18th century also "a native or inhabitant of Austria".


title: Austrians

text: The territory of what is today Austria in the Roman era was divided into Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia.


title: Austrians

text: Noricum was a Celtic kingdom, while the "Pannonii" were of Illyrian stock. The Raetians were an ancient alpine people probably akin to the Etruscans. During the Migration period (c. 6th century), these territories were settled by the Bavarians and other Germanic groups in the west (Alemanni in Vorarlberg, Lombards in Tyrol), and by Slavic groups (principality Carantania), Huns and Avars in the east. In the 8th century, the former territories of Raetia and Noricum fell under Carolingian rule, and were divided into the duchies of Swabia, Bavaria and principality Carantania. Pannonia until the end of the 8th century was part of the Avar Khaganate. The "East March" ("Ostmark") during the 9th century was the boundary region separating East Francia from the Avars and the Magyars. The site of Vienna had been settled since Celtic times (as "Vindobona"), but the city only rose to importance in the High Middle Ages as the chief settlement of the March of Austria (the March river just east of Vienna marks the ancient border between Francia and the Avars).


title: Austrians

text: After the defeat of the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, the East March or March of Austria came to be the easternmost portion of the Holy Roman Empire, bordering on Moravia to the north and on the Kingdom of Hungary to the east.


title: Austrians

text: As a consequence, the national character of the Austro-Bavarian speaking majority population of Austria throughout their early modern and modern history remained characterized by their neighbourhood to the West Slavs (Czechs, Slovaks) to the north, the South Slavs (Slovenes, Carinthian Slovenes, Burgenland Croats) to the south, and the Hungarians to the east.


title: Austrians

text: (i.e. parts of Bavaria, Swabia and Carinthia) was a gradual process of feudal politics during the High and Late Middle Ages, at first in the Archduchy of Austria under the House of Babenberg during the 12th to 13th centuries, and under the House of Habsburg after 1278 and throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. The various populations of these territories were not unified under the single name of "Austrians" before the early modern period.


title: Austrians

text: The Habsburg, who had ruled the territory of Austria since the Late Middle Ages, greatly increased their political prestige and power with the acquisition of the lands of the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia in 1526. The Hungarian aristocracy was more successful at retaining the Magyars' cultural and political preponderance in multi-ethnic Hungary than Bohemia, on three sides surrounded by German neighbours, which underwent a period of intense German colonisation, germanizing the leading classes of the Czech people as well. The common German identity of lands such as Carinthia, Styria, or Tyrol, and the ruling dynasty made it easier for these lands to accept the central government set up in Vienna in the mid-18th century.


title: Austrians

text: The term Austrian in these times was used for identifying subjects of the Domus Austriae, the House of Austria, as the dynasty was called in Europe, regardless of their ethnic ancestry. Although not formally a united state, the lands ruled by the Habsburgs would sometimes be known by the name "Austria". In reality they remained a disparate range of semi-autonomous states, most of which were part of the complex network of states that was the Holy Roman Empire (the imperial institutions of which were themselves controlled for much of their later existence by the Habsburgs). However, the second half of the 18th century saw an increasingly centralised state begin to develop under the reign of Maria Theresa of Austria and her son Joseph II.


title: Austrians

text: After the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon, the emperor Franz II formally founded the Austrian Empire in 1804 and became as "Franz I" the first Austrian emperor. For the first time the citizens of the various territories were now subjects of the one same state, while most of the German states, Prussia excluded, still cultivated their Kleinstaaterei and didn't succeed in forming a homogenous empire. Following Prussia's victory in the Austro-Prussian war in 1866, Otto von Bismarck successfully unified the German Empire in 1871, which was Prussian-dominated, without the inclusion of Austria and the German Austrians.


title: Austrians

text: After Austria was excluded from Germany in 1866, the following year Austria joined Hungary as a dual empire known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A further major change resulted from a reorganisation of the Austrian Empire in 1867 into a dual monarchy, acknowledging the Kingdom of Hungary as an independent state bound to the remaining part of the empire, as well independent, by a personal and real union, the Emperor of Austria being the Apostolic King of Hungary (with both titles on the same level). The Austrian half, a patchwork of crown-lands, broadly coterminous with the modern-day Austria, the Czech Republic, and parts of Slovenia, Poland, Ukraine, Italy and Croatia, was bound together by the common constitution of 1867, stating that all subjects now would carry "uniform Austrian citizenship" and have the same fundamental rights. These non-Hungarian lands were not officially called the Austrian Empire. Until 1915, they were officially called "the Kingdoms and States Represented in the Imperial Council" and politicians used the technical term Cisleithania (labelling the Hungarian lands as Transleithania). The general public called them Austria, and in 1915, the non-parliamentary Cisleithanian government decreed to use this term officially, too.


title: Austrians

text: The idea of grouping all Germans into one nation-state gave way to a rapid rise of German nationalism within the German Confederation, especially in the two most powerful German states, Austria and Prussia. The question of how a unified Germany was to be formed was a matter of debate. The German Question was to be solved by either unifying all German-speaking peoples under one state as the "Greater German solution" ("Großdeutsche Lösung"), which was promoted by the Austrian Empire and its supporters. On the other hand, the "Lesser German solution" ("Kleindeutsche Lösung") advocated only to unify the northern German states and exclude Austria; this proposal was favored by the Kingdom of Prussia and its supporters. This debate became known as German dualism.


title: Austrians

text: The lands later called Cisleithania (except Galicia and Dalmatia) were members of the German Confederation since 1815 as they had been part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1806. Until 1848, Austria and its chancellor Prince Metternich unanimously dominated the confederation. The developing sense of a German nationality had been accelerated massively as a consequence of the political turmoil and wars that engulfed Central Europe following the French Revolution and the rise to power of Napoleon Bonaparte. Although the years of peace after Napoleon's fall quickly saw German nationalism largely pushed out of the public political arena by reactionary absolutism, the Revolutions of 1848 established it as a significant political issue for a period of nearly hundred years.


title: Austrians

text: Political debate now centred on the nature of a possible future German state to replace the Confederation, and part of that debate concerned the issue of whether or not the Austrian lands had a place in the German polity. When Emperor Franz Joseph I ordered to build a monument in Vienna in 1860 to Archduke Charles, victor over Napoleon in the Battle of Aspern-Essling in 1809, it carried the dedication "To the persistent fighter for Germany's honour", to underline the Germanic mission of the House of Austria.


title: Austrians

text: The idea of uniting all ethnic Germans into one nation-state began to be challenged in Austria by the rise of Austrian nationalism, especially within the Christian Social Party that identified Austrians on the basis of their predominantly Catholic religious identity as opposed to the predominantly Protestant religious identity of the Prussians.


title: Austrians

text: Habsburg influence over the German Confederation, which was strongest in the southern member states, was rivalled by the increasingly powerful Prussian state. Political manoeuvering by the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck resulted in military defeat of the Austrians in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the collapse of the Confederation, both effectively ending any future Austrian influence on German


title: Austrians

text: When asked by Edward VII to abandon Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany for co-operation with England, Franz Joseph replied "I am a German prince."


title: Austrians

text: The Franco-Prussian War and the establishment of a German Empire in 1871, headed by Prussia and pointedly excluding any of the Austrian lands, let the state turn away from Germany and turn its gaze towards the Balkan Peninsula. Thereby the influence of pan-Germanism was diminished in the Habsburg territories, but as the term "Austrians" still was used supra-national, German-speaking Austrians considered themselves Germans (and were counted as such in the censuses). After Bismarck had excluded Austria from Germany, many Austrians faced a dilemma about their identity which prompted the Social Democratic Leader Otto Bauer to state that the dilemma was "the conflict between our Austrian and German character." The state as a whole tried to work out a sense of a distinctively Austrian identity.


title: Austrians

text: The Austro-Hungarian Empire created ethnic conflict between the German Austrians and the other ethnic groups of the empire. Many pan-German movements in the empire desired the reinforcement of an ethnic German identity and that the empire would collapse and allow for a quick annexation of Austria to Germany. Although it was precisely because of Bismarck's policies that Austria and the German Austrians were excluded from Germany, many Austrian pan-Germans idolized him.


title: Austrians

text: While the high bureaucracy of Austria and many Austrian army officers considered themselves "black-yellow" (the Habsburg colours), i.e. loyal to the dynasty, the term "German Austria" (Deutschösterreich) was a term used in the press to mean all the Austrian districts with an ethnic German majority among the inhabitants. Austrian pan-Germans such as Georg Ritter von Schönerer and his followers agitated against the "multi-national" Austro-Hungarian Empire and advocated for German Austria to join the German Empire. Although many Austrians shared the same views, a lot of them still showed allegiance to the Habsburg monarchy and hoped for Austria to remain an independent country. Although not as radical as Schönerer and his followers, populists such as Karl Lueger used anti-semitism and pan-Germanism as a form of populism to further their own political purposes.


title: Austrians

text: The last year of World War I saw the collapse of Habsburg authority throughout an increasingly greater part of its empire. On October 16, 1918, emperor Karl I invited the nations of Austria to create national councils, with the aim to instigate a restructuring of the state under Habsburg rule. The nations followed the invitation (the Czechs had founded their national council already before the invitation) but ignored the will of the emperor to keep them in a restructured Austrian state. Their goal was total independence.


title: Austrians

text: On October 21, the German members of the Austrian parliament, elected in 1911, met in Vienna to found the Provisional National Assembly of German Austria ("Provisorische Nationalversammlung für Deutschösterreich"). On October 30, 1918, they installed the first German Austrian government, leaving the question "monarchy or republic" open. (German nationalists and social democrats favoured the republic, the Christian Socialists wanted to keep the monarchy.) This government in the first days of November took over the duties of the last imperial-royal government in a peaceful way. Initially the new state adopted the name "German Austria", reflecting the republic being the German part of the old Austria and showing the popular desire to unite with the new German republic. On November 12, 1918, the provisional national assembly voted for the republic and for unification with Germany with a large majority.


title: Austrians

text: The creation of the Czecho-Slovak and South Slav states, the dissolution of the real union with Hungary, and the post-war treaties imposed by the victorious Allies combined to see the newly established Austrian republic both with the boundaries it has today, and a largely homogeneous German-speaking population. In the Treaty of Saint-Germain, in September 1919 the union with Germany was prohibited, and the new republic's name "Deutschösterreich" was prohibited by the treaty; instead the term "Republic of Austria" was used. The westernmost province Vorarlberg's wish to unite with Switzerland was also ignored. On October 21, 1919, the state changed its name accordingly. Many German Austrian communities were left scattered throughout the other new states, especially in Czechoslovakia, where more than 3 million German Bohemians had not been allowed to become part of the new Austrian state, as well as in the southern part of Tyrol which now found itself part of Italy. In total, more than 3.5 million German-speaking Austrians were forced to remain outside the Austrian state.


title: Austrians

text: The collapse of the empire caused an apparent struggle for some German Austrians between an "Austrian" and a "German" character. The idea of unifying Austria with Germany was motivated both by a sense of a common German national identity, and also by a fear that the new state, stripped of its one-time imperial possessions, and surrounded by potentially hostile nation-states, would not be economically viable. An Austrian identity emerged to some degree during the First Republic, and although Austria was still considered part of the ""German nation"" by most, Austrian patriotism was encouraged by the anti-Nazi/anti-Socialist clerico-authoritarianist state ideology known as Austrofascism from 1934 to 1938. The Engelbert Dollfuss/Kurt von Schuschnigg government accepted that Austria was a "German state" and believed Austrians were "better Germans", but strongly opposed the annexing of Austria to Nazi Germany.


title: Austrians

text: By March 1938, with Nazi governments in control of both Berlin and Vienna, the country was annexed to Germany ("Anschluss") as "Ostmark". In 1942 the name was changed to the "Alpen-und Donau-Reichsgaue" ("Alpine and Danubian Gaue"), thus eradicating any links with a special Austrian past. Some of the most prominent Nazis were native Austrians, including Adolf Hitler, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Franz Stangl, Otto Skorzeny, and Odilo Globocnik, as were 40% of the staff at Nazi extermination camps.


title: Austrians

text: During the war, Austrians' infatuation with Germany faded as Austrian-born Hitler's series of victories ended. When social democrat Adolf Schärf, from 1945 party president and vice-chancellor and from 1957 federal president of Austria, was visited by German friends who wanted to talk about post-war government, he spontaneously explained to his surprised visitors, "love for Germany has been put out in Austrians". When the allies declared that they would reestablish an independent Austrian state after their victory (the Moscow Declaration of 1943) the only Austrians who heard them were those secretly listening to enemy broadcasts ("Feindsender"), which was a criminal offence and heavily prosecuted.


title: Austrians

text: Though the Allied forces treated Austria as a belligerent party in the war and maintained occupation of it after the Nazi capitulation, they accepted the Declaration of Independence which Austrian politicians had signed at Vienna's city hall on April 27, 1945, and they made the first national elections possible in the autumn of that year. By the end of 1945, Austria, under the supervision of the Allied Council in Vienna, had a democratic parliament and government again, acknowledged by all four allied occupation zones.


title: Austrians

text: The Austrian resistance to the Nazi rule started with the Anschluss in 1938. Historians estimate that there were about 100,000 members of resistance facing 700,000 NSDAP members in Austria. The sign of the Austrian resistance was O5, where the 5 stands for E and OE is the abbreviation of Österreich with Ö as OE.


title: Austrians

text: The end of World War II in 1945 saw the re-establishment of an independent Austria, although the Allied Powers remained in occupation until 1955, when the Austrian State Treaty between Austria and them was signed to end occupation and to regain Austrian sovereignty.


title: Austrians

text: Immediately after 1945 the majority of Austrians still saw themselves as Germans, as a broader Austrian national identity took time to develop. In a 1956 survey, 46% of Austrians still considered themselves to be Germans. Another survey carried out in 1964 revealed that only 15% of Austrians still considered themselves to be Germans.


title: Austrians

text: In contrast, the Austrian political elite referred to their experiences in concentration camps and in prison, which had brought out a desire for the lost independence of the Austrian state. Kreissler (1993) writes: "It was not until after the (long dark) night of the Third Reich that Austrian identity was brought back to consciousness by resistance and exile".


title: Austrians

text: Austrians developed a self-image unambiguously separate from their German neighbour. It was based on cultural achievements of the past, the Moscow Declaration, geopolitical neutrality, language variation, the Habsburg legacy, and the separation of the two empires in the late 19th century. The German Empire was formed without Austria and the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the arrangement known as the Kleindeutsche Lösung or "the Little Germany Solution". It proved favourable for Austrians not to be held guilty for World War II, genocide and war crimes, since Austria was considered a "victim" of Nazi Germany, although some historians call this a "big lie" and have challenged this statement.


title: Austrians

text: Unlike earlier in the 20th century, in 1987 only 6% of Austrians identified themselves as "Germans". Today over 90% of the Austrians see themselves as an independent nation.


title: Austrians

text: The logic of the existence of an independent Austrian state is no longer questioned as it was in the inter-war period. Proponents who recognize Austrians as a nation claim that Austrians have Celtic heritage, as Austria is the location of the first characteristically Celtic culture to exist. It is said that Celtic Austria became culturally Romanized under Roman rule and later culturally Germanized after Germanic invasions. Contemporary Austrians express pride in having Celtic heritage and Austria possesses one of the largest collections of Celtic artifacts in Europe.


title: Austrians

text: Austria's multicultural history and geographical location has resulted in post-Soviet era immigration from Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Romania, and Poland. As with neighbouring Germany, there has also been heavy immigration from Turkey and former Yugoslav states such as Croatia and Serbia.


title: Austrians

text: Austrians have historically spoken the German language. The sole official language at the federal level of Austria is German, and the standard used is called Austrian German since German is considered a pluricentric language, like English. Austrian German is defined by the Austrian Dictionary (), published under the authority of the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture. Thus, all websites, official announcements and most of the media are carried out in Austrian German. The minority languages Slovene, Croatian and Hungarian are spoken and officially recognized.


title: Austrians

text: In terms of native language, it is generally not Austrian German that is used, but instead local dialects of the Austro-Bavarian and Allemannic (in Vorarlberg and the Tiroler Außerfern) family. The Austro-Bavarian dialects are considered to belong either to the Central Austro-Bavarian or Southern Austro-Bavarian subgroups, with the latter encompassing the languages of the Tyrol, Carinthia, and Styria and the former including the dialects of Vienna, Burgenland, Upper Austria, and Lower Austria. The vast majority of Austrians are however able to speak Austrian Standard German in addition to their native dialect, as it is taught in all modern day schools.


title: Austrians

text: Like most of Central Europe, Austria has had high levels of immigration since the 1970s. As with Germany, the largest immigrant group are Turks. An estimated total of 350,000 ethnic Turks lived in Austria in 2010, accounting for 3% of the Austrian population.


title: Austrians

text: The rate of naturalization has increased after 1995, since which dates Turks in Austria could retain their citizenship in Turkey after naturalization in Austria (dual citizenship). After 2007, the rate of naturalizations has decreased due to a stricter nationality law enacted by the Austrian legislature.


title: Austrians

text: During the 2000s, an average number of 27,127 foreign nationals per year was naturalized as Austrian citizens, compared to an average 67,688 children per year born with Austrian nationality.


title: Austrians

text: Today, the largest group of foreign nationals are Germans. As of January 2018 - 186,891 Germans lived in Austria.


title: Austrians

text: Consequently, an increasing portion of Austrians is not descended from the historical populations of Austria.


title: Austrians

text: While the term "ethnic Austrian" has mostly been reserved for the context of overseas emigration from Austria (Austrian Americans, Austrian Canadians etc.), it can more recently also be used to distinguish the indigenous population from the naturalized immigrant population.


title: Austrians

text: Vienna, the capital city of Austria has long been an important center of musical innovation. Composers of the 18th and 19th centuries were drawn to the city by the patronage of the Habsburgs, and made Vienna the European capital of classical music. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Franz Schubert and Johann Strauss, Jr., among others, were associated with the city. During the Baroque period, Slavic and Hungarian folk forms influenced Austrian music.


title: Austrians

text: Complementing its status as a land of artists, Austria has always been a country of great poets, writers, and novelists. It was the home of novelists Arthur Schnitzler, Stefan Zweig, Thomas Bernhard, and Robert Musil, and of poets Georg Trakl, Franz Werfel, Franz Grillparzer, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Adalbert Stifter. Famous contemporary Austrian playwrights and novelists include Elfriede Jelinek and Peter Handke. Writers of philosophy include Ernst Mach, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Karl Popper and the members of the Vienna circle.


title: Austrians

text: Austrian cuisine, which is often incorrectly equated with Viennese cuisine, is derived from the cuisine of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In addition to native regional traditions it has been influenced above all by German, Hungarian, Czech, Jewish, Italian and Polish cuisines, from which both dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed. Goulash is one example of this. Austrian cuisine is known primarily in the rest of the world for its pastries and sweets.


title: Austrians

text: Roman Catholicism in Austria has played a significant role both in the culture and in the politics of Austria. It enabled the House of Habsburg to rule Spain and its empire as a Catholic Monarchy from the 16th century, and it determined the role of Habsburg Austria in the Thirty Years' War. The music in the tradition of Viennese classicism is sacral to a significant extent, including works such as Mozart's Great Mass in C minor, masses by Joseph Haydn (1750-1802), Beethoven's Mass in C major (1807), down to Bruckner's Te Deum (1903).


title: Austrians

text: Secularism has been on the rise since the 1980s. An estimated 66% of Austrians adhered to Roman Catholicism in 2009, compared to 78% in 1991 and 89% in 1961.


title: Austrians

text: There is a traditional Lutheran minority, accounting for 4% of the population in 2009 (down from 6% in 1961). An estimated 17% are nonreligious (as of 2005).


title: Austrians

text: Islam in Austria has grown rapidly during the 1990s and 2000s, rising from 0.8% in 1971 to an estimated 6% in 2010, overtaking the traditional size of the Lutheran community in Austria. This rapid growth was due to the significant immigration to Austria from Turkey and Former Yugoslavia during the 1990s to 2000s.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: Kiss Me, Kate is a musical written by Bella and Samuel Spewack with music and lyrics by Cole Porter. The story involves the production of a musical version of William Shakespeare's "The Taming of the Shrew" and the conflict on and off-stage between Fred Graham, the show's director, producer, and star, and his leading lady, his ex-wife Lilli Vanessi. A secondary romance concerns Lois Lane, the actress playing Bianca, and her gambler boyfriend, Bill, who runs afoul of some gangsters. The original production starred Alfred Drake, Patricia Morison, Lisa Kirk and Harold Lang.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: "Kiss Me, Kate" was Porter's response to Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Oklahoma!" and other integrated musicals; it was the first show he wrote in which the music and lyrics were firmly connected to the script. The musical premiered in 1948 and proved to be Porter's only show to run for more than 1,000 performances on Broadway. In 1949, it won the first Tony Award for Best Musical.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: The musical was inspired by the on-stage/off-stage battling of husband-and-wife actors Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne during their 1935 production of "The Taming of the Shrew", witnessed by future Broadway producer Arnold Saint-Subber. In 1947, he asked the Spewacks (undergoing their own marital woes at the time) to write the script; Bella Spewack in turn enlisted Cole Porter to write the music and lyrics.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: After a 3½-week pre-Broadway tryout at the Shubert Theatre in Philadelphia starting December 2, 1948, the original Broadway production opened on December 30, 1948, at the New Century Theatre, where it ran for nineteen months before transferring to the Shubert, for a total run of 1,077 performances. Directed by John C. Wilson with choreography by Hanya Holm, the original cast included Alfred Drake, Patricia Morison, Lisa Kirk, Harold Lang, Charles Wood and Harry Clark. The 1949 original cast recording has been inducted into the Library of Congress's National Recording Registry for the album's "cultural, artistic and/or historical significance to American society and the nation's audio legacy".


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: The original West End production opened on March 8, 1951, at the Coliseum Theatre, and ran for 400 performances. Directed by Sam Spewack with choreography again by Holm, this production starred Patricia Morison, Bill Johnson, Adelaide Hall and Julie Wilson.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: The original Australian production played from February 1952 at His Majesty's Theatre, Melbourne, before seasons in Sydney, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide until 1954. The production featured Hayes Gordon and Joy Turpin (later replaced by Evie Hayes).


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: A London revival opened in December 1970 at the London Coliseum, in a production by the Sadler's Wells Opera. The cast featured Emile Belcourt (Petruchio), Judith Bruce, Eric Shilling, Ann Howard (Kate), Francis Egerton and Robert Lloyd, with direction by Peter Coe and choreography by Sheila O'Neill. Coe did a translation for British audiences, including having "a tea wagon", and included "traditional English music hall jokes". This revival had a "brief run", according to the "Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre".


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: The Royal Shakespeare Company staged a production which opened at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon, on February 10, 1987, toured the UK from March to May, and then played at London's Old Vic Theatre from May 19, 1987. Directed by Adrian Noble and staged by Ron Field, the production starred Nichola McAuliffe and Paul Jones as Lilli/Kate and Fred/Petruchio, with Tim Flavin and Fiona Hendley as Bill/Lucentio and Lois/Bianca. The gangsters were played by Emil Wolk and John Bardon, who shared the 1987 Olivier Award for Outstanding Performance of the Year by an Actor in a Musical, while McAuliffe won the Olivier for Outstanding Performance of the Year by an Actress in a Musical. The production moved to the Savoy Theatre on January 15, 1988, with a new cast.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: A short-lived Broadway revival ran at the Broadway Theatre in January 1952. It was directed by John C. Wilson and choreographed by Hanya Holm. Holly Harris and Robert Wright starred as Lilli and Fred.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: A Broadway revival opened at the Martin Beck Theatre on November 18, 1999, and closed on December 30, 2001, after 881 performances and 28 previews. Directed by Michael Blakemore, Produced by Richard Godwin, and choreographed by Kathleen Marshall and Rob Ashford, the opening night cast included Marin Mazzie, Brian Stokes Mitchell, Amy Spanger, Michael Berresse, Ron Holgate, Lee Wilkof and Michael Mulheren. This production won the Tony Awards for Best Revival of a Musical and Best Actor in a Musical for Mitchell; Marin Mazzie received a Tony nomination for Best Actress in a Musical, and Michael Berresse, Lee Wilkof and Michael Mulheren received Tony nominations for Best Featured Actor in a Musical.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: A West End revival opened at the Victoria Palace Theatre on October 30, 2001, and closed on August 24, 2002. As with the 1999 Broadway revival, Michael Blakemore was the director with choreography by Kathleen Marshall. Brent Barrett and Marin Mazzie co-starred.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: Chichester Festival Theatre's 2012 revival of the show transferred to the Old Vic Theatre on London's South Bank in November 2012, with an official opening in December. It starred Hannah Waddingham as Lili/Kate and Alex Bourne as Fred Graham. The production was directed by Trevor Nunn. The show received positive reviews from critics and audiences. Hannah Waddingham and Alex Bourne were both nominated for the 2013 Olivier Awards as Best Actress/Actor in a Musical for their performances.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: In September 2015 Opera North presented a revival directed by Jo Davies, choreographed by Will Tuckett. The production opened at the Leeds Grand Theatre before touring to Theatre Royal Newcastle, The Lowry Salford, and Theatre Royal Nottingham. The production was co-produced with Welsh National Opera who continued to tour it in 2016, first as part of the Shakespeare400 season at the Wales Millennium Centre, Cardiff, and then to Liverpool Empire Theatre, Bristol Hippodrome, New Theatre Oxford, Mayflower Theatre Southampton, Birmingham Hippodrome, and Venue Cymru Llandudno, before returning to Cardiff. The production was revived at London Coliseum briefly in June 2018, following a return visit to Leeds Grand Theatre in May 2018.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: The Roundabout Theatre Company presented a revised third Broadway revival of "Kiss Me, Kate" with Kelli O'Hara as Lilli Vanessi/Kate, Will Chase as Fred Graham/Petruchio, Stephanie Styles as Lois Lane/Bianca, and Corbin Bleu as Bill Calhoun/Lucentio. The production is directed by Scott Ellis and choreographed by Warren Carlyle, with minor "feminist" updates by Amanda Green to make the musical "more accessible for today’s audiences". Roundabout produced a benefit concert of the show with O'Hara, Ellis, and Carlyle in 2016. The revival had a limited run at Studio 54. Previews began on February 14, 2019, with the opening on March 14. The production closed on June 30, 2019.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: The cast of a musical version of William Shakespeare's "The Taming of the Shrew" is rehearsing for the opening of the show that evening ("Another Op'nin', Another Show"). Egotistical Fred Graham is the director and producer and is starring as Petruchio, and his movie-star ex-wife, Lilli Vanessi, is playing Katherine. The two seem to be constantly arguing, and Lilli is particularly angry that Fred is pursuing the sexy young actress Lois Lane, who is playing Bianca. After the rehearsal, Lois's boyfriend Bill appears; he is playing Lucentio, but he missed the rehearsal because he was gambling. He tells her that he signed a $10,000 IOU in Fred's name, and Lois reprimands him ("Why Can't You Behave?").


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: Before the opening, Fred and Lilli meet backstage, and Lilli shows off her engagement ring from Washington insider Harrison Howell, reminding Fred that it's the anniversary of their divorce. They recall the operetta in which they met, which included "Wunderbar", a Viennese waltz; they end up fondly reminiscing and singing and dancing. Two gangsters show up to collect the $10,000 IOU, and Fred replies that he never signed it. The gangsters obligingly say they will give him time to remember it and will return later. In her dressing room, Lilli receives flowers from Fred, and she declares that she is still "So In Love" with him. Fred tries to keep Lilli from reading the card that came with the flowers, which reveals that he really intended them for Lois. However, Lilli takes the card with her onstage, saying she will read it later.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: The show begins ("We Open in Venice"). Baptista, Katherine and Bianca's father, will not allow his younger daughter Bianca to marry until his older daughter Katherine is married. However, she is shrewish and ill-tempered, and no man desires to marry her. Three suitors – Lucentio, Hortensio, and Gremio – try to woo Bianca, and she says that she would marry any of them ("Tom, Dick, or Harry"). Petruchio, a friend of Lucentio, expresses a desire to marry into wealth ("I've Come to Wive it Wealthily in Padua"). The suitors hatch a plan for him to marry Kate, as Baptista is rich. Kate, however, has no intentions of getting married ("I Hate Men"). Petruchio attempts to woo her ("Were Thine That Special Face"). Offstage, Lilli has an opportunity to read the card. She walks on stage off-cue and begins hitting Fred, who, along with the other actors, tries to remain in character as Baptista gives Petruchio permission to marry Kate. Lilli continues to strike Fred, and he ends up spanking her. Offstage, Lilli furiously declares she is leaving the show. However, the gangsters have reappeared, and Fred tells them that if Lilli quits, he'll have to close the show and won't be able to pay them the $10,000. The gangsters force her to stay at gunpoint. Back onstage, Bianca and Lucentio dance while the chorus performs "We Sing of Love", covering a scene change. The curtain opens, revealing the exterior of a church; Petruchio and Kate have just been married, and they exit the church; the gangsters, dressed in Shakespearean costume, are onstage to make sure that Lilli stays. Petruchio implores for Kate to kiss him, and she refuses. He lifts her over his shoulder and carries her offstage while she pummels his shoulder with her fists ("Kiss Me Kate").


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: During the show's intermission, the cast and crew relax in the alley behind the theater. Paul (Fred's assistant), along with a couple other crew members, lament that it's "Too Darn Hot" to meet their lovers that night. The play continues, and Petruchio tries to 'tame' Katherine and mourns for his now-lost bachelor life ("Where Is the Life That Late I Led?"). Off-stage, Lilli's fiancé Harrison Howell is looking for Lilli. He runs into Lois, and she recognizes him as a former lover but promises not to tell Lilli. Bill is shocked to overhear this, but Lois tells him that even if she is involved with other men, she is faithful to him in her own way ("Always True to You in My Fashion"). Lilli tries to explain to Howell that she is being forced to stay at the theatre by the gangsters, but Howell doesn't believe her and wants to discuss wedding plans. Fred insidiously points out how boring Lilli's life with Howell will be compared with the theatre. Bill sings a love song he has written for Lois ("Bianca").


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: The gangsters discover that their boss has been killed, so the IOU is no longer valid. Lilli leaves—without Howell—as Fred unsuccessfully tries to persuade her to stay ("So in Love" (Reprise)). The gangsters get caught on stage and improvise a tribute to Shakespeare in which they explain that knowing Shakespeare is the key to romance ("Brush Up Your Shakespeare"). The company prepares for the conclusion of the play, the wedding of Bianca and Lucentio, even though they are now missing one of the main characters. However, just in time for Katherine's final speech, Lilli arrives onstage ("I Am Ashamed That Women Are So Simple"). Fred and Lilli wordlessly reconcile on stage, and the play ends ("Kiss Me Kate" (Finale)) with them, as well as Bill and Lois, kissing passionately.


title: Kiss Me, Kate

text: A film version of the same name was released in 1953. There have been at least four television productions, the first on "Hallmark Hall of Fame" in 1958, with Drake and Morison reprising their Broadway roles, the second recorded for the launch of BBC Two in the UK in 1964, starring Howard Keel, Patricia Morison and Millicent Martin, the third in 1968 with then husband-and-wife team Robert Goulet and Carol Lawrence, and the fourth in 2003 on "Great Performances", a high-definition shot performance of the London revival with Brent Barrett and Rachel York.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: Jorge Paulo Agostinho Mendes (born 7 January 1966) is a Portuguese football agent. He is registered with the Portuguese Football Federation and heads the GestiFute company, founded in 1996. Mendes is among the most influential football agents in the world, with clients including David de Gea, José Mourinho, Diego Costa, James Rodríguez, João Félix and Cristiano Ronaldo. Outside of football, he represents clients such as Formula 1 star Charles Leclerc, triple jump champion Patricia Mamona, surfer Frederico Morais, tennis player João Sousa and the cyclist João Almeida. Mendes is often referred to as a "super-agent".


title: Jorge Mendes

text: Mendes has been named "Best Agent of the Year" at the Globe Soccer Awards ten times, from 2010 to 2020.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: Mendes' first deal as a football agent came in 1996 when he brokered Nuno Espírito Santo's move from Vitória de Guimarães to Deportivo de La Coruña. He had met the goalkeeper in a bar in Guimarães. After that deal, Mendes gradually attracted more Portuguese players, including Jorge Andrade. Hugo Viana's move from Sporting CP to Newcastle United in the Premier League for around €12 million in 2002 was his first major international transfer. Part of Mendes' success was ostensibly based on his frequent presence at football schools and youth teams throughout Portugal, spotting and signing young players, as he did with Cristiano Ronaldo and Ricardo Quaresma.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: It has been reported that Mendes came to physical blows at the Portela Airport in Lisbon with Luís Figo's agent, José Veiga, whose influence he was gradually supplanting at this time. Mendes has also been accused by other agents of moving in on their players shortly before agreeing major deals.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: In 2004, Mendes brokered José Mourinho's move from Porto to manage Chelsea, despite Mourinho already having an agent, José Baidek, whom Mourinho had known since his time at União de Leiria and who had reportedly lined up a move to Liverpool. Mourinho and Mendes negotiated with the agent Pini Zahavi, who acted as Chelsea's representative.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: The deal established Mendes' importance. He built up a roster of the leading Portuguese players and every Portuguese player that followed Mourinho to Chelsea was a client of Mendes, including Ricardo Carvalho, Paulo Ferreira, Tiago and Maniche. Mendes was paid by Chelsea to act for the player and for the club.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: GestiFute was also involved in part-owning the economic rights of a number of these players. In July 2003, Porto bought 20% of Brazilian-born Portuguese professional footballer Deco's rights from GestiFute in exchange for €2.25 million, plus 5% of the economic rights for Ricardo Carvalho and Paulo Ferreira. Shortly afterwards, GestiFute sold a further 15% of Deco's economic rights to the club, this time in return for €1.25 million and 10% of striker Benni McCarthy's rights.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: After Mourinho's departure from Chelsea in September 2007, Mendes oversaw his move to Inter Milan in 2008 for a fee that made him the highest paid coach in the world, and then, in May 2010, that which saw him move from Inter to become Real Madrid's manager on a four-year contract worth £40 million.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: In 2008, Mendes also handled the deal that took the manager Luiz Felipe Scolari to Chelsea, negotiating a three-year contract worth between £5.5 million and £6.25 million. At that summer's UEFA Euro 2008 tournament, Mendes had been allowed privileged access to the Portugal national team's hotel by Scolari, who was then managing the national side.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: Mendes oversaw the transfer of Cristiano Ronaldo from Sporting CP to Manchester United for £12.24 million in 2003 and in 2007 those of Anderson and Nani to the same club for £46 million. The Nani transfer reportedly followed only once the player had dropped his existing agent, Ana Almeida. That summer, Mendes was also responsible for the transfers of Pepe to Real Madrid for £25 million and Simão to Atlético Madrid for £16.5 million.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: Mendes' association with Anderson reflected the connections he established in South America, in which he worked closely with Pini Zahavi. Part of the deal that took Anderson to Manchester United saw his previous club Porto pay Mendes a reported £4 million for his share of Anderson's registration. Mendes was said to have contributed 20% of the £3.75 million Porto paid Grêmio in Brazil to sign the midfielder in 2006.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: In 2009, Mendes was reported to have made £4 million from Cristiano Ronaldo's £80 million transfer from Manchester United to Real Madrid.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: In August 2010, football agent Gonçalo Reis complained that he had been left on the sidelines when Bebé, a player he represented, was transferred to Manchester United from Vitória de Guimarães. "When Mendes arrived," Reis said, "I was out of the transaction." In July 2010, Reis arranged Bebé's move to Vitória as a free agent from Estrela da Amadora in the semi-professional Portuguese third division after the cancellation of the player's contract due to the club's inability to pay his wages. Manchester United signed Bebé for a reported fee of £7.4 million five weeks later, when he had played just six pre-season friendlies for Vitória. Reis received notification that he had been sacked by Bebé in a letter dated 5 August that arrived two days before the completion of the Manchester United transfer on 11 August. Reis officially took his complaints to FIFA in May 2012.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: At Vitória's subsequent general meeting, the club's directors revealed that Mendes had received €3.6 million of the €9 million fee from the Bebé transfer, with reports in Portugal suggesting that €2.7 million of that sum came from the 30% of the player's economic rights initially retained by Bebé when he moved to Vitória but bought from the player by Mendes for €100,000. Emilio Macedo, club president of Vitória de Guimarães club, called Mendes "the bulwark of this transfer" and defended the agent, saying, "With all due respect to other agents, this country owes him a lot because he handles large transfers and brings money into the country because this is like an export." The transfer was subsequently investigated by the Portuguese police.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: Manchester United's then manager, Sir Alex Ferguson, admitted that he had not seen Bebé play before signing the player. He had reportedly been recommended to the club by Carlos Queiroz, who had two spells as assistant manager at Manchester United and who at that time was coach of the Portugal national team. Queiroz's relationship with United had been important in the transfers of Anderson and Nani in 2007; he is also represented by Mendes.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: Mendes brokered four of the seven biggest deals worldwide during the 2014 summer transfer window from which he earned an estimated £30 million. James Rodríguez moved to Real Madrid from Monaco for £63 million, Ángel Di María from Real Madrid to Manchester United for £60 million, Diego Costa from Atlético Madrid to Chelsea for £32 million and Eliaquim Mangala from Porto to Manchester City for £32 million.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: On 22 September 2014, an investigation by "The Guardian" implicated Jorge Mendes alongside ex-Manchester United and -Chelsea chief executive Peter Kenyon in breaching FIFA regulations regarding third-party ownership and conflict of interest in player representation, buying player rights through companies based in Jersey and Ireland. This followed another report published in January 2014 suggesting Kenyon's ex-club Chelsea have invested in third-party ownership via Mendes and Kenyon, a practice banned by the Premier League. Chelsea declined to comment on the accusations. On 23 September 2014, UEFA announced their intention to crack down on the practice of third-party ownership.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: After the takeover of English Championship club Wolverhampton Wanderers by Fosun International, Mendes was implemented as an agent for the club. Along with the help of team general manager Andrea Butti and sporting director Kevin Thelwell, 12 players were signed within six weeks during the 2016 summer transfer window.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: In December 2016, leaked documents suggested that Mendes was involved in a massive tax avoidance scheme with both Mourinho and Ronaldo accused of not paying taxes by using offshore accounts.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: Mendes began working with Premier League club Swansea City during the January 2018 transfer window, assisting the club in identifying players for newly-appointed manager Carlos Carvalhal. Previously, he brought Portugal under-21 midfielder Renato Sanches to the club, on loan from Bayern Munich, in August 2017.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: In January 2021, Mendes got into the world of cycling with his sports marketing company Polaris Sports partnering with Corso Sports, which sees Portuguese riders Joao Almeida and Ruben Guerreiro promoted by the team.


title: Jorge Mendes

text: In 2008, GestiFute announced that it had entered into partnership with Creative Artists Agency (CAA) in the United States to "create global opportunities for current and future clients", following CAA's expansion into the sports market.


title: India Post Payments Bank

text: India Post Payments Bank, abbreviated as IPPB, is a division of India Post which is under the ownership of the Department of Post, a department under Ministry of Communications of the Government of India. Opened in 2018, as of January 2022, the bank has more than 5 crore customers.


title: India Post Payments Bank

text: On 19 August 2015, the India Post received licence to run a payments bank from the Reserve Bank of India. On 17 August 2016, it was registered as a public limited government company for setting up a payments bank. IPPB is operating with the Department of Posts under Ministry of Communications.


title: India Post Payments Bank

text: The pilot project of IPPB was inaugurated on 30 January 2017 at Raipur and Ranchi. In August 2018, the Union Cabinet approved a cost of for setting up the bank. The first phase of the bank with 650 branches and 3,250 post offices as access points was inaugurated on 1 September 2018. Over ten thousand postmen have been roped into the first phase. By September 2020, the bank had acquired about 3.5 crore customers. The bank had acquired about 4 crore customers by December 2020. In January 2022, India Post Payments Bank has crossed 5 crore customers mark.


title: India Post Payments Bank

text: IPPB aims to utilize all of India's 155,015 post offices as access points and 3 lakh postal postmen and "Grameen Dak Sewak"s to provide doorstep banking services.


title: India Post Payments Bank

text: IPPB offers savings accounts, money transfer and insurances through the third parties, bill and utility payments.


title: Sky News presenters and editorial team

text: On 6 April 2016, Sky News announced that it was to launch a new show, entitled "The Pledge". It will not have a traditional presenter, but will instead have 9 panellists, with 5 appearing on each episode. Michelle Dewberry, Nick Ferrari, Rachel Johnson, Graeme Le Saux and June Sarpong appeared in the first programme on Thursday 21 April.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: Jarret Lee Stoll (born June 24, 1982) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player. Stoll has played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Edmonton Oilers, Los Angeles Kings, New York Rangers and Minnesota Wild.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: He is a two-time Stanley Cup champion, winning with Los Angeles in 2012 and 2014. Stoll is currently part of the player development department for the Kings.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: Stoll played his early minor hockey in Saskatchewan. He started in the small town of Neudorf, shortly thereafter moving on to minor hockey in Melville, and then to Yorkton, Saskatchewan. In 1997, Stoll helped the Yorkton Bantam AAA Terriers to a Western Canadian Championship. While in Yorkton, Stoll attended St. Paul's Elementary School and Sacred Heart High School. He has an older brother, Kelly, who played for the Yorkton Terriers of the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League (SJHL), and a younger sister Ashley, who played for the University of Saskatchewan Huskies women's hockey team.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: After winning the bantam championship, Stoll moved on to play for the Saskatoon Blazers of the Saskatchewan Midget Triple A Hockey League. While in Saskatoon, Stoll attended St. Joseph High School. Prior to joining the Blazers, Stoll was the first overall pick of the 1997 WHL Bantam Draft by the Edmonton Ice.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: Stoll started his Western Hockey League (WHL) career at the end of the 1997–98 season with the Ice, while they were still located in Edmonton. After this season, the team relocated to Cranbrook, British Columbia, and were renamed the Kootenay Ice. He played his entire junior career with the Ice franchise. In his third season, he was named team captain. In his final junior season (2001–02), Stoll captained the Ice to a Memorial Cup championship.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: While playing in Kootenay, Stoll went through the NHL draft process twice. In his initial year of eligibility, he was selected by the Calgary Flames 46th overall in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft, but was unable to come to terms with the team. The Flames arranged a trade to the Toronto Maple Leafs, who thought they had made arrangements to have a contract signed by the appropriate deadline, but their fax to NHL headquarters did not make it in time. Stoll ended up re-entering the 2002 NHL Entry Draft, where he was selected by the Edmonton Oilers 36th overall.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: Also during his junior career, Stoll twice represented his country at the World Junior Hockey Championships, in 2001 and 2002, winning bronze and silver medals respectively. In 2002, Stoll was named captain for Team Canada.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: After completing his junior career with Kootenay, Stoll entered the Oilers system, and suited up for the Hamilton Bulldogs of the American Hockey League (AHL) in 2002–03. During the season, he received his first call-up to the Oilers and played in his first four NHL games, registering an assist as his first career point. In 2003–04, he skated with the Oilers full-time. During the lock-out season of 2004-05, Stoll returned to the AHL to play with the Edmonton Roadrunners.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: Stoll resumed playing with the Oilers during the 2005–06 season. During a game against the Vancouver Canucks on February 4, 2006, Stoll set an Oilers record by winning 21 of 22 faceoffs (95.45%) taken. The 2005–06 season marked Stoll's first Stanley Cup playoffs appearance, highlighted by his game-winning goal in overtime of Game 3 of the Western Conference Quarter-finals against the Detroit Red Wings. Entering the 2007–08 season, Stoll was named one of the Oilers alternate captains for the team's road games.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: On June 29, 2008, Stoll was traded to the Los Angeles Kings (along with Matt Greene) in exchange for Ľubomír Višňovský. On September 5, the Kings signed Stoll to a four-year contract worth $14.4 million. In 2008–09, Stoll scored 18 goals with 23 assists for 41 points. On April 22, 2012, he scored the series-winning goal in overtime to eliminate the Vancouver Canucks—the winners of the Presidents' Trophy—in Game 5 of the Western Conference Quarter-finals.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: On June 11, 2012, Stoll won his first Stanley Cup with the Los Angeles Kings, their first championship in history of the franchise, against the New Jersey Devils. Subsequently, he signed a three-year, $9.75 million contract on June 25 to remain with the Kings. On June 13, 2014, Stoll won his second Stanley Cup with the Kings, in Game 5 against the New York Rangers.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: On August 10, 2015, Stoll signed as a free agent to a one-year contract with the New York Rangers. Stoll made his debut with the Rangers as the team's fourth line centre on opening night of the 2015–16 season in a 3–2 victory over the defending Stanley Cup champions, the Chicago Blackhawks, on October 7, 2015. After 29 games with the Rangers and contributing with just one goal and three points, Stoll was waived by the Rangers. On December 15, 2015, he was claimed off waivers by the Minnesota Wild.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: As a free agent from the Wild at the conclusion of the season, Stoll was unable to sign an NHL contract, opting to sign a professional try-out contract ("PTO") to attend the Columbus Blue Jackets' training camp on August 30, 2016. However, he was released from his PTO on October 5, 2016. Although Stoll never officially announced his retirement, he signaled an end to his playing career by accepting a job as a talent scout for the Los Angeles Kings on December 15, 2016.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: From 2006 to 2011, Stoll hosted his annual charity golf tournament in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, which benefits the Jarret Stoll Comfort Fund.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: In the summer of 2015, Stoll was arrested for possession of cocaine and ecstasy at a hotel in Las Vegas. He pleaded guilty to two misdemeanors in the case in June 2015.


title: Jarret Stoll

text: Stoll was engaged to model and actress Rachel Hunter, and they planned to marry in August 2009, but the wedding was called off. He began a relationship with sportscaster Erin Andrews in 2012. On December 9, 2016, it was announced he and Andrews were engaged. They were married on June 24, 2017.


title: 2 On

text: "2 On" is a song by American singer-songwriter Tinashe for her debut studio album "Aquarius" (2014). The song, which features a rap verse from American rapper SchoolBoy Q, was written by Tinashe, Schoolboy Q, Bobby Brackins, DJ Mustard, Jon Redwine, and Marley Waters. It features a sample from the 2005 single "We Be Burnin'" by Jamaican recording artist Sean Paul, resulting in writing credits for Cezar Cunningham, Sean Paul, Steven Marsden, Delano Thomas, Michael Jarrett, and Craig Serani Marsh. "2 On" was released as Tinashe's commercial debut single from "Aquarius" on January 21, 2014 and was sent to US rhythmic contemporary, urban contemporary on March 18, 2014, and to contemporary hit radio on July 30, 2014.


title: 2 On

text: "2 On" is an R&B song that contains elements of trap production. Lyrically, the song is a party song about living life to the fullest. Music critics mostly praised the song for its sound and carefree lyrics, and "2 On" was also noted by critics as a departure from Tinashe's murky alternative R&B that was part of her previous songs. The single peaked at number 24 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and number one on US rhythmic radio, was the second-most played song of 2014 on the format, and was certified platinum by the RIAA. The song also reached the top forty in Australia and Flanders (Belgium).


title: 2 On

text: The accompanying music video for the track was directed by Hannah Lux Davis and was released on March 24, 2014, with Tinashe dancing in several different scenes. To further promote the song, Tinashe made various live performances, including the SXSW Festival, the Power 106 LA concert, Capital Xtra, Rinse FM, V100.7/Milwaukee's Family Affair and "The Wendy Williams Show". Canadian rapper Drake released an unofficial rework of the song to his SoundCloud account; the song consisted of two parts, the new version of "2 On" and "Thotful". An official Spanish remix featuring reggaeton singer Randy was released on November 18, 2014, and later included on his mixtape "Under Doxis".


title: 2 On

text: "2 On" was written by Tinashe, Schoolboy Q and Bobby Brackins and produced by DJ Mustard, Jon Redwine and DJ Marley Waters. It is nightclub-oriented, which contrasts with Tinashe's previous work such as her 2013 mixtape "Black Water". She stated: "I wanted '2 On' to be transitional, so people get used to the idea of, 'She can make songs that can play on the radio, and she can still make songs that I can vibe out to in my car.'" "2 On" was released worldwide as a music download by RCA Records on January 21, 2014. It impacted US rhythmic contemporary, urban contemporary on March 18, 2014, and contemporary hit radio on July 30, 2014.


title: 2 On

text: "2 On" is an R&B song, marking a slight departure from the murky alternative R&B from her mixtapes. The song features "effervescent keys", "synth-string accents", finger snaps, trap hi-hats, electro beats and distant chilly sighs, the latter which Bradley Stern of "MuuMuse" described as more reminiscent of her mixtape releases. The song features a sample of Sean Paul's 2005 single "We Be Burnin'", with the line "Just give me the trees and we can smoke it ya/Just give me the drink and we can pour it ya" featured in the middle eight. As a result, the song's writers (Cezar Cunningham, Sean Paul Henriques, Steven Marsden, Delano Thomas, Michael Jarrett, and Craig Serani Marsh) are credited.


title: 2 On

text: Lyrically, the song is a carpe-diem anthem about being "super hyped up, super extra out on whatever emotion that it is." Although the song became her first hit and got a lot of people buzzing about the song, some listeners didn't really understand the concept of the meaning of "2 On." She spoke with VladTV to address this by saying "2 On is basically a new way of saying turn up. Being super hyped up with your friends when going out. I just wanted to come up with a fresh phrase that people can catch on to."


title: 2 On

text: J. Leeds of the online publication Idolator praised the song's production calling it a "club thumper" and comparing the music video choreography to Britney Spears and Janet Jackson Tom Breihan of "Stereogum" commented on the throwback feel from the track saying "2 On recreates some of the tropes of the late-’90s/early-’00s teenpop/R&B crossover era, but it does it within quotes" and also comparing the video having an Aaliyah vibe on it.


title: 2 On

text: Gotty, a writer for "The Smoking Section", commented that "made me want to rollerskate. Maybe not as rhythmic and polished as Tip and them did in ATL but I could definitely hit the rink, do a little bop once I get some speed and cut the corners." Gotty also commended DJ Mustard's production, writing "it’s not necessarily what we’ve come to expect as his signature sound and that’s a good thing here."


title: 2 On

text: Bradley Stern of MuuMuse classified the song as a "female version of Tyga‘s “Rack City" and 2 Chainz‘ "I’m Different" (both also produced by Mustard) mixed with the icy flow of Cassie's "Me & U," blending #TurnUp club culture (TURN DOWN FOR WHAT?!) with hypnotic minimal beats – it's all sorts of sexy." Jon Ali, in his blog, appraised the song as "a hot slow-burning R&B number packed with an icy electro beat and a infectious chorus loaded with plenty of memorable sexual come-ons. The song works so well in its simplicity" and the sample used as "all sorts of perfect."


title: 2 On

text: A writer for "Fact Magazine" opined that "Tinashe and Mustard are a surprisingly potent pairing, but we hoped rappers would leave the “beat the pussy up" schtick in the bin." John Kennedy of "Billboard" noted that "ScHoolboy Q's rambunctious bars give this feel-good smash just the right amount of scruffiness."


title: 2 On

text: "Pitchfork" named "2 On" as one of the 200 best songs of the decade, praising the track as "widescreen and intricately sculpted: its curling, high-toned bassline seems to whir and chime, and its descending roll of pizzicato synth-drums are so ear-catching that they compete with the gorgeous vocal melody. [...] Tinashe’s sensuous, slurred lingering over the chorus “"I luuuuu to get 2 on"" is joyous and life-affirming, a million miles from the deadened hedonism of so much trap. Dissolution has never sounded so delicious".


title: 2 On

text: Following its release the song has peaked at number 24 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, number 53 on the UK Singles Chart and stayed at number one for four weeks on the Billboard Rhythmic Charts. As of August 8, 2014, "2 On" has sold 473,000 downloads in the US. On November 24, 2014 the song was certified Platinum by RIAA for selling 1,000,000 copies.


title: 2 On

text: The song's official music video, directed by Hannah Lux Davis, was released on March 24, 2014. One of the songwriters, Bobby Brackins, makes a cameo. Speaking about the choreography, handled by JaQuel Knight, in the video, Tinashe listed Michael Jackson, Janet Jackson and Britney Spears as her inspirations, "I was always super frustrated when people stopped dancing in their videos because I thought that was such a great part of it. I really want to bring that back."


title: 2 On

text: Tinashe first performed the song at SXSW Festival 2014. Also, at the Power 106 LA concert, Capital Xtra, Rinse FM, V100.7/Milwaukee's Family Affair, The Vipor Room and Hot 97's Who's Next. Drake also invited her on stage to perform the remix to the song in Houston.


title: 2 On

text: On May 12, 2014, OB O'Brien posted an unofficial rework of the song to his SoundCloud account, featuring vocals from Drake. The song consists of two parts, the new version of "2 On" and "Thotful". The song begins with O'Brien singing a verse before Drake takes over. The cover transitions into "Thotful", the second part of the song which according to a writer for "Rap-Up" magazine "toasts to the thots." The remix also features references to Wu-Tang and Flipmode and in regards to its production, J. Tinsley of "The Smoking Section" called it "an updated version of what a So Far Gone 2 would sound like." Reviews were positive towards Drake's take on the song. Chris DeVille of "Stereogum" called the track "an entertainingly moody passive-aggressive R&B/hip-hop mash the likes of which Drake patented sometime around late 2009." Jesse James of "StupidDOPE" lauded it as "dope showcasing of depth and lyrical prowess," adding that it "shall be heard in a number of rides, clubs, and much more very soon." Samantha Nelson of Examiner.com called his verse "classic Drake", deeming it a "smart take on the title of the song but makes it more dramatic" and that it "will please all of his fans."


title: 2 On

text: Recording artist and rapper Brooke Candy released an unofficial remix on her SoundCloud on June 17, 2015. It reached more than 8 million plays in the platform.


title: Puppy love

text: Puppy love, also known as a crush, is an informal term for feelings of romantic love, often felt during childhood and early adolescence. It is an infatuation usually developed by someone's looks and attractiveness at first sight. Such feelings fade away when the object of attraction stays out of sight for a while, whereas the feeling of real love takes a long time to develop and does not fade with time and or in the absence of the other. It is named for its resemblance to the adoring, worshipful affection that may be felt by a puppy. Puppy love typically lasts between 2 months and 2 years, and is thought to be fueled by preadolescent hormones. Some scientists, however, think it is initiated as a result of the natural development of the brain at the onset of preadolescence.


title: Puppy love

text: The term can be used in a derogatory fashion, presuming the affair to be shallow and transient in comparison to other forms of love. Sigmund Freud, however, was far from underestimating the power of early love, recognizing the validity of "the proverbial durability of first loves".


title: Puppy love

text: Puppy love is a common experience in the process of maturing. The object of attachment may be a peer, but the term can also describe the fondness of a child for an adult. Most often, the object of the child's infatuation is someone years older, like a teacher, friend of the family, actor, or musician, about whom the child will spend their time daydreaming or fantasizing.


title: Puppy love

text: A crush is described as a coming-of-age experience where the child is given a sense of individualism because they feel intimate emotions for a person not part of their own family.


title: Puppy love

text: Canadian singer Paul Anka wrote and released the single "Puppy Love" in 1960, reaching number 2 in the "Billboard" Hot 100. The remake by Donny Osmond peaked at number 1 in the UK Singles Chart and number 3 in the US in 1972. Country singer Dolly Parton's first single, released in the 1950s when she was a child, was also called "Puppy Love". Singer Barbara Lewis released a song entitled "Puppy Love" in January 1964. Australian rock band Front End Loader featured a song called "Puppy Love" on their 1992 eponymous album. Bow Wow released a song called "Puppy Love" in January 2001. Hip hop artist Brother Ali wrote a song about puppy love titled "You Say (Puppy Love)". The electric powwow group A Tribe Called Red released a song titled "Native Puppy Love" on their self-titled album.


title: Puppy love

text: F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote short stories "valuing the intuitiveness of puppy love over mature, reasoned affection...[its] 'unreal, undesirous medley of ecstasy and peace'".


title: President (government title)

text: President is a common title for the head of state in most republics. The president of a nation is, generally speaking, the head of the government and the fundamental leader of the country or the ceremonial head of state.


title: President (government title)

text: The functions exercised by a president vary according to the form of government. In parliamentary republics, they are usually, but not always, limited to those of the head of state and are thus largely ceremonial. In presidential, selected parliamentary (e.g. Botswana and South Africa), and semi-presidential republics, the role of the president is more prominent, encompassing also (in most cases) the functions of the head of government. In authoritarian regimes, a dictator or leader of a one-party state may also be called a president.


title: President (government title)

text: The titles "Mr. President" and Madam President may apply to a person holding the title of president or presiding over certain other governmental bodies. "Mr. President" has subsequently been used by governments to refer to their heads of state. It is the conventional translation of non-English titles such as "Monsieur le Président" for the president of the French Republic. It also has a long history of usage as the title of the presiding officers of legislative and judicial bodies. The speaker of the House of Commons of Canada is addressed as "président de la Chambre des communes" in French and as "Mr. Speaker" in English.


title: President (government title)

text: The 1787 Constitution of the United States did not specify the manner of address for the president. When George Washington was sworn in as the first president of the United States on April 30, 1789, the administering of the oath of office ended with the proclamation: "Long live George Washington, President of the United States." No title other than the name of the office of the executive was officially used at the inauguration. The question of a presidential title was being debated in Congress at the time, however, having become official legislative business with Richard Henry Lee's motion of April 23, 1789. Lee's motion asked congress to consider "what titles it will be proper to annex to the offices of President and Vice President of the United Statesif any other than those given in the Constitution". Vice President John Adams, in his role as President of the United States Senate, organized a congressional committee. There Adams agitated for the adoption of the style of "Highness" (as well as the title of "Protector of Their [the United States'] Liberties") for the President. Adams and Lee were among the most outspoken proponents of an exalted presidential title.


title: President (government title)

text: Others favored the variant of "Electoral Highness" or the lesser "Excellency", the latter of which was vociferously opposed by Adams, who contended that it was far beneath the presidential dignity, as the executives of the states, some of which were also titled "President" (e.g. the President of Pennsylvania), at that time often enjoyed the style of "Excellency"; Adams said the president "would be leveled with colonial governors or with functionaries from German princedoms" if he were to use the style of "Excellency". Adams and Richard Henry Lee both feared that cabals of powerful senators would unduly influence a weak executive, and saw an exalted title as a way of strengthening the presidency. On further consideration, Adams deemed even "Highness" insufficient and instead proposed that the executive, both the president and the vice president (i.e., himself), be styled "Majesty" to prevent the "great danger" of an executive with insufficient dignity. Adams' efforts were met with widespread derision and perplexion; Thomas Jefferson called them "the most superlatively ridiculous thing I ever heard of", while Benjamin Franklin considered it "absolutely mad".


title: President (government title)

text: Washington consented to the demands of James Madison and the United States House of Representatives that the title be altered to "Mr. President". Nonetheless, later "The Honorable" became the standard title of the President in formal address, and "His/Her Excellency" became the title of the President when addressed formally internationally.


title: President (government title)

text: Historically, the title was reserved for the incumbent president only, and was not to be used for former presidents, holding that it was not proper to use the title as a courtesy title when addressing a former president. According to the official website of the United States of America, the correct way to address a letter is to use "The Honorable John Doe" and the correct salutation is "Mr Doe".


title: President (government title)

text: In the United States, the title "Mr. President" is used in a number of formal instances as well: for example anyone presiding over the United States Senate is addressed as "Mr./Madam President", especially the Vice President, who is the President of the Senate. Other uses of the title include presidents of state and local legislatures, however only the president of the United States uses the title outside of formal sessions.


title: President (government title)

text: Thomas Hungerford, who became the first speaker of the English House of Commons in 1376, used the title, "Mr. Speaker", a precedent followed by subsequent speakers of the House of Commons. This influenced parliamentary usage in France.


title: President (government title)

text: By the 18th century, the president of a French parlement was addressed as "Monsieur le Président". In Pierre Choderlos de Laclos's 1782 novel "Les Liaisons Dangereuses" ("Dangerous Liaisons"), the wife of a magistrate in a parlement is referred to as Madame la Présidente de Tourvel ("Madam President of Tourvel"). When the Second French Republic was established in 1848, "Monsieur le Président" became the title of the president of the French Republic.


title: President (government title)

text: The speaker of the House of Commons of Canada, established in 1867, is also addressed as "Monsieur le Président" or "Madame la Présidente" in French.


title: President (government title)

text: The title "president" is derived from the Latin "prae-" "before" + "sedere" "to sit". As such, it originally designated the officer who presides over or "sits before" a gathering and ensures that debate is conducted according to the rules of order ("see also" chairman and speaker), but today it most commonly refers to an executive official in any social organization. Early examples are from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge (from 1464) and the founding president of the Royal Society William Brouncker in 1660. This usage survives today in the title of such offices as "President of the Board of Trade" and "Lord President of the Council" in the United Kingdom, as well as "President of the Senate" in the United States (one of the roles constitutionally assigned to the vice president). The officiating priest at certain Anglican religious services, too, is sometimes called the "president" in this sense. However, the most common modern usage is as the title of a head of state in a republic.


title: President (government title)

text: In pre-revolutionary France, the president of a "Parlement" evolved into a powerful magistrate, a member of the so-called "noblesse de robe" ("nobility of the gown"), with considerable judicial as well as administrative authority. The name referred to his primary role of presiding over trials and other hearings. In the 17th and 18th centuries, seats in the "Parlements", including presidencies, became effectively hereditary, since the holder of the office could ensure that it would pass to an heir by paying the crown a special tax known as the "paulette". The post of "first president" ("premier président"), however, could be held by only the King's nominees. The "Parlements" were abolished by the French Revolution. In modern France the chief judge of a court is known as its president ("président de la cour").


title: President (government title)

text: The word "presidents" is also used in the King James Bible at Daniel 6:2 to translate the Aramaic term סָרְכִ֣ין "(sā·rə·ḵîn)", a word of likely Persian origin, meaning "officials", "commissioners", "overseers" or "chiefs".


title: President (government title)

text: The first usage of the word "president" to denote the highest official in a government was during the Commonwealth of England. After the abolition of the monarchy the English Council of State, whose members were elected by the House of Commons, became the executive government of the Commonwealth. The Council of State was the successor of the Privy Council, which had previously been headed by the lord president; its successor the Council of State was also headed by a lord president, the first of which was John Bradshaw. However, the lord president alone was not head of state, because that office was vested in the council as a whole.


title: President (government title)

text: The modern usage of the term "president" to designate a single person who is the head of state of a republic can be traced directly to the United States Constitution of 1787, which created the office of President of the United States. Previous American governments had included "presidents" (such as the president of the Continental Congress or the president of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress), but these were presiding officers in the older sense, with no executive authority. It has been suggested that the executive use of the term was borrowed from early American colleges and universities, which were usually headed by a "president". British universities were headed by an official called the "Chancellor" (typically a ceremonial position) while the chief administrator held the title of "Vice-Chancellor". But America's first institutions of higher learning (such as Harvard University and Yale University) didn't resemble a full-sized university so much as one of its constituent colleges. A number of colleges at Cambridge University featured an official called the "president". The head, for instance, of Magdalene College, Cambridge was called the "master" and his second the "president". The first president of Harvard, Henry Dunster, had been educated at Magdalene. Some have speculated that he borrowed the term out of a sense of humility, considering himself only a temporary place-holder. The presiding official of Yale College, originally a "rector" (after the usage of continental European universities), became "president" in 1745.


title: President (government title)

text: A common style of address for presidents, Mr/Mrs. President", is borrowed from British Parliamentary tradition, in which the presiding Speaker of the House of Commons is referred to as "Mr/Mrs. Speaker". Coincidentally, this usage resembles the older French custom of referring to the president of a "parlement" as ""Monsieur/Madame le Président"", a form of address that in modern France applies to both the president of the Republic and to chief judges. Similarly, the Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada is addressed by francophone parliamentarians as ""Monsieur/Madame le/la Président(e)"". In Pierre Choderlos de Laclos's novel "Les Liaisons Dangereuses" of 1782, the character identified as "Madame la Présidente de Tourvel" ("Madam President of Tourvel") is the wife of a magistrate in a "parlement". The fictional name Tourvel refers not to the "parlement" in which the magistrate sits, but rather, in imitation of an aristocratic title, to his private estate.