title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: "Endurance" became beset—trapped in the ice of the Weddell Sea—before it was able to reach Vahsel Bay. It drifted northward, held in the pack ice, throughout the Antarctic winter of 1915. Eventually the ice crushed the ship, and it sank, stranding its complement of 28 men on the ice. After months spent in makeshift camps as the ice continued its northwards drift, the party used lifeboats that had been salvaged from the ship to reach the inhospitable, uninhabited Elephant Island. Shackleton and five other members of the group then made an open-boat journey in the , and were able to reach South Georgia. From there, Shackleton was eventually able to arrange a rescue of the men who had remained on Elephant Island and to bring them home without loss of life. The remarkably preserved wreck of "Endurance" was found on the seafloor in 2022.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: On the other side of the continent, the Ross Sea party overcame great hardships to fulfill its mission. "Aurora" was blown from her moorings during a gale and was unable to return, leaving the shore party stranded without proper supplies or equipment. Although the depots were still able to be laid, three people died before the party was eventually rescued.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Despite the public acclaim that had greeted Ernest Shackleton's achievements after the "Nimrod" Expedition in 1907–1909, the explorer was unsettled, becoming—in the words of British skiing pioneer Sir Harry Brittain—"a bit of a floating gent". By 1912, his future Antarctic plans depended on the results of Robert Falcon Scott's "Terra Nova" Expedition, which had left Cardiff in July 1910, and on the concurrent Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen. The news of Amundsen's conquest of the South Pole reached Shackleton on 11 March 1912, to which he responded: "The discovery of the South Pole will not be the end of Antarctic exploration". The next work, he said, would be "a transcontinental journey from sea to sea, crossing the pole". He was aware that others were in the field pursuing this objective.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: On 11 December 1911, a German expedition under Wilhelm Filchner had sailed from South Georgia, intending to penetrate deep into the Weddell Sea and establishing a base from which he would cross the continent to the Ross Sea. In late 1912 Filchner returned to South Georgia, having failed to land and set up his base. However, his reports of possible landing sites in Vahsel Bay, at around 78° latitude, were noted by Shackleton, and incorporated into his developing expedition plans.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: News of the deaths of Scott and his companions on their return from the South Pole reached London in February 1913. Against this gloomy background Shackleton initiated preparations for his proposed journey. He solicited financial and practical support from, among others, Tryggve Gran of Scott's expedition, and the former Prime Minister Lord Rosebery, but received no help from either. Gran was evasive, and Rosebery blunt: "I have never been able to care one farthing about the Poles".


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Shackleton got support, however, from William Speirs Bruce, leader of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition of 1902–1904, who had harboured plans for an Antarctic crossing since 1908 but had abandoned the project for lack of funds. Bruce generously allowed Shackleton to adopt his plans, although the eventual scheme announced by Shackleton owed little to Bruce. On 29 December 1913, having acquired his first promises of financial backing—a £10,000 grant from the British government—Shackleton made his plans public in a letter to "The Times".


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Shackleton called his new expedition the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, because he felt that "not only the people of these islands, but our kinsmen in all the lands under the Union Jack will be willing to assist towards the carrying out of the ... programme of exploration." To arouse the interest of the general public, he issued a detailed programme early in 1914. The expedition was to consist of two parties and two ships. The Weddell Sea party would travel aboard "Endurance" and continue to the Vahsel Bay area, where 14 men would land, of whom six, under Shackleton, would form the transcontinental party. This group, with 69 dogs, two motor sledges, and equipment "embodying everything that the experience of the leader and his expert advisers can suggest", would undertake the journey to the Ross Sea. The remaining eight shore party members would carry out scientific work, three going to Graham Land, three to Enderby Land and two remaining at base camp.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: The Ross Sea party would set up its base in McMurdo Sound, on the opposite side of the continent. After landing they would lay depots on the route of the transcontinental party as far as the Beardmore Glacier, hopefully meeting that party there and assisting it home. They would also make geological and other observations.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Shackleton estimated that he would need £50,000 (current value £) to carry out the simplest version of his plan. He did not believe in appeals to the public: "(they) cause endless book-keeping worries". His chosen method of fundraising was to solicit contributions from wealthy backers, and he had begun this process early in 1913 with little initial success. The first significant encouragement came in December 1913, when the British government offered him £10,000, provided he could raise an equivalent amount from private sources. The Royal Geographical Society (RGS), from which he had expected nothing, gave him £1,000—according to Huntford, Shackleton, in a grand gesture, advised them that he would only need to take up half of this sum. Lord Rosebery, who had previously expressed his lack of interest in polar expeditions, gave £50.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: In February 1914, "The New York Times" reported that playwright J. M. Barrie—a close friend of Scott, who had become Shackleton's rival late in his career—had confidentially donated $50,000 (about £10,000). With time running out, contributions were eventually secured during the first half of 1914. Dudley Docker of the Birmingham Small Arms Company gave £10,000, wealthy tobacco heiress Janet Stancomb-Wills gave a "generous" sum (the amount was not revealed), and, in June, Scottish industrialist Sir James Key Caird donated £24,000 (current value £). Shackleton informed the "Morning Post" that "this magnificent gift relieves me of all anxiety".


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Shackleton now had the money to proceed. He acquired, for £14,000 (current value £), a 300-ton barquentine called "Polaris", which had been built for the Belgian explorer Adrien de Gerlache for an expedition to Spitsbergen. This scheme had collapsed and the ship became available. Shackleton changed her name to , reflecting his family motto, "By endurance we conquer". For a further £3,200 (current value £), he acquired Douglas Mawson's expedition ship , which was lying in Hobart, Tasmania. This would act as the Ross Sea party's vessel.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: How much money Shackleton raised to meet the total costs of the expedition (later estimated by the "Daily Mail" to be around £80,000) is uncertain, since the size of the Stancomb-Wills donation is not known. Money was a constant problem for Shackleton, who as an economy measure halved the funding allocated to the Ross Sea party, a fact which the party's commander Aeneas Mackintosh only discovered when he arrived in Australia to take up his duties. Mackintosh was forced to haggle and plead for money and supplies to make his part of the expedition viable. Shackleton had, however, realised the revenue-earning potential of the expedition. He sold the exclusive newspaper rights to the "Daily Chronicle", and formed the Imperial Trans Antarctic Film Syndicate to take advantage of the film rights.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: According to legend, Shackleton posted an advertisement in a London paper, stating: ""Men wanted for hazardous journey. Low wages, bitter cold, long hours of complete darkness. Safe return doubtful. Honour and recognition in event of success"." Searches for the original advertisement have proved unsuccessful, and the story is generally regarded as apocryphal. Shackleton received more than 5,000 applications for places on the expedition, including a letter from "three sporty girls" who suggested that if their feminine garb was inconvenient they would "just love to don masculine attire."


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Eventually the crews for the two arms of the expedition were trimmed down to 28 apiece, including William Bakewell, who joined the ship in Buenos Aires; his friend Perce Blackborow, who stowed away when his application was turned down; and several last-minute appointments made to the Ross Sea party in Australia. A temporary crewman was Sir Daniel Gooch, grandson of the renowned railway pioneer Daniel Gooch, who stepped in to help Shackleton as a dog handler at the last moment and signed up for an able seaman's pay. Gooch agreed to sail with "Endurance" as far as South Georgia.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: As his second-in-command, Shackleton chose Frank Wild, who had been with him on both the "Discovery" and "Nimrod" expeditions, and was one of the Farthest South party in 1909. Wild had just returned from Mawson's Australasian Antarctic Expedition. To captain "Endurance" Shackleton had wanted John King Davis, who had commanded "Aurora" during the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Davis refused, thinking the enterprise was "foredoomed", so the appointment went to Frank Worsley, who claimed to have applied to the expedition after learning of it in a dream. Tom Crean, who had been awarded the Albert Medal for saving the life of Lieutenant Edward Evans on the "Terra Nova" Expedition, took leave from the Royal Navy to sign on as "Endurance"s second officer; another experienced Antarctic hand, Alfred Cheetham, became third officer. Two "Nimrod" veterans were assigned to the Ross Sea party: Mackintosh, who commanded it, and Ernest Joyce. Shackleton had hoped that "Aurora" would be staffed by a naval crew, and had asked the Admiralty for officers and men, but was turned down. After pressing his case, Shackleton was given one officer from the Royal Marines, Captain Thomas Orde-Lees, who was Superintendent of Physical Training at the Marines training depot.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: The scientific staff of six accompanying "Endurance" comprised the two surgeons, Alexander Macklin and James McIlroy; a geologist, James Wordie; a biologist, Robert Clark; a physicist, Reginald W. James; and Leonard Hussey, a meteorologist who would eventually edit Shackleton's expedition account "South". The visual record of the expedition was the responsibility of its photographer Frank Hurley and its artist George Marston. The final composition of the Ross Sea party was hurried. Some who left Britain for Australia to join "Aurora" resigned before it departed for the Ross Sea, and a full complement of crew was in doubt until the last minute. Within the party only Mackintosh and Joyce had any previous Antarctic experience; Mackintosh had lost an eye as the result of an accident during the "Nimrod" expedition and had gone home early.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: "Endurance", without Shackleton (who was detained in England by expedition business), left Plymouth on 8 August 1914, heading first for Buenos Aires. Here Shackleton, who had travelled on a faster ship, rejoined the expedition. Hurley also came on board, together with Bakewell and the stowaway, Blackborow, while several others left the ship or were discharged. On 26 October, the ship sailed for the South Atlantic, arriving in South Georgia on 5 November. Shackleton's original intention was that the crossing would take place in the first season, 1914–1915. Although he soon recognised the impracticality of this, he neglected to inform Mackintosh and the Ross Sea party of his change of plan. According to the "Daily Chronicle"s correspondent Ernest Perris, a cable intended for Mackintosh was never sent.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: After a month-long halt in the Grytviken whaling station on South Georgia, "Endurance" departed for the Antarctic on 5 December. Two days later, Shackleton was disconcerted to encounter pack ice as far north as 57° 26′S, forcing the ship to manoeuvre. During the following days there were more tussles with the pack, which, on 14 December, was thick enough to halt the ship for 24 hours. Three days later, the ship was stopped again. Shackleton commented: "I had been prepared for evil conditions in the Weddell Sea, but had hoped that the pack would be loose. What we were encountering was fairly dense pack of a very obstinate character".


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: "Endurance"s progress was frustratingly slow, until, on 22 December, leads opened up and the ship was able to continue steadily southward. This continued for the next two weeks, taking the party deep into the Weddell Sea. Further delays then slowed progress after the turn of the year, before a lengthy run south during 7–10 January 1915 brought them close to the ice walls which guarded the Antarctic coastal region of Coats Land. This territory had been discovered and named by William Speirs Bruce in 1904 during the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. On 15 January, "Endurance" came abreast of a great glacier, the edge of which formed a bay which appeared a good landing place. However, Shackleton considered it too far north of Vahsel Bay for a landing, "except under pressure of necessity"—a decision he would later regret. On 17 January, the ship reached a latitude of 76° 27′S, where land was faintly discernible. Shackleton named it Caird Coast, after his principal backer. Bad weather forced the ship to shelter in the lee of a stranded iceberg.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: "Endurance" was now close to Luitpold Land, discovered by Filchner in 1912, at the southern end of which lay their destination, Vahsel Bay. Next day, the ship was forced north-westward for , resuming in a generally southerly direction before being stopped altogether. The position was 76° 34′S, 31° 30′W. After ten days of inactivity, "Endurance"s fires were banked to save fuel. Strenuous efforts were made to release her; on 14 February, Shackleton ordered men onto the ice with ice-chisels, prickers, saws and picks to try to force a passage, but the labour proved futile. Shackleton did not at this stage abandon all hope of breaking free, but was now contemplating the "possibility of having to spend a winter in the inhospitable arms of the pack".


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: On 22 February 1915, "Endurance", still held fast, drifted to her most southerly latitude, 76° 58′S. Thereafter she began moving with the pack in a northerly direction. On 24 February, Shackleton realised that they would be held in the ice throughout the winter and ordered ship's routine abandoned. The dogs were taken off board and housed in ice-kennels or "dogloos", and the ship's interior was converted to suitable winter quarters for the various groups of men—officers, scientists, engineers, and seamen. A wireless apparatus was rigged, but their location was too remote to receive or transmit signals.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Shackleton was aware of the recent example of Filchner's ship, "Deutschland", which had become icebound in the same vicinity three years earlier. After Filchner's attempts to establish a land base at Vahsel Bay failed, his ship was trapped on 6 March 1912, about off the coast of Coats Land. Six months later, at latitude 63° 37', the ship broke free, then sailed to South Georgia apparently none the worse for its ordeal. Shackleton thought that a similar experience might allow "Endurance" to make a second attempt to reach Vahsel Bay in the following Antarctic spring.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: In February and March, the rate of drift was very slow. At the end of March, Shackleton calculated that the ship had travelled a mere since 19 January. However, as winter set in the speed of the drift increased, and the condition of the surrounding ice changed. On 14 April, Shackleton recorded the nearby pack "piling and rafting against the masses of ice"—if the ship was caught in this disturbance "she would be crushed like an eggshell". In May, as the sun set for the winter months, the ship was at 75° 23′S, 42° 14′W, still drifting northwards. It would be at least four months before spring brought the chance of an opening of the ice, and there was no certainty that "Endurance" would break free in time to attempt a return to the Vahsel Bay area. Shackleton now considered the possibility of finding an alternative landing ground on the western shores of the Weddell Sea, if that coast could be reached. "In the meantime", he wrote, "we must wait".


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: In the dark winter months of May, June and July, Shackleton was concerned with maintaining fitness, training and morale. Although the scope for activity was limited, the dogs were exercised (and on occasion raced competitively), men were encouraged to take moonlight walks, and aboard ship there were attempted theatricals. Special occasions such as Empire Day were duly celebrated. The first signs of the ice breaking up occurred on 22 July. On 1 August, in a south-westerly gale with heavy snow, the ice floe began to disintegrate all around the ship, the pressure forcing masses of ice beneath the keel and causing a heavy list to port. The position was perilous; Shackleton wrote: "The effects of the pressure around us was awe-inspiring. Mighty blocks of ice [...] rose slowly till they jumped like cherry-stones gripped between thumb and finger [...] if the ship was once gripped firmly her fate would be sealed". This danger passed, and the succeeding weeks were quiet. During this relative lull the ship drifted into the area where, in 1823, Captain Benjamin Morrell of the sealer "Wasp" reported seeing a coastline which he identified as "New South Greenland". There was no sign of any such land; Shackleton concluded that Morrell had been deceived by the presence of large icebergs.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: On 30 September, the ship sustained what Shackleton described as "the worst squeeze we had experienced". Worsley described the pressure as like being "thrown to and fro like a shuttlecock a dozen times". On 24 October, the starboard side was forced against a large floe, increasing the pressure until the hull began to bend and splinter, so that water from below the ice began to pour into the ship. When the timbers broke they made noises which sailors later described as being similar to the sound of "heavy fireworks and the blasting of guns". The supplies and three lifeboats were transferred to the ice, while the crew attempted to shore up the ship's hull and pump out the incoming sea. However, after a few days, on 27 October 1915, and in freezing temperatures below , Shackleton gave the order to abandon ship. The position at abandonment was 69° 05′S, 51° 30′W. The wreckage remained afloat, and over the following weeks the crew salvaged further supplies and materials, including Hurley's photographs and cameras that had initially been left behind. From around 550 plates, Hurley chose the best 120, the maximum that could be carried, and smashed the rest.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: With the loss of "Endurance" the transcontinental plans were abandoned, and the focus shifted to that of survival. Shackleton's intention now was to march the crew westward, to one or other of several possible destinations. His first thought was for Paulet Island, where he knew there was a hut containing a substantial food depot, because he had ordered it 12 years earlier while organising relief for Otto Nordenskjöld's stranded Swedish expedition. Other possibilities were Snow Hill Island, which had been Nordenskiöld's winter quarters and which was believed to contain a stock of emergency supplies, or Robertson Island. Shackleton believed that from one of these islands they would be able to reach and cross Graham Land and get to the whaling outposts in Wilhelmina Bay. He calculated that on the day "Endurance " was abandoned they were from Paulet Island. Worsley calculated the distance to Snow Hill Island to be , with a further to Wilhelmina Bay. He believed the march was too risky; they should wait until the ice carried them to open water, and then escape in the boats. Shackleton over-ruled him.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Before the march could begin, Shackleton ordered the weakest animals to be shot, including the carpenter Harry McNish's cat, Mrs Chippy, and a pup which had become a pet of the surgeon Macklin. The company set out on 30 October 1915, with two of the ship's lifeboats carried on sledges. Problems quickly arose as the condition of the sea ice around them worsened. According to Hurley the surface became "a labyrinth of hummocks and ridges" in which barely a square yard was smooth. In three days, the party managed to travel barely , and on 1 November, Shackleton abandoned the march; they would make camp and await the break-up of the ice. They gave the name "Ocean Camp" to the flat and solid-looking floe on which their aborted march had ended, and settled down to wait. Parties continued to revisit the "Endurance" wreck, which was still drifting with the ice a short distance from the camp. More of the abandoned supplies were retrieved until, on 21 November, the ship finally slipped beneath the ice. The final resting place of "Endurance" would remain a mystery for nearly 107 years, until the wreckage was discovered on 5 March 2022.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: The ice was not drifting fast enough to be noticeable, although by late November the speed was up to a day. By 5 December, they had passed 68°S, but the direction was turning slightly east of north. This was taking the transcontinental party to a position from which it would be difficult to reach Snow Hill Island, although Paulet Island, further north, remained a possibility. Paulet Island was about away, and Shackleton was anxious to reduce the length of the lifeboat journey that would be necessary to reach it. Therefore, on 21 December he announced a second march, to begin on 23 December.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Conditions, however, had not improved since the earlier attempt. Temperatures had risen and it was uncomfortably warm, with men sinking to their knees in soft snow as they struggled to haul the boats through the pressure ridges. On 27 December, McNish rebelled and refused to work, arguing that Admiralty law had lapsed since "Endurance"s sinking and that he was no longer under orders. Shackleton's firm remonstrance finally brought the carpenter to heel, but the incident was never forgotten. Two days later, with only progress achieved in seven back-breaking days, Shackleton called a halt, observing: "It would take us over three hundred days to reach the land". The crew put up their tents and settled into what Shackleton called "Patience Camp", which would be their home for more than three months.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Supplies were now running low. Hurley and Macklin were sent back to Ocean Camp to recover food that had been left there to lighten the sledging teams’ burden. On 2 February 1916, Shackleton sent a larger party back to recover the third lifeboat. Food shortages became acute as the weeks passed, and seal meat, which had added variety to their diet, now became a staple as Shackleton attempted to conserve the remaining packaged rations. In January, all but two teams of the dogs (whose overall numbers had been depleted by mishaps and illness in the preceding months) were shot on Shackleton's orders, because the dogs' requirements for seal meat were excessive. The final two teams were shot on 2 April, by which time their meat was a welcome addition to the rations. Meanwhile, the rate of drift became erratic; after being held at around 67° for several weeks, at the end of January there was a series of rapid north-eastward movements which, by 17 March, brought Patience Camp to the latitude of Paulet Island, but to its east. "It might have been six hundred for all the chance we had of reaching it across the broken sea-ice", Shackleton recorded.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: The party now had land more or less continuously in sight. The peak of Mount Haddington on James Ross Island remained in view as the party drifted slowly by. They were too far north for Snow Hill or Paulet Island to be accessible, and Shackleton's chief hopes were now fixed on two remaining small islands at the northern extremity of Graham Land. These were Clarence Island and Elephant Island, around due north of their position on 25 March. He then decided Deception Island might be a better target destination. This lay far to the west, toward the South Shetland Islands, but Shackleton thought it might be attainable by island-hopping. Its advantage was that it was sometimes visited by whalers and might contain provisions, whereas Clarence Island and Elephant Island were desolate and unvisited. To reach any of these destinations would require a perilous journey in the lifeboats once the floe upon which they were drifting finally broke up. Earlier, the lifeboats had been named after the expedition's three chief financial sponsors: "James Caird", "Dudley Docker" and "Stancomb Wills".


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: The end of Patience Camp was signalled on the evening of 8 April, when the floe suddenly split. The camp now found itself on a small triangular raft of ice; a break-up of this would mean disaster, so Shackleton readied the lifeboats for the party's enforced departure. He had now decided they would try, if possible, to reach the distant Deception Island because a small wooden church had been reportedly erected for the benefit of whalers. This could provide a source of timber that might enable them to construct a seaworthy boat.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: At 1 p.m. on 9 April, the "Dudley Docker" was launched, and an hour later all three boats were away. Shackleton himself commanded the "James Caird", Worsley the "Dudley Docker", and navigating officer Hubert Hudson was nominally in charge of the "Stancomb Wills", though because of his precarious mental state the effective commander was Tom Crean.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: The boats were surrounded by ice, dependent upon leads of water opening up, and progress was perilous and erratic. Frequently the boats were tied to floes, or dragged up onto them, while the men camped and waited for conditions to improve. Shackleton was wavering again between several potential destinations, and on 12 April rejected the various island options and decided on Hope Bay, at the very tip of Graham Land. However, conditions in the boats, in temperatures sometimes as low as , with little food and regular soakings in icy seawater, were wearing the men down, physically and mentally. Shackleton therefore decided that Elephant Island, the nearest of the possible refuges, was now the most practical option.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: On 14 April, the boats lay off the south-east coast of Elephant Island, but could not land as the shore consisted of perpendicular cliffs and glaciers. Next day the "James Caird" rounded the eastern point of the island to reach the northern lee shore, and discovered a narrow shingle beach. Soon afterwards, the three boats, which had been separated during the previous night, were reunited at this landing place. It was apparent from high tide markings that this beach would not serve as a long-term camp, so the next day Wild and a crew set off in the "Stancomb Wills" to explore the coast for a safer site. They returned with news of a long spit of land, to the west. With minimum delay the men returned to the boats and transferred to this new location, which they later christened Cape Wild.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Elephant Island was remote, uninhabited, and rarely visited by whalers or any other ships. If the party was to return to civilization it would be necessary to summon help. The only realistic way this could be done was to adapt one of the lifeboats for an voyage across the Southern Ocean, to South Georgia. Shackleton had abandoned thoughts of taking the party on the less dangerous journey to Deception Island, because of the poor physical condition of many of his party. Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands was closer than South Georgia but could not be reached, as this would require sailing against the strong prevailing winds.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Shackleton selected the boat party: himself, Worsley, Crean, McNish, and sailors John Vincent and Timothy McCarthy. On instructions from Shackleton, McNish immediately set about adapting the "James Caird", improvising tools and materials. Wild was to be left in charge of the Elephant Island party, with instructions to make for Deception Island the following spring should Shackleton not return. Shackleton took supplies for only four weeks, judging that if land had not been reached within that time the boat would be lost.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: The "James Caird" was launched on 24 April 1916. The success of the voyage depended on the pin-point accuracy of Worsley's navigation, using observations that would have to be made in the most unfavourable of conditions. The prevailing wind was helpfully north-west, but the heavy sea conditions quickly soaked everything in icy water. Soon ice settled thickly on the boat, making her ride sluggishly. On 5 May, a north-westerly gale almost caused the boat's destruction as it faced what Shackleton described as the largest waves he had seen in 26 years at sea. On 8 May, South Georgia was sighted, after a 14-day battle with the elements that had driven the boat party to their physical limits. Two days later, after a prolonged struggle with heavy seas and hurricane-force winds to the south of the island, the party struggled ashore at King Haakon Bay.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: The arrival of the "James Caird" at King Haakon Bay was followed by a period of rest and recuperation, while Shackleton pondered the next move. The populated whaling stations of South Georgia lay on the northern coast. To reach them would mean either another boat journey around the island, or a land crossing through its unexplored interior. The condition of the "James Caird", and the physical state of the party, particularly Vincent and McNish, meant that the crossing was the only realistic option.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: After five days, the party took the boat a short distance eastwards, to the head of a deep bay which would be the starting point for the crossing. Shackleton, Worsley and Crean would undertake the land journey, the others remaining at what they christened "Peggotty Camp", to be picked up later after help had been obtained from the whaling stations. A storm on 18 May delayed their start, but by two o'clock the following morning the weather was clear and calm, and an hour later the crossing party set out.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: The party's destination was the whaling station at Stromness, which had been "Endurance"s last port of call on their outbound journey. This was roughly away, across the edge of the Allardyce Range. Another whaling station was known to be at Prince Olav Harbour, just north of Peggotty Camp over easier terrain, but as far as the party was aware, this was only inhabited during the summer months. Shackleton and his men did not know that during their two-year absence in Antarctica, the station's owners had begun year-round operations.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Without a map, the route the party chose was largely conjectural. By dawn they had ascended to and could see the northern coast. They were above Possession Bay, which meant they would need to move eastward to reach Stromness. This meant the first of several backtrackings that would extend the journey and frustrate the men. At the close of that first day, needing to descend to the valley below them before nightfall, they risked everything by sliding down a mountainside on a makeshift rope sledge. They travelled without rest on by moonlight, moving upwards towards a gap in the next mountainous ridge.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Early next morning, 20 May, seeing Husvik Harbour below them, the party knew that they were on the right path. At seven o'clock in the morning, they heard a steam whistle sound from Stromness, "the first sound created by an outside human agency that had come to our ears since we left Stromness Bay in December 1914". After a difficult descent, which involved passage down through a freezing waterfall, they at last reached safety. Shackleton wrote afterwards: "I have no doubt that Providence guided us ... I know that during that long and racking march of 36 hours over the unnamed mountains and glaciers it seemed to me often that we were four, not three". This image of a fourth traveller was echoed in the accounts of Worsley and Crean and later influenced T. S. Eliot in the writing of his poem "The Waste Land". This phenomenon has been reported by other adventurers and is known as the "Third Man factor".


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Shackleton's first task, on arriving at the Stromness station, was to arrange for his three companions at Peggotty Camp to be picked up. A whaler was sent round the coast, with Worsley aboard to show the way, and by the evening of 21 May all six of the "James Caird" party were safe.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: It took four attempts before Shackleton was able to return to Elephant Island to rescue the party stranded there. He first left South Georgia a mere three days after he had arrived in Stromness, after securing the use of a large whaler, "The Southern Sky", which was laid up in Husvik Harbour. Shackleton assembled a volunteer crew, which had it ready to sail by the morning of 22 May. As the vessel approached Elephant Island they saw that an impenetrable barrier of pack ice had formed, some from their destination. "The Southern Sky" was not built for ice breaking, and retreated to Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: On reaching Port Stanley, Shackleton informed London by cable of his whereabouts and requested that a suitable vessel be sent south for the rescue operation. He was informed by the Admiralty that nothing was available before October, which in his view was too late. Then, with the help of the British Minister in Montevideo, Shackleton obtained from the Uruguayan government the loan of a tough trawler, "Instituto de Pesca No. 1", which started south on 10 June. Again the pack thwarted them. In search of another ship, Shackleton, Worsley and Crean travelled to Punta Arenas, where they met Allan MacDonald, the British owner of the schooner "Emma". McDonald equipped this vessel for a further rescue attempt, which left on 12 July, but with the same negative result—the pack defeated them yet again. Shackleton later named a glacier after McDonald on the Brunt Ice Shelf in the Weddell Sea. After problems arose in identifying this glacier, a nearby ice rise was renamed the McDonald Ice Rumples.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: By now it was mid-August, more than three months since Shackleton had left Elephant Island. Shackleton begged the Chilean Navy to lend him , a small steam tug that had assisted "Emma" during the previous attempt. They agreed; on 25 August, "Yelcho"—captained by captain of Chilean Navy Luis Pardo—set out for Elephant Island. This time, as Shackleton recorded, providence favoured them. The seas were open, and the ship was able to approach close to the island in thick fog. At 11:40 a.m. on 30 August, the fog lifted, the camp was spotted and, within an hour, all the Elephant Island party were safely aboard, bound for Punta Arenas.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: After Shackleton left with the "James Caird", Wild took command of the Elephant Island party, some of whom were in a low state, physically or mentally: Lewis Rickinson had suffered a suspected heart attack; Perce Blackborow was unable to walk, due to frostbitten feet; Hubert Hudson was depressed. The priority for the party was a permanent shelter against the rapidly approaching southern winter. On the suggestion of Marston and Lionel Greenstreet, a hut—nicknamed the "Snuggery"—was improvised by upturning the two boats and placing them on low stone walls, to provide around of headroom. By means of canvas and other materials the structure was made into a crude but effective shelter.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Wild initially estimated that they would have to wait one month for rescue, and refused to allow long-term stockpiling of seal and penguin meat because this, in his view, was defeatist. This policy led to sharp disagreements with Orde-Lees, the storekeeper, who was not a popular man and whose presence apparently did little to improve the morale of his companions, unless it was by way of being the butt of their jokes.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: As the weeks extended well beyond his initial optimistic forecast, Wild established and maintained routines and activities to relieve the tedium. A permanent lookout was kept for the arrival of the rescue ship, cooking and housekeeping rotas were established, and there were hunting trips for seal and penguin. Concerts were held on Saturdays and anniversaries were celebrated, but there were growing feelings of despondency as time passed with no sign of rescue. The toes on Blackborow's left foot became gangrenous from frostbite and, on 15 June, had to be amputated by surgeons Macklin and McIlroy in the candle-lit hut. Using the last of the chloroform in their medical supplies, the whole procedure took 55 minutes and was a complete success.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: By 23 August, it seemed that Wild's no-stockpiling policy had failed. The surrounding sea was dense with pack ice that would halt any rescue ship, food supplies were running out and no penguins were coming ashore. Orde-Lees wrote: "We shall have to eat the one who dies first [...] there's many a true word said in jest". Wild's thoughts were now seriously turning to the possibility of a boat trip to Deception Island—he planned to set out on 5 October, in the hope of meeting a whaling ship— when, on 30 August 1916, the ordeal ended suddenly with the appearance of Shackleton and "Yelcho".


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: "Aurora" left Hobart on 24 December 1914, having been delayed in Australia by financial and organizational problems. The arrival in McMurdo Sound on 15 January 1915 was later in the season than planned, but the party's commander, Aeneas Mackintosh, made immediate plans for a depot-laying journey on the Ross Ice Shelf, since he understood that Shackleton hoped to attempt the crossing during that first season. Neither the men nor the dogs were acclimatised, and the party was, as a whole, very inexperienced in ice conditions. The first journey on the ice resulted in the loss of ten of the party's 18 dogs and a frostbitten and generally demoralised shore party; a single, incomplete depot was their only achievement.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: On 7 May, "Aurora", anchored at the party's Cape Evans headquarters, was wrenched from her moorings during a gale and carried with drifting ice far out to sea. Unable to return to McMurdo Sound, she remained captive in the ice for nine months until on 12 February 1916, having travelled a distance of around , she reached open water and limped to New Zealand. "Aurora" carried with her the greater part of the shore party's fuel, food rations, clothing and equipment, although the sledging rations for the depots had been landed ashore. To continue with its mission the stranded shore party had to re-supply and re-equip itself from the leftovers from earlier expeditions, notably Scott's "Terra Nova" Expedition, which had been based at Cape Evans a few years earlier. They were thus able to begin the second season's depot-laying on schedule, in September 1915.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: In the following months, the required depots were laid, at one-degree intervals across the Ross Ice Shelf to the foot of the Beardmore Glacier. On the return journey from the glacier the party was attacked by scurvy; Arnold Spencer-Smith, the expedition's chaplain and photographer, collapsed and died on the ice. The remainder of the party reached the temporary shelter of Hut Point, a relic of the "Discovery" Expedition at the southern end of McMurdo Sound, where they slowly recovered. On 8 May 1916, Mackintosh and Victor Hayward decided to walk across the unstable sea ice to Cape Evans, were caught in a blizzard and were not seen again. The survivors eventually reached Cape Evans, but then had to wait for eight further months. Finally, on 10 January 1917, the repaired and refitted "Aurora", whose departure from New Zealand had been delayed by lack of money, arrived to transport them back to civilization;. Shackleton accompanied the ship as a supernumerary officer, having been denied command by the governments of New Zealand, Australia and Great Britain, who had jointly organised and financed the Ross Sea party's relief.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: The rescued party, having had its last contact with civilization in 1914, was unaware of the course of the Great War. News of Shackleton's safe arrival in the Falklands briefly eclipsed war news in the British newspapers on 2 June 1916. "Yelcho" had a "triumphal" welcome in Punta Areas after its successful mission. The rescuees were then moved to the port of Valparaíso in Central Chile where they had again a warm welcome, from there they were repatriated. The expedition returned home in piecemeal fashion, at a critical stage in the war, without the normal honours and civic receptions. When Shackleton himself finally arrived in England on 29 May 1917, after a short American lecture tour, his return was barely noticed.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Despite McNish's efforts in preparing and sailing on the "James Caird" voyage, his prior insubordination meant that, on Shackleton's recommendation, he was one of four men denied the Polar Medal; the others whose contributions fell short of Shackleton's expected standards were John Vincent, William Stephenson and Ernest Holness. Most of the members of the expedition returned to take up immediate active military or naval service. Before the war ended, two—Tim McCarthy of the open boat journey and the veteran Antarctic sailor Alfred Cheetham—had been killed in action, and Ernest Wild, Frank's younger brother and member of the Ross Sea party, had died of typhoid while serving in the Mediterranean. Several others were severely wounded, and many received decorations for gallantry. Following a propaganda mission in Buenos Aires, Shackleton was employed during the last weeks of the war on special service in Murmansk, with the army rank of major. This occupied him until March 1919. He thereafter organised one final Antarctic expedition, the Shackleton–Rowett Expedition on , which left London on 17 September 1921. From the "Endurance" crew, Wild, Worsley, Macklin, McIlroy, Hussey, Alexander Kerr, Thomas McLeod and cook Charles Green all sailed with "Quest".


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: Shackleton died of a heart attack on 5 January 1922, while "Quest" was anchored at South Georgia. After his death the original programme, which had included an exploration of Enderby Land, was abandoned. Wild led a brief cruise which brought them into sight of Elephant Island. They anchored off Cape Wild and were able to see the old landmarks, but sea conditions made it impossible for them to land.


title: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: It would be more than forty years before the first crossing of Antarctica was achieved, by the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1955–1958. This expedition set out from Vahsel Bay, the same bay Shackleton was in sight of when the Endurance became trapped in ice. They followed a route which avoided the Beardmore Glacier altogether, and bypassed much of the Ross Ice Shelf, reaching McMurdo Sound via a descent of the Skelton Glacier. The entire journey took 98 days.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Cryptorchidism, also known as undescended testis, is the failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum. The word is from Greek () 'hidden' and () 'testicle'. It is the most common birth defect of the male genital tract. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at least one undescended testis.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: However, about 80% of cryptorchid testes descend by the first year of life (the majority within three months), making the true incidence of cryptorchidism around 1% overall. Cryptorchidism may develop after infancy, sometimes as late as young adulthood, but that is exceptional.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Cryptorchidism is distinct from monorchism, the condition of having only one testicle. Though the condition may occur on one or both sides, it more commonly affects the right testis.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: About two-thirds of cases without other abnormalities are unilateral; most of the other third involve both testes. In 90% of cases, an undescended testis can be felt in the inguinal canal. In a small minority of cases, missing testes may be found in the abdomen or appear to be nonexistent (truly "hidden").


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Undescended testes are associated with reduced fertility, increased risk of testicular germ-cell tumors, and psychological problems when fully-grown. Undescended testes are also more susceptible to testicular torsion (and subsequent infarction) and inguinal hernias. Without intervention, an undescended testicle will usually descend during the first year of life, but to reduce these risks, undescended testes can be brought into the scrotum in infancy by a surgical procedure called an orchiopexy.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Although cryptorchidism nearly always refers to congenital absence or maldescent, a testis observed in the scrotum in early infancy can occasionally "reascend" (move back up) into the inguinal canal. A testis that can readily move or be moved between the scrotum and canal is referred to as retractile.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Cryptorchidism, hypospadias, testicular cancer, and poor semen quality make up the syndrome known as testicular dysgenesis syndrome.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Many men who were born with undescended testes have reduced fertility, even after orchiopexy in infancy. The reduction with unilateral cryptorchidism is subtle, with a reported infertility rate of about 10%, compared with about 6% reported by the same study for the general population of adult men.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: The fertility reduction after orchiopexy for bilateral cryptorchidism is more marked, about 38%, or six times that of the general population. The basis for the universal recommendation for early surgery is research showing degeneration of spermatogenic tissue and reduced spermatogonia counts after the second year of life in undescended testes. The degree to which this is prevented or improved by early orchiopexy is still uncertain.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: One of the strongest arguments for early orchiopexy is reducing the risk of testicular cancer. About one in 500 men born with one or both testes undescended develops testicular cancer, roughly a four- to 40-fold increased risk. The peak incidence occurs in the third and fourth decades of life. The risk is higher for intra-abdominal testes and somewhat lower for inguinal testes, but even the normally descended testis of a man whose other testis was undescended has about a 20% higher cancer risk than those of other men.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: The most common type of testicular cancer occurring in undescended testes is seminoma. It is usually treatable if caught early, so urologists often recommend that boys who had orchiopexy as infants be taught testicular self-examination, to recognize testicular masses and seek early medical care for them. Cancer developing in an intra-abdominal testis would be unlikely to be recognized before considerable growth and spread, and one of the advantages of orchiopexy is that a mass developing in a scrotal testis is far easier to recognize than an intra-abdominal mass.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Orchidopexy was originally thought to result in easier detection of testicular cancer, but did not lower the risk of actually developing cancer. However, recent data have shown a paradigm shift. "The New England Journal of Medicine" published in 2007 that orchidopexy performed before puberty resulted in a significantly reduced risk of testicular cancer than if done after puberty.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: The risk of malignancy in the undescended testis is four to 10 times higher than that in the general population and is about one in 80 with a unilateral undescended testis and one in 40 to one in 50 for bilateral undescended testes. The peak age for this tumor is 15–45 years old. The most common tumor developing in an undescended testis is a seminoma (65%); in contrast, after orchiopexy, seminomas represent only 30% of testicular tumors.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: In most full-term infant boys with cryptorchidism but no other genital abnormalities, a cause cannot be found, making this a common, sporadic, unexplained (idiopathic) birth defect. A combination of genetics, maternal health, and other environmental factors may disrupt the hormones and physical changes that influence the development of the testicles.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: In 2008, a study was published that investigated the possible relationship between cryptorchidism and prenatal exposure to a chemical called phthalate (DEHP), which is used in the manufacture of plastics. The researchers found a significant association between higher levels of DEHP metabolites in pregnant mothers and several sex-related changes, including incomplete descent of the testes in their sons. According to the lead author of the study, a national survey found that 25% of U.S. women had phthalate levels similar to the levels that were found to be associated with sexual abnormalities.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: A 2010 study examined the prevalence of congenital cryptorchidism among offspring whose mothers had taken mild analgesics, primarily over-the-counter pain medications including ibuprofen (e.g. Advil) and paracetamol (acetaminophen). Combining the results from a survey of pregnant women prior to their due date in correlation with the health of their children and an "ex vivo" rat model, the study found that pregnant women who had been exposed to mild analgesics had a higher prevalence of baby boys born with congenital cryptorchidism.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: New insight into the testicular descent mechanism has been hypothesized by the concept of a male programming window derived from animal studies. According to this concept, testicular descent status is "set" during the period from eight to 14 weeks of gestation in humans. Undescended testis is a result of disruption in androgen levels only during this programming window.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: The testes begin as an immigration of primordial germ cells into testicular cords along the gonadal ridge in the abdomen of the early embryo. The interaction of several male genes organizes this developing gonad into a testis rather than an ovary by the second month of gestation. During the third to fifth months, the cells in the testes differentiate into testosterone-producing Leydig cells, and anti-Müllerian hormone-producing Sertoli cells. The germ cells in this environment become fetal spermatogonia. Male external genitalia develops during the third and fourth months of gestation and the fetus continues to grow, develop, and differentiate.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: The testes remain high in the abdomen until the seventh month of gestation when they move from the abdomen through the inguinal canals into the two sides of the scrotum. Movement has been proposed to occur in two phases, under the control of somewhat different factors. The first phase, movement across the abdomen to the entrance of the inguinal canal, appears controlled (or at least greatly influenced) by anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH). The second phase, in which the testes move through the inguinal canal into the scrotum, is dependent on androgens (most importantly testosterone). In rodents, androgens induce the genitofemoral nerve to release calcitonin gene-related peptide, which produces rhythmic contractions of the gubernaculum, a ligament which connects the testis to the scrotum, but a similar mechanism has not been demonstrated in humans. Maldevelopment of the gubernaculum or deficiency or insensitivity to either AMH or androgen can, therefore, prevent the testes from descending into the scrotum. Some evidence suggests an additional paracrine hormone, referred to as descendin, may be secreted by the testes.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: In many infants with inguinal testes, further descent of the testes into the scrotum occurs in the first six months of life. This is attributed to the postnatal surge of gonadotropins and testosterone that normally occurs between the first and fourth months of life.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Spermatogenesis continues after birth. In the third to fifth months of life, some of the fetal spermatogonia residing along the basement membrane become type A spermatogonia. More gradually, other fetal spermatogonia become type B spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes by the fifth year after birth. Spermatogenesis arrests at this stage until puberty.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Most normal-appearing undescended testes are also normal by microscopic examination, but reduced spermatogonia can be found. The tissue in undescended testes becomes more markedly abnormal ("degenerates") in microscopic appearance between two and four years after birth. Some evidence indicates early orchiopexy reduces this degeneration.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: At least one contributing mechanism for reduced spermatogenesis in cryptorchid testes is temperature. The temperature of testes in the scrotum is at least a few degrees cooler than in the abdomen. Animal experiments in the middle of the 20th century suggested that raising the temperature could damage fertility. Some circumstantial evidence suggests tight underwear and other practices that raise the testicular temperature for prolonged periods can be associated with lower sperm counts. Nevertheless, research in recent decades suggests that the issue of fertility is more complex than a simple matter of temperature. Subtle or transient hormone deficiencies or other factors that lead to a lack of descent also may impair the development of spermatogenic tissue.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: The inhibition of spermatogenesis by ordinary intra-abdominal temperature is so potent that continual suspension of normal testes tightly against the inguinal ring at the top of the scrotum by means of special "suspensory briefs" has been researched as a method of male contraception, and was referred to as "artificial cryptorchidism" by one report.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: An additional factor contributing to infertility is the high rate of anomalies of the epididymis in boys with cryptorchidism (over 90% in some studies). Even after orchiopexy, these may also affect sperm maturation and motility at an older age.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: The most common diagnostic dilemma in otherwise normal boys is distinguishing a retractile testis from a testis that will not descend spontaneously into the scrotum. Retractile testes are more common than truly undescended testes and do not need to be operated on. In normal males, as the cremaster muscle relaxes or contracts, the testis moves lower or higher ("retracts") in the scrotum. This cremasteric reflex is much more active in infant boys than older men. A retractile testis high in the scrotum can be difficult to distinguish from a position in the lower inguinal canal. Though various maneuvers are used to do so, such as using a cross-legged position, soaping the examiner's fingers, or examining in a warm bath, the benefit of surgery in these cases can be a matter of clinical judgment.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: In the minority of cases with bilaterally nonpalpable testes, further testing to locate the testes, assess their function, and exclude additional problems is often useful. Scrotal ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging performed and interpreted by a radiologist can often locate the testes while confirming absence of a uterus. At ultrasound, the undescended testis usually appears small, less echogenic than the contralateral normal testis and usually located in the inguinal region. With color Doppler ultrasonography, the vascularity of the undescended testis is poor.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: A karyotype can confirm or exclude forms of dysgenetic primary hypogonadism, such as Klinefelter syndrome or mixed gonadal dysgenesis. Hormone levels (especially gonadotropins and AMH) can help confirm that hormonally functional testes are worth attempting to rescue, as can stimulation with a few injections of human chorionic gonadotropin to elicit a rise of the testosterone level. Occasionally, these tests reveal an unsuspected and more complicated intersex condition.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: In the even smaller minority of cryptorchid infants who have other obvious birth defects of the genitalia, further testing is crucial and has a high likelihood of detecting an intersex condition or other anatomic anomalies. Ambiguity can indicate either impaired androgen synthesis or reduced sensitivity. The presence of a uterus by pelvic ultrasound suggests either persistent Müllerian duct syndrome (AMH deficiency or insensitivity) or a severely virilized genetic female with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. An unambiguous micropenis, especially accompanied by hypoglycemia or jaundice, suggests congenital hypopituitarism.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: The primary management of cryptorchidism is watchful waiting, due to the high likelihood of self-resolution. Where this fails, orchiopexy is effective if inguinal testes have not descended after 4–6 months. Surgery is often performed by a pediatric urologist or pediatric surgeon, but in many communities still by a general urologist or surgeon.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: When the undescended testis is in the inguinal canal, hormonal therapy is sometimes attempted and very occasionally successful. The most commonly used hormone therapy is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). A series of hCG injections (10 injections over five weeks is common) is given and the status of the testis/testes is reassessed at the end. Although many trials have been published, the reported success rates range widely, from roughly 5% to 50%, probably reflecting the varying criteria for distinguishing retractile testes from low inguinal testes. Hormone treatment does have the occasional incidental benefits of allowing confirmation of Leydig cell responsiveness (proven by a rise of the testosterone by the end of the injections) or inducing additional growth of a small penis (via the testosterone rise). Some surgeons have reported facilitation of surgery, perhaps by enhancing the size, vascularity, or healing of the tissue. A newer hormonal intervention used in Europe is the use of GnRH analogs such as nafarelin or buserelin; the success rates and putative mechanism of action are similar to hCG, but some surgeons have combined the two treatments and reported higher descent rates. Limited evidence suggests that germ cell count is slightly better after hormone treatment; whether this translates into better sperm counts and fertility rates at maturity has not been established. The cost of either type of hormone treatment is less than that of surgery and the chance of complications at appropriate doses is minimal. Nevertheless, despite the potential advantages of a trial of hormonal therapy, many surgeons do not consider the success rates high enough to be worth the trouble, since the surgery itself is usually simple and uncomplicated.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: In cases where the testes are identified preoperatively in the inguinal canal, orchiopexy is often performed as an outpatient and has a very low complication rate. An incision is made over the inguinal canal. The testis with accompanying cord structure and blood supply is exposed, partially separated from the surrounding tissues ("mobilized"), and brought into the scrotum. It is sutured to the scrotal tissue or enclosed in a "subdartos pouch". The associated passage back into the inguinal canal, an inguinal hernia, is closed to prevent reascent.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: In patients with intra-abdominal maldescended testis, laparoscopy is useful to see for oneself the pelvic structures, position of the testis and decide upon surgery (single or staged procedure ).


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Surgery becomes more complicated if the blood supply is not ample and elastic enough to be stretched into the scrotum. In these cases, the supply may be divided, some vessels sacrificed with expectation of adequate collateral circulation. In the worst case, the testis must be "autotransplanted" into the scrotum, with all connecting blood vessels cut and reconnected (anastomosed).


title: Cryptorchidism

text: When the testis is in the abdomen, the first stage of surgery is exploration to locate it, assess its viability, and determine the safest way to maintain or establish the blood supply. Multistage surgeries, or autotransplantation and anastomosis, are more often necessary in these situations. Just as often, intra-abdominal exploration discovers that the testis is nonexistent ("vanished"), or dysplastic and not salvageable.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: The principal major complication of all types of orchiopexy is a loss of the blood supply to the testis, resulting in loss of the testis due to ischemic atrophy or fibrosis.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Cryptorchidism is seen in all domestic animals, most commonly in stallions, boars, and canines. The prevalence of this condition can vary depending on species and breed. Evidence of this condition is more likely in companion animals and swine than ruminants. The cause of this condition can vary from a combination of genetics, environment, and epigenetics.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Cryptorchidism is common in male dogs, occurring at a rate up to 10%. This condition is one of the most common congenital defects in purebred dogs (11%), with 14% reported in Siberian Huskies. Although the genetics are not fully understood, it is thought to be a recessive, and probably polygenetic, trait. Some have speculated that it is a sex-limited autosomal recessive trait; however, it is unlikely to be simple recessive. Dog testes usually descend by 10 days of age and it is considered to be cryptorchidism if they do not descend by the age of eight weeks. Cryptorchidism can be either bilateral (causing sterility) or unilateral, and inguinal or abdominal (or both). Because it is an inherited trait, affected dogs should not be bred and should be castrated. The parents should be considered carriers of the defect and a breeder should thoughtfully consider whether to breed the carrier parent or not. Littermates may be normal, carriers, or cryptorchid. Castration of the undescended teste(s) should be considered for cryptorchid dogs due to the high rate of testicular cancer, especially Sertoli cell tumors. The incidence of testicular cancer is 13.6 times higher in dogs with abdominally retained testicles compared with normal dogs. Testicular torsion is also more likely in retained testicles. Surgical correction is by palpation of the retained testicle and subsequent exploration of the inguinal canal or abdomen, but showing altered dogs is against AKC rules, making this correction pointless for breeding stock. Orchiopexy is an option for pet dogs that will not be used for breeding.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Cryptorchidism is rarer in cats than it is in dogs. In one study, 1.9% of intact male cats were cryptorchid. Persians are predisposed. Normally, the testicles are in the scrotum by the age of six to eight weeks. Male cats with one cryptorchid testicle may still be fertile; however, male cats with two cryptorchid testicles are most likely to be sterile. Urine spraying is one indication that a cat with no observable testicles may not be neutered; other signs are the presence of enlarged jowls, thickened facial and neck skin, and spines on the penis (which usually regress within six weeks after castration). Most cryptorchid cats present with an inguinal testicle.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Testicular tumors and testicular torsion are rare in cryptorchid cats, but castration is usually performed due to unwanted behavior such as urine spraying.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: In horses, cryptorchidism is sufficiently common that affected males (ridglings) are routinely gelded.


title: Cryptorchidism

text: Rarely, cryptorchidism is due to the presence of a congenital testicular tumor such as a teratoma, which has a tendency to grow large.


title: Pow wow

text: A powwow (also pow wow or pow-wow) is a gathering with dances held by many Native American and First Nations communities. Powwows today allow Indigenous people to socialize, dance, sing, and honor their cultures. Powwows may be private or public, indoors or outdoors. Dancing events can be competitive with monetary prizes. Powwows vary in length from single-day to weeklong events.


title: Pow wow

text: In mainstream American culture, such as 20th-century Western movies or by military personnel, the term "powwow" has been used to refer to any type of meeting. This usage has been considered both offensive and falling under cultural misappropriation.


title: Pow wow

text: The word "powwow" is derived from the Narragansett word "powwaw", meaning "spiritual leader". The term itself has variants including "Powaw", "Pawaw", "Powah, Pauwau" and "Pawau". A number of tribes claim to have held the "first" pow wow. Initially, public dances that most resemble what are now known as pow wows were most common in the Great Plains region of the United States during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a time when the United States government destroyed many Native communities in the hopes of acquiring land for economic exploitation. In 1923, Charles H. Burke, Commissioner of Indian Affairs in the United States, passed legislation modeled on Circular 1665, which he published in 1921, that limited the times of the year in which Native Americans could practice traditional dance, which he deemed as directly threatening the Christian religion. However, many Native communities continued to gather together in secret to practice their cultures' dance and music, in defiance of this, and other, legislation. By the mid-twentieth century, pow wows were also being held in the Great Lakes region.


title: Pow wow

text: Planning for a pow wow generally begins months, perhaps even a year, in advance of the event by a group of people usually referred to as a pow wow committee. Pow wows may be sponsored by a tribal organization, by an American Native community within an urban area, a Native American Studies program or American Native club on a college or university campus, tribe, or any other organization that can provide startup funds, insurance, and volunteer workers.


title: Pow wow

text: A pow wow committee consists of several individuals who do all the planning before the event. If a pow wow has a sponsor, such as a tribe, college, or organization, many or all members of the committee may come from that group. The committee is responsible to recruit and hire the head staff, publicize the pow wow, securing a location, and recruiting vendors who pay for the right to set up and sell food or merchandise at the pow wow.


title: Pow wow

text: The head staff of a pow-wow are the people who run the event on the day or days it occurs. They are generally hired by the pow wow committee several months in advance, as the quality of the head staff can affect attendance. To be chosen as part of the head staff is an honor, showing respect for the person's skills or dedication.


title: Pow wow

text: The master of ceremonies, or MC, is the voice of the pow wow. It is his job to keep the singers, dancers, and public informed as to what is happening. The MC sets the schedule of events and maintains the "drum rotation", or order of when each drum group gets to sing. The MC is also responsible for filling any dead air time that may occur during the pow wow, often with jokes. The MC often runs any raffles or other contests that may happen during the pow wow.


title: Pow wow

text: The head dancers consist of the Head Man Dancer and the Head Woman Dancer, and often Head Teen Dancers, Head Little Boy and Girl Dancers, Head Golden Age Dancers, and a Head Gourd Dancer if the pow wow has a Gourd Dance. The head dancers lead the other dancers in the "grand entry" or parade of dancers that opens a pow-wow. In many cases, the head dancers are also responsible for leading the dancers during songs, and often dancers will not enter the arena unless the head dancers are already out dancing.


title: Pow wow

text: The singers play while singing. Host drums are responsible for singing the songs at the beginning and end of a pow-wow session, generally a starting song, the grand entry song, a flag song, veterans or victory song to start the pow-wow. As well as a flag song, retreat song, and closing song to end the pow wow. Additionally, if a pow-wow has gourd dancing, the Southern Host Drum is often the drum that sings all the gourd songs, though another drum can perform them. The host drums are often called upon to sing special songs during the pow-wow.


title: Pow wow

text: A pow wow is often set up as a series of large circles. The center circle is the "dance arena", outside of which is a larger circle consisting of the MC's table, drum groups, and sitting areas for dancers and their families. Beyond these two circles for participants is an area for spectators, while outside of all are designated areas with vendor's booths, where one can buy food (including frybread and Indian tacos), music, jewelry, souvenirs, arts and crafts, beadwork, leather, and regalia supplies.


title: Pow wow

text: At outdoor pow wows, this circle is often covered by either a committee-built arbor or tent, or each group, particularly the MC and the drums, will provide their own. While most of the time, a tent provides shelter from the sun, rain can also plague outdoor events. It is particularly important to protect the drums used by the drum groups, as they are sensitive to temperature changes and, if it rains, they cannot get wet. Most vendors provide their own tents or shelters at an outdoor pow wow.


title: Pow wow

text: Pow wow etiquette is required; such as rules for when photography is or is not acceptable, protocol for the Grand Entry, and so on. A few guidelines are common; clothing worn by participants is known as "regalia" and not to be called a "costume." Some rules are for common sense courtesy: drums have special rules and should not be touched or played by those not a part of the drum group. People and their regalia should not be touched without permission. Photographs are also a big part of pow wow etiquette. Depending on the reservation and ceremony, viewers should ask before taking photographs or recording videos or tapes. Some tribes, such as the Pascua Yaqui and Hopi, ban photos and sketches of ceremonies.


title: Pow wow

text: A pow-wow session begins with the Grand Entry and, in most cases, a prayer. The Eagle Staff leads the Grand Entry, followed by flags, then the dancers, while one of the host drums sings an opening song. This event is sacred in nature; some pow wows do not allow filming or photography during this time, though others allow it.


title: Pow wow

text: If military veterans or active duty soldiers are present, they often carry the flags and eagle staffs. They are followed by the head dancers, then the remaining dancers usually enter the arena in a specific order: Men's Traditional, Men's Grass Dance, Men's Fancy, Women's Traditional, Women's Jingle, and Women's Fancy. Teens and small children then follow in the same order. Following the Grand Entry, the MC will invite a respected member of the community to give an invocation. The host drum that did not sing the Grand Entry song will then sing a Flag Song, followed by a Victory or Veterans' Song, during which the flags and staffs are posted at the MC's table.


title: Pow wow

text: The styles and types of dances at a pow wow are descended from the traditions of the Great Plains nations of Canada and the United States. Besides those for the opening and closing of a pow wow session, the most common is the "intertribal", where a Drum will sing a song and anyone who wants to can come and dance. Similar dances are the "round dance"; "crow hop" when performed by a northern drum or a "horse stealing song" by a southern drum; there is also "double beat", "sneakup" and, for Women's Traditional and Jingle, "sidestep". Each of these songs have a different step to be used during them, but are open for dancers of any style.


title: Pow wow

text: In addition to the open dances, contest dances for a particular style and age group are often held, with the top winners receiving a cash prize. To compete in a contest, the dancer must be in regalia appropriate for the competition. Larger pow wows have more specific categories. The dance categories vary somewhat by region, but general categories are as follows:


title: Pow wow

text: Normal intertribal dancing is an individual activity, but there are also couples and group dances. Couples dances include the "two step" and "owl dance". In a two step each couple follows the lead of the head dancers, forming a line behind them, whereas in an owl dance each couple dances alone. Group dances dances include the "Snake and Buffalo" dance, where the group dances to mimic the motions of a snake in the beginning of the dance, then change to mimic the actions of a herd of buffalo.


title: Pow wow

text: At pow wows where there is a large Southern Plains community in the area, the "Gourd Dance" is often included before the start of the pow wow sessions. The gourd dance originated with the Kiowa tribe, whence it spread, and is a society dance for veterans and their families. Unlike other dances, the gourd dance is normally performed with the drum in the center of the dance arena, not on the side.


title: Pow wow

text: Though there are many genres unique to different tribes pow wow music is characterized by pan or intertribalism with the Plains cultures, the originators of the modern pow wow, predominating. For information on dancing, see "Dances".


title: Pow wow

text: There may be many drums at a pow wow, especially weekend or week long ones, but each pow wow features a "host drum" which is accorded great respect. The members of drum groups are often family, extended family, or friends. Groups are then often named for families, geographic locations, tribal societies, or more colorful names. Many groups display their names on jackets, caps, vehicles, and chairs. Traditionally only men would drum and women would sit behind the men singing high harmonies. Beginning in the mid-1970s, women began drumming with men and "seconding", or singing, an octave higher, the song. Today, there are mixed-gender and all-female drum groups.


title: Pow wow

text: The supplies a drum group carries include the drum, rawhide headed, a cloth bag for padded drum sticks, the drum stand, folding chairs for sitting, and, in some cases, a public address system. The drum head, stand, microphone stands, and PA box are often decorated with paintings or eagle feathers, fur, flags, and strips of colored cloth.


title: Pow wow

text: Readily noticeable in performances are the "hard beats" used to indicate sections of the song. The "traditional method" consists of a pronounced strike by all singers every other beat. These may appear in the first or second line of a song, the end of a section, before the repetition of a song. A cluster of three hard beats (on consecutive beats) may be used at the end of a series of hard beats, while a few beats in the first line of a song indicate performer enthusiasm. In the "Hot Five" method five beats are used, with the first hard beat four beats before the second, after which the beats alternate.


title: Pow wow

text: To understand drum protocol, a drum may be thought of as a person or being and is to be regarded and respected as such. Drum etiquette is highly important. There are regional variations. The drum is the central symbol of Oklahoma pow wows and is located in the center of the dance floor and pow wow (which are themselves shaped in concentric circles). Southern drums are suspended by four posts, one for each direction. Northern drums are set up on the outside of the dance area, with the host drum in the best position. Drummer-singers are expected to remain at their drum and ready to sing at any moment's notice; a dancer might approach the drum and whistle, fan or gesture his staff over a drum to indicate his request for a song even if it is not that drum group's turn to sing. In some regions it is considered disrespectful to leave a drum completely unattended. Some drum groups do not allow females to sit down at their drum but welcome them to stand behind the drummers and sing backup harmonies; the reasons for this point vaguely to a variety of tribal stories that attempt to tell the history of drumming as each group understands it. The drum is offered gifts of tobacco during giveaways and musicians acknowledge this by standing.


title: Pow wow

text: While the drum is central to pow wows, "the drum only helps them keep beat. Dancers key on the melody of the song. Rhythms, tones, pitch all help create their 'moves'." (p. 85) Note that Bill Runs Above did not mention the lyrics of the songs, and while they are no doubt important, most lyrics of most songs employ vocables, syllable sounds such as "ya", "hey", and "loi" (p. 86). This is particularly evident in intertribal songs, such as the AIM Song, which cannot be biased towards a certain language.


title: Pow wow

text: The song structure consists of four "pushups", singing the chorus and verse through four times. In each chorus the melody is introduced or "led off" by the lead singer whose is then "seconded" by another singer who begins to vary the melody before the end of the leader's first line. They are then joined by the entire chorus for the rest of the pushup. Three "down strokes" or "hard beats" mark the end of the chorus and beginning of the verse, and during these dancers will alter their dancing such as by hopping low like fancy dancers. An increase in tempo and volume on the last five beats marks the end of the final verse. The dancing stops on the final beat and then a "tail", or coda, finishes the song with a shortened chorus. Sometimes a drum group will sing the song more than four times, particularly when the song feels good and the singers seize the moment for an extra pushup or two (or more), or when a dancer blows a whistle or passes his staff or fan over the drum to signal that the song is to be continued four extra pushups while he prays.


title: Pow wow

text: Singing differs by region in that a high falsetto is used in the north while in the south a lower range is used. "To the unfamiliar listener, Indian singing sounds exotic, different, and difficult to comprehend," and the contrast in the quality or timbre of voice used in traditional Indian and European musics may have much to do with that difficulty. However, "to the trained ear, melodies flow, ascend and descend" while dancers react to changes in the structure of the melody and the song. Boye Ladd says, "If you give me a stink song, I'll dance stink. If you give me good music, I'll give you a great show," implying that one can appreciate the music through the dancing, which is readily appreciated by everyone. But others say that today's contemporary contest dancers are expected to dance their best no matter how well or poor the drum group is that is singing for their contest. Generally, Native American singing follows a pentatonic scale (as if playing only the black keys on a piano) and while, to the outsider, it may simply sound like drum beats accompanied by vocables, some songs include words in Cree, Pikuni, Lushuutsid, Niimipuu, Lakhota, Sahpatin, Salish, Ojibwemowin or many other Native languages.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: Prithvi Pankaj Shaw (born 9 November 1999) is an Indian international cricketer who played for the Indian cricket team in all formats. He currently plays for Mumbai in domestic cricket and Delhi Capitals in the Indian Premier League. He debuted at the age of 18 for India and holds record for being the youngest debutant to score a test century. He was retained by Delhi Capitals ahead of the Tata Ipl Auction 2022. Under his captaincy, the Indian team won the 2018 Under-19 World Cup.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: A right-handed opening batter, Shaw made his first international appearance on 4 October 2018 and became the second-youngest Indian after Sachin Tendulkar to make a Test century and the youngest Indian to do so on Test debut.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: Shaw made his first-class debut for Mumbai in the semi-finals of the 2016–17 Ranji Trophy on 1 January 2017. He scored a century in the second innings and was man of the match. Shaw earned another distinction by scoring a century in his debut match of the Duleep Trophy and equalled the record held by Sachin Tendulkar who had scored for the first time a century each in his debut matches of Ranji Trophy and Duleep Trophy. In December 2017, Shaw was named captain of India's squad for the 2018 Under-19 Cricket World Cup. He led India in the final where they beat Australia by 8 wickets to win their fourth Under-19 World Cup.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: The International Cricket Council (ICC) named Shaw as one of the five breakout stars in men's cricket in 2018. In July 2019, he was suspended by BCCI for doping violation till 15 November 2019.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: Prithvi Shaw was Born in Thane, Maharashtra in a Bihari family. Shaw's parents moved from Gaya, Bihar to Thane as migrant for employment. In 2001, Shaw was offered a contract by AAP Entertainment that allowed him and his father to move from Thane to Mumbai and continue his cricketing education. He also received sponsorship from Indian Oil.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: Shaw was a central figure in the documentary film "Beyond All Boundaries" and has twice selected to travel to England to further his cricketing education.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: Shaw has earned a deal worth Rs 36 lakh with Sanspareils Greenlands (SG), which has been endorsed by stalwarts like Sunil Gavaskar, Rahul Dravid and Virender Sehwag in the past.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: Shaw played for Middle Income Group (MIG) Cricket Club in Mumbai and was the captain of Rizvi Springfield High School and the Mumbai under-16 team. In November 2013, he had set the highest score by any batsman in any organised form of cricket since 1901 when he hit 546 in a Harris Shield elite division match.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: Shaw captained Rizvi Springfield to two Harris Shield titles in 2012 and 2013, the most prestigious trophy in Indian youth cricket. In 2012, he scored 155 in the semi-final and 174 in the final match. Shaw trains and plays for MIG Cricket Club in Mumbai, where Arjun Tendulkar, son of Sachin, is a teammate.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: In April 2012, Shaw was invited to England to play for Cheadle Hulme School in Manchester and scored 1,446 runs during a two-month stay. He scored a century on debut. and averaged 84. He also took 68 wickets. During his time in Manchester, Prithvi made several appearances for local side High Lane Cricket club.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: In 2013, Prithvi Shaw played for Cryptics vs. Middleton Stoney Cricket Club in Oxfordshire. He opened the batting and scored 68 in under 10 overs before a change of pace in English conditions led to his dismissal, caught off the bowling of Professor Paul Wordsworth. In this time, Shaw's opening partner had reached just 7 runs. He also bowled, taking 3 wickets for 1 run in 5 overs and completed a runout.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: After once scoring 73 runs against a side from the Julian Wood Cricket Academy in England, the academy's founder, Julian Wood, offered Shaw a trip to England in May 2013 and a stint at the academy. On 6 February 2017, while playing in his fifth ODI for India under-19s, he scored his first century at under-19 level.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: Shaw made his List A debut for Mumbai in the 2016–17 Vijay Hazare Trophy on 25 February 2017. In November 2017, in the 2017–18 Ranji Trophy, he scored his second consecutive century, and his fourth in five first-class matches since his debut, batting for Mumbai. Shaw scored his first List A century against Leicestershire on 19 June 2018 and scored 132 runs. In October 2018, he was named in India A's squad for the 2018–19 Deodhar Trophy.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: In February 2021, Prithvi Shaw scored an unbeaten double-century (227* off 152) against Pondicherry in the Vijay Hazare Trophy. Shaw's 227* is currently the best individual score within the tournament's history. Prithvi Shaw, after scoring 227* vs Pondicherry in the Vijay Hazare Trophy, now has the highest List A score by a captain in Men's cricket. He scored 827 runs in the same tournament which is the most runs in a single season.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: In January 2018, Shaw was bought by the Delhi Daredevils in the 2018 IPL auction for ₹ 1.2 crores. On 23 April 2018, Shaw became the youngest player to open batting in the Indian Premier League history at the age of 18 and 165 days while playing for Delhi Daredevils during their match against Kings XI Punjab. He also had an impressive IPL debut scoring 22 runs in 10 balls.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: On 27 April 2018, Prithvi Shaw notched up his first IPL fifty against the Kolkata Knight Riders and went on to become the joint youngest player to score an IPL fifty along with Sanju Samson (in 18 years and 169 days). His blistering knock of 62 runs helped Delhi Daredevils secure a comfortable 55-run victory against KKR. On 29 April 2021, Shaw became the second player to hit six boundaries in an over in the IPL, after Ajinkya Rahane, when he hit six boundaries off Shivam Mavi in the first over of the Delhi innings.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: In November 2013, Shaw established a new record of 546 runs from 330 balls playing for Rizvi Springfield in a Harris Shield match. It was the highest score in Indian schools cricket until the record was surpassed by Pranav Dhanawade on 4 January 2016 and is presently the 4th highest score by any batsman in any form of the organised game. Only AEJ Collins's 628* in 1899 and Charles Eady's 566 in 1901 are higher.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: Previously the highest score recorded by an Indian in any form of registered competitive cricket was 515 by Dadabhoy Havewala in 1933.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: Shaw's innings lasted six hours and seven minutes and contained 85 fours and five sixes before he was caught and bowled. Rizvi scored 991 runs having bowled out their opponents, St Francis d'Assisi, for 93.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: The innings attracted significant media attention, particularly as it came only four days after the official retirement from international cricket of Tendulkar, who had scored 326 in the same tournament in 1988. "Less than a week after India bid its final farewell to the Little Master, the Master’s Apprentice conjured an innings of almost supernatural brilliance," wrote Howard Swains in a Freaky Good Futures profile of Shaw.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: In August 2018, Shaw was called up to India's Test squad for the final two Tests against England, but he did not play. In September 2018, he was named in India's Test squad for their series against the West Indies. Shaw made his Test debut against West Indies on 4 October 2018. In that match, he scored his maiden century in Tests and became the youngest batsman to make a Test century on debut for India (18 years and 319 days). India won the second Test by ten wickets, with Shaw being named the Player of the Series. In January 2020, Shaw was named in India's One Day International (ODI) squad for their series against New Zealand. He made his ODI debut for India, against New Zealand, on 5 February 2020. He was also Selected For Test Series In New Zealand and Scored one half-century in 4 innings He Played In That series. In 2020, Shaw was selected in the test squad for the Australian tour. In December 2020, Shaw had a poor performance in the first Test against Australia, scoring 0 and 4 in which his batting technique was questioned and was dropped in the next match.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: In June 2021, he was named in India's One Day International (ODI) and Twenty20 International (T20I) squads for their series against Sri Lanka. He scored 43 runs off 24 balls in the first ODI of the 3-match series. He made his T20I debut on 25 July 2021, for India against Sri Lanka.


title: Prithvi Shaw

text: In July 2021, Shaw was called up as a replacement to India's Test squad for their series but did not play so against England.


title: Taça de Portugal

text: The Taça de Portugal (; "Cup of Portugal") is an annual association football competition and the premier knockout tournament in Portuguese football. For sponsorship reasons, it has been known as Taça de Portugal Placard since the 2015–16 season. Organised by the Portuguese Football Federation since it was first held in 1938, the competition is open to professional and amateur clubs from the top-four league divisions. Matches are played from August–September to May–June, and the final is traditionally held at the Estádio Nacional in Oeiras, near Lisbon. The winners qualify for the Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira (or the runners-up, in case the winners are also the league champions) and the UEFA Europa League (unless they already qualify for the UEFA Champions League through league placing).


title: Taça de Portugal

text: Before 1938, a similar competition was held since 1922 under the name Campeonato de Portugal (), which determined the national champions from among the different regional championship winners. The establishment of the Primeira Liga, a nationwide league-based competition, as the official domestic championship in 1938, led to the conversion of the Campeonato de Portugal into the main domestic cup competition, under its current designation. In fact, the trophy awarded to the Portuguese Cup winners is the same that was awarded to the Campeonato de Portugal winners, although titles in each competition are counted separately.


title: Taça de Portugal

text: The first winners of the Taça de Portugal were Académica, who defeated Benfica 4–3 in the 1939 final. Benfica are the most successful team in the competition, with 26 trophies in 38 final appearances. Porto are the current holders, after beating Tondela in the 2022 final.


title: Taça de Portugal

text: The first incarnation of "a" Portuguese Cup began in 1912, as an invitational tournament organized by SC Império; it was named after the organizing club, as "Taça do Império" (not to be confused with a similarly named, but unrelated, "Taça Império" - the one-off trophy for the inaugural match at the National Stadium on 10 June 1944). Because of its closed format, with very few clubs taking part, the Portuguese Federation does not recognise it as a true "national cup"; it ended in 1918.


title: Taça de Portugal

text: The inaugural season of the "Campeonato de Portugal" ("Championship of Portugal") took place in 1921–22, and this competition was played every season until 1937–38. The original format had all the clubs participating in regional leagues, with the regional winners progressing to knock-out rounds, and the ultimate victors named "Champions of Portugal". This was the primary tournament in Portugal, until the creation of the round-robin competition in 1934-35 - in fact, the "Champions" moniker of this early period can be misleading, as the modern concept of "champion" applies to the league champion (i.e., for statistical purposes, the winners of this "Campeonato de Portugal" are no longer counted among Portuguese "League" champions). The short period of coexistence between two championships meant considerable confusion, and was pointed as a reason for lack of competitiveness in contemporary international matches - therefore, a revamp was bound to happen.


title: Taça de Portugal

text: The success of the older competition meant it was carried over after the reorganization of Football competitions in 1938–39, albeit losing its top status: the (round-robin) league carried the name "Campeonato" (or, in its longform, "Campeonato Nacional da Primeira Divisão"), and the old Campeonato de Portugal was renamed "Taça de Portugal" ("Portuguese Cup") for the 1938–39 season. The Cup soon became the second-most important trophy in Portuguese football.


title: Taça de Portugal

text: The Cup is organised by the Portuguese Football Federation ("Federação Portuguesa de Futebol") and is played by all teams in the Primeira Liga, Segunda Liga (excluding the B teams), Campeonato Nacional de Seniores (excluding reserve teams), 22 District Championships runners-up and by 18 District Cups winners.


title: Taça de Portugal

text: As of the 2008–09 season, the cup is composed of 8 rounds (final included), with 1st level clubs joining at the 3rd round, the 2nd level clubs joining at the 2nd round and the 3rd and lower-level clubs competing from the beginning. All rounds are played in a single game, except for the semifinals.


title: Taça de Portugal

text: The final match has been played at the Estádio Nacional near Lisbon in Jamor every season since 1946, except in 1961 (in a rare occurrence, Estádio das Antas was chosen as a more convenient venue for both Leixões and FC Porto, despite being the home of the latter; an agreement was reached by both teams due to geographical proximity and capacity); in the three years following the Carnation Revolution; in the 1982–83 season, due to FC Porto's pressure. In the years following the Carnation Revolution, the venue for the final match would be the home ground of the team that had won the Portuguese Cup the previous year; however, when Boavista won the Cup twice in a row, its home ground (Estádio do Bessa) was deemed too small and the matches were instead played in Estádio das Antas (FC Porto's former home ground).


title: Fasting in Islam

text: In Islam, fasting (known as Sawm, ; . Or Siyam, ; , also commonly known as Rūzeh or Rōzah, in non-Arab Muslim countries) is the practice of abstaining, usually from food, drink, smoking, and sexual activity. During the holy month of Ramadan, "Sawm" is observed between dawn and nightfall when the adhan of the Maghrib prayer is sounded. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar and fasting is a requirement for Muslims as it is the fourth of the five pillars of Islam.


title: Fasting in Islam

text: Fasting is not for only Muslims; it has been practiced for centuries by religions such as Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Judaism, Taoism, among others. It is stated in the Quran that Allah says,


title: Fasting in Islam

text: Some societies in North America fasted to serve as penance for sin and avert catastrophes. Incas of Peru and Native Americans of Mexico observed fasts to appease their gods. Former nations such as Assyrians and the Babylonians observed fasting as a form of penance. Jews observe fasting as a form of purification and penitence on the Day of Atonement or Yom Kippur annually. Food and drinks are not permitted on this day. Fasting took a different form in the West such as hunger strike which is a form of fasting, used in modern times as a political weapon which was made popular by the leader of India's struggle for freedom, Mahatma Gandhi. He undertook fasts to compel his followers to obey his precept of non violence. Early Christians during the first two centuries, associated fasting with purification and penitence. The Christian church made fasting as a voluntary preparation for receiving the sacraments of Baptism and Holy Communion and for the ordination of priests. Later, they were made compulsory and other days were subsequently added. The Lenten fast was expanded in the 6th Century to 40 days where one meal was allowed on each day. Fasting was retained by most Protestant churches and was made optional in some cases after the Reformation. However, stricter Protestants condemned both the festivals of the church and their traditional fasts. The Roman Catholics fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday as their fast may involve partial abstinence from food and drink or total abstinence.