title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: According to the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety the Azera received a "Good" overall score in the frontal crash test and an "Acceptable" overall score in the side impact test. The driver's pelvis/leg in the side impact category was given a "Poor" score and the structure/safety category rated "Marginal".


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: The fifth generation Grandeur/Azera was unveiled at the 2011 Los Angeles International Auto Show as a 2012 model. It was developed over a period of three and half years with a cost of 450 million dollars. The Grandeur nameplate remained in use in South Korea, but most export markets received it as the "Hyundai Azera."


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: In terms of dimensions, the Azera slots between the midsize Sonata and the rear-wheel drive Genesis. The Azera's competitors include cars such as the Ford Taurus, Dodge Charger, Chevrolet Impala, and entry-level luxury (or near-luxury) cars such as the Buick LaCrosse, Nissan Maxima, Toyota Avalon, Chrysler 300.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: The Grandeur HG was released by Hyundai with an all new appearance and an engine The Grandeur HG followed the "fluidic sculpture" design of modern Hyundai vehicles. This design is dubbed as the ""Grand Glide"" concept.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: The four-cylinder has a fuel economy of (7.8 L/100 km) and the V6 is rated at (8.5 L/100 km). The Premium model features adaptive cruise control and a semi-automatic parking assist system.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: Early Korean models of Grandeur include Theta II 2.4 GDI, Lambda II 3.0 GDI. In Korea an E-VGT R2.2 Diesel engine with is available. Korean version equipment includes auto high beam, lane departure warning, blind spot detection, and electric park brake.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: All models come standard with a 6-speed automatic transmission and is the only transmission available.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: It is a version of Hyundai Grandeur for South Korea market, with 2.4-liter Theta II MPi (159PS) engine, 47PS electric motor, projector beam headlights, LED taillights, a dual exhaust system, 17-inch aluminum wheels, Nappa leather seats, a leather-wrapped steering wheel and wood grain trim, dual-zone automatic climate control, heated seats, a rearview camera, a USB charging system, an infotainment system with a 6-inch display. Options include a panoramic sunroof, a premium audio system and GPS navigation.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: Changes to US models of Hyundai Azera include lower starting price of $31,000 ($1,250 reduction from 2013), refined steering feel and precision, standard 6-inch color LCD audio display with rearview camera, standard driver blind-spot mirror, new electroluminescent gauge cluster with color LCD trip computer, new 8-inch navigation system standard on Limited, power-folding side mirrors standard on Limited, Hyundai Assurance Connected Care telematics services standard for three years.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: Hyundai unveiled the sixth generation Grandeur on October 27, 2016. The sixth generation model was not sold in North America due to slow sales of the preceding version; other than Hyundai's new luxury division Genesis Motors, the Sonata became the largest and most expensive sedan merketed by Hyundai in the US. A Hybrid model was added in March 2017. The 2.2 L diesel engine option was discontinued in 2018. 132,000 Grandeurs were sold in 2017 and about 110,000 vehicles were sold in 2018. It is the best selling vehicle in its category in the South Korean market.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: A facelifted Grandeur was launched in November 2019. The car is bigger with the wheelbase growing by , length by and width by . Exterior changes include a bigger grill with the turn signals and daytime running lights (DRL) integrated in the grill's diamond patterns plus new headlights and taillights. Interior changes include a new optional 12.3-inch widescreen infotainment system, new shift by wire (SBW) buttons replacing the old gear lever and a new touchscreen for climate controls. Other changes include a new remote parking system and improved autonomous emergency braking system.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: For the powertrain, a new Smartstream G2.5 GDi with an 8-speed automatic transmission replaced the 2.4L Theta II GDi engine with the 6-speed automatic transmission and both 3.0L Lambda II MPi/GDi engine options are discontinued.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: The Sonata, which had been selling the most as a People's car for a long time in the Korean market, saw a sharp decline in sales, but the Grandeur sold 90,000 to 100,000 vehicles a month, ranking first in sales.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: The seventh-generation was released in South Korea on November 14, 2022, six years after the sixth-generation Grandeur. Compared to the previous model, the overall length is , which is longer, and the wheelbase and rear overhang have been increased by and , respectively.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: The exterior features DRL and positioning lamps that are seamlessly connected in a full-width horizontal layout with integrated turn signal functions, and cowl points that have moved to the rear. The interior has a wrap-around structure, featuring softly spreading ambient mood lamps and a pattern on the door trim designed with a Korean feel.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: The seventh-generation Grandeur is equipped with the infotainment system ccNC, two built-in cameras, two digital keys, interior fingerprint authentication system, reclining (rear seat), and electric door curtains. The hybrid model is equipped with an E-motion drive that uses a drive motor to improve driving performance.


title: Hyundai Grandeur

text: Since its introduction to the U.S. market in late 2000, the XG/Azera had been a consistent seller until late 2008, when it suffered a significant drop in sales. Although there are several possible explanations for this decline, the Hyundai Genesis sedan was introduced to the U.S. market in late 2008, suggesting that the more sophisticated rear-wheel drive Genesis may have cannibalized sales of the Azera. The Hyundai Genesis sedan is considered by auto journalists to be a rival to the aforementioned full-size and near-luxury vehicles that the 2012 Azera is positioned against, such as the Ford Taurus, Toyota Avalon, and Buick LaCrosse.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Gareth Wyn Williams (26 September 1978 – ) was a Welsh mathematician and employee of GCHQ seconded to the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or MI6) who was found dead in suspicious circumstances at a Security Service safe house flat in Pimlico, London, on 23 August 2010. The inquest found that his death was "unnatural and likely to have been criminally mediated." A subsequent Metropolitan Police re-investigation concluded that Williams's death was "probably an accident".


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Two senior British police sources have said some of Williams's work was focused on Russia – and one confirmed reports that he had been helping the US National Security Agency trace international money-laundering routes that are used by organised crime groups including Moscow-based mafia cells.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Originally from Valley, Anglesey, Wales, Williams, who spoke Welsh as a first language, began studying mathematics part-time at Bangor University, while still at Ysgol Uwchradd Bodedern, and graduated with a first-class degree at age 17. After gaining a PhD at the University of Manchester, he dropped out from a subsequent post-graduate course at St Catharine's College, Cambridge, and took up employment with GCHQ in Cheltenham in 2001, renting a room for nearly a decade in Prestbury, Gloucestershire. Reportedly an intensely private man and a keen cyclist, Williams was due to return to Cheltenham at the beginning of September 2010 after his annual leave.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Police visited Williams's home during the afternoon of Monday 23 August 2010, as a "welfare check" after colleagues noted he had been out of contact for several days. His naked, decomposing remains were found in the bath of the main bedroom's en-suite bathroom, inside a red bag that was padlocked from the outside. The police had gained entry into his top floor flat in Alderney Street, Pimlico at around 16:40. His family alleged that crucial DNA was interfered with and that fingerprints left at the scene were wiped off as part of a cover-up. Inconclusive fragments of DNA components from at least two other contributors were found on the bag. A forensic examination of Williams's flat, a security service safe house, has concluded that there was no sign of forced entry or DNA that pointed to a third party present at the time of the spy's death.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Scotland Yard's inquiry also found no evidence of Williams's fingerprints on the padlock of the bag or the rim of the bath, which the coroner said supported her assertion of "third-party involvement" in the death. Metropolitan Police Deputy Assistant Commissioner Martin Hewitt said it was theoretically possible for Williams to lower himself into the bag without touching the rim of the bath. A key to the padlock was inside the bag, underneath his body.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Williams was buried at Ynys Wen cemetery in Valley, Anglesey, on 26 September 2010, following a private funeral service at Bethel Chapel in Holyhead attended by his family, friends, former colleagues in the intelligence services, and also by the head of SIS, Sir John Sawers.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Williams's date of death was estimated to have been in the early hours of 16 August, one week before he was found.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Soon after the investigation started, the heads of the Secret Intelligence Service and Metropolitan Police met to discuss how the police would handle the investigation in light of the top secret nature of Williams's work, and who would lead the investigation. Williams had recently qualified for operational deployment, and had worked with U.S. National Security Agency and FBI agents. The U.S. State Department asked that no details of Williams's work should emerge at the inquest. The Foreign Secretary, William Hague, signed a public-interest immunity certificate authorising the withholding from the inquest of details of Williams's work and U.S. joint operations.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: After launching an investigation, coroner Fiona Wilcox said that there were no injuries on his body and no signs that he had been involved in a struggle; his body was also free of alcohol and common recreational drugs. The Metropolitan Police considered his death "suspicious and unexplained". The FBI also conducted their own investigation into the case.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: In December 2010, police released further details, stating that Williams had visited a number of bondage websites although at the later inquest it was stated these visits were "sporadic and isolated" and accounted for only a small proportion of the time he spent online. Williams's wardrobe included £20,000 of "high-end" women's clothing, size small to medium, and 26 pairs of women's shoes, size six and six-and-a-half. Female wigs and makeup were also found. There was video footage on one phone of him posing naked apart from leather boots.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: The landlady of the annex flat he had rented in Cheltenham for 10 years said she and her husband had found him shouting for help, with his hands tied to his bedposts, three years before his death. He said he was seeing if he could get free. They cut him free, believing it "sexual rather than escapology".


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: An expert brought in to examine the bag in which Williams's body was found concluded that Williams could not have locked it. A police spokesperson stated that: "If he was alive, he got into it voluntarily or, if not, he was unconscious and placed in the bag."


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: The heating in Williams's apartment was found to be turned on. It has been suggested an elevated temperature inside the apartment would have sped up the decomposition of Williams's body.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Subsequently, the police released an E-FIT photo of two people they were seeking, who were seen to enter the communal entrance of his home in June or July 2010.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: The lawyer for the family, Anthony O'Toole, at the Coroner's inquest in March 2012, said that a second person was either present when Williams died, or someone broke in afterwards and stole items. There was no forensic evidence to support this view. No sign of forced entry could be found, but it was also noted that the door and locks had been removed by the time police experts had become involved.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: DNA found on Williams's hand turned out to be contamination from one of the forensic scientists and the police determined that a Mediterranean couple they had been seeking had nothing to do with the inquiry. LGC, the forensic company, apologized that the error had inflicted such pain on the family, caused by the incorrect data entry of a numerical code.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Evidence at the inquest showed that it would have been virtually impossible for Williams to have locked himself in the bag. Two experts were unable to lock themselves in a similar bag despite making 400 attempts to do so, although one stated there was a small chance Williams had managed the feat. Pathologist Richard Shepherd stated it was more likely that Williams was alive when he got into the bag, due to the difficulty of arranging a corpse in the position Williams's body was found in. Another pathologist stated that Williams would have been overcome by hypercapnia, elevated carbon dioxide levels, after only two or three minutes in the bag. There were no gloves found in the bag and no fingerprints on either the padlock nor indeed the bag.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Williams's family said they believed that they suspected this person “was a member of some agency specialising in the dark arts of the secret services”.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Fiona Wilcox, the coroner, said that she would "follow the evidence" wherever it led. Fiona Wilcox was also the coroner for the death of William Broeksmit who was an auditor at Deutsche Bank at the time the bank was underwriting the Danske/Estonia Russian money laundering operation.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Evidence given by Williams's former landlady in Cheltenham showed that one night he had awoken her and her husband, screaming for help. Apparently he had managed to tie himself to his bed, and required assistance in releasing himself. The testimony was that Williams had claimed at the time that he had done it just to see if he could free himself and that he promised not to try this again. Nothing further had been said about the incident since between Williams and his landlady.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Journalist Duncan Campbell reported that the inquest evidence indicated Williams was one of a team of intelligence officers sent to penetrate US and UK hacking networks. He had attended the 2010 Black Hat Briefings and DEF CON conferences. He had started with SIS in London in spring 2009, and after taking a number of training courses started on "active operational work". A few months before his death, he asked to return to GCHQ as he disliked the "rat race, flash car competitions and post-work drinking culture" at SIS and as a keen cyclist and walker wanted to go back to the countryside, and was due to return in September.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: The coroner found in a narrative verdict that Williams's death was "unnatural and likely to have been criminally mediated". The coroner was "satisfied that on the balance of probabilities that Gareth was killed unlawfully". There was insufficient evidence to give a verdict of unlawful killing. The coroner concluded that another party placed the bag containing Williams into the bath, and on the balance of probabilities locked the bag. The coroner said that Williams was probably alive when he was put in the bag and that he probably died shortly afterwards from CO2 poisoning or from a short-acting poison. No fingerprints were found around the bath nor the bag. The coroner was critical of SIS for failing to report Williams missing for seven days, which caused extra anguish and suffering for his family, and led to the loss of forensic evidence.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: The coroner rejected suicide, interest in bondage or cross-dressing, or "auto-erotic activity" being involved in Williams's death. She said his visits to bondage websites only occurred intermittently and were not of a frequency to indicate an active interest. The coroner condemned leaks about cross-dressing as a possible attempt at media manipulation.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: The coroner was highly critical of the Metropolitan Police's Counter Terrorism Command (SO15), who failed to tell the senior investigating officer before the inquest began of the existence of nine memory sticks and other property in Williams's SIS office. SO15 failed to take formal statements when interviewing SIS officers. The coroner said the possible involvement of SIS staff in the death was a legitimate line of inquiry for the police.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: The finding by the coroner prompted a re-investigation by the Metropolitan Police lasting a further 12 months, which officers said had been allowed unprecedented access to serving MI6 staff following strong criticism at the inquest of the spying agency's actions following the death of Mr Williams.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: Metropolitan Police Deputy Assistant Commissioner Martin Hewitt announced that despite a re-examination of all evidence and the investigation of new leads, no definitive answers had been obtained as to the cause of Williams's death, and the "most probable scenario" was that he had died alone in his flat in Pimlico, central London, as the result of accidentally locking himself inside the bag.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: In September and October 2015, Boris Karpichkov, a former KGB agent who defected from Russia and who now lives in Britain, stated during interviews that "sources in Russia" had claimed that the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service, also known as the SVR, was responsible for Williams's murder. According to Karpichkov, the SVR tried and failed to blackmail Williams into becoming a double agent.


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: In response to the SVR's attempts, Williams apparently claimed that he knew "the identity of a Russian spy inside the GCHQ." Karpichkov claimed that Williams's threat meant that "the SVR then had no alternative but to exterminate him in order to protect their agent inside GCHQ." Regarding the cause of death, Karpichkov claimed that the SVR killed Williams "by an untraceable poison introduced in his ear."


title: Death of Gareth Williams

text: The 2015 BBC Two television series "London Spy" was loosely based on the Williams case. The miniseries stars Ben Whishaw as Danny, who is accused of murder after his partner, MI6 spy Alex, is found dead inside a locked trunk.


title: Residue theorem

text: In complex analysis, the residue theorem, sometimes called Cauchy's residue theorem, is a powerful tool to evaluate line integrals of analytic functions over closed curves; it can often be used to compute real integrals and infinite series as well. It generalizes the Cauchy integral theorem and Cauchy's integral formula. From a geometrical perspective, it can be seen as a special case of the generalized Stokes' theorem.


title: Residue theorem

text: and a function defined and holomorphic on . Let be a closed rectifiable curve in , and denote the winding number of around by . The line integral of around is equal to times the sum of residues of at the points, each counted as many times as winds around the point:


title: Residue theorem

text: The relationship of the residue theorem to Stokes' theorem is given by the Jordan curve theorem. The general plane curve must first be reduced to a set of simple closed curves whose total is equivalent to for integration purposes; this reduces the problem to finding the integral of along a Jordan curve with interior . The requirement that be holomorphic on is equivalent to the statement that the exterior derivative on . Thus if two planar regions and of enclose the same subset of , the regions and lie entirely in , and hence


title: Residue theorem

text: is well-defined and equal to zero. Consequently, the contour integral of along is equal to the sum of a set of integrals along paths , each enclosing an arbitrarily small region around a single — the residues of (up to the conventional factor ) at . Summing over , we recover the final expression of the contour integral in terms of the winding numbers .


title: Residue theorem

text: In order to evaluate real integrals, the residue theorem is used in the following manner: the integrand is extended to the complex plane and its residues are computed (which is usually easy), and a part of the real axis is extended to a closed curve by attaching a half-circle in the upper or lower half-plane, forming a semicircle. The integral over this curve can then be computed using the residue theorem. Often, the half-circle part of the integral will tend towards zero as the radius of the half-circle grows, leaving only the real-axis part of the integral, the one we were originally interested in.


title: Residue theorem

text: arises in probability theory when calculating the characteristic function of the Cauchy distribution. It resists the techniques of elementary calculus but can be evaluated by expressing it as a limit of contour integrals.


title: Residue theorem

text: Suppose and define the contour that goes along the real line from to and then counterclockwise along a semicircle centered at 0 from to . Take to be greater than 1, so that the imaginary unit is enclosed within the curve. Now consider the contour integral


title: Residue theorem

text: Since is an entire function (having no singularities at any point in the complex plane), this function has singularities only where the denominator is zero. Since , that happens only where or . Only one of those points is in the region bounded by this contour. Because is


title: Residue theorem

text: The estimate on the numerator follows since , and for complex numbers along the arc (which lies in the upper half-plane), the argument of lies between 0 and . So,


title: Residue theorem

text: Consider, for example, . Let be the rectangle that is the boundary of with positive orientation, with an integer . By the residue formula,


title: Residue theorem

text: We take with a non-integer and we shall show the above for . The difficulty in this case is to show the vanishing of the contour integral at infinity. We have:


title: Residue theorem

text: since the integrand is an even function and so the contributions from the contour in the left-half plane and the contour in the right cancel each other out. Thus,


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The 1952 Summer Olympics (; ), officially known as the Games of the XV Olympiad (; ) and commonly known as Helsinki 1952 (), were an international multi-sport event held from 19 July to 3 August 1952 in Helsinki, Finland.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: After Japan declared in 1938 that it would be unable to host 1940 Olympics in Tokyo due to the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War, Helsinki had been selected to host the 1940 Summer Olympics, which were then cancelled due to World War II. Tokyo eventually hosted the games in 1964. Helsinki is the northernmost city at which a summer Olympic Games have been held. With London hosting the 1948 Olympics, 1952 is the most recent time when two consecutive summer Olympic Games were held entirely in Europe. The 1952 Summer Olympics was the last of the two consecutive Olympics to be held in Northern Europe, following the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: They were also the Olympic Games at which the most world records were broken until they were surpassed by the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing. The Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Thailand, and Saarland made their Olympic debuts at the 1952 Games. The United States won the most gold and overall medals.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Inspired by the success of the Swedish 1912 Olympics, Finnish sports fans began to arouse the idea of their own Olympic Games: for example, Erik von Frenckell publicly presented his dreams of the Finnish Olympic Games at the opening of the 1915 Töölön Pallokenttä.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: As the Olympic success continued in the 1920s, enthusiasm for one's own Olympics grew, and after the 1920 Antwerp Olympics, Finnish sports leaders began planning to build a stadium in Helsinki in 1920. Finland's main sports organizations and the City of Helsinki founded the Stadion Foundation in 1927 to get the stadium to Helsinki. In the same year, Ernst Edvard Krogius, who represented Finland on the International Olympic Committee (IOC), announced Finland's willingness to host the competition.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: In 1930, preparations for the 1936 Games, which was accelerated by the launch of a design project for the Olympic Stadium. However, Helsinki was not a candidate in the first round in 1931, and Berlin won the competition, but Helsinki immediately registered as a candidate for the 1940 Games. Those games were awarded to Tokyo in 1936, and two years later with the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War Japan announced they were giving up the 1940 games, and four days later the IOC offered the Games to Helsinki, which agreed to take over, although there was little time left to prepare for the Games.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: World War II broke out on 1 September 1939, with the German invasion of Poland, which also drew Britain and France to war. Despite the aggression, the Organizing Committee of the Olympic Games continued to be optimistic about the preparations for the Games. However, the Winter War, initiated by the Soviet Union on 30 November 1939, halted planning for the games. After the Winter War, the Organizing Committee decided to abandon the Games on 20 March 1940 due to the hostilities across Europe, the suspension of preparations caused by the Winter War, and the deplorable economic situation. At the meeting of the Finnish Olympic Committee on 20 April 1940, the Olympic Games in Finland were officially canceled. In the meantime, World War II had already expanded, with Germany occupying Denmark and fighting in Norway. Instead of the Olympic Games, Finland held a Memorial Competitions for Fallen Athletes who died in the Winter War, at the opening of which actor Eino Kaipainen recited the poem "Silent Winners" written by . The memorial competitions were held on the initiative of the sports journalist Sulo Kolka.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: At the end of World War II, London was awarded the 1948 Summer Olympics after the city was originally granted the 1944 Games, which were canceled due to the war. Helsinki continued its attempt to have the Games organized and registered as candidates for the 1952 Games. At the IOC Congress in Stockholm on 21 June 1947, Helsinki was chosen as the host city, over the Netherlands (Amsterdam) and the United States Los Angeles, Minneapolis, Detroit, Chicago and Philadelphia were left behind in Helsinki. Helsinki's strengths included the fairly completed venues built for the 1940 Games.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: After confirmation that Helsinki would host the Games, the "XV Olympia Helsinki 1952" was established as the organizing committee of the Games on 8 September 1947. Its members were the Finnish Olympic Committee, the Finnish State, the City of Helsinki and 26 various sports organizations. The mayor of Helsinki Erik von Frenckell was elected chairman of the committee, who at the time also chaired Finnish Football Association. Akseli Kaskela, Olavi Suvanto and Armas-Eino Martola were elected Vice-Chairs. Among them, Kaskela and Suvanto were elected on political grounds as representatives of the bourgeois SVUL and the leftist TUL, Martola, on the other hand, got a former officer to lead the organization of the practical arrangements.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Other members of the Organizing Committee were Yrjö Enne, Väinö AM Karikoski, Urho Kekkonen, Ernst Krogius , William Lehtinen, Aarne K. Leskinen, Eino Pekkala, Väinö Salovaara and Erik Åström. In 1948–1949, Karikoski, Kekkonen, Krogius and Lehtinen resigned from the committee, and Lauri Miettinen, Arno Tuurna and Yrjö Valkama were elected to replace them. In the spring of 1952, Ente was replaced by Arvi E. Heiskanen and as completely new members by Mauno Pekkala and Aaro Tynell.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Erik von Frenckell was the chairman of the organizing committee and the other members were Armas-Eino Martola (competition director), Yrjö Valkama (sports director), Olavi Suvanto (maintenance director), Akseli Kaskela, Aarne K. Leskinen and Niilo Koskinen. In addition, the head of the central office Kallio Kotkas and the head of information Eero Petäjäniemi were involved in the competition organization.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The international political atmosphere was tense when the Helsinki Olympics were held. When the IOC held its meeting in Vienna in 1951, many difficult topics were on the agenda. The Cold War was under way, and the situation between Israel and Arab countries, divided Germany had to be addressed as a team, and the Chinese Civil War, with the Chinese Communist Party winning, forming the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China government exiled to Taiwan.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Four years earlier, Japan was not invited to the London Olympics from the losing states of the Second World War. The Olympic Committee of Israel had not yet been recognized, and a successor to the German Olympic Committee, which had been dissolved during World War II, had not yet been established, but all these countries already participated in the Helsinki Games, as did Saarland.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The Cold War affected the participation of both the United States and the Soviet Union in the Games. The participation of the United States in the Games was decided only after the country had received an assessment of the political situation in Finland from its embassy in Helsinki. The Soviet Union was accepted as a member of the IOC in May 1951, and in December of the same year the country accepted the invitation to the competition, as the country's athletes were in medal condition. Although the Soviet leadership had previously considered the Games a bourgeois event, the Helsinki Games held propaganda value. In the Soviet Union, billions of rubles were spent on coaching athletes in just one year. The Soviet Union planned to fly its athletes every day between Leningrad and Helsinki. Another option was for Soviet athletes to stay in the Soviet Porkkalanniemi garrison. However, Finland required that all competitors stay in the race village. As a compromise solution for the Eastern Bloc athletes, a second race village was established in Espoo, Otaniemi.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The 1952 Games were also threatened with cancellation due to the deteriorating world situation. The Korean War had begun in 1950, which also caused concern in the organizing committee. At Von Frenckell's suggestion, the organizing committee decided to take out Lloyd's of London war insurance.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Most of the venues for the competitions were completed prior to the 1940s in anticipation of successful bid attempts, but some expansion and refurbishment work was needed, including the construction of additional stands at the Olympic and Swimming Stadium. A residential area, Kisakylä (Olympic Village) was built south of Käpylä's Koskelantie to accommodate competitors. The area, which was built close to the 1940 Olympics, was already the residence of the people of Helsinki at that time. Just below the opening, the competition area was completed for the use of visitors Kumpula Outdoor Swimming Pool. Female athletes got their own race village from the Nursing College in Meilahti. The athletes of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc stayed in the Teekkarikylä in Otaniemi. The Finnish team lived on the premises of the Santahamina Army School (later the Cadet School, now the National Defence University).


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The City of Helsinki prepared for the Olympics by building a new airport in Seutula (now Helsinki-Vantaan lentoasema), the Olympic Pier South Harbor and paving tens of kilometers of roads. The city's first traffic lights were installed at the intersection of Aleksanterinkatu and Mikonkatu in October 1951. The Palace Hotel and Vaakuna Hotels among others, were completed for the needs of the guests. However, due to the relatively low number of hotels in the city, tent villages were built for tourists in Lauttasaari and Seurasaari, among others. However, the preparations for accommodation turned out to be considerably oversized; at its best, the occupancy rate of the 6,000-seat tent village in Lauttasaari had an occupancy of only 8 per cent. With the support of the Olympia 1952 committee, Finland's first mini golf courses were completed to entertain guests.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The International Olympic Committee had declared in 1950 that it did not have an official Olympic anthem, but that the organizers could decide their own anthems. An anthem competition was held in Finland. In the spring of 1951, a poetry competition was announced, which was surprisingly won by an unknown teacher candidate, Niilo Partanen. Second and third came the well-known poets Toivo Lyy and Heikki Asunta. These winning poems were allowed to be used in the composition competition. The selection of the 51 compositions by a jury chaired by Jouko Tolonen was also a surprise. When the winner was announced on 17 March 1952, an unknown teacher Jaakko Linjama was revealed behind the nickname, who had used Lyy's lyrics in his Olympic Hymn.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The nicknames of the other contestants were not opened. This caused a stir, and the Arijoutsi, among others, doubted that the victory of the unknown would go to the honor of well-known composers. There were well-known members in the competition. The voters had identified the composing style of Uuno Klami and Aarre Merikanto, among others. The only Finnish composer who congratulated Linjamaa was Jean Sibelius, who did not take part in the anthem.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The Olympic torch was transported by land from Olympia to Athens from where fire's journey continued in a miner's lamp donated by the Saar Olympic Committee on a SAS plane to Aalborg, Denmark. The glass cover surrounding the lamp was designed by the artist Sakari Tohka. The Olympic torch itself was designed by the artist Aukusti Tuhka.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: From Denmark, the torchlight continued by running, cycling, riding, rowing and paddling to Copenhagen, from where the fire was transported by ferry to Sweden to Malmö. The journey of the torch across Sweden was carried to Haparanda by 700 messengers, from where it continued to the Finnish side in Tornio. On the Finnish-Swedish border bridge, the torch was received by Ville Pörhölä, who brought it to Tornio sports ground. The Olympic torch from Tornio, Greece, was connected to Pallastunturi on 6 July 1952 where it ignited the “midnight sun fire”. In reality, the Pallastunturi fire was lit with liquefied petroleum gas, because the night in July was cloudy at that time and it was not possible to use the sun as a lighter. From Tornio, the torch traveled through Finland to Helsinki. It was transported by more than 1,200 people.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Initially, the aim was to transport fire to Helsinki via the Soviet Union, but the matter was not settled through diplomacy by the deadline. The journey covered a total of 7,870 kilometres on the journey that began on 25 June and ended on 19 July 1952. The actual Olympic flame was lit for the Olympic Stadium.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The opening ceremony of the Helsinki Olympics was held on 19 July. Although the weather was rainy and chilly and the Olympic Stadium had no roof but on top of the main auditorium, the stadium was full with 70,435 spectators. The inaugural march had a record 5,469 people from 67 countries. After the march, the countries organized themselves into the central lawn, and the chairman of the organizing committee, Erik von Frenckell, spoke in Finnish, Swedish, French and English.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: President of the Republic J. K. Paasikivi gave the opening speech, which was the shortest in Olympic history and contained a mistake: it was not the "Fifteenth Olympic Games", but the XV Olympic Games and the 12th World Olympics, due to the 1916, 1940 and 1944 races had been canceled. The speech was followed by the raising of the Olympic flag and the " Olympic fanfare" composed by Aarre Merikanto. The President's speech was as follows:


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The Olympic flame was lit by running heroes Paavo Nurmi (to the stadium) and Hannes Kolehmainen (to the stadium tower). When Paavo Nurmi was announced to arrive at the stadium, athletes from the participating countries deviated from the formation to see the legend better. Only the lines of the Soviet Union and Finland remained in the line.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: After the Olympic flame was lit, the Archbishop Ilmari Salomies was due to say a prayer, but German Barbara Rotbraut-Pleyer, nicknamed “White Angel of the Games”, had jumped from the auditorium onto the track and ran straight to the speaker's seat. Organizers quickly removed Pleyer, who had time to say just a few words into the microphone. Pleyer's purpose was to proclaim a message of peace. Heikki Savolainen, a gymnast who was competing in his fifth consecutive Olympic games, swore the Olympic oath on behalf of the athletes.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: There were 4,925 athletes from 69 countries, of which the Soviet Union first participated in the Olympics and Germany for the first time since World War II. A total of 149 competitions were held in 17 different sports.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The biggest heroes of the Games were Viktor Chukarin of the Soviet Union, who won four gymnastics Olympic gold medals, and Czechoslovakia's Emil Zátopek, who won three running golds. The United States achieved the most medals; 40 gold, 19 silver, 17 bronze. The host country, Finland, had 6 gold, 3 silver and 13 bronze medals.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Shooting was competed in seven events, six of which (rifle sports) were conducted at the Malmi Shooting Range in moderately difficult wind conditions. Tough results were still fired in Helsinki, as the top four deer shooting broke world records. World records for knee position were also broken in free and small rifles. Shotgun shooting took place at the Huopalahti shooting range.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Ten countries took medals from the shooting. Norway was the only country to win two gold medals, with the Soviet Union winning the most medals. Boris Andreyev was the only shooter in the Soviet Union to win two medals. A Finnish winner was already celebrated in a miniature rifle when Vilho Ylönen had time to play on the radio "Björneborgarnas marsch". However, in an hour-long countdown, the Norwegian Erling Asbjørn Kongshaug was declared the winner of the competition.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The football tournament started even before the official opening, as the one-piece qualifiers took place on 15–16 July in Kotka, Lahti, Tampere, Turku and Helsinki. There were 27 countries registered for the tournament, but Saarland and Mexico dropped out before the Games.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Hungary "Golden Team" won the gold when it knocked down the Yugoslavia in the final with a score of 2–0. Sweden won a bronze medal. In the final, the Olympic Stadium had 58 553 paid spectators, the largest number of spectators in Finland watching a football match.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The first meeting between the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in football is still amongst the most famous matches. On the political level, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and the Yugoslav leader Josip Tito split in 1948, which resulted in Yugoslavia being excluded from the Communist Information Bureau. The origin of the conflict was Tito's refusal to submit to Stalin's interpretations and visions of politics and in process becoming a Soviet satellite state. Before the match, both Tito and Stalin sent telegrams to their national teams, which showed just how important it was for the two head of states. Yugoslavia led 5–1, but a Soviet comeback in the last 15 minutes resulted in a 5–5 draw. The match was replayed, Yugoslavia winning 3–1. The defeat to the archrivals hit Soviet football hard, and after just three games played in the season, CSKA Moscow, who had made up most of the USSR squad, was forced to withdraw from the league and later disbanded. Furthermore, Boris Arkadiev, who coached both USSR and CDKA, was stripped of his Merited Master of Sports of the USSR title.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: 23 teams entered basketball, ten of which made it directly to the actual tournament. The remaining 13 countries took the final six places in the Olympic tournament before the official opening of the Olympic Games.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: In basketball, gold was won by the United States, who defeated Soviet Union 36–25. The final match was relatively slow-paced, as the Soviet Union tried to keep up with the United States by freezing the game. The United States had already clearly defeated the Soviet Union 86–58 in the tournament. The bronze was won by Uruguay, who also organized a mass battle in the tournament after being dissatisfied with the referee's work.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Field hockey was included in the Helsinki Olympic Games in the range of sports on the condition that a maximum of 12 teams register for the Games. In the end, 16 teams applied for the competition, from which the International Field Hockey Federation selected 12 countries to participate in the competition venue. Eventually, four countries dropped out of the Games, so anyone was able to take part in the Olympic tournament.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The tournament started with two rounds before the Games opened, and the final match was held on July 24. India and Netherlands met in the Velodrome final with India winning its fifth consecutive gold under captaincy of Kunwar Digvijay Singh with a score of 6–1.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Canoeing competitions were held Taivallahti 27–28 July. There were a total of 159 participants in eight men's and women's only races, coming from 21 countries.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Canoeing was a celebration in Finland, as four of the nine sports went to the host country. In addition, the Finns took one silver and a bronze. The double gold medalists were Kurt Wires and Yrjö Hietanen who won the kayak duo's 1,000 and 10,000 meters. In the only women's sport, the 500-meter kayak unit, gold was taken by Sylvi Saimo, who was the first Finnish female gold medalist in the summer competitions. The second most successful country in kayaking was Sweden, which won one gold and three silver.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Helsinki Olympics fencing competitions were held on the Espoo side of the Westend Tennis Hall. The men competed with Épée, sabre and foil in both personal competition and team competition. The women had only a personal competition for foil in the program. There were 250 men and 37 women from 32 countries.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Italy, Hungary and France were, as usual, the best fencing countries and took all the gold medals. A total of six countries reached medals. The Mangiarot brothers Edoardo and Dario took a double victory over the film. Hungarian swordsmen won a triple victory over the preserve.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The Modern pentathlon Olympic competitions was held at Ahvenisto Hämeenlinna. A total of 51 competitors from 19 countries entered the sport. For the first time in Olympic history, the sport also included a team competition.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Sweden, Hungary and Finland shared the medals. Sweden's Lars Hall won the individual competition, and Hungary was the best in the team competition. Before Hall, all Olympic winners of the sport have been officers. However, Hall was a carpenter by profession.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Töölö Sports Hall held Olympic boxing between 28 July to 2 August in ten weight classes. There were a total of 240 participants. A total of 17 countries won medals. The most successful boxing country was the United States, which won five gold. The Soviet Union won the most medals, but its boxers did not win a single championship. Finnish boxers reached five medals. In the middle series, the American Floyd Patterson knocked out Romanian Vasile Tiță in a record-breaking 42 seconds. The American Norvel Lee, who won the heavyweight series, was awarded as the most technical boxer in the Games. In the heavyweight series Ed Sanders got gold when the Swedish Ingemar Johansson was rejected for his passivity. Johansson did not receive his silver medal until 1982.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Wrestling was held in Helsinki in eight weight classes in both Greco-Roman wrestling and freestyle wrestling. All finals were held in the larger Exhibition Hall I, but freestyle wrestling events were held in the smaller Exhibition Hall II. Free button competitions were held on 20–23. July, and Greco-Roman wrestling matches took place on 24–27 July.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The most successful wrestling country was the Soviet Union, whose athletes won six gold and a total of ten medals in the sport. Sweden dominated free wrestling and received the second highest number of medals in wrestling overall. The overwhelming athlete in wrestling was the Soviet Johannes Kotkas, who competed in the heavy series of Greco-Roman wrestling. He managed to beat all his opponents in less than five minutes.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The Olympic weightlifting competition was held in seven weight classes with 141 competitors. Initially, there were to be only six weight classes, but a light heavyweight series was also added to the program, as a result of which the weight limit for the heavyweight series increased from 82.5 kilograms to 90 kilograms. The addition of the new weight class took place so late that there was no time to change the race program. Weightlifting was carried out according to plan at the Exhibition Hall on 25–27 July.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: All seven gold medals were awarded to athletes from the United States and the Soviet Union. The Soviets won a total of seven medals, but the Americans took four championships, while the Soviets only took three. A total of five world records were set in weightlifting. In the heavyweight series John Davis continued his superiority, Davis had not lost a single event since 1938 and continued with his victory in Helsinki as well.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The competition took place in the waters of Helsinki from 20 to 28 May in five different categories. Larger boats sailed in front of Harmaja lighthouse lighthouse island, and the Finn race was held near Liuskasaari. A total of 93 crews from 29 countries took part in the competition.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The United States, Norway and Sweden took three medals. The United States was the only country to reach two gold medals in sailing. In the Finn that developed from the Firefly class, the Danish Paul Elvstrøm won the overwhelming championship. The gold medal was the second in Elvstrøm's career. He later became the first athlete to win the same sport four times in a row (individual disciplines).


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: In cycling, medals were awarded in six sports, four for track cycling and two for road racing. In total, 214 competitors from 36 countries took part in the cycling. Track cycling competitions were held from 29 to 31 July and road driving on 2 August.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: A total of seven countries collected medals and gold medals went to Italy, Australia and Belgium. Italy was the most successful country with five medals. Two gold medals went to Australian Russell Mockridge, who won the championship in the kilometer time trial and with his partner in tandem racing, and the Belgian André Noyelle, who won the 190 kilometer road race personal competition and team competition.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Equestrian events were competed in dressage, Eventing and show jumping in person and in team competition in a total of six sports. Eight countries won medals in horseback riding, and Sweden was by far the most successful country. The Swedes won both races in both dressage and field riding.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: For the events in first time non-military officers including women were allowed to take part in dressage events in Helsinki. In a show jumping, Danish Lis Hartel, paralyzed from her knees down, was the first woman to win a riding medal after finishing second in the Olympics.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Rowers competed in seven sports from the 20th to the 23rd of July. The competition was held in Meilahti, as Taivallahti, where the canoeing competitions took place, was too open to the sea breeze. There were a total of 409 entrants from 33 countries.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Representatives from fourteen countries won medals, and only American rowers won two gold medals. The youngest Olympic winner of the Games was seen in Rowing. In the coxswain duo, the French winning team included 14 years old Bernard Malivoire.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Diving competed in a total of four men's and women's events. The United States led the events, as nine of the 12 medals in the distribution went to the country. In addition to the United States, only France, Mexico and Germany won medals in the sport. Patricia McCormick won Olympic gold in the women from both the three-meter springboard and the ten-meter floor jump.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: At the Helsinki Swimming Stadium men competed in six sports and women in five sports. High-level competitions were held from July 25 to 2 August. Summer Olympics in London had resulted in significant progress in the sport, and every Olympic record was broken in each event.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The Americans dominated men's events and the Hungarians dominated women. Both countries won four gold medals. Ford Konno was the most successful swimmer with two gold medals and one silver. In the women's events Katalin Szőke won two gold medals and Éva Novák two silver in addition to the gold medal. The only world record in the Games was set by the Hungarian women's 4 × 100 meter freestyle message team. The Helsinki Olympics, was the last instance where competitors could participate in Breaststroke in the butterfly stroke. In the men's events, no athlete swimming in the breaststroke style made it to the finals. In women, Novák won silver.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: A total of 21 countries took part in the water polo tournament. The initial series of the Games was to be played in the offshore pools, but due to the coolness of the water, the International Swimming Federation ordered all the matches to be played at the Swimming Stadium. Because of this, some of the matches in the first series had to be played as early as six in the morning.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The water polo championship was decided in the final block, where the four teams faced each other once. Hungary and Yugoslavia ended in a draw after winning two other matches and playing 2–2 each other. Hungary won gold with a better goal difference.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The 1952 Olympic gymnastics was dominated by the Soviet Union, which participated in the Games for the first time with athletes winning nine gold medals and took a total of 22 medals. Finland, Germany and Switzerland, who previously dominated the gymnastics at the Olympics, were content with more modest success. A total of fifteen medals were awarded, eight men's and seven women's sports.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The most personal medals in gymnastics were taken by Viktor Chukarin in the men's events and Maria Gorokhovskaya in the women's events. Chukarin won four gold and two silver. Gorokhovskaya won medals in every women's sport. Her seven-medal catch (two gold and five silver) is a record for one women's Olympics.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Athletics was competed in 33 sports, 24 for men and 9 for women. By far the most successful state was the United States, which won 31 medals, nine of which were gold. The Soviet Union reached 17 medals, but won only two championships, and the eight-medal country Germany was left without first places. The second medalist was Czechoslovakia, with four of the five medals being the brightest.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Emil Zátopek won the 5,000 and 10,000 meters, as well as the marathon, which he had never run before. On the women's side, the Australian Marjorie Jackson won the 100 and 200 meter runs. World records were set in seven events. In the triple jump Adhemar Ferreira da Silva broke the old world record four times. In the decathlon, Bob Mathias made a new ME and took the victory with a total score of 7,887 points, more than 900 points to the next. Josy Barthel of Luxembourg pulled a major surprise by winning the 1500 m.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: According to the Olympic rules, the organizer of the Games was allowed to choose between two types of demonstration sports, one from abroad and one from Finland. In connection with the Helsinki Games, a handball and baseball match was held. In the handball match of the Games, Sweden and Denmark faced at the Olympic Stadium. The level of playing outside was modest due to heavy rain. Sweden won by a goal from 19 to 11.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The baseball match was also played at the Olympic Stadium. The Finnish Baseball Federation and Finnish Workers' Sports Federation teams competed in the event. The Baseball Federation won the match 8–4. During the breaks in both shows, the audience was entertained by the performances of Finnish male and female gymnasts.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: With an annual average temperature of , Helsinki is one of the coldest cities to have hosted the Summer Olympics.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Most of the competition venues were located in Helsinki Metropolitan Area. Modern pentathlon and some field hockey games were held in Hämeenlinna and some football games by Tampere, Lahti, Kotka and Turku.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The main arena was the Olympic Stadium, which hosted the opening and closing ceremonies, athletics competitions, football semi-finals and finals, as well as the show jumping competition “Prix des Nations” were held. The stadium was built for the 1940 Olympics and opened as early as 1938, but had suffered under the bombing of World War II. It had to undergo expansion and refurbishment work. The concrete auditorium section was expanded and a new temporary wooden auditorium was built on the south and north curves and on the east side, which increased the Stadium's audience capacity to about 70,000.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The swimming competitions were held at Helsinki Swimming Stadium, located just a few hundred meters east of the Olympic Stadium and with three pools: a racing, diving and children's pool. The swimming stadium could accommodate about 9,500 spectators, while the wooden eastern and standing stands for the Games could accommodate a total of about 6,000 people. The Fair Hall near the stadiums (now Töölö Sports Hall) many of the indoor events were held in two separate halls. In the bigger hall, men competed in gymnastics, wrestling and boxing. The smaller hall hosts the women's gymnastics, freestyle wrestling, weightlifting and basketball finals. Basketball first round matches were played at Tennis Palace and fencing competitions were held at the Westend tennis center in Espoo.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The shooting events took place at the Malmi shooting range 11 kilometers from the center of Helsinki, with the exception of clay pigeon shooting. Clay pigeon shooting was performed on the Finnish Hunters' Association track Huopalahti.Ruskeasuo competed in dressage as well as in Tali and Laakso in field riding.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The Töölö Rowing Stadium was built for rowing and canoeing events one kilometer from Taivallahti. However, the place was not accepted as a place for rowing competitions, as it was open to the sea breeze. The rowing took place in Meilahti about three kilometers from the Stadium. The place was considerably more sheltered than Taivallahti. Harmajan on the lighthouse island a couple of kilometers off the coast of Helsinki was the starting and finishing area for larger sailing classes. Finn was the starting and finish point of the race Liuskasaari close to the coast.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The Marathon running route was north of the Stadium to Käpylä, Pakinkylä, Tuomarinkylä, Vantaa, Tikkurila and Korso. In Tuusula, Mätäkivenmäki there was a turning point from which the runners set off on their way back to the Stadium. The 50-kilometer walk was organized along the same route. A memorial stone was later erected at the turning point along Old Tuusulantie.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: A swimming stadium was built in Hämeenlinna for Åland for the pentathlon. The other four pentathlon events were also held in the vicinity of Åland.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: A total of 69 nations participated in these Games, up from 59 in the 1948 Games. Thirteen nations made their first Olympic appearance in 1952: The Bahamas, the People's Republic of China, Gold Coast (now Ghana), Guatemala, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Netherlands Antilles, Nigeria, Soviet Union (USSR), Thailand, and Vietnam.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Japan and Germany were both reinstated and permitted to send athletes after being banned for 1948 for their instigation of World War II. Due to the division of Germany, German athletes from Saar entered a separate team for the only time. Only West Germany would provide athletes for the actual German team, since East Germany refused to participate in a joint German team.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The 50th anniversary of the Helsinki Olympic Games was the main motif for one of the first Finnish euro silver commemorative coins, the €10 silver coin minted in 2002. The reverse depicts part of the Helsinki Olympic Stadium, as well as a section of the 1952 500 markka coin. The obverse has lettering SUOMI FINLAND 10 EURO, a flame, and Finland is the only country highlighted on Earth.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: In total 2,394,099 admission tickets were printed for the Helsinki games. About two million of them were made Bank of Finland banknote printing works. To prevent counterfeiting, tickets were printed on watermark banknote paper. Printing began in July 1951 and lasted four months.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: In early 1952, the race organizers opened their own ticket offices for sales at home and abroad. They were sold abroad in 52 countries. Half of the more than two million admission tickets were put up for sale abroad. However, only about 250,000 tickets were sold. However, foreign tourists also bought a lot of tickets from Finland. A total of 1,376,512 tickets were sold for various competition events. There were four different price categories. Prices varied between 300 and 2,100 FIM, which in current currency corresponds to about 9–65 euros. Ticket revenue totaled approximately FIM 965 million, or EUR 29.7 million.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Entrance tickets were printed in ten different colors, depending on the venue and the auditorium. Except for the color, the flags were all similar in appearance. The texts in Finnish, Swedish, English and French were printed on them, and the sport was also indicated by a symbol in the upper left corner. A spectator map was printed on the back of the entrance tickets. Tickets sold to Finland only marked their Price Category, foreign tickets also marked the price US Dollars.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: In addition to tickets made by the organizers, the City of Hämeenlinna printed its own entry tickets for modern pentathlon competitions held locally. They were simpler in design than other flags.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The Olympics influenced the Finns, the City of Helsinki and the image of foreigners. The Olympics can even be considered a symbolic decision for the post-war years in Finland. Reconstruction of the land was practically completed in 1952, although at the beginning of the decade many had lived in temporary housing. The last war reparations was paid in September 1952, and regulatory policy was abolished at the same time.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: On the closing day of the Games, 3 August 1952, President J.K. Paasikivi wrote in his diary: "The Olympics were a great success. Foreigners, including the magazines, have praised the good organization. This is a good thing and advertising for us."


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Helsinki cityscape was clearly a new impetus for the Olympics. The development of Helsinki had already begun in the late 1930s, when Parliament House, Lasipalatsi and Pääposti were built. Olympic dreams motivate many construction projects. Helsinki's entertainment and nightlife was modest compared to previous race hosts. Many temporary restaurants and entertainment venues were set up in the city for the Games. The city had been planning a fair for decades, but even for this project, the Olympic host gave the final impetus. After the competition was confirmed, the city of Helsinki started looking for a place for an amusement park in Alppila. The Linnanmäki Amusement Park was opened on 27 May 1950 on a plot leased in December 1949. The Olympics also developed Helsinki's infrastructure with the construction of a new airport, Olympic Pier, new asphalt and the city's first traffic lights.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: The impact of the Olympics on Finns is difficult to define. It was certainly good for Finns' self-confidence to create a successful major event together and at the same time get a new kind of contact with the interaction between peoples. For the first time, many Finns were in contact with non-Caucasian foreigners at the Games. At the same time, the Olympics united Finns in their disputes. For example, Finnish Workers' Sports Federation and Finnish National Sport Federation strong disputes between were on a break during the Olympics, even though they continued even after the Games.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: With internationalization, new products also arrived in Finland. The best known of these is Coca-Cola (Coca-Cola arrived in Finland as early as the 1930s through Stockmann). In addition, chewing gum was imported for the first time, and Alko launched new drinks, including Gin Long Drink.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Finland's relations with United Kingdom clearly warmed up thanks to the Olympics. This was particularly influenced by the fact that Prince Philip, who came to visit the Games, received a warm welcome in Finland. After the Second World War, Britain had been rude to Finland, but the Olympics showed that Finland belonged to the Western world.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: In Finland, the Helsinki Olympics are sometimes called the last real Olympics, when trying to emphasize the nature of the Games as the last Games of the true Olympic spirit, a sporting and non-commercial event. For example, a book about competitions written by Antero Raevuori is named after this saying. However, the phrase was invented in Finland and is not used elsewhere in the world. It was developed at the turn of the 1970s and 1980s, when doping began to become more widespread in sports, 1972 Summer Olympics the Munich massacre, and the 1976, 1980 and 1984 the Summer Olympics were widely boycotted.


title: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: In a way, the Helsinki Olympics were a return to smaller competitions due to resources, as Finland is the smallest country to host the Summer Olympics. However the 1956 Summer Olympics involved fewer participating athletes than in Helsinki, and in practice it was not until the 1970s that the Games clearly began to expand. The Helsinki Olympics were still relatively non-commercial, although the Polish press, for example, barked at the Helsinki Olympics as “competitions for disgusting traders”. The Helsinki Games were also not much smaller in terms of marketing than the following Games, and marketing was well known in the Olympic world with Kodak supporting the Games as far back as the 1896 Summer Olympics.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Nelson Ramón Cruz Martínez Jr. (born July 1, 1980) is a Dominican-American professional baseball designated hitter and right fielder who is currently a free agent. He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Milwaukee Brewers, Texas Rangers, Baltimore Orioles, Seattle Mariners, Minnesota Twins, Tampa Bay Rays and Washington Nationals. Cruz is a seven-time MLB All-Star. Known for his power hitting, he has won four Silver Slugger Awards and two Edgar Martínez Awards. After signing with the New York Mets organization in 1998, Cruz played his first major league game in 2005 with the Milwaukee Brewers. He had a breakthrough season in 2009, hitting 33 home runs for the Texas Rangers. Cruz played for the Rangers in the World Series in 2010 and 2011, and was named the Most Valuable Player of the 2011 American League Championship Series. On August 5, 2013, Cruz was suspended for 50 games by MLB for his involvement in the Biogenesis baseball scandal. In 2014, he led the major leagues with 40 home runs as a member of the Baltimore Orioles. He led the American League (AL) with 119 RBI in 2017 while playing for the Seattle Mariners. Cruz hit 346 home runs during the 2010s, which was the highest number of home runs hit by any player in that decade. In 2020, based on his work in the community, Cruz was selected as the Marvin Miller Man of the Year and the ESPYs Muhammad Ali Sports Humanitarian Award winner, and in 2021, he received the Roberto Clemente Award.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz was born on July 1, 1980, in Las Matas de Santa Cruz, Dominican Republic. His father, Nelson Cruz Sr., also played professional baseball in the Dominican Republic. Both his parents are successful professors and they raised Cruz and his two sisters, Nelsy and Olga, in a well-to-do Dominican neighborhood. Growing up, Cruz's passion was for basketball, not baseball. His idol was Michael Jordan and as a teenager Cruz played for the Dominican Republic Junior National Basketball Team. He attended the high school where his father taught history. In addition to playing sports, Cruz worked as a mechanic's helper with his uncle at a tractor factory. He also shined shoes and learned how to repair them. In September 2012, he donated $20,000 to help buy a firetruck for Las Matas de Santa Cruz, enlisting AMR's help in also donating two ambulances.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: On February 17, 1998, Cruz signed with the New York Mets organization as a non-drafted free agent. Cruz played for three years in the Dominican Summer League.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: On August 30, 2000, the Mets traded Cruz to the Oakland Athletics in exchange for shortstop Jorge Velandia, as starting shortstop Rey Ordóñez was out with a broken arm, and Melvin Mora, Mike Bordick, and Kurt Abbott proved unable to fill in. Cruz spent the 2001 season with the AZL Athletics, slashing .250/.283/.409 with 3 home runs and 16 RBI in 23 games. The following season, he played for the Low-A Vancouver Canadians, batting .276/.316/.397 with 4 home runs and 25 RBI. In 2003, Cruz spent the year in Single-A with the Kane County Cougars and hit .238/.292/.430 career-highs in home runs (20) and RBI (85). Cruz split the 2004 season between the High-A Modesto A's, Double-A Midland RockHounds, and Triple-A Sacramento River Cats, and set new career-highs in home runs (26) and RBI (100) while batting .326/.390/.562 in 137 games between the three teams.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: On December 16, 2004, Cruz was traded to the Milwaukee Brewers in exchange for infielder Keith Ginter. Cruz was assigned to the Double-A Huntsville Stars to begin the 2005 season before receiving a promotion to the Triple-A Nashville Sounds.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz made his major league debut with the Brewers on September 17, 2005, as a late inning defensive replacement at right field wearing #8 against the Houston Astros. He had one hit in five at-bats for the Brewers in limited action. His only hit was a double off Aaron Harang of the Cincinnati Reds on September 28. Cruz was assigned to Nashville to begin the 2006 season and hit .302/.378/.528 in 102 games with the team.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: On July 28, 2006, the Brewers sent Cruz and outfielder Carlos Lee to the Texas Rangers in exchange for Laynce Nix, Kevin Mench, Francisco Cordero and minor league pitcher Julian Cordero. Cruz would wear #17 during his time with Texas. He hit his first career home run on July 31 against Willie Eyre of the Twins. On August 16, Cruz hit the first grand slam of his career off of Kevin Gregg of the Angels. On September 4, 2006, against the Athletics, he hit an inside-the-park home run in which his bat broke on impact. In spring training for the 2007 season, Cruz got off to a rough start, but finished strong by hitting three home runs in the final week, including a walk-off home run in the final game of spring training.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz failed to make the major league roster prior to the 2008 season and cleared waivers after being designated for assignment because he had exhausted his minor league options. With the Triple-A Oklahoma RedHawks, Cruz had a .341 batting average and had 37 home runs and 100 runs batted in (RBI); for his efforts, Cruz won the 2008 Pacific Coast League MVP Award. During his time with the Redhawks, Cruz began using an open batting stance, which helped him see the ball better and become a more productive hitter. On August 25, 2008, the Rangers purchased Cruz's contract from the RedHawks.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz had a breakthrough season in 2009. In July, he was selected as an All-Star as a replacement for injured Torii Hunter. He also participated in the 2009 Home Run Derby, finishing second to Brewers first baseman Prince Fielder. Cruz finished the season with 33 home runs.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz and teammate Ian Kinsler each hit three home runs in the 2010 AL Division Series against the Tampa Bay Rays, marking only the second time in Major League history that two teammates each hit three homers in a postseason series of five games or fewer (joining Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig, who did it in the 1928 World Series). In Game 5 of the 2010 World Series vs. the San Francisco Giants, Cruz hit a home run off of Tim Lincecum in the 7th inning. It was around this time that Cruz began to refer to his baseball bat as a "boomstick."


title: Nelson Cruz

text: In 2011, Cruz and Ian Kinsler became the first two teammates in major league history to homer in each of the first three games in a season, joining Dean Palmer (1992) as the only Texas ballplayers to ever homer in the first three games of the season. Also, in his very next game, Cruz became the third player ever to homer in each of the first four games of the season, joining Willie Mays and Mark McGwire.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Nelson Cruz became the second hitter to hit a home run into the upper deck in right field as a right-handed batter in the history of Rangers Ballpark in Arlington. The other was hit by former Ranger Chad Curtis, during the 2000 season. On July 22, he had 8 RBIs in a game against the Toronto Blue Jays; it was Cruz's career high in RBIs.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: In 2011, Cruz batted .263 with 29 home runs. He led AL right fielders in range factor for the third straight year (2.29). On October 10, 2011, Cruz hit a walk-off grand slam in Game 2 of the ALCS versus the Detroit Tigers. He became the first player in baseball history to hit a walk-off grand slam in a postseason game.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz hit a 3-run home run to seal Game 4 of the ALCS for the Rangers against the Tigers. He became the first player to hit multiple extra-inning home runs in the same postseason series. During the 2011 ALCS, Cruz hit six home runs and had 13 RBIs, both postseason series records. His efforts earned him the 2011 ALCS MVP award. Cruz hit a solo home run to put the Texas Rangers up 6 to 4 against the St. Louis Cardinals in Game 6 of the 2011 World Series. The home run allowed Cruz to tie the record for most postseason home runs in a season at 8; he shares the achievement with Carlos Beltrán and Barry Bonds.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: In January 2013, Cruz was linked to buying performance-enhancing drugs from a clinic based in Miami. On August 5, 2013, Cruz was suspended 50 games by Major League Baseball for his involvement in the Biogenesis scandal. Cruz in a statement said that that in November of 2011 to January, 2012 had an undiagnosed "serious gastrointestinal infection, helicobacter pylori," which went undiagnosed for over a month. According to Bosch the head of Biogenesis Lab, he sold $4,000 of product to Nelson Cruz, whom he nicknames "Mohamad." Cruz is one of 13 players who have been banned for their connection to the anti-aging clinic.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz became a free agent following the 2013 season, turning down a $14 million qualifying offer from the Rangers. The fact that he had draft pick compensation attached to him and lingering concerns over his recent PED suspension made it difficult for him to find a new deal during the offseason.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: On February 24, 2014, Cruz signed a one-year, $8 million, contract with the Baltimore Orioles. Cruz wore #23 with the Orioles and continued wearing 23 in his stops with the Seattle Mariners, Minnesota Twins, and Tampa Bay Rays.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: On July 5, Cruz had his first career 5-hit game, with two singles, two doubles, and a home run, falling a triple shy of the cycle (he was tagged out just short of third base), against the Red Sox. He was elected into his third MLB All-Star Game, as a designated hitter, for the American League. On September 7, 2014, in a game against the Tampa Bay Rays, Cruz went 4-for-5 with two home runs and 7 RBIs, including his 100th RBI of the season. His previous season high in RBIs had been 90, set in 2012. Cruz drove in all 7 runs the Orioles scored. In 159 games played in 2014, Cruz had an MLB-leading 40 home runs along with a .271 batting average, 32 doubles, and 108 RBI.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: In the first game of the 2014 ALDS, Cruz homered against the Detroit Tigers' Max Scherzer. It was his 15th home run in 35 career postseason games, tying Cruz for 10th place on the all-time postseason home run list with Babe Ruth. In the third game of the 2014 ALDS, Cruz hit his 16th postseason home run against the Tigers' David Price, tying him for 9th place on the all-time postseason home run list with Carlos Beltrán. Cruz declared free agency after rejecting the Orioles' qualifying offer of $15.3 million.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz was named the starting DH for the 2015 American League All-Star team, marking the 4th time (3rd consecutive) that he was named an All-Star. He went on to have arguably the best season of his career in 2015, hitting .302 with a career-high 44 home runs and 93 RBIs. He hit the third-longest home run in MLB in 2015, at 483 feet. He also won his first career Silver Slugger Award, and finished 6th in the American League MVP voting.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: In 2016, Cruz batted .287 with 43 home runs and 104 RBIs. He was not selected as an All-Star, but did finish 15th in the American League MVP voting. His batted balls had the highest average exit velocity of the season in the major leagues, at 94.4 miles per hour. He also hit the second-longest home run in MLB in 2016, at 493 feet.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz was selected as an All-Star in 2017 for the fifth time in his career. On July 7, he hit his 300th career home run in a Mariners win over the Oakland Athletics. Cruz led the AL in RBIs with 119, and led the Mariners in home runs (39), runs scored (91), extra base hits (67), walks (70), OPS (.924), on-base percentage (.375), and slugging percentage (.549). He won the Edgar Martínez Award, also known as the Outstanding Designated Hitter Award.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz was named to the 2018 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. He batted .256 for the season, along with 37 home runs and 97 RBIs. He was the 8th-oldest player in the American League. He became a free agent after the 2018 season.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: On January 2, 2019, Cruz signed a one-year contract with the Minnesota Twins worth $14.3 million. The contract also included a $12 million team option for the 2020 season.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: On September 22, 2019, Cruz hit his 400th career home run and 40th home run of the season versus the Kansas City Royals. He batted .311/.392/.639 with 41 home runs and 108 RBI in 120 games on the season. He produced the highest hard-contact percentage of all major league batters, at 52.5%. He was the fifth-oldest player in the American League. For first time in his MLB career, he did not play in the field; he played in 114 games as a DH and another six as a pinch hitter. His 1.031 OPS matched the club record, and his home run and RBI totals set club records at DH. He ranked second in the AL in OPS and SLG, tied for third in home runs, placed sixth in batting, and seventh in RBI. He followed Hank Aaron and Barry Bonds as the only players to hit 40 home runs in their age-39 season or after. These accomplishments helped net Cruz his third career Silver Slugger Award. Cruz would also win the Edgar Martinez Award for the second time.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz hit 346 home runs during the 2010s, which was the highest number of home runs hit by any player in that decade.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: The Twins picked up Cruz' option for 2020, in which he batted .303 with a .992 OPS, 16 home runs and 33 RBI. Although slowed by a sore knee later in the season, Cruz appeared in 53 of 60 games. He doubled twice in a span of six at bats in a season-ending AL Wild Card Series loss to the Houston Astros. He ranked third in the AL in OBP (.397), fourth in OPS, fifth in SLG (.595), tied for fifth in home runs and seventh in batting average, leading to winning the Silver Slugger Award at DH, his fourth overall Silver Slugger. He finished sixth in the AL MVP voting.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: For his efforts assisting the community, Cruz was selected as the 2020 Marvin Miller Man of the Year by the MLB Players Association, as that player whom his peers deem earned "most respect based on his leadership on the field and in the community," notably in his hometown of Las Matas de Santa Cruz. He also was the ESPYs Muhammed Ali Sports Humanitarian Award winner in 2020. Cruz donated a police station, a fire station, replaced an aging ambulance and spearheaded a $400,000 donation drive to help alleviate food shortages induced by the COVID-19 pandemic. His leadership inspired his teammates to assist in their own communities.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz became a free agent following the 2020 World Series. On February 10, 2021, Cruz signed a one-year, $13 million contract to stay with Minnesota for the 2021 season. Cruz was named an All-Star for the team in 2021, and hit .294/.370/.537 with 19 home runs and 50 RBI in 85 games.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: In 2021, TheAthletic.com called Cruz "one of the game’s elite power hitters", while CBS Sports described him as "a steady purveyor of elite power production".


title: Nelson Cruz

text: On July 22, 2021, Cruz was traded to the Tampa Bay Rays alongside Calvin Faucher in exchange for Joe Ryan and Drew Strotman.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: In March 2022, Cruz signed a one-year, $12 million contract with a mutual option for 2023 with the Washington Nationals. On August 15, Cruz went 2 for 4 against the San Diego Padres and recorded 2,000 career hits in his MLB career.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz ended the season batting .234/.313/.337 in 448 at bats with 10 home runs and 64 RBIs in 124 games at DH, grounding into 16 double plays (9th in the NL). He was the oldest qualified batter in major league baseball.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz was selected Dominican Republic national baseball team at the 2009 World Baseball Classic, 2013 World Baseball Classic, 2017 World Baseball Classic. Cruz and the Dominican Republic national baseball team won the 2013 World Baseball Classic and Cruz was named to the 2013 All-World Baseball Classic team.


title: Nelson Cruz

text: Cruz has one daughter and three sons. He resides in Las Matas De Santa Cruz, Dominican Republic in the offseason.


title: Percussion cap

text: The percussion cap or percussion primer, introduced in the early 1820s, is a type of single-use percussion ignition device for muzzle loader firearm locks enabling them to fire reliably in any weather condition. This crucial invention gave rise to the cap lock mechanism or percussion lock system using percussion caps struck by the hammer to set off the gunpowder charge in percussion guns including percussion rifles and cap and ball firearms. Any firearm using a caplock mechanism is a percussion gun. Any long gun with a cap-lock mechanism and rifled barrel is a percussion rifle. Cap and ball describes cap-lock firearms discharging a single bore-diameter spherical bullet with each shot.


title: Percussion cap

text: The percussion cap is a small cylinder of copper or brass with one closed end. Inside the closed end is a small amount of a shock-sensitive explosive material such as mercuric fulminate (discovered in 1800; it was the only practical detonator used from about 1850 to the early 20th century). The caplock mechanism consists of a hammer and a "nipple" (sometimes referred to as a "cone"). The nipple contains a hollow conduit which goes into the rearmost part of the gun barrel, and the percussion cap is placed over the nipple hole. Pulling the trigger releases the hammer, which strikes the percussion cap against the nipple (which serves as an anvil), crushes it and detonates the mercury fulminate inside, which releases sparks that travel through the hollow nipple into the barrel and ignite the main powder charge. Percussion caps have been made in small sizes for pistols and larger sizes for rifles and muskets.


title: Percussion cap

text: Earlier firearms used flintlock mechanisms causing a piece of flint to strike a steel frizzen producing sparks to ignite a pan of priming powder and thereby fire the gun's main powder charge. The flintlock mechanism replaced older ignition systems such as the matchlock and wheellock, but all were prone to misfire in wet weather.


title: Percussion cap

text: The discovery of fulminates was made by Edward Charles Howard (1774–1816) in 1800. The invention that made the percussion cap possible using the recently discovered fulminates was patented by the Reverend Alexander John Forsyth of Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in 1807. The rudimentary percussion system was invented by Forsyth as a solution to the problem that birds would startle when smoke puffed from the powder pan of his flintlock shotgun, giving them sufficient warning to escape the shot. This early percussion lock system operated in a nearly identical fashion to flintlock firearms and used a fulminating primer made of fulminate of mercury, chlorate of potash, sulphur and charcoal, ignited by concussion. His invention of a fulminate-primed firing mechanism deprived the birds of their early warning system, both by avoiding the initial puff of smoke from the flintlock powder pan, as well as shortening the interval between the trigger pull and the shot leaving the muzzle. Forsyth patented his "scent bottle" ignition system in 1807. However, it was not until after Forsyth's patents expired that the conventional percussion cap system was developed. Joseph Manton invented a precursor to the percussion cap in 1814, comprising a copper tube that detonated when crushed. This was further developed in 1822 by the English-born American artist Joshua Shaw, as a copper cup filled with fulminates.


title: Percussion cap

text: The first purpose-built caplock guns were fowling pieces commissioned by sportsmen in Regency era England. Due to the mechanism's compactness and superior reliability compared to the flintlock, gunsmiths were able to manufacture pistols and long guns with two barrels. Early caplock handguns with two or more barrels and a single lock are known as turn-over or twister pistols, due to the need to manually rotate the second barrel to align with the hammer. With the addition of a third barrel, and a ratchet to mechanically turn the barrels while cocking the hammer, these caplock pistols evolved into the pepper-box revolver during the 1830s.


title: Percussion cap

text: The caplock offered many improvements over the flintlock. The caplock was easier and quicker to load, more resilient to weather conditions, and more reliable than the flintlock. Many older flintlock weapons were later converted into caplocks so that they could take advantage of these features.


title: Percussion cap

text: Joshua Shaw is sometimes credited (primarily by himself) with the development of the first metallic percussion cap in 1814, a reusable one made of iron, then a disposable pewter one in 1815 and finally a copper one in 1816. There is no independent proof of this since Shaw was advised he could not patent it due to Alexander Forsyth's patent for using fulminates to ignite guns being in force between 1807 and 1821. Shaw says he only shared the development of his innovation with a few associates (gunmakers and others) who were sworn to secrecy and never provided affidavits at a later date. Shaw's claim to have been the inventor remains clouded in controversy as he did not patent the idea until 1822, having moved to America in 1817. According to Lewis Winant, the US government's decision to award Shaw $25,000 as compensation for his invention being used by the Army was a mistake. Congress believed Shaw's patent was the earliest in the world and awarded him a large sum of money based on this belief. The investigators had overlooked two French patents and the earlier use of the idea in Britain. The earliest known patent anywhere in the world which specifically mentions a percussion cap and nipple was granted in France on 29th July 1818 to Francois Prelat, four years before Shaw's patent. Prelat made a habit of copying English patents and inventions and the mode of operation he describes is flawed. Secondly a French patent of a percussion cap and nipple had been granted in 1820 to Deboubert. However predating both of these French claims, the most likely inventor of the percussion cap, according to historian Sidney James Gooding, was Joseph Egg, around 1817, . There were other earlier claims. Col. Peter Hawker in 1830 simultaneously claimed and denied being the inventor. "I do not wish to say I was the inventor of it - very probably not" but then immediately recounts that he came up with the idea of simplifying a Manton patch-lock, which could be troublesome, by designing a cap and nipple arrangement around 1816 when the patch lock was patented. He says he then presented a drawing to a reluctant Joseph Manton to make a few copper cap guns which were then sold. Hawker, seems to give Joseph Manton more of the glory eight years later in the 1838 edition of his 'Instructions to young Sportsmen', by stating categorically that "copper tubes and primers were decidedly invented by Joe Manton". By the 1850s Hawker was again claiming the invention for himself in his press advertisements.


title: Percussion cap

text: Despite many years of research by Winant, Gooding and De Witt Bailey, the jury is still out as the competing claims are based on personal accounts and have little or no independently verifiable evidence.


title: Percussion cap

text: While the metal percussion cap was the most popular and widely used type of primer, their small size made them difficult to handle under the stress of combat or while riding a horse. Accordingly, several manufacturers developed alternative, "auto-priming" systems. The "Maynard tape primer", for example, used a roll of paper "caps" much like today's toy cap gun. The Maynard tape primer was fitted to some firearms used in the mid-nineteenth century and a few saw brief use in the American Civil War. Other disc or pellet-type primers held a supply of tiny fulminate detonator discs in a small magazine. Cocking the hammer automatically advanced a disc into position. However, these automatic feed systems were difficult to make with the manufacturing systems in the early and mid-nineteenth century and generated more problems than they solved. They were quickly shelved in favor of a single percussion cap that, while unwieldy in some conditions, could be carried in sufficient quantities to make up for occasionally dropping one, while a jammed tape primer system would instead reduce the rifle to an awkward club.


title: Percussion cap

text: This invention was gradually improved, and came to be used, first in a steel cap and then in a copper cap, by various gunmakers and private individuals before coming into general military use nearly thirty years later. The alteration of the military flintlock to the percussion musket was easily accomplished by replacing the powder pan and steel frizzen with a nipple and by replacing the cock or hammer that held the flint by a smaller hammer formed with a hollow made to fit around the nipple when released by the trigger. On the nipple was placed the copper cap containing Shaw's detonating composition of three parts of chlorate of potash, two of fulminate of mercury and one of powdered glass. The hollow in the hammer contained the fragments of the cap if it fragmented, reducing the risk of injury to the firer's eyes. From the 1820s onwards, the armies of Britain, France, Russia, and America began converting their muskets to the new percussion system. Caplocks were generally applied to the British military musket (the Brown Bess) in 1842, a quarter of a century after the invention of percussion powder and after an elaborate government test at Woolwich in 1834. The first percussion firearm produced for the US military was the percussion carbine version (c.1833) of the M1819 Hall rifle. The Americans' breech loading caplock Hall rifles, muzzle loading rifled muskets and Colt Dragoon revolvers gave them an advantage over the smoothbore flintlock Brown Bess muskets used by Santa Anna's troops during the Mexican War. In Japan, matchlock pistols and muskets were converted to percussion from the 1850s onwards, and new guns based on existing designs were manufactured as caplocks.


title: Percussion cap

text: The Austrians instead used a variant of Manton's tube lock in their Augustin musket until the conventional caplock Lorenz rifle was introduced in 1855. The first practical solution for the problem of handling percussion caps in battle was the Prussian 1841 (Dreyse needle gun), which used a long needle to penetrate a paper cartridge filled with black powder and strike the percussion cap that was fastened to the base of the bullet. While it had a number of problems, it was widely used by the Prussians and other German states in the mid-nineteenth century and was a major factor in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. The needle gun originally fired paper cartridges containing a bullet, powder charge and percussion cap, but by the time of the Franco-Prussian War this had evolved into modern brass ammunition.


title: Percussion cap

text: The percussion cap brought about the invention of the modern cartridge case and made possible the general adoption of the breech-loading principle for all varieties of rifles, shotguns and pistols. After the American Civil War, Britain, France, and America began converting existing caplock guns to accept brass rimfire and centrefire cartridges. For muskets such as the 1853 Enfield and 1861 Springfield, this involved installing a firing pin in place of the nipple, and a trapdoor in the breech to accept the new bullets. Examples include the Trapdoor Springfield, Tabatière rifle, Westley Richards and Snider–Enfield conversions. The British Army used Snider Enfields contemporaneously with the Martini–Henry rifle until the .303 bolt action Lee–Metford repeating rifle was introduced in the 1880s. Later, military surplus Sniders were purchased as hunting and defensive weapons by British colonists and trusted local natives.


title: Percussion cap

text: Caplock revolvers such as the Colt Navy and Remington were also widely converted during the late 19th century, by replacing the existing cylinder with one designed for modern ammunition. These were used extensively by the Turks in the Russo-Turkish War, the US Cavalry during the Indian Wars, and also by gunfighters, lawmen, and outlaws in the old west.


title: Percussion cap

text: In the 1840s and 1850s, the percussion cap was first integrated into a metallic cartridge, where the bullet is held in by the casing, the casing is filled with gunpowder, and a primer is at the end. By the 1860s and 1870s, breech-loading metallic cartridges had made the percussion cap system obsolete.


title: Percussion cap

text: Today, reproduction percussion firearms are popular for recreational shooters and percussion caps are still available (though some modern muzzleloaders use shotshell primers instead of caps). Most percussion caps now use non-corrosive compounds such as lead styphnate.


title: Percussion cap

text: Caps are used in cartridges, grenades, rocket-propelled grenades and rescue flares. Percussion caps are also used in land mine fuzes, booby-trap firing devices and anti-handling devices. Most purpose-made military booby-trap firing devices contain some form of spring-loaded firing pin designed to strike a percussion cap connected to a detonator at one end. The detonator is inserted into an explosive charge—e.g., C-4 or a block of TNT. Triggering the booby-trap (e.g., by pulling on a trip-wire) releases the cocked firing pin that flips forward to strike the percussion cap, firing it and the attached detonator; the shock-wave from the detonator sets off the main explosive charge.


title: Mass production

text: Mass production, also known as flow production or continuous production, is the production of substantial amounts of standardized products in a constant flow, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods.


title: Mass production

text: The term "mass production" was popularized by a 1926 article in the "Encyclopædia Britannica" supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. "The New York Times" used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the "Britannica" article.


title: Mass production

text: The concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products: from fluids and particulates handled in bulk (food, fuel, chemicals and mined minerals), to parts and assemblies of parts (household appliances and automobiles).


title: Mass production

text: Some mass production techniques, such as standardized sizes and production lines, predate the Industrial Revolution by many centuries; however, it was not until the introduction of machine tools and techniques to produce interchangeable parts were developed in the mid-19th century that modern mass production was possible.


title: Mass production

text: Mass production involves making many copies of products, very quickly, using assembly line techniques to send partially complete products to workers who each work on an individual step, rather than having a worker work on a whole product from start to finish.


title: Mass production

text: Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors (augers) to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels. Fluid flow processes such as oil refining and bulk materials such as wood chips and pulp are automated using a system of process control which uses various instruments to measure variables such as temperature, pressure, volumetric and level, providing feedback.


title: Mass production

text: Bulk materials such as coal, ores, grains and wood chips are handled by belt, chain, slat, pneumatic or screw conveyors, bucket elevators and mobile equipment such as front-end loaders. Materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays.


title: Mass production

text: Mass production is capital-intensive and energy-intensive, for it uses a high proportion of machinery and energy in relation to workers. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased. However, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line (such as robots and machine presses) is so expensive that in order to attain profits there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to.