title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Defeated at Meriden in the West Midlands in 1966 and dropped from standing for Thirsk and Malton (above), he was elected as MP for Thanet East in the February 1974 general election; from 1983 he sat for South Thanet. He managed to offend PM Margaret Thatcher by ending a relationship with her daughter, Carol Thatcher, and suggesting that Thatcher "probably thinks Sinai is the plural of Sinus" to an Egyptian newspaper. He stayed on the backbenches throughout Thatcher's premiership, as well as participating in the re-launch of TV-AM, when broadcaster Anna Ford threw her wine at him to express her outrage at both his behaviour and the unwelcome consequent transformation of the TV station.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken wrote a highly confidential letter to Thatcher in early 1980, dealing with allegations that the former Director-General of MI5, Sir Roger Hollis, had been a double agent also working for the Soviet Union. This information had come to Aitken from retired CIA spymaster James Angleton. Espionage historian Chapman Pincher obtained a copy of the letter, and used former MI5 officers Peter Wright and Arthur Martin as his main additional secret sources, to write the sensational book "Their Trade is Treachery" in 1981. This matter continued being highly controversial throughout the 1980s, and led to Wright eventually publishing his own book "Spycatcher" in 1987, despite the government's prolonged Australian court attempts to stop him from doing so.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken became Minister of State for Defence Procurement under prime minister John Major in 1992. He was later accused of violating ministerial rules by allowing an Arab businessman to pay for his stay in the Paris Ritz, perjured himself and was jailed (see below).


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken had previously been a director of BMARC, an arms exporter during 1988-1990. In 1995, a Commons motion showed that while a Cabinet minister he had signed a controversial Public Interest Immunity Certificate (PIIC) in September 1992 relating to the Matrix Churchill trial, and that the 'gagged' documents included ones relating to the supply of arms to Iran by BMARC for a period when he was a director of the company.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: He became Chief Secretary to the Treasury in 1994, a Cabinet position, but resigned in 1995 following the allegations that he had violated ministerial rules.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: He was defeated in the 1997 general election. Within a year he had been appointed as a representative for the arms company GEC-Marconi (part of BAE Systems since November 1999).


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: On 10 April 1995, "The Guardian" carried a front-page report on Aitken's dealings with leading Saudis. The story was the result of a long investigation carried out by journalists from the newspaper and from Granada Television's "World in Action" programme. "The Guardian" also alleged Aitken as Minister for Defence Procurement, arranged prostitutes for Arab businessmen. Granada's World in Action programme repeated the accusation in a television documentary called "Jonathan of Arabia".


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken had called a press conference at the Conservative Party offices in Smith Square, London, at 5 p.m. that same day denouncing the claims and demanding that the "World in Action" documentary, which was due to be screened three hours later, withdraw them. He said:


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: The "World in Action" film "Jonathan of Arabia" was transmitted as planned and Aitken carried out his threat to sue. The action collapsed in June 1997 (a month after he had lost his seat in the 1997 general election) when "The Guardian" and Granada produced, via their counsel George Carman QC, evidence countering his claim that his wife, Lolicia Aitken, paid for the hotel stay at the Ritz Hotel in Paris. The evidence consisted of airline vouchers and other documents showing that his wife had, in fact, been in Switzerland at the time when she had allegedly been at the Ritz in Paris. The joint "Guardian"/Granada investigation indicated an arms deal scam involving Aitken's friend and business partner, the Lebanese businessman Mohammed Said Ayas, a close associate of Prince Mohammed of Saudi Arabia. It was alleged that Aitken had been prepared to have his teenage daughter Victoria lie under oath to support his version of events, had the case continued.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: A few days after the libel case collapsed, "World in Action" broadcast a special edition, which echoed Aitken's "sword of truth" speech. It was titled "The Dagger of Deceit".


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: During this time, it emerged that when Aitken was being encouraged to resign, he was chairman of the secretive right wing think-tank Le Cercle, alleged by Alan Clark to be funded by the CIA.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken was charged with perjury and perverting the course of justice and, after pleading guilty on 8 June 1999 to both offences, was sentenced to jail for 18 months of which he served almost seven months as a custodial sentence. While Aitken was sentenced Mr Justice Scott Baker said Aitken had breached trust inexcusably. Scott Baker told Aitken, "For nearly four years you wove a web of deceit in which you entangled yourself and from which there was no way out unless you were prepared to come clean and tell the truth. Unfortunately you were not."


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: During the preceding libel trial, his wife Lolicia, who later left him, was called as a witness to sign a supportive affidavit to the effect that she had paid his Paris hotel bill, but did not appear. In the end, with the case already in court, investigative work by "The Guardian" reporters into Swiss hotel and British Airways records showed that neither his daughter nor his wife had been in Paris at the time in question.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken was unable to cover the legal costs of his libel trial and was declared bankrupt. As part of the bankruptcy, his trustees settled legal actions against the magazine "Private Eye", over the claims it had made that Aitken was a "serial liar". He also became one of the few people to resign from the Privy Council. Aitken's wife and three daughters turned up to support him when he was sentenced.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken attended the Alpha Course in 1997, which he said stirred his interest in Christianity. He attended the course on further occasions prior to imprisonment. After being imprisoned in 1999, he began to study the Bible, learned Greek, and became a student of Christian theology at Wycliffe Hall, Oxford. This part of his life is covered in two autobiographical works called "Pride and Perjury" and "Porridge and Passion".


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken's claim that he had found God was met with some scepticism. Aitken said “In a different era, I’d have been one of the cynics myself. If I’d had a parliamentary colleague who’d got into trouble, gone to jail and come out saying, ‘I’ve found God’, I’d have said, ‘Oh, how very convenient for him’.”


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: "The Guardian" might insist that Aitken demonstrate the sincerity of repentance by repaying the whopping legal bill of one-and-half-million pounds he landed on them by his dishonest libel action. He was allowed to drop the case on promising to pay costs, but then escaped from the liability when he declared himself bankrupt and revealed that most of his apparent assets turn out to be conveniently owned by other people. "The Guardian" still believe he has more resources than he will admit.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: In 2000 he said that he would not become a vicar because he considered himself not worthy of the office and "wouldn't like to give dog-collars a bad name".


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: On 30 June 2018, Aitken was ordained in the Church of England as a deacon by Sarah Mullally, the Bishop of London. Since then he has served as a non-stipendiary minister at St Matthew's Church, Westminster and as a chaplain of Pentonville Prison.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Exactly one year after becoming deacon, on 30 June 2019, Aitken was ordained as an Anglican priest in St Mary's Church, Stoke Newington, also by the Bishop of London.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: In early 2004, some constituency party members in Aitken's former seat of South Thanet proposed that he should return as Conservative candidate for the seat in the 2005 general election. This was vetoed by Conservative Party leader Michael Howard.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken later confirmed that he would not attempt a return to Parliament, saying that "the leader has spoken. I accept his judgement with good grace." He denied rumours he was to stand as an independent candidate insisting that he was not a "spoiler".


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken later declared his support for the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) a week before the party's equally strong performance as the Liberal Democrats, with both parties winning 12 seats each in the 2004 European elections. On 2 October 2004, Aitken attended the (UKIP) conference and re-iterated his support for the party.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: In November 2007, with the approval of senior members of the shadow cabinet, he took charge of a task force on prison reform within Iain Duncan Smith's Centre for Social Justice to help formulate Conservative Party policy. Aitken said this was not part of a political comeback. Conservative spokesmen pointed out that the task force is independent of the party, even though the organisation was run by Iain Duncan Smith. The report "Locked Up Potential: A Strategy to Reform our Prisons and Rehabilitate our Prisoners" was published in March 2009.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: In September 2020, it was revealed that the former Speaker of the House of Commons, John Bercow, awarded Aitken a parliamentary pass despite the House of Commons claiming that former MPs who had been sentenced to a period of imprisonment of one year or more were ineligible. In September 2020 Aitken had held a pass continuously since at least December 2015.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: In his early book "The Young Meteors" (London: Secker & Warburg, 1967; New York: Atheneum, 1967), Aitken profiled the brightest lights among the younger generation in Britain, and particularly London, with a hint in the title that many of these were likely to burn and crash. Hunter Davies, one of the people profiled, has pointed out that such lists of the promising were then common in "The Sunday Times," but unusual as books. Much later, Craig Taylor in 2003 observed that those profiled who were still burning brightly included Michael Caine, David Bailey, Twiggy, David Frost and Don McCullin. Taylor found it humdrum, but:


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: the book is worth re-examining these many years later for one reason. Aitken, it has been shown over time, is a figure we can always learn something from, a kind of walking, well-groomed Grimm's fairy tale. . . . In [this book] he intuits the popularity and importance of unquantifiable lists of who is hot, young and going places.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken himself in 2003 had a low opinion of the book: "In terms of style, it was certainly the worst book I've ever written". Yet the title was memorable: it was consciously adopted by Martin Harrison for a survey of the British photojournalism (including Bailey and McCullin) of about the same period.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: In 2009 Aitken published a biography of Nursultan Nazarbayev, the President of Kazakhstan, with the subject's cooperation. "The Diplomat" observed that the publisher’s note "describes Nazarbayev as a 'widely admired' leader, which is an interesting descriptor for a political leader who has never won an election deemed free or fair." Aitken received a Kazakh award for his "huge contribution to making Kazakhstan popular in the world and promoting its global reputation".


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: The book sold only 466 copies and was widely panned by critics, "The Guardian" noting that the book "relies, for supporting evidence, on the good opinions of his [Nazarbayev's] friends (or of those too cowed to utter a word out of place). It becomes curiously tolerant when oppression, corruption and galloping megalomania are on the menu." The review also described it as "a fascinating, cleverly orchestrated snow job: quite probably the hagiography of the year." The "London Review of Books" wrote that the flattery within the biography ranged "from the banal to the cringing." "Eurasianet" wrote that it was a "hagiography" that was part of Nazarbayev's personality cult.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: In 2021, documents leaked in the Pandora papers suggested that Aitken was paid £166,000 for writing the book by organisations with links to the Government of Kazakhstan, despite Aitken telling Reuters at the time of the publication "that he had not received any payment from the government." One invoice from Aitken's firm dated April 2009 for £33,333 is marked as “agreed final instalment fee for book project”.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken has written several Christian religious books since his release from prison. Aitken has published two books of prayers, "Prayers for People under Pressure" (2006)


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: and "Psalms for People Under Pressure" (2004), and wrote a biography of the English slaver and Anglican clergyman John Newton, "John Newton: From Disgrace to Amazing Grace" in 2007.


title: Jonathan Aitken

text: Aitken has written several biographies of political figures, including the President of the United States Richard Nixon ("Nixon: A Life", 1993). Although his was not an authorised biography, Aitken was one of the few biographers from whom Nixon accepted questions and to whom he granted interviews. He also wrote on Nixon's co-conspirator in the Watergate scandal, Charles Colson ("Charles W. Colson: A Life Redeemed", 2005). Colson had assisted Aitken in his biography of Nixon, and had later corresponded with Aitken urging him to repent in the wake of the "Guardian" libel case. Aitken published a book of personal recollections of Margaret Thatcher, "Margaret Thatcher: Power and Personality", after her death in 2013.


title: AAAA battery

text: The AAAA battery (usually read as "quadruple-A") is 42.5 mm long and 8.3 mm in diameter. The alkaline cell weighs around 6.5 g and produces 1.5 V. This size battery is also classified as R8D425 (IEC) and 25 (ANSI/NEDA). The alkaline battery in this size is also known by Duracell type number MN2500 or MX2500 and Energizer type number E96.


title: AAAA battery

text: Energizer created the first AAAA battery in 1989, pressured by environmental initiatives to eliminate added mercury in batteries. Now most big battery manufactures (Energizer, Duracell), sell AAAA batteries.


title: AAAA battery

text: This battery size is most often used in small devices such as laser pointers, LED penlights, powered computer styluses, glucose meters, and small headphone amplifiers, with Microsoft's Surface Pen the most prominent product taking AAAA batteries. These batteries are not as popular as AAA or AA type batteries, and consequently are not as commonly available.


title: AAAA battery

text: Some models of alkaline nine-volt battery contain six LR61 cells connected by welded tabs. These cells are similar to AAAA cells and can be used in their place in some devices, even though they are shorter.


title: Yaqui

text: The Yaqui, Hiaki, or Yoeme, are a Native American people of the southwest, who speak a Uto-Aztecan language. Their homelands include the Río Yaqui valley in Sonora, Mexico, and the area below the Gila River in Arizona, Southwestern United States. They also have communities in Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico. The Pascua Yaqui Tribe, based in Tucson, Arizona, is the only federally recognized Yaqui tribe in the United States. Individual Yaqui people live elsewhere in the United States, especially California, Arizona, Nevada, and Texas.


title: Yaqui

text: Many Yaqui in Mexico live on reserved land in the state of Sonora. Others formed neighborhoods ("colonias" or colonies) in various cities. In the city of Hermosillo, colonies such as El Coloso, La Matanza, and Sarmiento are known as Yaqui districts; Yaqui residents there continue Yaqui cultural practices and language.


title: Yaqui

text: In the late 1960s, several Yaqui in Arizona, among them Anselmo Valencia Tori and Fernando Escalante, started developing of a tract of land about 8 km to the west of the Yaqui community of Hu'upa, calling it New Pascua (in Spanish, "Pascua Nuevo"). This community has a population (estimated in 2006) of about 4,000; most of the middle-aged population of New Pascua speaks English, Spanish, and a moderate amount of Yaqui. Many older people speak the Yaqui language fluently, and a growing number of youth are learning the Yaqui language in addition to English and Spanish.


title: Yaqui

text: In Guadalupe, Arizona, established in 1904 and incorporated in 1975, more than 44 percent of the population is Native American, and many are trilingual in Yaqui, English and Spanish. A Yaqui neighborhood, Penjamo, is located in South Scottsdale, Arizona.


title: Yaqui

text: More than 13,000 Yaqui are citizens of the Pascua Yaqui Tribe, a federally recognized tribe based in Tucson, Arizona.


title: Yaqui

text: The Yaqui language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan language family. Yaqui speak a Cahitan language, a group of about 10 mutually-intelligible languages formerly spoken in much of the states of Sonora and Sinaloa. Most of the Cahitan languages are extinct; only the Yaqui and Mayo still speak their language. About 15,000 Yaqui speakers live in Mexico and 1,000 in the US, mostly Arizona.


title: Yaqui

text: The Yaqui call themselves "Hiaki" or "Yoeme", the Yaqui word for person (' or ' meaning "people"). The Yaqui call their homeland "Hiakim", from which some say the name "Yaqui" is derived. They may also describe themselves as Hiaki Nation or "Pascua Hiaki", meaning "The Easter People", as most had converted to Catholicism under Jesuit influence in colonial Mexico. Many folk etymologies account for how the "Yoeme" came to be known as the "Yaqui."


title: Yaqui

text: Yaqui is a tonal language, with a tonal accent on either the first or the second syllable of the word. The syllables which follow the tone are all high; see Pitch-accent language#Yaqui.


title: Yaqui

text: When the Spanish first came into contact with the Yaqui in 1533, the Yaqui occupied a territory along the lower course of the Yaqui River. They were estimated to number 30,000 people living in 80 villages in an area about 60 miles (100 km) long and 15 miles (25 km) wide. Some Yaqui lived near the mouth of the river and lived off of the resources of the sea. Most lived in agricultural communities, growing beans, maize, and squash on land inundated by the river every year. Others lived in the deserts and mountains and depended upon hunting and gathering.


title: Yaqui

text: Captain Diego de Guzmán, leader of an expedition to explore lands north of the Spanish settlements, encountered the Yaqui in 1533. A large number of Yaqui warriors confronted the Spaniards on a level plain. Their leader, an old man, drew a line in the dirt and told the Spanish not to cross it. He denied the Spanish request for food. A battle ensued. The Spanish claimed victory, although they retreated. Thus began 40 years of struggle, often armed, by the Yaqui to protect their culture and lands.


title: Yaqui

text: In 1565, Francisco de Ibarra attempted, but failed, to establish a Spanish settlement in Yaqui territory. What probably saved the Yaqui from an early invasion by the Spaniards was the lack of silver and other precious metals in their territory. In 1608, the Yaqui and 2,000 indigenous allies, mostly Mayo, were victorious over the Spanish in two battles. A peace agreement in 1610 brought gifts from the Spanish and, in 1617, an invitation by the Yaquis for the Jesuit missionaries to stay and teach them.


title: Yaqui

text: The Yaqui lived in a mutually advantageous relationship with the Jesuits for 120 years. Most of them converted to Christianity while retaining many traditional beliefs. The Jesuit rule over the Yaqui was stern but the Yaqui retained their land and their unity as a people. The Jesuits introduced wheat, cattle, and horses.


title: Yaqui

text: The Yaqui prospered and the missionaries were allowed to extend their activities further north. The Jesuit success was facilitated by the fact that the nearest Spanish settlement was 100 miles away and the Yaqui were able to avoid interaction with Spanish settlers, soldiers and miners. Important, too, was that epidemics of European diseases that destroyed many Indigenous populations appear not to have seriously impacted the Yaqui. The reputation of the Yaqui as warriors, plus the protection afforded by the Jesuits, perhaps shielded the Yaqui from Spanish slavers. The Jesuits persuaded the Yaqui to settle into eight towns: Bácum, Benem, Cócorit, Huirivis, Pótam, Rahum, Tórim, and Vícam.


title: Yaqui

text: However, by the 1730s, Spanish settlers and miners were encroaching on Yaqui land and the Spanish colonial government began to alter the arms-length relationship. This created unrest among the Yaqui and led to a brief but bloody Yaqui and Mayo revolt in 1740. One thousand Spanish and 5,000 Native Americans were killed and the animosity lingered. The missions declined and the prosperity of the earlier years was never regained. The Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767 and the Franciscan priests who replaced them never gained the confidence of the Yaqui.


title: Yaqui

text: An uneasy peace between the Spaniards and the Yaqui endured for many years after the revolt, with the Yaqui maintaining their tight-knit organization and most of their independence from Spanish and, after 1821, Mexican rule.


title: Yaqui

text: During Mexico's struggle for independence from Spain in the early 19th century, the Yaqui showed that they still considered themselves independent and self-governing. After Mexico won its independence, the Yaqui refused to pay taxes to the new government. A Yaqui revolt in 1825 was led by Juan Banderas. Banderas wished to unite the Mayo, Opata, Pima, and Yaqui into a state that would be autonomous, or independent of Mexico. The combined indigenous forces drove the Mexicans out of their territories, but Banderas was eventually defeated and executed in 1833. This led to a succession of revolts as the Yaqui resisted the Mexican government's attempts to gain control of the Yaqui and their lands.


title: Yaqui

text: The Yaqui supported the French during the brief reign of Maximilian I of Mexico in the 1860s. Under the leadership of Jose Maria Leyva, known as Cajemé, the Yaqui continued the struggle to maintain their independence until 1887, when Cajeme was caught and executed. The war featured a succession of brutalities by the Mexican authorities, including a massacre in 1868, in which the Army burned 150 Yaqui to death inside a church.


title: Yaqui

text: The Yaqui were impoverished by a new series of wars as the Mexican government adopted a policy of confiscation and distribution of Yaqui lands. Some displaced Yaquis joined the ranks of warrior bands, who remained in the mountains carrying on a guerrilla campaign against the Mexican Army.


title: Yaqui

text: During the 34-year rule of Mexican dictator Porfirio Diaz, the government repeatedly provoked the Yaqui remaining in Sonora to rebellion in order to seize their land for exploitation by investors for both mining and agricultural use. Many Yaqui were sold at 60 pesos a head to the owners of sugar cane plantations in Oaxaca and the tobacco planters of the Valle Nacional, while thousands more were sold to the henequen plantation owners of the Yucatán.


title: Yaqui

text: By 1908, at least 5,000 Yaqui had been sold into slavery. At Valle Nacional, the enslaved Yaquis were worked until they died. While there were occasional escapes, the escapees were far from home and, without support or assistance, most died of hunger while begging for food on the road out of the valley toward Córdoba.


title: Yaqui

text: At Guaymas, thousands more Yaquis were put on boats and shipped to San Blas, where they were forced to walk more than 200 miles to San Marcos and its train station. Many women and children could not withstand the three-week journey over the mountains, and their bodies were left by the side of the road. The Mexican government established large concentration camps at San Marcos, where the remaining Yaqui families were broken up and segregated. Individuals were then sold into slavery inside the station and packed into train cars which took them to Veracruz, where they were embarked yet again for the port town of Progreso in the Yucatán. There they were transported to their final destination, the nearby henequen plantations.


title: Yaqui

text: On the plantations, the Yaquis were forced to work in the tropical climate of the area from dawn to dusk. Yaqui women were allowed to marry only non-native Chinese workers. Given little food, the workers were beaten if they failed to cut and trim at least 2,000 henequen leaves per day, after which they were then locked up every night. Most of the Yaqui men, women, and children sent for slave labor on the plantations died there, with two-thirds of the arrivals dying within a year.


title: Yaqui

text: During this time, Yaqui resistance continued. By the early 1900s, after "extermination, military occupation, and colonization" had failed to halt Yaqui resistance to Mexican rule, many Yaquis assumed the identities of other Tribes and merged with the Mexican population of Sonora in cities and on haciendas. Others left Mexico for the United States, establishing enclaves in southern Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.


title: Yaqui

text: Many Yaqui living in southern Arizona regularly returned to Sonora after working and earning money in the U.S., often for the purpose of smuggling firearms and ammunition to those Yaqui still fighting the Mexican government. Skirmishes continued until 1927, when the last major battle between the Mexican Army and the Yaqui was fought at Cerro del Gallo Mountain. By employing heavy artillery, machine guns, and planes of the Mexican Air Force to shell, bomb, and strafe Yaqui villages, Mexican authorities eventually prevailed.


title: Yaqui

text: The objective of the Yaqui and their frequent allies, the Mayo people, remained the same during almost 400 years of interaction with the Jesuits and the Spanish and Mexican governments: independent local government and management of their own lands.


title: Yaqui

text: In 1917, General Lázaro Cárdenas of the Constitutionalist army defeated the Yaqui. But in 1937, as president of the republic, he reserved 500,000 hectares of ancestral lands on the north bank of the Yaqui River, ordered the construction of a dam to provide irrigation water to the Yaqui, and provided advanced agricultural equipment and water pumps. Thus, the Yaqui continued to maintain a degree of independence from Mexican rule.


title: Yaqui

text: In 1939, the Yaqui produced 3,500 tons of wheat, 500 tons of maize, and 750 tons of beans; whereas, in 1935, they had produced only 250 tons of wheat and no maize or beans.


title: Yaqui

text: According to the official government report on the "sexenio" (six-year term) of Cárdenas, the section of the Department of Indigenous Affairs (which Cárdenas established as a cabinet level post in 1936) stated the Yaqui population was 10,000; 3,000 were children younger than 5.


title: Yaqui

text: In the past, the Yaqui subsisted on agriculture, growing beans, corn and squash (like many of the Indigenous peoples of the region). The Yaqui who lived in the Río Yaqui region and in coastal areas of Sonora and Sinaloa fished as well as farmed. The Yaqui also made cotton products. The Yaqui have always been skillful warriors. The Yaqui Indians have been historically described as quite tall in stature.


title: Yaqui

text: Traditionally, a Yaqui house consisted of three rectangular sections: the bedroom, the kitchen, and a living room, called the "portal". Floors would be made of wooden supports, walls of woven reeds, and the roof of reeds coated with thick layers of mud for insulation. Branches might be used in living room construction for air circulation; a large part of the day was spent here, especially during the hot months. A home would also have a patio. Since the time of the adoption of Christianity, many Yaquis have a wooden cross placed in front of the house, and special attention is made to its placement and condition during "Waresma" (Lent).


title: Yaqui

text: The Yaqui conception of the world is considerably different from that of their European-Mexican and European-American neighbors. For example, many Yoeme believe that the universe is composed of overlapping yet distinct worlds or places, called "aniam." Nine or more different aniam are recognized: "sea ania": flower world, "yo ania": enchanted world, "tenku ania": a dream world, "tuka ania": night world, "huya ania": wilderness world, "nao ania": corncob world, "kawi ania": mountain world, "": world under the water, "teeka ania": world from the sky up through the universe. Each of these worlds has its own distinct qualities, as well as forces, and Yoeme relate deer dancing with three of them, since the deer emerges from "yo ania", an enchanted home, into the wilderness world, "huya ania", and dances in the flower world, "sea ania", which can be accessed through the deer dance. Much Yaqui ritual is centered upon perfecting these worlds and eliminating the harm that has been done to them, especially by people. Many Yaqui have combined such ideas with their practice of Catholicism, and believe that the existence of the world depends on their annual performance of the Lenten and Easter rituals.


title: Yaqui

text: The Yaqui religion, which is a syncretic religion of old Yaqui beliefs and practices, and the Christian teachings of Jesuit missionaries, relies upon song, music, prayer, and dancing, all performed by designated members of the community. They have woven numerous Roman Catholic traditions into the old ways and vice versa. For instance, the Yaqui deer song ("maso bwikam") accompanies the deer dance, which is performed by a "pascola" (Easter, from the Spanish "pascua") dancer, also known as a "deer dancer." Pascolas perform at religio-social functions many times of the year, but especially during Lent and Easter. The Yaqui deer song ritual is in many ways similar to the deer song rituals of neighboring Uto-Aztecan people, such as the Mayo. The Yaqui deer song is more central to the "cultus" of its people and is strongly tied to Roman Catholic beliefs and practices. There are various societies among the Yaqui people who play a significant role in the performance of Yaqui ceremonies, including:


title: Yaqui

text: Flowers are very important in the Yaqui culture. According to Yaqui teachings, flowers sprang up from the drops of blood that were shed at the Crucifixion. Flowers are viewed as the manifestation of souls. Occasionally Yaqui men may greet a close male friend with the phrase "Haisa sewa?" ("How is the flower?").


title: Yaqui

text: As a result of the wars between Mexico and the Yaqui, many fled to the United States. Most settled in urban barrios, including Barrio Libre and Pascua in Tucson, and Guadalupe and Scottsdale in the Phoenix area. Yaquis built homes of scrap lumber, railroad ties, and other materials, eking out an existence while taking great pains to continue the Easter Lenten ceremonies so important to community life. They found work as migrant farm laborers and in other rural occupations.


title: Yaqui

text: In the early 1960s, Yaqui spiritual leader Anselmo Valencia Tori approached University of Arizona anthropologist Edward Holland Spicer, an authority on the Yaqui, and asked for assistance in helping the Yaqui people. Spicer, Muriel Thayer Painter and others created the Pascua Yaqui Association. U.S. Representative Morris Udall agreed to aid the Yaquis in securing a land base. In 1964, the U.S. government granted the Yaqui 817,000 m of land southwest of Tucson, Arizona. It was held in trust for the people. Under Valencia and Raymond Ybarra, the Pascua Yaqui Association developed homes and other infrastructure at the site.


title: Yaqui

text: Realizing the difficulties of developing the community (known as New Pascua) without the benefit of federal Tribal status, Ybarra and Valencia met with U.S. Senator Dennis DeConcini (D-Ariz.) in the early months of 1977 to urge him to introduce legislation to provide complete federal recognition of the Yaqui people living on the land conveyed to the Pascua Yaqui Association by the United States through the Act of October 8, 1964 (78 Stat. 1197).


title: Yaqui

text: Senator DeConcini introduced a federal recognition bill, S.1633 on June 7, 1977. After extensive hearings and consideration, it was passed by the Senate on April 5, 1978, and became public law, PL 95-375, on September 18, 1978. The law established a government-to-government relationship between the United States and the Pascua Yaqui Tribe, and gave reservation status to Pascua Yaqui lands. The Pascua Yaqui Tribe was the last Tribe recognized prior to the BIA Federal Acknowledgement Process established in 1978.


title: Yaqui

text: The Texas Band of Yaqui Indians is an unrecognized group of individuals identify as Mountain Yaqui descendants that is based in Lubbock, Texas. They are neither a federally or state-recognized tribe. In 2015, the State of Texas passed SR 989, a congratulatory resolution.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: Florian Tristan Mariano Thauvin (born 26 January 1993) is a French professional footballer who plays as a winger for Liga MX club Tigres UANL.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: He made his professional debut for Grenoble in 2011, moving on to Bastia where he won the Ligue 2 title in his first season and being named Young Player of the Year a year later. He then moved to Marseille for €15 million, going on to make over 281 appearances and score 86 goals across two spells at the team, with a brief time at Newcastle United of the Premier League in between.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: Thauvin earned 30 caps and scored 14 goals for France from under-18 to under-21 level, winning the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup. He made his senior debut in June 2017 and was part of their squad that won the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: Born in Orléans, Thauvin played for youth teams at Ingre, Saint-Jean-de-la-Ruelle, Orléans, and Grenoble before rising through the ranks at the latter, and drawing the interest of larger clubs. He made his first team debut for Grenoble on 11 March 2011 in a 1–1 Ligue 2 away draw against Vannes.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: On 19 July 2011, Thauvin departed the club and signed his first professional contract with Corsican side Bastia. On 28 October 2012, he scored his first goal for Bastia in a 3–1 victory over Bordeaux. He helped Bastia to Ligue 2 title triumph in 2012.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: On 29 January 2013, Thauvin signed a four-and-a-half-year deal with Ligue 1 club Lille for a reported fee of €3.5 million. As part of the deal, he was immediately sent back to Bastia on a six-month loan deal, keeping him at the top-flight Corsican club until the end of the 2012–13 season. Following his impressive displays that season, Thauvin was named the Ligue 1 Young Player of the Year.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: On 3 September 2013, after weeks of drawn-out negotiations and without making single appearance for Lille, Thauvin signed a five-year deal with Olympique de Marseille. The 20-year-old had been absent from training due to disputes over an improved contract, and forced a move to the Stade Velodrome, eventually signing for €15 million including bonuses.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: On 4 January 2015, Thauvin was the only Marseille player to miss in the penalty shootout as they were eliminated from the Coupe de France last 64 by fourth-tier former club Grenoble. Thauvin made 81 appearances over two seasons, scoring 15 goals.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: On 19 August 2015, Thauvin joined Newcastle United signing a five-year deal, for a reported fee of £15 million, with Rémy Cabella going in the other direction to Marseille on a season-long deal, with an option to buy. Thauvin was handed the departing Cabella's number 20 shirt. He made his debut three days later, replacing compatriot Gabriel Obertan, in the 69th minute of a goalless draw against Manchester United at Old Trafford, a game in which he had a chance to score a winner, but he was unable to reach a cross. He made his first start for the club against Northampton Town in the League Cup second round on 25 August, scoring a goal and making three assists in a 4–1 home victory.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: Thauvin was criticised by Newcastle's all-time top scorer Alan Shearer for turning up to a game wearing a tuxedo. In February 2016, he told "L'Équipe" that the criticism was unfair and affected his performances.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: On 31 January 2016, Newcastle announced Thauvin would return to Marseille on loan for the rest of the season. In the first game of his loan, on 2 February, he was sent off ten minutes after coming on as a substitute at Montpellier for a foul on Hilton. He scored the only goal on 20 April as they beat FC Sochaux-Montbéliard 1–0 away in the semi-finals to reach the final of the 2016 Coupe de France against "Le Classique" rivals Paris Saint-Germain, which they lost 4–2 with Thauvin scoring a goal.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: On 4 August 2016, Thauvin began his second loan spell at Marseille, signing a season-long loan deal; Newcastle inserted a clause in the contract which gave Marseille the option to make the deal permanent. In November 2016, it was reported that the loan spell would be made permanent in the summer of 2017, with Marseille agreeing to pay £9.8 million (€11m) for Thauvin's permanent transfer once he had played just three matches for the club during his second loan spell.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: Thauvin captained Marseille for the first time in the 2016–17 Coupe de France round of 64 away match against Toulouse on 8 January 2017, which Marseille won 2–1. On 10 March, he scored two goals in the 3–0 Ligue 1 home win over Angers, taking his tally to four goals in his last four Ligue 1 matches. He was the UNFP Player of the Month for March, with three goals and two assists. On 30 April, Thauvin scored the first hat-trick of his senior club career and assisted one of Maxime Lopez's two goals in a 5–1 Ligue 1 away win over Caen.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: On 2 February 2018, Thauvin scored another hat-trick in a 6–3 home win over Metz. He won two more Player of the Month awards for November and February, and finished the 2017–18 Ligue 1 season with 22 goals, behind only PSG's Edinson Cavani for top scorer. He was one of four candidates for the Player of the Season award, that ultimately went to the Parisians' Neymar. In the season's Europa League, he contributed four goals in fourteen games for the team, who lost the final to Atlético Madrid in Lyon.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: In 2018–19, Thauvin was Ligue 1's fourth-highest scorer with 16 goals in 33 games, though Marseille finished fifth and missed out on European football; his tally included a hat-trick in a 3–1 win at Amiens on 25 November. He was sent off two months later in a 2–1 home loss to Lille. In September 2019, he was ruled out with ankle ligament injury, returning in March only for the season to be abandoned due to the coronavirus pandemic. On 13 September 2020, Thauvin scored the only goal of an away win against Paris Saint-Germain, to grant Marseille their first win in "Le Classique" since November 2011.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: On 7 May 2021, Thauvin signed with Mexican team, Tigres UANL, joining the club after finishing out his contract with Marseille in June 2021 and reuniting with former Marseille teammate André-Pierre Gignac. After participating in the 2020 Tokyo Summer Olympics he made his Tigres debut on August 7, 2021 vs Santos Laguna. Thauvin was sent off in the 35th minute.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: Thauvin was a regular in the France national youth football team and represented them at the under-18, under-19, under-20 and under-21 levels. Thauvin was a member of the French squad which won the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Turkey. He scored a penalty in the 4–0 win over Uzbekistan in the quarter-finals and a brace in a 2–1 victory against Ghana in the semi-finals.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: Thauvin was called up to the senior France squad for the first time to face Luxembourg in a 2018 World Cup qualifying match on 25 March 2017 and Spain in a friendly three days later; he did not play in either match. On 2 June 2017, Thauvin made his debut for "Les Bleus" in a 5–0 friendly win over Paraguay, coming on in the 80th minute as a substitute for Antoine Griezmann.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: Thauvin was selected in the 23-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. He played one minute as Didier Deschamps' team won the tournament, in a 4–3 win over Argentina in the last 16 in Kazan in place of Kylian Mbappé.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: On 11 June 2019, Thauvin scored a bicycle kick (his first senior international goal) in the 4–0 away win over Andorra in a UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying match, after having assisted Wissam Ben Yedder's goal 16 minutes earlier.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: Thauvin was named as one of three overage players for the French Olympic team for the 2020 tournament in Japan. One of the others was his new Tigres teammate, André-Pierre Gignac.


title: Florian Thauvin

text: In January 2014, he was named by "The Observer" as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe. Former Toulouse manager Alain Casanova called Thauvin "a player in the image of Franck Ribéry … someone who is able to disrupt any opponent, someone very dangerous when he picks up speed. Very dangerous indeed." ESPN columnist Andy Brassell described him in 2013 as a wide player who is a "left-footer with fine acceleration and jaw-dropping close control."


title: 35 mm movie film

text: 35 mm film is a film gauge used in filmmaking, and the film standard. In motion pictures that record on film, 35 mm is the most commonly used gauge. The name of the gauge is not a direct measurement, and refers to the nominal width of the 35 mm format photographic film, which consists of strips wide. The standard image exposure length on 35 mm for movies ("single-frame" format) is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: A variety of largely proprietary gauges were devised for the numerous camera and projection systems being developed independently in the late 19th century and early 20th century, as well as a variety of film feeding systems. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge. The 35 mm width, originally specified as inches, was introduced around 1890 by William Kennedy Dickson and Thomas Edison, using 120 film stock supplied by George Eastman. Film 35 mm wide with four perforations per frame became accepted as the international standard gauge in 1909, and remained by far the dominant film gauge for image origination and projection until the advent of digital photography and cinematography.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The gauge has been versatile in application. It has been modified to include sound, redesigned to create a safer film base, formulated to capture color, has accommodated a bevy of widescreen formats, and has incorporated digital sound data into nearly all of its non-frame areas. Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies that offered 35 mm films. As of 2015, Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The ubiquity of 35 mm movie projectors in commercial movie theaters made 35 mm the only motion picture format that could be played in almost any cinema in the world, until digital projection largely superseded it in the 21st century.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry photographic plates in Rochester, New York. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer-coated paper. Hannibal Goodwin then invented a nitrocellulose film base in 1887, the first transparent, flexible film. Eastman also produced these components, and his was the first major company to mass-produce such film when, in 1889, Eastman realized that the dry-gelatino-bromide emulsion could be coated onto this clear base, eliminating the paper.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: With the advent of flexible film, Thomas Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope, which was first shown at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences on May 9, 1893. The Kinetoscope was a film loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant William Kennedy Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, which combined the Kinetoscope with Edison's cylinder phonograph. Beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New York's Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Dickson is credited as the inventor of 35 mm movie film in 1889, when the Edison company was using Eastman film. The company still received film from Blair after this; at first Blair would supply only film stock that would be trimmed and perforated at the Edison lab to create gauge filmstrips, then at some point in 1894 or 1895, Blair began sending stock to Edison that was cut exactly to specification. Edison's aperture defined a single frame of film at four perforations high.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: For a time, it had been generally assumed that Dickson was following cinematography formats established by Eastman in producing the film, but Eastman had produced film in sheets that were then cut to order. Dickson used the film supplied for Eastman Kodak cameras in 1889, a transparent 70 mm celluloid film, in his development of a more suitable film stock, and "simply slit this film in half"; it was initially developed for the Kinetoscope, a one-person viewer, not to be projected. The image was still of high quality, even when magnified, and was more economical than 70 mm film (and more economical than any other gauge, as cutting the 70 mm to size would have created waste). 35 mm was immediately accepted as standard by the Lumière brothers, and became the main film used in the UK because it was the stock sold to these filmmakers by the Blair company.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Edison claimed exclusive patent rights to the design of 35 mm motion picture film, with four sprocket holes (perforations) per frame, forcing his only major filmmaking competitor, American Mutoscope & Biograph, to use a 68 mm film that used friction feed, not sprocket holes, to move the film through the camera. A court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edison's claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison did not file patents. At the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière brothers used a single circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: When films began to be projected, several projection devices were unsuccessful and fell into obscurity because of technical failure, lack of business acumen, or both. The Vitascope, the first projection device to use 35 mm, was technologically superior and compatible with the many motion pictures produced on 35 mm film. Edison bought the device in 1895–96; the Lumiere's 35 mm projection Cinematograph also premiered in 1895, and they established 35 mm as the standard for exhibition.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Standardization in recording came from monopolization of the business by Eastman and Edison, and because of Edison's typical business model involving the patent system: Eastman and Edison managed their film patents well – Edison filed the 35 mm patent in 1896, the year after Dickson left his employ – and so controlled the use and development of film. Dickson left the Edison company in 1895, going on to help competitors produce cameras and other film gauges that would not infringe on Edison's patents. However, by 1900, filmmakers found it too expensive to develop and use other gauges, and went back to using the cheap and widely-available 35 mm.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Until 1953, the 35 mm film was seen as "basic technology" in the film industry, rather than optional, despite other gauges being available.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In 1908, Edison formed "a cartel of production companies", a trust called the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC), pooling patents for collective use in the industry and positioning Edison's own technology as the standard to be licensed out. 35 mm became the "official" standard of the newly formed MPPC, which agreed in 1909 to what would become the standard: 35 mm gauge, with Edison perforations and a 1.3:1 (4:3) aspect ratio (also developed by Dickson). Scholar Paul C. Spehr describes the importance of these developments:


title: 35 mm movie film

text: When the MPPC adopted the 35 mm format, Bell & Howell produced cameras, projectors, and perforators for the medium of an "exceptionally high quality", further cementing it as the standard. Edison and Eastman's form of business manipulation was ruled unlawful in 1914, but by this time the technology had become the established standard. In 1917, the new Society of Motion Picture Engineers (SMPE) "acknowledged the de facto status of 35mm as the industry’s dominant film gauge, adopting it as an engineering standard".


title: 35 mm movie film

text: When film editing was done by physically cutting the film, editing the picture could only been done on the frame line. However, the sound was stored for the whole frame between each of the four sprocket holes, and so the sound editors could "cut on any arbitrary set of holes, and thus get -frame edit resolution. With this technique, an audio edit could be accurate to within 10.41 ms." A limitation of analog optical recording was the audio frequency would cut off, in a well-maintained theater, at around 12kHz. Studios would often record audio on the transparent film strips, but with magnetic tape on one edge; recording audio on full 35 mm magnetic tape was more expensive.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Three different digital soundtrack systems for 35 mm cinema release prints were introduced during the 1990s. They are: Dolby Digital, which is stored between the perforations on the sound side; SDDS, stored in two redundant strips along the outside edges (beyond the perforations); and DTS, in which sound data is stored on separate compact discs synchronized by a timecode track on the film just to the right of the analog soundtrack and left of the frame. Because these soundtrack systems appear on different parts of the film, one movie can contain all of them, allowing broad distribution without regard for the sound system installed at individual theatres.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The analogue optical track technology has also changed: in the early years of the 21st century, distributors changed to using cyan dye optical soundtracks instead of applicated tracks, which use environmentally unfriendly chemicals to retain a silver (black-and-white) soundtrack. Because traditional incandescent exciter lamps produce copious amounts of infrared light, and cyan tracks do not absorb infrared light, this change has required theaters to replace the incandescent exciter lamp with a complementary colored red LED or laser. These LED or laser exciters are backwards-compatible with older tracks. The film "Anything Else" (2003) was the first to be released with only cyan tracks.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: To facilitate this changeover, intermediate prints known as "high magenta" prints were distributed. These prints used a silver plus dye soundtrack that were printed into the magenta dye layer. The advantage gained was an optical soundtrack, with low levels of sibilant (cross-modulation) distortion, on both types of sound heads.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The success of digitally projected 3D movies in the first two decades of the 21st century led to a demand from some theater owners to be able to show these movies in 3D without incurring the high capital cost of installing digital projection equipment. To satisfy that demand, a number of systems had been proposed for 3D systems based on 35 mm film by Technicolor, Panavision and others. These systems are improved versions of the "over-under" stereo 3D prints first introduced in the 1960s.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: To be attractive to exhibitors, these schemes offered 3D films that can be projected by a standard 35 mm cinema projector with minimal modification, and so they are based on the use of "over-under" film prints. In these prints a left-right pair of 2.39:1 non-anamorphic images are substituted for the one 2.39:1 anamorphic image of a 2D "scope" print. The frame dimensions are based on those of the Techniscope 2-perf camera format used in the 1960s and 1970s. However, when used for 3D the left and right frames are pulled down together, thus the standard 4-perf pulldown is retained, minimising the need for modifications to the projector or to long-play systems. The linear speed of film through the projector and sound playback both remain exactly the same as in normal 2D operation.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The Technicolor system uses the polarisation of light to separate the left and right eye images and for this they rent to exhibitors a combination splitter-polarizer-lens assembly which can be fitted to a lens turret in the same manner as an anamorphic lens. In contrast, the Panavision system uses a spectral comb filter system, but their combination splitter-filter-lens is physically similar to the Technicolor assembly and can be used in the same way. No other modifications are required to the projector for either system, though for the Technicolor system a silver screen is necessary, as it would be with polarised-light digital 3D. Thus a programme can readily include both 2D and 3D segments with only the lens needing to be changed between them.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In June 2012, Panavision 3D systems for both 35 mm film and digital projection were withdrawn from the market by DVPO theatrical (who marketed these system on behalf of Panavision) citing "challenging global economic and 3D market conditions".


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In the transition period centered around 2010–2015, the rapid conversion of the cinema exhibition industry to digital projection has seen 35 mm film projectors removed from most of the projection rooms as they were replaced by digital projectors. By the mid-2010s, most of the theaters across the world have been converted to digital projection, while others are still running 35 mm projectors. In spite of the uptake in digital projectors installed in global cinemas, 35 mm film remains in a niche market of enthusiasts and format lovers.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Originally, film was a strip of cellulose nitrate coated with black-and-white photographic emulsion. Early film pioneers, like D. W. Griffith, color tinted or toned portions of their movies for dramatic impact, and by 1920, 80 to 90 percent of all films were tinted. The first successful natural color process was Britain's Kinemacolor (1908–1914), a two-color additive process that used a rotating disk with red and green filters in front of the camera lens and the projector lens. But any process that photographed and projected the colors sequentially was subject to color "fringing" around moving objects, and a general color flickering.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In 1916, William Van Doren Kelley began developing Prizma, the first commercially viable American color process using 35 mm film. Initially, like Kinemacolor, it photographed the color elements one after the other and projected the results by additive synthesis. Ultimately, Prizma was refined to bipack photography, with two strips of film, one treated to be sensitive to red and the other not, running through the camera face to face. Each negative was printed on one surface of the same duplitized print stock and each resulting series of black-and-white images was chemically toned to transform the silver into a monochrome color, either orange-red or blue-green, resulting in a two-sided, two-colored print that could be shown with any ordinary projector. This system of two-color bipack photography and two-sided prints was the basis for many later color processes, such as Multicolor, Brewster Color and Cinecolor.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Although it had been available previously, color in Hollywood feature films first became truly practical from the studios' commercial perspective with the advent of Technicolor, whose main advantage was quality prints in less time than its competitors. In its earliest incarnations, Technicolor was another two-color system that could reproduce a range of reds, muted bluish greens, pinks, browns, tans and grays, but not real blues or yellows. "The Toll of the Sea", released in 1922, was the first film printed in their subtractive color system. Technicolor's camera photographed each pair of color-filtered frames simultaneously on one strip of black-and-white film by means of a beam splitter prism behind the camera lens. Two prints on half-thickness stock were made from the negative, one from only the red-filtered frames, the other from the green-filtered frames. After development, the silver images on the prints were chemically toned to convert them into images of the approximately complementary colors. The two strips were then cemented together back to back, forming a single strip similar to duplitized film.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In 1928, Technicolor started making their prints by the imbibition process, which was mechanical rather than photographic and allowed the color components to be combined on the same side of the film. Using two matrix films bearing hardened gelatin relief images, thicker where the image was darker, aniline color dyes were transferred into the gelatin coating on a third, blank strip of film.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Technicolor re-emerged as a three-color process for cartoons in 1932 and live action in 1934. Using a different arrangement of a beam-splitter cube and color filters behind the lens, the camera simultaneously exposed three individual strips of black-and-white film, each one recording one-third of the spectrum, which allowed virtually the entire spectrum of colors to be reproduced. A printing matrix with a hardened gelatin relief image was made from each negative, and the three matrices transferred color dyes into a blank film to create the print.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Two-color processes, however, were far from extinct. In 1934, William T. Crispinel and Alan M. Gundelfinger revived the Multicolor process under the company name Cinecolor. Cinecolor saw considerable use in animation and low-budget pictures, mainly because it cost much less than three-color Technicolor. If color design was carefully managed, the lack of colors such as true green could pass unnoticed. Although Cinecolor used the same duplitized stock as Prizma and Multicolor, it had the advantage that its printing and processing methods yielded larger quantities of finished film in less time.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In 1950, Kodak announced the first Eastman color 35 mm negative film (along with a complementary positive film) that could record all three primary colors on the same strip of film. An improved version in 1952 was quickly adopted by Hollywood, making the use of three-strip Technicolor cameras and bipack cameras (used in two-color systems such as Cinecolor) obsolete in color cinematography. This "monopack" structure is made up of three separate emulsion layers, one sensitive to red light, one to green and one to blue.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Although Eastman Kodak had first introduced acetate-based film, it was far too brittle and prone to shrinkage, so the dangerously flammable nitrate-based cellulose films were generally used for motion picture camera and print films. In 1949 Kodak began replacing all nitrocellulose (nitrate-based) films with the safer, more robust cellulose triacetate-based "Safety" films. In 1950 the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded Kodak with a Scientific and Technical Academy Award (Oscar) for the safer triacetate stock. By 1952, all camera and projector films were triacetate-based. Most if not all film prints today are made from synthetic polyester safety base (which started replacing Triacetate film for prints in the early 1990s). The downside of polyester film is that it is extremely strong, and, in case of a fault, will stretch and not break–potentially causing damage to the projector and ruining a fairly large stretch of film: 2–3 ft or approximately 2 seconds. Also, polyester film will melt if exposed to the projector lamp for too long. Original camera negative is still made on a triacetate base, and some intermediate films (certainly including internegatives or "dupe" negatives, but not necessarily including interpositives or "master" positives) are also made on a triacetate base as such films must be spliced during the "negative assembly" process, and the extant negative assembly process is solvent-based. Polyester films are not compatible with solvent-based assembly processes.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Besides black & white and color negative films, there are black & white and color reversal films, which when developed create a positive ("natural") image that is projectable. There are also films sensitive to non-visible wavelengths of light, such as infrared.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In the conventional motion picture format, frames are four perforations tall, with an aspect ratio of 1.375:1, . This is a derivation of the aspect ratio and frame size designated by Thomas Edison () at the dawn of motion pictures, which was an aspect ratio of 1.33:1. The first sound features were released in 1926–27, and while Warner Bros. was using synchronized phonograph discs (sound-on-disc), Fox placed the soundtrack in an optical record directly on the film (sound-on-film) on a strip between the sprocket holes and the image frame. "Sound-on-film" was soon adopted by the other Hollywood studios, resulting in an almost square image ratio of 0.860 in by 0.820 in.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: By 1929, most movie studios had revamped this format using their own house aperture plate size to try to recreate the older screen ratio of 1.33:1. Furthermore, every theater chain had their own house aperture plate size in which the picture was projected. These sizes often did not match up even between theaters and studios owned by the same company, and therefore, uneven projection practices occurred.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In November 1929, the Society of Motion Picture Engineers set a standard aperture ratio of 0.800 in by 0.600 in. Known as the "1930 standard", studios which followed the suggested practice of marking their camera viewfinders for this ratio were: Paramount-Famous-Lasky, Metro-Goldwyn Mayer, United Artists, Pathe, Universal, RKO, Tiffany-Stahl, Mack Sennett, Darmour, and Educational. The Fox Studio markings were the same width but allowed .04 in more height.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In 1932, in refining this ratio, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences expanded upon this 1930 standard. The camera aperture became , and the projected image would use an aperture plate size of , yielding an aspect ratio of 1.375:1. This became known as the "Academy" ratio, named so after them. Since the 1950s the aspect ratio of some theatrically released motion picture films has been 1.85:1 (1.66:1 in Europe) or 2.35:1 (2.40:1 after 1970). The image area for "TV transmission" is slightly smaller than the full "Academy" ratio at , an aspect ratio of 1.33:1. Hence when the "Academy" ratio is referred to as having an aspect ratio of 1.33:1, it is done so mistakenly.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The commonly used anamorphic format uses a similar four-perf frame, but an anamorphic lens is used on the camera and projector to produce a wider image, today with an aspect ratio of about 2.39:1 (more commonly referred to as 2.40:1). The ratio was formerly 2.35:1—and is still often mistakenly referred to as such—until an SMPTE revision of projection standards in 1970. The image, as recorded on the negative and print, is horizontally compressed (squeezed) by a factor of 2.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The unexpected success of the Cinerama widescreen process in 1952 led to a boom in film format innovations to compete with the growing audiences of television and the dwindling audiences in movie theaters. These processes could give theatergoers an experience that television could not at that time—color, stereophonic sound and panoramic vision. Before the end of the year, 20th Century Fox had narrowly "won" a race to obtain an anamorphic optical system invented by Henri Chrétien, and soon began promoting the Cinemascope technology as early as the production phase.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Looking for a similar alternative, other major studios hit upon a simpler, less expensive solution by April 1953: the camera and projector used conventional spherical lenses (rather than much more expensive anamorphic lenses), but by using a removable aperture plate in the film projector gate, the top and bottom of the frame could be cropped to create a wider aspect ratio. Paramount Pictures began this trend with their aspect ratio of 1.66:1, first used in "Shane", which was originally shot for Academy ratio. It was Universal Studios, however, with their May release of "Thunder Bay" that introduced the now standard 1.85:1 format to American audiences and brought attention to the industry the capability and low cost of equipping theaters for this transition.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Other studios followed suit with aspect ratios of 1.75:1 up to 2:1. For a time, these various ratios were used by different studios in different productions, but by 1956, the aspect ratio of 1.85:1 became the "standard" US format. These "flat" films are photographed with the full Academy frame, but are matted (most often with a mask in the theater projector, not in the camera) to obtain the "wide" aspect ratio. The standard, in some European countries, became 1.66:1 instead of 1.85:1, although some productions with pre-determined American distributors composed for the latter to appeal to US markets.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In September 1953, 20th Century Fox debuted CinemaScope with their production of "The Robe" to great success. CinemaScope became the first marketable usage of an anamorphic widescreen process and became the basis for a host of "formats", usually suffixed with "-scope," that were otherwise identical in specification, although sometimes inferior in optical quality. (Some developments, such as SuperScope and Techniscope, however, were truly entirely different formats.) By the early 1960s, however, Panavision would eventually solve many of the CinemaScope lenses' technical limitations with their own lenses, and by 1967, CinemaScope was replaced by Panavision and other third-party manufacturers.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The 1950s and 1960s saw many other novel processes using 35 mm, such as VistaVision, SuperScope, and Technirama, most of which ultimately became obsolete. VistaVision, however, would be revived decades later by Lucasfilm and other studios for special effects work, while a SuperScope variant became the predecessor to the modern Super 35 format that is popular today.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The concept behind Super 35 originated with the Tushinsky Brothers' SuperScope format, particularly the SuperScope 235 specification from 1956. In 1982, Joe Dunton revived the format for "Dance Craze", and Technicolor soon marketed it under the name "Super Techniscope" before the industry settled on the name Super 35. The central driving idea behind the process is to return to shooting in the original silent "Edison" 1.33:1 full 4-perf negative area (), and then crop the frame either from the bottom or the center (like 1.85:1) to create a 2.40:1 aspect ratio (matching that of anamorphic lenses) with an area of . Although this cropping may seem extreme, by expanding the negative area out perf-to-perf, Super 35 creates a 2.40:1 aspect ratio with an overall negative area of , only less than the 1.85:1 crop of the Academy frame (). The cropped frame is then converted at the intermediate stage to a 4-perf anamorphically squeezed print compatible with the anamorphic projection standard. This allows an "anamorphic" frame to be captured with non-anamorphic lenses, which are much more common. Up to 2000, once the film was photographed in Super 35, an optical printer was used to anamorphose (squeeze) the image. This optical step reduced the overall quality of the image and made Super 35 a controversial subject among cinematographers, many who preferred the higher image quality and frame negative area of anamorphic photography (especially with regard to granularity). With the advent of digital intermediates (DI) at the beginning of the 21st century, however, Super 35 photography has become even more popular, since everything could be done digitally, scanning the original 4-perf 1.33:1 (or 3-perf 1.78:1) picture and cropping it to the 2.39:1 frame already in-computer, without anamorphosing stages, and also without creating an additional optical generation with increased grain. This process of creating the aspect ratio in the computer allows the studios to perform all post-production and editing of the movie in its original aspect (1.33:1 or 1.78:1) and to then release the cropped version, while still having the original when necessary (for Pan & Scan, HDTV transmission, etc.).


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The non-anamorphic widescreen ratios (most commonly 1.85:1) used in modern feature films makes inefficient use of the available image area on 35 mm film using the standard 4-perf pulldown; the height of a 1.85:1 frame occupying only 65% of the distance between the frames. It is clear, therefore, that a change to a 3-perf pulldown would allow for a 25% reduction in film consumption whilst still accommodating the full 1.85:1 frame. Ever since the introduction of these widescreen formats in the 1950s various film directors and cinematographers have argued in favour of the industry making such a change. The Canadian cinematographer Miklos Lente invented and patented a three-perforation pull down system which he called "Trilent 35" in 1975 though he was unable to persuade the industry to adopt it.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The idea was later taken up by the Swedish film-maker Rune Ericson who was a strong advocate for the 3-perf system. Ericson shot his 51st feature "Pirates of the Lake" in 1986 using two Panaflex cameras modified to 3-perf pulldown and suggested that the industry could change over completely over the course of ten-years. However, the movie industry did not make the change mainly because it would have required the modification of the thousands of existing 35 mm projectors in movie theaters all over the world. Whilst it would have been possible to shoot in 3-perf and then convert to standard 4-perf for release prints the extra complications this would cause and the additional optical printing stage required made this an unattractive option at the time for most film makers.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: However, in television production, where compatibility with an installed base of 35 mm film projectors is unnecessary, the 3-perf format is sometimes used, giving—if used with Super 35—the 16:9 ratio used by HDTV and reducing film usage by 25 percent. Because of 3-perf's incompatibility with standard 4-perf equipment, it can utilize the whole negative area between the perforations (Super 35 mm film) without worrying about compatibility with existing equipment; the Super 35 image area includes what would be the soundtrack area in a standard print. All 3-perf negatives require optical or digital conversion to standard 4-perf if a film print is desired, though 3-perf can easily be transferred to video with little to no difficulty by modern telecine or film scanners. With digital intermediate now a standard process for feature film post-production, 3-perf is becoming increasingly popular for feature film productions which would otherwise be averse to an optical conversion stage.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The VistaVision motion picture format was created in 1954 by Paramount Pictures to create a finer-grained negative and print for flat widescreen films. Similar to still photography, the format uses a camera running 35 mm film horizontally instead of vertically through the camera, with frames that are eight perforations long, resulting in a wider aspect ratio of 1.5:1 and greater detail, as more of the negative area is used per frame. This format is unprojectable in standard theaters and requires an optical step to reduce the image into the standard 4-perf vertical 35 mm frame.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: While the format was dormant by the early 1960s, the camera system was revived for visual effects by John Dykstra at Industrial Light and Magic, starting with "Star Wars", as a way of reducing granularity in the optical printer by having increased original camera negative area at the point of image origination. Its usage has again declined since the dominance of computer-based visual effects, although it still sees limited utilization.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Film perforations were originally round holes cut into the side of the film, but as these perforations were subject to wear and deformation, the shape was changed to what is now called the Bell & Howell (BH) perforation, which has straight top and bottom edges and outward curving sides. The BH perforation's dimensions are from the middle of the side curve to opposite top corner by in height. The BH1866 perforation, or BH perforation with a pitch of , is the modern standard for negative and internegative films.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: Because BH has sharp corners, the repeated use of the film through intermittent movement projectors creates strain that can easily tear the perforations. Furthermore, they tended to shrink as the print slowly decayed. Therefore, larger perforations with a rectangular base and rounded corners were introduced by Kodak in 1924 to improve steadiness, registration, durability, and longevity. Known as "Kodak Standard" (KS), they are high by wide. Their durability makes KS perfs the ideal choice for some (but not all) intermediate and all release prints, and original camera negatives which require special use, such as high-speed filming, but not for bluescreen, front projection, rear projection, or matte work as these specific applications demand the more accurate registration which is only possible with BH or DH perforations. The increased height also means that the image registration was considerably less accurate than BH perfs, which remains the standard for negatives. The KS1870 perforation, or KS perforation with a pitch of , is the modern standard for release prints.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: These two perforations have remained by far the most commonly used ones. BH perforations are also known as "N" (negative) and KS as "P" (positive). The Bell & Howell perf remains the standard for camera negative films because of its perforation dimensions in comparison to most printers, thus it can keep a steady image compared to other perforations.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: The Dubray–Howell (DH) perforation was first proposed in 1932 to replace the two perfs with a single hybrid. The proposed standard was, like KS, rectangular with rounded corners and a width of , and, like BH, was tall. This gave it longer projection life but also improved registration. One of its primary applications was usage in Technicolor's dye imbibition printing (dye transfer). The DH perf never had broad uptake, and Kodak's introduction of monopack Eastmancolor film in the 1950s reduced the demand for dye transfer, although the DH perforation persists in special application intermediate films.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: In 1953, the introduction of CinemaScope by Fox Studios required the creation of a different shape of perforation which was nearly square and smaller to provide space for four magnetic sound stripes for stereophonic and surround sound. These perforations are commonly referred to as CinemaScope (CS) or "Fox hole" perfs. Their dimensions are in width by in height. Due to the size difference, CS perfed film cannot be run through a projector with standard KS sprocket teeth, but KS prints "can" be run on sprockets with CS teeth. Shrunken film with KS prints that would normally be damaged in a projector with KS sprockets may sometimes be run far more gently through a projector with CS sprockets because of the smaller size of the teeth. Magnetic striped 35 mm film became obsolete in the 1980s after the advent of Dolby Stereo, as a result film with CS perfs is no longer manufactured.


title: 35 mm movie film

text: During continuous contact printing, the raw stock and the negative are placed next to one another around the sprocket wheel of the printer. The negative, which is the closer of the two to the sprocket wheel (thus creating a slightly shorter path), must have a marginally shorter pitch between perforations (0.1866 in pitch); the raw stock has a long pitch (0.1870 in). While cellulose nitrate and cellulose diacetate stocks used to shrink during processing slightly enough to have this difference naturally occur, modern safety stocks do not shrink at the same rate, and therefore negative (and some intermediate) stocks are perforated at a pitch of 0.2% shorter than print stock.


title: Gulmarg

text: Gulmarg (), known as Gulmarag (; ) in Kashmiri, is a town, hill station, popular skiing destination, and notified area committee in the Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir, India. It is located at a distance of from Baramulla and from Srinagar. The town is situated in the Pir Panjal Range in the Western Himalayas and lies within the boundaries of Gulmarg Wildlife Sanctuary.


title: Gulmarg

text: Originally called Gauri Marg (meaning "the path of Devi Gauri"), its name was changed to 'Gulmarg' in the 1500s by Yousuf Shah of the Chak dynasty.


title: Gulmarg

text: Yousuf Shah Chak, who ruled Kashmir from 1579 to 1586, frequented the place with his queen Habba Khatoon and renamed it 'Gulmarg' ("meadow of flowers"). Wild flowers of 21 different varieties were collected by the Mughal emperor Jahangir for his gardens in Gulmarg. In the 19th century, British civil servants started using Gulmarg as a retreat to escape summers in North Indian plains. Hunting and golfing were their favorite pastime and three golf courses were established in Gulmarg including one exclusively for women. One of the golf courses survives and at an altitude of is the world's highest golf course. In 1927, British established a ski club in Gulmarg and two annual ski events were hosted one each during Christmas and Easter. Central Asian explorer Aurel Stein also visited Gulmarg during this period.


title: Gulmarg

text: After the end of British rule in India, Gulmarg became a part of the independent princely state of Kashmir and Jammu. Pakistan planned an invasion of the state called Operation Gulmarg. One of the routes used by the invading militia of Pathan tribesmen, armed and supported by Pakistani regular troops, passed through the Haji Pir pass and Gulmarg onto the state capital Srinagar. Gulmarg fell to the invading army, but the Indian army led by the 1 Sikh Regiment, which had been airlifted to Srinagar only after the Dogra ruler of the state Maharaja Hari Singh had signed an Instrument of Accession with India on 26 October 1947, successfully defended the outskirts of Srinagar. Thereafter, Indian counterattacks pushed the tribesmen back and many towns including Gulmarg were recaptured. In 1948, Indian Army established a ski school in Gulmarg which later became the High Altitude Warfare School of the Indian army specializing in snow–craft and winter warfare. On 1 January 1949, the war ended under UN supervision and a Ceasefire line (CFL), which was rechristened the Line of Control (LOC) by the Shimla Agreement of 1972, came into being close to Gulmarg.


title: Gulmarg

text: After Indian Independence, Indian planners sought to develop a destination for Winter sports in India. The Department of Tourism of the Government of India invited Rudolph Matt, in 1960 to select a suitable location for such purpose. Matt zeroed in on Gulmarg as a suitable location for the development of a winter sports destination in India. In 1968, the Institute of Skiing and Mountaineering was established in Gulmarg to train ski instructors. Over the next decade, Indian planners invested to transform Gulmarg into a world-class ski destination. Gulmarg became a centre for skiers from Asian nations. In mid-1980s, heli-skiing was introduced in Gulmarg in collaboration with the Swiss skier Sylvain Saudan of Himalaya Heli-Ski Club of France.


title: Gulmarg

text: In the 1990s, the rise of militancy in Jammu and Kashmir affected tourism in Gulmarg. With the abatement of terrorism in the area, tourism started to recover in late 1990s. Work on the cable car project between Gulmarg and Apharwat Peak, which was commissioned in 1988 by Government of Jammu and Kashmir but was subsequently abandoned due to militancy in 1990, was resumed in 1998. In May 1998, Phase 1 of the project, between Gulmarg and Kongdori, began its commercial operation. In May 2005, Phase 2 of the project was also inaugurated, making it one of the longest and highest ropeways of Asia. The chairlift installed as a part of Phase 3 of the project began its operations in 2011. The National Winter Games were held in Gulmarg in 1998, 2004 and 2008. In 2014, Government of Jammu and Kashmir drafted a Master Plan–2032 for Gulmarg. The plan includes development of a solid-waste treatment plant on 20 acres of land close to Gulmarg.


title: Gulmarg

text: Gulmarg lies in a cup-shaped valley in the Pir Panjal Range of the Himalayas, at an altitude of , 56 km from Srinagar. The soil in Gulmarg comprises glacial deposits, lacustrine deposits and moraines of Pleistocene age covering shales, limestones, sandstones, schists and other varieties of rocks. The natural meadows of Gulmarg, which are covered with snow in winter, allow the growth of wild flowers such as daisies, forget-me-nots and buttercups during spring and summer. The meadows are interspersed by enclosed parks and small lakes, and surrounded by forests of green pine and fir. Skiing and other winter sports in Gulmarg are carried out on the slopes of Apharwat peak at a height of . Many points on Apharwat peak and Khilanmarg offer a panoramic view of Nanga Parbat and Harmukh mountains.


title: Gulmarg

text: Due to its high elevation, Gulmarg has a humid continental climate where the wet winter season sees heavy snowfall, especially for its latitude. Summers are moderate in temperature and length, whereas shoulder seasons are relatively cool.


title: Gulmarg

text: At the 2011 Indian census, Gulmarg had a total population of 1,965 over 77 households. The male population in the town stood at 1,957 while there were only eight females and no children between the ages of 0 and 6 years. Gulmarg had an average literacy rate of 99.24%, compared to the state average of 67.16%, of which male literacy was 99.23% and female literacy was 100%. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes constituted 0.61% and 0.15% of the population respectively. Gulmarg has few permanent residents with most residents being tourists or those involved in the tourism industry.


title: Gulmarg

text: According to CNN, Gulmarg is the "heartland of winter sports in India" and was rated as Asia's seventh best ski destination. The town is accessible from Srinagar by road via Tangmarg.


title: Gulmarg

text: The road climbs uphill in the last 12 kilometres to Gulmarg passing through forests of pine and fir. Winter sports like skiing, tobogganing, snowboarding and heli-skiing take place on the slopes of Mount Apharwat reachable by a Gondola lift. In February 2022, the World's largest igloo cafe was opened in Gulmarg. It was made with a height of 37.5 feet and a diameter of 44.5 feet. Around 40 people can eat there at a time.


title: Gulmarg

text: Maharani Temple (commonly known as Shiv Temple of Gulmarg) was built by a Hindu ruler Maharaja Hari Singh for his wife Maharani Mohini Bai Sisodia who ruled till 1915. This temple was considered as the stately possession of Dogra kings. The temple is dedicated to Shiva and Parvati. This temple is situated on a slight hilltop with greenery. This temple is visible from all corners of Gulmarg.


title: Gulmarg

text: It was built in 1902, during the period of British rule, and was constructed in a British style. Made of grey brick with a green roof and decorated wooden interior walls, it has been described as a "Victorian architectural wonder".


title: Gulmarg

text: In 1920 the church saw the wedding of the brother of Bruce Bairnsfather; Miss Eleanor Hardy Tipping married Capt. T. D. Bairnsfather, with newspapers describing the church as "very prettily decorated" and with the service conducted by Rev Canon Buckwell in the presence of both organ and a full choir.


title: Gulmarg

text: St Mary's was closed for years but was renovated and reopened in 2003, holding its first Christmas service there for 14 years. The church belongs to the Diocese of Amritsar, Church Of North India.


title: Gulmarg

text: Built by the French company Pomagalski, the Gulmarg Gondola is one of the highest in the world reaching 3,979 metres. The two-stage ropeway ferries about 600 people per hour between Gulmarg and a shoulder of nearby Apharwat Peak (). The first stage transfers from Gulmarg at to Kongdoori at . The second stage which has 36 cabins and 18 towers, takes passengers to a height of on the Apharwat Peak . A chair lift system connects Kongdoori with Mary's shoulder for taking skiers to higher altitudes. The high inflow of tourists has had an effect on the fragile eco-system of Gulmarg and activists have demanded tighter regulation to save the environment of the area from over-tourism.


title: Gulmarg

text: An accident occurred on 15 June 2017 due to an enormous pine tree being uprooted by a gust of wind and breaking the perspex windows on one of the gondola cabins, causing it to swing violently and its seven occupants to fall to the ground.


title: Gulmarg

text: In 1948, the Indian Army established a ski school in Gulmarg that later became the High Altitude Warfare School, which specializes in snow–craft and winter warfare. It is located in an area which is prone to avalanches.


title: Gulmarg

text: The first-ever Khelo India Winter Games were held from 7 March at Gulmarg in Jammu and Kashmir. Around 955 participants took part in the 5-day event. Organised by Jammu and Kashmir Sports Council in collaboration Union Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, the Games included various sports disciplines at the ski resort of Gulmarg in north Kashmir from 7 to 11 March.


title: Gulmarg

text: Situated at an altitude of 2,650 m, it is the highest green golf course in the world. The historic Gulmarg Golf Club was started in 1911 by the British who used the place as a holiday resort. The origin of Gulmarg as the golfing centre of India goes back to the late 19th century when a 6-hole course was made in 1890-91 by Colonel Neville Chamberlain. The first golf championship was played at Gulmarg in 1922. The Nedou's Cup was introduced in 1929.


title: Gulmarg

text: In 2008 an American avalanche forecaster named Brian Newman began an NPO named Gulmarg Avalanche Center. The purpose of this organization was to dispense daily avalanche risk bulletins to visitors entering the unmanaged backcountry surrounding the Gulmarg ski area. The centre provides avalanche education including a free weekly avalanche awareness talk during the winter season.


title: Gulmarg

text: An annual three-day Gulmarg Winter Festival is held in March. Budding artists in the fields of music, films and photography are given an opportunity to showcase their work during the festival.


title: Gulmarg

text: Gulmarg has been the shooting location many Bollywood films like "Bobby", "Aap Ki Kasam", "Jab Tak Hai Jaan", "Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani", "Highway", "Phantom", "Haider", etc.


title: Carlos Cuevas

text: Carlos Cuevas Sisó (born 27 December 1995) is a Spanish television, film, and theater actor, known for his performances in the Catalan television series "Ventdelplà" and "Merlí".


title: Carlos Cuevas

text: Carlos Cuevas was born on 27 December 1995 in Montcada i Reixac, Barcelona. He started acting in commercials when he was five years old. In 2002, he made his debut in the film "La mujer de hielo". Since 2004, he has worked as a dubbing actor for television and radio advertising campaigns, as well as for films. He began in the television world in an episode of "Trilita", a TV3 series created by Tricicle.


title: Carlos Cuevas

text: In 2005, at age nine, he became known to the Catalan public thanks to his role as Biel Delmàs in the series "Ventdelplà" from TV3, where he appeared until the series ended in 2010.


title: Carlos Cuevas

text: In 2009, he made his first foray into film, playing Dani in the film "", by and produced by Filmax. In 2011, he went to the stage in to star alongside and Montse Vellvehí in the play "Madame Melville" by Richard Nelson, directed by Àngel Llàcer. In 2012, he was in the cast of the first season of Antena 3's mystery series "Luna, el misterio de Calenda", where he played Tomás, with actors including Olivia Molina and Álvaro Cervantes. At the end of that year, he returned to the stage, at the Teatre Nacional de Catalunya to star alongside Albert Espinosa, Joan Carreras i Goicoechea, and many others, in the play "Els nostres tigres beuen llet". Espinosa says he has created a fictitious family with the good and the best of Catalan theatre.


title: Carlos Cuevas

text: From 8 May to 22 June 2013, he worked again with Emma Vilarasau, Míriam Iscla, Anna Moliner, Jordi Banacolocha, Pep Planas, Pepa López, and Joan Carreras, performing in the play "Barcelona", directed by Pere Riera, which deals with the Spanish Civil War, centring on the day that Barcelona was bombed by Francoist troops. In 2015, he appeared in the film "It's Now or Never", directed by María Ripoll and starring Dani Rovira and María Valverde. Also that year he joined the cast of the TV3 series "Merlí", where he played Pol Rubio. The series, due to its great acceptance among the Catalan public, was later dubbed to Spanish for a nationwide broadcast in laSexta.


title: Carlos Cuevas

text: In 2016, he made a minor appearance in Televisión Española's series "El Ministerio del Tiempo", where he played a fictional successful YouTuber. In May 2016, he starred in Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" at Espai La Seca in Barcelona, alongside Clàudia Benito, under the direction of Marc Chornet. In September of that year he once again played Pol Rubio in the second season of "Merlí". In October 2016, he joined the cast of the eighteenth season of Televisión Española's series "Cuéntame cómo pasó", where he plays Marcos. With his partner in "Merlí", , he was in charge of welcoming 2017 in TV3's New Year's Eve broadcast.


title: Carlos Cuevas

text: In 2020, Cuevas played Alonso Aldama in the three part Netflix series "Someone Has to Die", created by Manolo Caro.


title: Carlos Cuevas

text: In 2022, Cuevas played Alex in the Netflix series "Smiley", with Miki Esparbé, Pepón Nieto, Meritxell Calvo and Cedrick Mugisha.


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: The task of the current Hungarian Air Force is primarily defensive purposes. The flying units of the air force are organised into a single command; under the Air Command and Control Centre.


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: Following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1918, a small air arm was established operating surviving aircraft from Hungarian factories and training schools. This air arm became the Hungarian Red Air Force under the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic, but was disbanded upon its downfall.


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: Under the Treaty of Trianon (1920), Hungary was forbidden from owning military aircraft. However, a secret air arm was gradually established under the cover of civilian flying clubs. During 1938, as a result of the Bled agreement, the existence of the Royal Hungarian Air Force (), was made known. The army's aviation service was reorganized and expanded.


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: Late 1938 the army aviation was once again reorganized. Admiral Horthy, the head of state, ordered that the army aviation should become an independent service effective 9 January 1939. Colonel Ferenc Feketehalmi Czeydner became the Air Section Chief in the Honvéd Ministry; Major General Waldemar Kenese became Inspector of the Air Force; Colonel Ferenc Szentnémedy became Chief-of-Staff, and Colonel László Háry was appointed head of the "Magyar Királyi Honvéd Légierő (MKHL)".


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: It subsequently participated in clashes with the newly established Slovak Republic and in the border confrontation with the Kingdom of Romania. In April 1941, operations were conducted in support of the German invasion of Yugoslavia and, on 27 June 1941, Hungary declared war on the Soviet Union.


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: In 1940, the decision was made to unite the Air Force, the anti-aircraft forces, and the civilian air defense organizations under one central headquarters. Colonel László Háry was retired 24 December 1940, and on 1 March 1941 the new organization was constituted. General András Littay became Air Sub-Department Chief, and Colonel Géza Vörös was appointed Head of the Air General Staff. On 1 June 1941, the Air Defense Corps was established, and Lieutenant General Béla Rákosi became Commander of Army Aviation. In effect the Air Force had once again become part of the Army. In the summer of 1942, an air brigade was attached to the Luftwaffe's VIII. Fliegerkorps on the Eastern Front. Beginning March 1944, Allied bomber raids began on Hungary and progressively increased in intensity. The 101st "Puma" fighter group (later wing) was the elite unit of the MKHL (its name and insignia are carried on by the "Puma" fighter squadron of the Hungarian Air Force of today). Late in 1944 all efforts were redirected towards countering the advancing Red Army, but to no avail. All fighting in Hungary ended on 16 April 1945.


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: A small air arm was organised along Soviet lines during 1947. Following the communist takeover, Russian military aid was stepped up and a major expansion program initiated. By 1956 the Hungarian Air Force consisted of the 25th Fighter Division ("25. Vadászrepülő Hadosztály", HQ in Taszár), the 66th Fighter Division ("66. Vadaszrepülő Hadosztály", HQ in Kecskemét), the 82nd Separate Bomber Division ("82." "Önálló Bombázó Hadosztály", HQ in Kunmadaras), the 28th Ground Attack Division ("28. Csatarepülő Hadosztály," HQ in Székesfehérvár) and a training air division. When Soviet forces invaded to suppress the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, sections of the Hungarian Air Force attacked Soviet forces and resisted Russian attempts to occupy their bases. The resistance was short-lived and the entire Hungarian air force was demobilized soon after. A reconstituted air arm was reformed in the following year as part of the Hungarian People's Army, but initially only as an internal security force. The remaining Hungarian air force assets were organised in the Aircraft Training Center ("Repülő Kiképző Központ" ("RKK")) on April 1, 1957, with one mixed aircraft types squadron each at the main fighter air bases at Pápa, Taszár and Kecskemét. Gradually, starting in 1959 as Hungary became stable, the air force was expanded again, but it remained an integral part of the army and was essentially a defensive force.


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: During the Cold War period communist Hungary had numerous SA-2, SA-3 and also SA-5 (one unit) batteries and a large number of radar installations, mostly tasked with defending the Danube line against NATO air strikes. Army air defense was equipped with the SA-4, SA-6 Kub and SA-9, SA-13 systems besides conventional AAA units.


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: The Hungarian People's Army Air Force operated the Il-28, MiG-15, MiG-17, MiG-19, MiG-21, MiG-23 and Su-22 jet combat aircraft during its existence. In the 1980s it had three fighter regiments (wings) at the three main bases with three squadrons each, with a total of approximately 100 active supersonic fighter aircraft. From 1989 the force was downsized several times until the early 2000s when only one active fighter squadron was remaining with often only 2-4 flyable alert ready aircraft at a given time.


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: In mid-1993, three batches of 28 MiG-29s were delivered from Russia as a payment in kind of government debt. They were based at Kecskemét. In 1995, a German gift of 20 Mi-24D/V's arrived.


title: Hungarian Air Force

text: For most other former Warsaw Pact member countries, pilot training was not a big deal. Each nation maintained an independent aviation technical college, an academy for training military aircraft pilots, and technical personnel. After the Second World War, Hungary created György Kilián Aviation Technical College in 1949, but in the 1960s domestic pilot training was discontinued and the 18 then modern Aero L-29 Delfin jet trainers were handed over to the Soviet Union. The training of pilots was conducted in several schools and bases in the USSR in the following years, and also in Czechoslovakia, in Košice. In Hungary, only helicopter pilots and technicians were trained at Szolnok.