title: Jodhpurs

text: The word "jodhpurs" is often used interchangeably with riding breeches, though this is technically incorrect. Breeches are riding pants that come down to about mid-calf, and are designed to be worn with long stockings and tall boots. Jodhpurs are ankle length and are worn with short, ankle-high Jodhpur boots, also known as Paddock Boots. Sometimes knee-length half-chaps or leggings may be added.


title: Jodhpurs

text: Jodhpurs are sometimes worn as fashion or occupational clothing. In popular culture, jodhpur-style breeches worn with tall boots became particularly associated with military officers, who wore uniforms based on riding apparel, often derived from the aristocratic cavalry tradition from which many nations historically drew their corps of top commanders, viz. the quartering of the Commander-in-Chief of the Forces and Secretary at War in the Horse Guards building and the derivation of the rank and title marshal from what was originally a title for the commander of cavalry.


title: Jodhpurs

text: Flared-hip breeches and tall boots formed part of the military uniform of army officers in Imperial Germany, the Second Polish Republic, Nazi Germany, and many Eastern Bloc countries, including the former USSR and East Germany.


title: Jodhpurs

text: Jodhpurs, or flared-hip breeches, also were adopted as the uniform for some forces of motorcycle police.


title: Jodhpurs

text: The style came to be associated with authority figures in general and was copied by certain Hollywood movie directors in the United States. Early 20th-century African big game hunters are also associated with the look, due in part to early traditions of riding on horseback in search of quarry. In addition, tall boots protected against snakes and rough or thornbushes if the hunters were walking in rough country.


title: Jodhpurs

text: Women began wearing jodhpurs during the 1920s, as they shifted away from riding horses sidesaddle and rode them astride. One of the first high-profile women to adopt the wearing of jodhpurs was Coco Chanel. She was inspired to copy the breeches as worn by a friend's groom.


title: Jodhpurs

text: As part of the 20th-century trend of crossover fashions moving from sportswear to streetwear, various designers since the later 20th century have incorporated equestrian styles into their clothing, including jodhpurs. Ralph Lauren is the most well-known of such designers, and adapted equestrian styles and motifs as the basis of his Ralph Lauren Polo line. (Polo/Ralph Lauren presented "Man and the Horse", an exhibit of riding clothing and accoutrements from three centuries at the Metropolitan Museum of New York Costume Institute in 1984, curated by Diana Vreeland.)


title: Jodhpurs

text: Kentucky jodhpurs are full-length riding pants designed exclusively for saddle seat riding. Like hunt seat jodhpurs, they are close-fitting from waist to ankle. They are noticeably longer, ending with a flared bell bottom that fits over a jodhpur boot, usually extending below the heel of the boot in back, and covering the arch of the foot (but not the toe) in front. The overall look gives the impression of a rider with a long leg and heel lower than the toe, a desired equitation standard for this riding style. Like the hunt seat jodhpur, they have elastic straps that run under the boot to help hold the pant leg in place. Saddle seat riders, whose riding clothing styles were derived from men's business suits, wear Kentucky Jodhpurs in dark colors, usually black, navy blue, or a shade that matches the riding coat.


title: Product management

text: Product management is the business process of planning, developing, launching, and managing a product or service. It includes the entire lifecycle of a product, from ideation to development to go to market. Product managers are responsible for ensuring that a product meets the needs of its target market and contributes to the business strategy, while managing a product or products at all stages of the product lifecycle. Software product management adapts the fundamentals of product management for digital products.


title: Product management

text: The concept of product management originates from a 1931 memo by Procter & Gamble President Neil H. McElroy. McElroy, requesting additional employees focused on brand management, needed "Brand Men" who would take on the role of managing products, packaging, positioning, distribution, and sales performance.


title: Product management

text: In modern terms, McElroy defined the role as: analyze product distribution, optimize working distribution strategies, diagnose and solve distribution issues, optimize product positioning and product marketing, and collaborate with regional distribution managers.


title: Product management

text: Product managers are responsible for managing a company's product line on a day-to-day basis. As a result, product managers are critical in both driving a company's growth, margins, and revenue. They are responsible for the business case, conceptualizing, planning, product development, product marketing, and delivering products to their target market. Depending on the company size, industry, and history, product management has a variety of functions and roles. Frequently there is an Income statement (or Profit and Loss) responsibility as a key metric for evaluating product manager performance.


title: Product management

text: Product managers analyze information including customer research, competitive intelligence, industry analysis, trends, economic signals, and competitive activity, as well as documenting requirements, setting product strategy, and creating the roadmap. Product managers align across departments within their company including product design and development, marketing, sales, customer support, and legal.


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: Cherie Mary Lunghi (born 4 April 1952) is an English film, television, and theatre actress, known for her roles in many British TV dramas. Her international fame stems from her role as Guinevere in the 1981 film "Excalibur". Her long list of screen, stage, and TV credits include football manager Gabriella Benson in the 1990s television series "The Manageress" and a series of advertisements for Kenco coffee. She also competed in the 2008 series of "Strictly Come Dancing". She is the mother of the actress Nathalie Lunghi.


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: She was raised by her mother, aunt and grandmother, seeing her father only occasionally. Lunghi has described herself as feeling "different" as she did not have a mother and father like other children. Lunghi attended Richmond Grammar School in North Yorkshire but has said that she was not academic and far more interested in make believe.


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: Educated at London's Arts Educational School, Lunghi played Hedvig in "The Wild Duck" and Alice in "Alice in Wonderland" on BBC radio while still at school. After graduating from Homerton College, Cambridge and London's Central School of Speech and Drama, she joined the Royal Shakespeare Company in the late 1970s, taking leading roles such as Perdita, Celia, and Viola. She had a starring role in the 1979 British short film "Diversion" (the prototype for the 1987 U.S. film "Fatal Attraction"). In 1981 she landed the role of Guinevere in the film "Excalibur".


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: She starred in the 1982 television serial "Praying Mantis", based on the book ("Les Mantes Religieuses") by Hubert Monteilhet. The thriller co-starred Pinkas Braun, Carmen du Sautoy, and Jonathan Pryce.


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: She also appeared alongside Robert De Niro in "The Mission". Lunghi told author Paul Stenning, "It was wonderful working with him, it was extraordinary actually. He transforms right in front of you. You are aware when watching him on screen that he has transformed – he is not Robert De Niro – he is somebody else. I don't think you can learn how to do that; it's just the power of your imagination."


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: In the mid-1980s, she relocated to Los Angeles for eight years, but returned to England to care for her mother. After the birth of her daughter she took various short-term parts, including playing the band members' mutual love interest in the music video for Level 42's song "Something About You". Lunghi has described how she had been working during pregnancy and was working again three months after giving birth, saying, "it was working mother guilt. I was juggling and balancing, trying to be fair to my career and to my child. Nathalie would come everywhere with me."


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: Lunghi took on the lead role in football drama "The Manageress" (1989–90), and participated in the BBC adaptation of Edith Wharton's posthumously published novel, "The Buccaneers" (1995), as Laura Testvalley. In addition to film and television work, she appeared in a long-running advertising campaign on British television for Kenco coffee from the late 1990s onwards.


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: In 2006, Lunghi appeared on television in "Casualty 1906", playing Matron Eva Luckes, and had a recurring guest role in the regular "Casualty" series as Professor Camille Windsor. In 2013, she narrated some episodes of the BBC genealogy series "Who Do You Think You Are?".


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: In 2008, she competed in the sixth series of BBC television's "Strictly Come Dancing" (14-week run), partnered by James Jordan. After her first dance, the Foxtrot on the Ladies Night in week two, she scored the highest points of the first two weeks (33). She beat this score with another series-best score of 35/40 for the rumba to finish week four atop the remaining 12 contestants with an average score of 34/40. The score for her third dance, the American Smooth, was an impressive 34 to maintain her average, though she slipped to 31/40 for the Paso Doble, and further to 26/40 on her fifth outing, in the Salsa. She returned to form the following week with a Waltz, scoring 36/40, and was joint first on the leaderboard.


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: She was voted off the competition on 16 November 2008 (week nine), losing by three votes to one in the dance-off against model Lisa Snowdon after performing a Cha-Cha-Cha. In the January/February 2009 "Strictly Tour", she danced an American Smooth and a rumba with James Jordan.


title: Cherie Lunghi

text: Lunghi was briefly married to South African student Ralph Lawson after the pair met while studying at London's Central School of Speech and Drama. The 1975 marriage was one of convenience so that Lawson could remain in the UK. The couple never lived together as husband and wife, instead staying in separate homes in Newcastle. Lawson moved back to South Africa two years later to take a new job. She has a daughter, Nathalie Lunghi (b. 1986), with the director Roland Joffé.


title: Administrative law

text: Administrative law is the division of law that governs the activities of executive branch agencies of government. Administrative law concerns executive branch rule making (executive branch rules are generally referred to as "regulations"), adjudication, or the enforcement of laws. Administrative law is considered a branch of public law.


title: Administrative law

text: Administrative law deals with the decision-making of such administrative units of government that are part of the executive branch in such areas as international trade, manufacturing, the environment, taxation, broadcasting, immigration, and transport.


title: Administrative law

text: Administrative law expanded greatly during the twentieth century, as legislative bodies worldwide created more government agencies to regulate the social, economic and political spheres of human interaction.


title: Administrative law

text: Unlike most common law jurisdictions, most civil law jurisdictions have specialized courts or sections to deal with administrative cases that as a rule apply procedural rules that are specifically designed for such cases and distinct from those applied in private law proceedings, such as contract or tort claims.


title: Administrative law

text: In Brazil, administrative cases are typically heard either by the Federal Courts (in matters concerning the Federal Union) or by the Public Treasury divisions of State Courts (in matters concerning the States). In 1998, a constitutional reform, led by the government of President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. Since 1988, Brazilian administrative law has been strongly influenced by the judicial interpretations of the constitutional principles of public administration (art. 37 of Federal Constitution): legality, impersonality, publicity of administrative acts, morality and efficiency.


title: Administrative law

text: In Chile the President of the Republic exercises the administrative function, in collaboration with several Ministries or other authorities with "ministerial rank". Each Ministry has one or more under-secretary that performs through public services the actual satisfaction of public needs. There is not a single specialized court to deal with actions against the Administrative entities, but instead there are several specialized courts and procedures of review.


title: Administrative law

text: Administrative law in the China was virtually non-existent before the economic reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping. Since the 1980s, China has constructed a new legal framework for administrative law, establishing control mechanisms for overseeing the bureaucracy and disciplinary committees for the Chinese Communist Party. However, many have argued that the usefulness of these laws is vastly inadequate in terms of controlling government actions, largely because of institutional and systemic obstacles like a weak judiciary, poorly trained judges and lawyers, and corruption.


title: Administrative law

text: In 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations (行政检查条例) and the Administrative Reconsideration Regulations (行政复议条例) were passed. The 1993 State Civil Servant Provisional Regulations (国家公务员暂行条例) changed the way government officials were selected and promoted, requiring that they pass exams and yearly appraisals, and introduced a rotation system. The three regulations have been amended and upgraded into laws. In 1994, the State Compensation Law (国家赔偿法) was passed, followed by the Administrative Penalties Law (行政处罚法) in 1996. Administrative Compulsory Law was enforced in 2012. Administrative Litigation Law was amended in 2014. The General Administrative Procedure Law is under way.


title: Administrative law

text: In France, most claims against the national or local governments as well as claims against private bodies providing public services are handled by administrative courts, which use the "Conseil d'État" (Council of State) as a court of last resort for both ordinary and special courts. The main administrative courts are the "tribunaux administratifs" and appeal courts are the "cours administratives d'appel". Special administrative courts include the National Court of Asylum Right as well as military, medical and judicial disciplinary bodies. The French body of administrative law is called ""droit administratif"".


title: Administrative law

text: Over the course of their history, France's administrative courts have developed an extensive and coherent case law ("jurisprudence constante") and legal doctrine ("principes généraux du droit" and "principes fondamentaux reconnus par les lois de la République"), often before similar concepts were enshrined in constitutional and legal texts. These principes include:


title: Administrative law

text: French administrative law, which is the founder of Continental administrative law, has a strong influence on administrative laws in several other countries such as Belgium, Greece, Turkey and Tunisia.


title: Administrative law

text: In Germany administrative law is called , which generally rules the relationship between authorities and the citizens. It establishes citizens' rights and obligations against the


title: Administrative law

text: authorities. It is a part of the public law, which deals with the organization, the tasks and the acting of the public administration. It also contains rules, regulations, orders and decisions created by and related to administrative agencies, such as federal agencies, federal state authorities, urban administrations, but also admission offices and fiscal authorities etc. Administrative law in Germany follows three basic principles.


title: Administrative law

text: Administrative law in Germany can be divided into general administrative law and special administrative law.


title: Administrative law

text: The general administration law is basically ruled in the administrative procedures law ("Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz" [VwVfG]). Other legal sources are the Rules of the Administrative Courts (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung [VwGO]), the social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch [SGB]) and the general fiscal law (Abgabenordnung [AO]).


title: Administrative law

text: The "Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz" (VwVfG), which was enacted in 1977, regulates the main administrative procedures of the federal government. It serves to ensure accordance with the rule of law by the public authority. Furthermore, it contains the regulations for mass processes and expands the legal protection against the authorities. The VwVfG basically applies for the entire public administrative activities of federal agencies as well as federal state authorities, in case of making federal law. One of the central clause is § 35 VwVfG. It defines the administrative act, the most common form of action in which the public administration occurs against a citizen. The definition in § 35 says, that an administration act is characterized by the following features:


title: Administrative law

text: It is an official act of an authority in the field of public law to resolve an individual case with effect to the outside.


title: Administrative law

text: Administration procedural law (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung [VwGO]), which was enacted in 1960, rules the court procedures at the administrative court. The VwGO is divided into five parts, which are the constitution of the courts, action, remedies and retrial, costs and enforcement15 and final clauses and temporary arrangements.


title: Administrative law

text: In absence of a rule, the VwGO is supplemented by the code of civil procedure (Zivilprozessordnung [ZPO]) and the judicature act (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz [GVG]). In addition to the regulation of the administrative procedure, the VwVfG also constitutes the legal protection in administrative law beyond the court procedure. § 68 VwVGO rules the preliminary proceeding, called "Vorverfahren" or "Widerspruchsverfahren", which is a stringent prerequisite for the administrative procedure, if an action for rescission or a writ of mandamus against an authority is aimed. The preliminary proceeding gives each citizen, feeling unlawfully mistreated by an authority, the possibility to object and to force a review of an administrative act without going to court. The prerequisites to open the public law remedy are listed in § 40 I VwGO. Therefore, it is necessary to have the existence of a conflict in public law without any constitutional aspects and no assignment to another jurisdiction.


title: Administrative law

text: The social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch [SGB]) and the general fiscal law are less important for the administrative law. They supplement the VwVfG and the VwGO in the fields of taxation and social legislation, such as social welfare or financial support for students (BaFÖG) etc.


title: Administrative law

text: The special administrative law consists of various laws. Each special sector has its own law. The most important ones are the


title: Administrative law

text: In Germany, the highest administrative court for most matters is the federal administrative court . There are federal courts with special jurisdiction in the fields of social security law () and tax law ().


title: Administrative law

text: In Italy administrative law is known as , a branch of public law whose rules govern the organization of the public administration and the activities of the pursuit of the public interest of the public administration and the relationship between this and the citizens.


title: Administrative law

text: Its genesis is related to the principle of division of powers of the State. The administrative power, originally called "executive", is to organize resources and people whose function is devolved to achieve the public interest objectives as defined by the law.


title: Administrative law

text: In the Netherlands administrative law provisions are usually contained in the various laws about public services and regulations. There is however also a single General Administrative Law Act ( or Awb), which is a rather good sample of procedural laws in Europe. It applies both to the making of administrative decisions and the judicial review of these decisions in courts. Another act about judicial procedures in general is the (General time provisions act), with general provisions about time schedules in procedures.


title: Administrative law

text: On the basis of the Awb, citizens can oppose a decision () made by an administrative agency () within the administration and apply for judicial review in courts if unsuccessful. Before going to court, citizens must usually first object to the decision with the administrative body who made it. This is called . This procedure allows for the administrative body to correct possible mistakes themselves and is used to filter cases before going to court. Sometimes, instead of , a different system is used called (administrative appeal). The difference with is that is filed with a different administrative body, usually a higher ranking one, than the administrative body that made the primary decision. is available only if the law on which the primary decision is based specifically provides for it. An example involves objecting to a traffic ticket with the district attorney (), after which the decision can be appealed in court.


title: Administrative law

text: Unlike France or Germany, there are no special administrative courts of first instance in the Netherlands, but regular courts have an administrative "chamber" which specializes in administrative appeals. The courts of appeal in administrative cases however are specialized depending on the case, but most administrative appeals end up in the judicial section of the Council of State (Raad van State).


title: Administrative law

text: In Sweden, there is a system of administrative courts that considers only administrative law cases, and is completely separate from the system of general courts. This system has three tiers, with 12 county administrative courts () as the first tier, four administrative courts of appeal () as the second tier, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden () as the third tier.


title: Administrative law

text: Migration cases are handled in a two-tier system, effectively within the system general administrative courts. Three of the administrative courts serve as migration courts () with the Administrative Court of Appeal in Stockholm serving as the Migration Court of Appeal ().


title: Administrative law

text: In Taiwan the recently enacted "Constitutional Procedure Act" (憲法訴訟法) in 2019 (former "Constitutional Interpretation Procedure Act, 1993"), the Justices of the Constitutional Court of Judicial Yuan of Taiwan is in charge of judicial interpretation. As of 2019, this council has made 757 interpretations.


title: Administrative law

text: In Turkey, the lawsuits against the acts and actions of the national or local governments and public bodies are handled by administrative courts which are the main administrative courts. The decisions of the administrative courts are checked by the Regional Administrative Courts and Council of State. Council of State as a court of last resort is exactly similar to Conseil d'État in France.


title: Administrative law

text: Administrative law in Ukraine is a homogeneous legal substance isolated in a system of jurisprudence characterized as: (1) a branch of law; (2) a science; (3) a discipline.


title: Administrative law

text: Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking. Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity.


title: Administrative law

text: While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decisions is different from an administrative appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in an administrative appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be examined, usually by a higher body in the agency. This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries.


title: Administrative law

text: The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action is "ultra vires". In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the "Patently Unreasonable" standard by the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v New Brunswick), "Wednesbury" unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious (under U.S. Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts, namely legitimate expectation and proportionality.


title: Administrative law

text: The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certain common law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary.


title: Administrative law

text: In the United States, many government agencies are organized under the executive branch of government, although a few are part of the judicial or legislative branches.


title: Administrative law

text: In the federal government, the executive branch, led by the president, controls the federal executive departments, which are led by secretaries who are members of the United States Cabinet. The many independent agencies of the United States government created by statutes enacted by Congress exist outside of the federal executive departments but are still part of the executive branch.


title: Administrative law

text: Congress has also created some special judicial bodies known as Article I tribunals to handle some areas of administrative law.


title: Administrative law

text: The actions of executive agencies and independent agencies are the main focus of American administrative law. In response to the rapid creation of new independent agencies in the early twentieth century (see discussion below), Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) in 1946. Many of the independent agencies operate as miniature versions of the tripartite federal government, with the authority to "legislate" (through rulemaking; see Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations), "adjudicate" (through administrative hearings), and to "execute" administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the United States Constitution sets no limits on this tripartite authority of administrative agencies, Congress enacted the APA to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the constitutional requirements of due process. Agency procedures are drawn from four sources of authority: the APA, organic statutes, agency rules, and informal agency practice. It is important to note, though, that agencies can only act within their congressionally delegated authority, and must comply with the requirements of the APA.


title: Administrative law

text: At state level the first version of the Model State Administrative Procedure Act was promulgated and published in 1946 by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC), in which year the Federal Administrative Procedure Act was drafted. It is incorporated basic principles with only enough elaboration of detail to support essential features, therefore it is a "model", and not a "uniform", act. A model act is needed because state administrative law in the states is not uniform, and there are a variety of approaches used in the various states. Later it was modified in 1961 and 1981. The present version is the 2010 Model State Administrative Procedure Act (MSAPA) which maintains the continuity with earlier ones. The reason of the revision is that, in the past two decades state legislatures, dissatisfied with agency rule-making and adjudication, have enacted statutes that modify administrative adjudication and rule-making procedure.


title: Administrative law

text: The American Bar Association's official journal concerning administrative law is the "Administrative Law Review", a quarterly publication that is managed and edited by students at the Washington College of Law.


title: Administrative law

text: Stephen Breyer, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice from 1994 to 2022, divides the history of administrative law in the United States into six discrete periods, in his book, "Administrative Law & Regulatory Policy" (3d Ed., 1992):


title: Administrative law

text: The agricultural sector is one of the most heavily regulated sectors in the U.S. economy, as it is regulated in various ways at the international, federal, state, and local levels. Consequently, administrative law is a significant component of the discipline of agricultural law. The United States Department of Agriculture and its myriad agencies such as the Agricultural Marketing Service are the primary sources of regulatory activity, although other administrative bodies such as the Environmental Protection Agency play a significant regulatory role as well.


title: Miniskirt

text: A miniskirt (sometimes hyphenated as mini-skirt, separated as mini skirt, or sometimes shortened to simply mini) is a skirt with its hemline well above the knees, generally at mid-thigh level, normally no longer than below the buttocks; and a dress with such a hemline is called a minidress or a miniskirt dress. A micro-miniskirt or microskirt is a miniskirt with its hemline at the upper thigh, at or just below crotch or underwear level.


title: Miniskirt

text: Short skirts have existed for a long time before they made it into mainstream fashion, though they were generally not called "mini" until they became a fashion trend in the 1960s. Instances of clothing resembling miniskirts have been identified by archaeologists and historians as far back as c. 1390–1370 BC. In the early 20th century, the dancer Josephine Baker's banana skirt that she wore for her mid-1920s performances in the Folies Bergère was subsequently likened to a miniskirt. Extremely short skirts became a staple of 20th-century science fiction, particularly in 1940s pulp artwork, such as that by Earle K. Bergey, who depicted futuristic women in a "stereotyped combination" of metallic miniskirt, bra and boots.


title: Miniskirt

text: Hemlines were just above the knee in 1961, and gradually climbed upward over the next few years. By 1966, some designs had the hem at the upper thigh. Stockings with suspenders (garters) were not considered practical with miniskirts and were replaced with coloured tights. The popular acceptance of miniskirts peaked in the "Swinging London" of the 1960s, and has continued to be commonplace, particularly among younger women and teenage girls. Before that time, short skirts were only seen in sport and dance clothing, such as skirts worn by female tennis players, figure skaters, cheerleaders, and dancers.


title: Miniskirt

text: Several designers have been credited with the invention of the 1960s miniskirt, most significantly the London-based designer Mary Quant and the Parisian André Courrèges.


title: Miniskirt

text: In the Warring States period of China, men could wear short skirts similar to a kilt. In the Qin dynasty, the first imperial dynasty of China, some short skirts worn by men were short enough to reach the mid-thighs as observed in the Terracotta army of Qin Shihuang. Han Chinese women also wore short outer skirts, such as the () and the (); however, they had to be worn over a long skirt. One of the earliest known cultures where women regularly wore clothing resembling miniskirts was a subgroup of the Miao people of China, the (). In albums produced during the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) from the early eighteenth century onward to illustrate the various types of Miao, the women were depicted wearing "mini skirts that barely cover the buttocks." At least one of the "One Hundred Miao Pictures" albums contains a poem that specifically describes how the women's short skirts and navel-baring styles were an identifier for this particular group.


title: Miniskirt

text: Figurines produced by the Vinča culture (c. 5700–4500 BC) have been interpreted by archaeologists as representing women in miniskirt-like garments. One of the oldest surviving garments resembling a miniskirt is the short woollen skirt with bronze ornaments worn by the Egtved Girl for her burial in the Nordic Bronze Age (c. 1390–1370 BCE).


title: Miniskirt

text: The dancer Josephine Baker's banana skirt that she wore for her mid-1920s performances in the Folies Bergère was subsequently likened to a miniskirt. Prior to the 1960s during the 20th century, any woman who was not a stage performer or showgirl like Josephine Baker or, after the 1920s, any woman who was not an athlete or competitive dancer could not wear skirts above her knees as part of her everyday clothing and be socially accepted. During the 1950s, even the skirts of cheerleaders and many ballerinas fell to the calf. Women were taught to keep their knees covered, to seat themselves in ways that kept the legs together, etc., to avoid being thought sexually promiscuous.


title: Miniskirt

text: Extremely short skirts became a staple of 20th-century science fiction, particularly in 1940s pulp artwork such as that by Earle K. Bergey who depicted futuristic women in a "stereotyped combination" of metallic miniskirt, bra and boots. The "sci-fi miniskirt" was seen in genre films and television programmes as well as on comic book covers. The very short skirts worn by regular female characters Carol and Tonga (played by Virginia Hewitt and Nina Bara) in the 1950–55 television series "Space Patrol" have been suggested as probably the first 'micro-minis' to have been seen on American television. It was later seen as remarkable that only one formal complaint relating to the skirts could be recalled, and that by an ad agency in relation to an upwards shot of Carol climbing a ladder. Hewitt pointed out that even though the complainant claimed they could see up her skirt, her matching tights rendered her effectively clothed from neck to ankle. Otherwise, "Space Patrol" was applauded for being wholesome and family-friendly, even though the women's short skirts would have been unacceptable in other contexts. Although the 30th-century women in "Space Patrol" were empowered, experts in their field, and largely treated as equals, "it was the skirts that fuelled indelible memories." The "Space Patrol" skirts were not the shortest to be broadcast at the time – the German-made American 1954 series "Flash Gordon" showed Dale Arden (played by Irene Champlin) in an even shorter skirt.


title: Miniskirt

text: The manager of an unnamed shop in London's Oxford Street began experimenting in 1960 with skirt hemlines an inch above the knees of window mannequins, and noted how positively his customers responded. In August 1961, "Life" published a photograph of two Seattle students at the University of Hawaiʻi wearing above-the-knee garments called "kookie-muus" (an abbreviated version of the traditionally concealing muumuu), and noted a "current teen-age fad for short skirts" that was pushing hemlines well above the knee. The article also showed young fashionable girls in San Francisco wearing hemlines "just above the kneecap" and students at Vanderbilt University wearing "knee ticklers" ending three inches above their knee to play golf in, while the caption commented that such short skirts were selling well in the South, and that "some Atlanta girls" were cutting old skirts to "thigh high" lengths.


title: Miniskirt

text: Extremely short skirts, some as much as eight inches above the knee, were observed in Britain in the summer of 1962. The young women who wore these short skirts were called "Ya-Ya girls", a term derived from "yeah, yeah" which was a popular catcall at the time. One retailer noted that the fashion for layered net crinoline petticoats raised the hems of short skirts even higher. The earliest known reference to the miniskirt is in a humorous 1962 article datelined Mexico City and describing the "mini-skirt" or "Ya-Ya" as a controversial item of clothing that was the latest thing on the production line there. The article characterised the miniskirt as stopping eight inches above the knee. It referred to a writing by a psychiatrist, whose name it did not provide, who had argued that the miniskirt was a youthful protest of international threats to peace. Much of the article described the reactions of men, who were said to favour the fashion on young women to whom they were unrelated, but to oppose it on their own wives and fiancées.


title: Miniskirt

text: Only a very few of the avant-garde, almost entirely in the UK, wore such lengths in the beginning years of the decade, however. The standard hemline for public and designer garments in the early sixties was mid-knee, just covering the knee. It would gradually climb upward over the next few years, fully baring the knees of mainstream models in 1964, when both André Courrèges and Mary Quant showed above-the-knee lengths. The following year, skirts continued to rise as British miniskirts were officially introduced to the US in a New York show whose models' thigh-high skirts stopped traffic. By 1966, many designs had the hem at the upper thigh. Stockings with suspenders (American English: "garters") were not considered practical with miniskirts and were replaced with coloured tights. Legs could also be covered with knee-high socks or various heights of boots, lower-calf height in 1964–65, knee-heights throughout the period, over-the-knee and thigh-high boots more 1967–69, and even boot-hose, tights incorporating a shoe sole and heel to form a waist-high boot, often in stretch vinyl. Sandal straps might crisscross or otherwise rise up the leg, even as high as the thigh, and body paints were offered for a time to add colour to the leg in more individualised ways than wearing tights. Towards the end of the 1960s, an even shorter version, called the microskirt or micro-mini, emerged.


title: Miniskirt

text: The shape of miniskirts in the 1960s was distinctive. They were not the squeezingly tight skirts designed to show off every curve that 1950s sheath skirts had been, nor were they shortened versions of the tightly belted, petticoat-bolstered 1950s circle skirt. In the 1990s and later, you would occasionally see exhibitions on the sixties present vintage miniskirts pulled in tight against gallery mannequins, but sixties miniskirts were not worn that way. They were not worn tight. Sixties miniskirts were simply-constructed, uninhibiting, slightly flared A-line shapes, with some straight and tapered forms seen in the early years of their existence. This shape was seen as deriving from two forms of the 1950s: (1) the chemise dress/sack dress, attributed to Givenchy in 1957 but presaged by Karl Lagerfeld in 1954 and Mary Quant in 1956, a waistless, tapered column that became the shift dress in the early sixties when it began to be made straight or slightly flared rather than tapered, and (2) the trapeze dresses popularized by Yves Saint Laurent in 1958 that were a variation of Dior's 1955 A-line, both of a geometric triangular shaping. In silhouette, the minidresses of the mid-1960s were basically abbreviated versions of the shift dress and trapeze dress, with Paco Rabanne's famous metal and plastic minidresses of 1966 and '67 following the trapeze line and most of Rudi Gernreich's following the shift line. Mary Quant and other British designers, as well as Betsey Johnson in the US, also showed minidresses that resembled elongated rugby jerseys, body-skimming but not tight. When skirts alone, they tended to sit on the hips rather than holding the waist, called hipster minis if they were really low on the hips. The fashionable forms of the microminis of the later 1960s were also not tight, often looking somewhat tunic-like and in fabrics like Qiana.


title: Miniskirt

text: In addition, sixties miniskirts were not worn with high heels but with flats or low heels, for a natural stance, a natural stride, and to enhance the fashionable child-like look of the time, seen as a reaction to 1950s come-hither artifice like needle heels, constrained waists, padded busts, and movement-inhibiting skirts. The designer Mary Quant was quoted as saying that "short short skirts" indicated youthfulness, which was seen as desirable, fashion-wise.


title: Miniskirt

text: In the UK, by shortening the skirts to less than they were classed as children's garments rather than adult clothes. Children's clothing was not subject to purchase tax whereas adult clothing was. The avoidance of tax meant that the price was correspondingly less.


title: Miniskirt

text: During the late 1960s, as most skirts got shorter and shorter, designers began presenting a few alternatives. Calf-length midi-skirts were introduced in 1966–67, and floor-length maxi-skirts appeared around the same time, after being seen on hippies first around 1965–66. Like with miniskirts, these were overwhelmingly casual in feel and simply constructed to a two-straight-side-seams A-line shape. Women in the late sixties welcomed these new styles as options but didn't necessarily wear them, feeling societal pressure to shorten their skirts instead.


title: Miniskirt

text: As designers attempted to require women to switch to midi-skirts in 1969 and 1970, women responded by ignoring them, continuing to wear minis and microminis and, even more, turning to trousers like those endorsed by Yves Saint Laurent in 1968, a trend that would dominate the 1970s.


title: Miniskirt

text: Several designers have been credited with the invention of the 1960s miniskirt, most significantly the London-based designer Mary Quant and the Parisian André Courrèges. Although Quant reportedly named the skirt after her favourite make of car, the Mini, there is no consensus as to who designed it first. Valerie Steele has noted that the claim that Quant was first is more convincingly supported by evidence than the equivalent Courrèges claim. However, the contemporary fashion journalist Marit Allen, who edited the influential "Young Ideas" pages for UK "Vogue", firmly stated that the British designer John Bates was the first to offer fashionable miniskirts. Other designers, including Pierre Cardin and Yves Saint Laurent, had also been raising hemlines at the same time.


title: Miniskirt

text: The miniskirt is one of the garments most widely associated with Mary Quant. Quant herself is ambivalent about the claim that she invented the miniskirt, stating that her customers should take credit, as she herself wore very short skirts, and they requested even shorter hemlines for themselves. Regardless of whether or not Quant invented the miniskirt, it is widely agreed that she was one of its highest-profile champions. Contrary to obvious and popular belief, Quant named the garment after the , a favourite car of hers, stating that the car and the skirt were both "optimistic, exuberant, young, flirty", and complemented each other.


title: Miniskirt

text: Quant had started experimenting with shorter skirts in the late 1950s, when she started making her own designs up to stock her boutique on the King's Road. Among her inspirations was the memory of seeing a young tap-dancer wearing a "tiny skirt over thick black tights", influencing her designs for young, active women who did not wish to resemble their mothers. In addition to the miniskirt, Quant is often credited with inventing the coloured and patterned tights that tended to accompany the garment, although their creation is also attributed to the Spanish couturier Cristóbal Balenciaga who offered harlequin-patterned tights in 1962 or to Bates.


title: Miniskirt

text: In 2009, a Mary Quant minidress was among the 10 British "design classics" featured on a series of Royal Mail stamps, alongside the Tube map, the Spitfire, and the red telephone box.


title: Miniskirt

text: Courrèges explicitly claimed that he invented the mini, and accused Quant of only "commercialising" it. He presented short skirts measuring four inches above the knee in January 1965 for that year's Spring/Summer collection, although some sources claim that Courrèges had been designing miniskirts as early as 1961, the year he launched his couture house. The collection, which also included trouser suits and cut-out backs and midriffs, was designed for a new type of athletic, active young woman. Courrèges had presented "above-the-knee" skirts in his August 1964 haute couture presentation which was proclaimed the "best show seen so far" for that season by "The New York Times". The Courrèges look, featuring a knit bodystocking with a gabardine miniskirt slung around the hips, was widely copied and plagiarised, much to the designer's chagrin, and it would be 1967 before he again held a press showing for his work. Steele has described Courrèges's work as a "brilliant couture version of youth fashion" whose sophistication far outshone Quant's work, although she champions the Quant claim. Others, such as Jess Cartner-Morley of "The Guardian" explicitly credit him, rather than Quant, as the miniskirt's creator.


title: Miniskirt

text: The idea that John Bates, rather than Quant or Courrèges, innovated the miniskirt had an influential champion in Marit Allen, who as editor of the influential "Young Ideas" pages for UK "Vogue", kept track of up-and-coming young designers. In 1966 she chose Bates to design her mini-length wedding outfit in white gabardine and silver PVC. In January 1965 Bates's "skimp dress" with its "short-short skirt" was featured in "Vogue," and would later be chosen as the Dress of the Year. Bates was also famous for having designed mini-coats and dresses and other outfits for Emma Peel (played by Diana Rigg) in the TV series "The Avengers", although the manufacturers blocked his request for patterned tights to enable Emma Peel to fight in skirts if necessary.


title: Miniskirt

text: An alternative origin story for the miniskirt came from Barbara Hulanicki of the London boutique Biba, who recalled that in 1966 she received a delivery of stretchy jersey skirts that had shrunk drastically in transit. Much to her surprise, the ten-inch long garments rapidly sold out.


title: Miniskirt

text: In 1967 Rudi Gernreich was among the first American designers to offer miniskirts, in the face of strongly worded censure and criticism from American couturiers James Galanos and Norman Norell. Criticism of the miniskirt also came from the Paris couturier Coco Chanel, who declared the style "disgusting" despite being herself famed for supporting shorter skirts in the 1920s.


title: Miniskirt

text: Owing to Quant's position in the heart of fashionable "Swinging London", the miniskirt was able to spread beyond a simple street fashion into a major international trend. The style came into prominence when Jean Shrimpton wore a short white shift dress, made by Colin Rolfe, on 30 October 1965 at Derby Day, first day of the annual Melbourne Cup Carnival in Australia, where it caused a sensation. According to Shrimpton, who claimed that the brevity of the skirt was due mainly to Rolfe's having insufficient material, the ensuing controversy was as much as anything to do with her having dispensed with a hat and gloves, seen as essential accessories in such a conservative society.


title: Miniskirt

text: Upper garments, such as rugby shirts, were sometimes adapted as mini-dresses. With the rise in hemlines, the wearing of tights or pantyhose, in place of stockings, became more common. At the same time, there was some opposition in the US to miniskirts as bad influences on the young, but this waned as people became more accustomed to them. Some European countries banned mini-skirts from being worn in public, claiming they were an invitation to rapists. In response, Quant retorted that there was clearly no understanding of the tights worn underneath.


title: Miniskirt

text: The response to the miniskirt was particularly harsh in Africa, where many state governments saw them as an un-African garment and part of the corrupting influence of the West. Young city-dwelling African women who wore Western clothing such as the miniskirt were particularly at risk of attack based on their clothing, although Robert Ross notes that gender roles and politics were also a key factor. The urban woman earning her own living and independence was seen as a threat to masculine authority, particularly if she wore clothing seen as un-African. Short skirts were seen as indicating that their wearer was a prostitute, and by conflation, a witch who drained male-dominated society of its vitality and energy. In addition to prostitutes and witches, miniskirts also became associated with secretaries, schoolgirls and undergraduates, and young women with "sugar daddies" as lovers or boyfriends. Andrew M. Ivaska has noted that these various tropes boiled down to a basic fear of female power, fear that a woman would use her education or sexual power to control men and/or achieve her own independence, and that the miniskirt therefore became a tangible object of these fears.


title: Miniskirt

text: In 1968 the Youth League of Tanzania's ruling TANU party launched Operation Vijana. Organised and run by young men, Vijana was a morality campaign targeting indecent clothing, which led to attacks on women with at least one stoning reportedly triggered by the victim's miniskirt. Gangs of youths patrolled bus stations and streets looking for women dressed "inappropriately", and dealing out physical attacks and beatings. In Ethiopia, an attack on women wearing miniskirts triggered a riot of leftist students in which a hundred cars were set on fire and fifty people injured.


title: Miniskirt

text: Kamuzu Banda, president of Malawi, described miniskirts as a "diabolic fashion which must disappear from the country once and for all." It is also reported that Kenneth Kaunda, president of Zambia, cited apartheid and the miniskirt as his two primary hates. By the mid-1970s the Zanzibar revolutionary party had forbidden both women and men from wearing a long list of garments, hairstyles and cosmetics, including miniskirts.


title: Miniskirt

text: From 1969 onwards, the fashion industry largely returned to longer skirts such as the midi and the maxi, with even Mary Quant showing no above-the-knee skirts for 1970. Journalist Christopher Booker gave two reasons for this reaction: firstly, that "there was almost nowhere else to go ... the mini-skirts could go no higher"; and secondly, in his view, "dressed up in mini-skirts and shiny PVC macs, given such impersonal names as 'dolly birds', girls had been transformed into throwaway plastic objects". This lengthening of hemlines coincided with the growth of the feminist movement. However, in the 1960s the mini had been regarded as a symbol of liberation, and it was worn by some, such as Germaine Greer and, in the following decade, Gloria Steinem. Greer herself wrote in 1969 that:


title: Miniskirt

text: In the earliest seventies, 1970 particularly, minis and microminis briefly rebounded in popularity after women's rejection of designers' attempt to impose midiskirts as the sole length in 1970, referred to as "the midi debacle" and more a phenomenon in the US than elsewhere. Women both continued to wear miniskirts and switched even more to trousers, and designers, having been made to understand that they would no longer be respected as arbiters, followed suit for a couple of years and included minis again, often underneath midis and maxis. Prominent designers Rudi Gernreich and André Courrèges never went for midis and continued to show the clothes for which they were known. In 1971, almost all designers, even upper-echelon couture designers, showed hot pants across the board, also presented in combination with midiskirts, maxiskirts, and minis. They continued to express a desire for women to wear longer skirts, though, and soon those women who hadn't switched entirely to jeans and trousers were often wearing their skirts at the knee. In 1973, Kenzo made calf-length skirts look new by cutting them fuller and in lighter fabrics for a style that was very different from the midi and women soon accepted this, making it one of the characteristic styles of the mid-seventies, one that would last into the early eighties, sometimes dropping to the ankle.


title: Miniskirt

text: Although miniskirts had mostly disappeared from mainstream fashion by the mid-70s, prompting the leading designer of the time, Yves Saint Laurent, to say, "I don't think short skirts will ever come back," they never entirely went away, with women having to be pressured by the fashion industry to abandon above-the-knee skirts as late as 1974 and even some mainstream designers like Halston, Kenzo, and Karl Lagerfeld offering a few mini-tunics and mini-blousons among the standard calf-length dirndl skirts of the mid-seventies Big Look period. In these occasional high-fashion versions of the mid-seventies, mini was taken to mean any length above the knee. These were never broadly taken up by the general public, which was still gravitating toward below-the-knee dirndls, but were occasionally seen on the fashion-forward.


title: Miniskirt

text: Around 1976, punks began including among their array of clothes intended to shock very short miniskirts in materials like black leather, rubber, PVC, tartan, and even trash bag plastic, the unfashionable length shocking almost as much as the aggressive materials. Punks of this period also introduced the wearing of miniskirts with then-very-out-of-style high-heeled, late-1950s pumps, which they got at thrift shops, a combination not worn in the 1960s and unthinkable during the 1950s. Though not at all mainstream, these punk looks would influence bands that came after them into wearing more sixties-looking miniskirts again, as evidenced by Deborah Harry of the group Blondie, Kate Pierson and Cindy Wilson of the group The B-52's, Fay Fife of The Revillos, Rhoda Dakar of The Bodysnatchers, Siouxsie Sioux of the group Siouxsie And The Banshees, and the group The Slits, who often wore miniskirts during the "new wave" era of the late 70s. Some of these performers were part of a few sixties-revival subcultures that came in the wake of punk and included Mod revival and ska revival, both of whose female adherents sought out authentic-looking early miniskirts as part of their sixties-revival look. Blondie's Deborah Harry had her sixties-ish look provided by fashion designer Stephen Sprouse, who had been responsible for Halston's "skimp" minis of 1974 and would become internationally known for his own sixties-revival line during the eighties. The song "(I Don't Want to Go to) Chelsea" (1978), by new wave artist Elvis Costello, contains the line in the chorus: "There's no place here for the mini-skirt waddle."


title: Miniskirt

text: During the seventies, when males and females typically wore identical denim cutoff shorts instead of miniskirts if they wanted short lengths, the female cast members of the US TV show "Hee Haw", known as the "Hee Haw Honeys", always wore country-style minidresses even during the miniskirt's fashion hiatus in the late 70s and early 80s; and as mentioned above, female tennis players, figure skaters, cheerleaders, and dancers also wore short skirts.


title: Miniskirt

text: Toward the end of the seventies, in 1978 and '79, some of the above-the-knee skirt looks that would become associated with the eighties began to be introduced, including the flounced, hip-yoked style debuted by Norma Kamali and Perry Ellis in 1979 and called rah-rah skirts in the UK and the tight, above-the-knee sheath skirt, with even Yves Saint Laurent showing some above-the-knee lengths. The sixties-revival subcultures emanating from the UK seemed to reach the high fashion world somewhat in 1979, as a few Paris catwalks presented styles for spring 1980 seemingly pulled right out of the sixties, including miniskirts inspired by Courrèges, Rabanne, and Gernreich. At this point, these styles were still considered avant-garde, though, and a variety of mostly longer skirts were worn by the public, with the full, calf-length forms that had dominated the mid-seventies still prevalent but beginning to be made slimmer, slightly shorter, more brightly coloured, and often slit. The mainstream return of the miniskirt wouldn't come until the 1980s.


title: Miniskirt

text: Because women had worn skirts that covered the knee and often dropped to the calf for so many years during the 1970s, any skirt above the knee was often called a miniskirt in the late seventies and early eighties, even skirts that hit just above the knee.


title: Miniskirt

text: They weren't presented this time as the only length women should wear. They were now just one option among a variety of lengths and styles of skirts and pants available to women, and miniskirts tended to be in the minority among all the other kinds of skirts and pants seen on the streets, particularly in the early part of the decade. Throughout the decade, street lengths ranged from ankle to thigh, for both skirts and trousers, and most women wore their skirts just below the knee, as they also had in the seventies.


title: Miniskirt

text: Miniskirts came in a greater variety of shapes than in the sixties, from full and flouncy to narrow to tight to abbreviated revivals of skirt shapes of the 1940s and '50s like sheath skirts, trumpet skirts, tulip skirts, and bubble/puffball skirts. Above-the-knee versions of strapless 1950s dresses were seen, as were formal minis with bustles and trains in the back. Even tutus were shown mid-decade. Many above-the-knee dresses had noticeable shoulder pads.


title: Miniskirt

text: They were worn with a greater range of heel heights than in the sixties, depending on the shape of the miniskirt, with flats preferred for some styles and high-heeled pumps preferred for others. In the early part of the decade, opaque tights, sometimes brightly coloured, and flat, calf-high boots might be worn with the more casual styles, much like in the mid-sixties. Throughout the period, dressier styles with high heels tended to be worn with hose ranging from slightly tinted to opaque. A punk influence was sometimes seen when miniskirts were paired with combat boots or Doc Martens.


title: Miniskirt

text: In the early eighties, miniskirts were still considered avant-garde and unusual among the public, though designers had begun showing them again in 1979 and had begun shortening some skirts to just above the knee in 1978. Some minis from 1979 and '80 were modeled after sweatshirts. Others were lifted straight out of the Space Age mid-sixties. Some were inspired by punk.


title: Miniskirt

text: The most influential designer of miniskirts in the early eighties was probably Norma Kamali. In 1980, she introduced sweatshirt-fabric versions of the flounced, hip-yoked, above-the-knee skirts she had first presented in 1979, called rah-rah skirts in the UK. In 1981 and '82, miniskirts from this "Sweats" line would reach mainstream levels of popularity and make Kamali a household name.


title: Miniskirt

text: In the spring of 1982 (as featured in the June issue of "Time Magazine" that year), short skirts began to re-emerge more strongly among the public, notably in the form of "rah-rahs", which were modeled on those worn by female cheerleaders at sporting and other events.


title: Miniskirt

text: By 1983, miniskirts had become more widespread, with both Kamali-style full versions and slim, straight versions in jean-cut blue denim commonly worn, as well as other styles.


title: Miniskirt

text: Kenzo had been almost the only designer to champion miniskirts during their nadir in the mid-seventies, and he was vindicated in the eighties as several of the miniskirt styles he had shown back then were taken up by other designers.


title: Miniskirt

text: Yves Saint Laurent had believed short skirts would never return in the mid-seventies, but he led the move to above-the-knee skirts starting in 1978 and during the first half of the eighties was known for his slim, black leather miniskirts.


title: Miniskirt

text: Karl Lagerfeld had begun showing miniskirts at the end of the seventies and in 1983 would take over the house of Chanel, where he soon began adding minis and microminis to the offerings, a surprise because Chanel herself had hated 1960s miniskirts, considering the knees to be an ugly part of the body.


title: Miniskirt

text: Sixties-revivalist Stephen Sprouse showed his first collection in 1983 and favored almost period-perfect shift minidresses and trapeze minidresses in graffiti prints, blacks, and searing sixties brights, including fluorescents, with geometric paillettes and sixties-style cutouts, sometimes of peace signs. Unlike in the sixties, though, he showed these clothes with eighties shoe shapes like high-heeled pumps and Doc Martens.


title: Miniskirt

text: A style that would be seen off and on throughout the decade but would become almost ubiquitous in the second half of the eighties was the tight, stretch minidress worn with high-heeled eighties pumps and often padded shoulders. In silhouette, this was sort of an abbreviated, less heavily constructed version of 1950s sheath skirts, which brings up another difference between 1960s minis and some of these forms of tight, blatantly seductive 1980s minis: they were shown on bodies that were voluptuous and/or muscular instead of thin and child-like as in the sixties.


title: Miniskirt

text: Throughout the 1980s, beginning at the end of the seventies, designers experimented with shortening heavily constructed historical dress styles, mostly from the 1950s, with fifties crinoline skirts, fifties sheath skirts, and fifties bubble/puffball skirts shown in above-the-knee lengths as early as 1979. Styles from the deeper past were also shortened. For 1981, Perry Ellis added stuffed-organdy padding to the hips of the flouncy, hip-yoked miniskirts he'd been showing for a couple years and referred to them as farthingales, a sixteenth-century term for a similarly padded floor-length skirt. A far more influential example of a truncated historical skirt style came from former punk designer Vivienne Westwood. In 1985, British designer Westwood offered her first "mini-crini," an abbreviated version of the Victorian crinoline. Its mini-length, bouffant silhouette inspired the puffball skirts widely presented by more established designers such as Christian Lacroix. In 1989, Westwood's mini-crini was described as having combined two conflicting ideals – the crinoline, representing a "mythology of restriction and encumbrance in woman's dress", and the "equally dubious mythology of liberation" associated with the miniskirt.


title: Miniskirt

text: In the mid-1980s, Azzedine Alaïa began presenting mini and micromini versions of his extremely tight dress designs, his anatomical seaming and occasional sheer fabrics creating a prurient effect that would never have been seen in sixties miniskirts. His miniskirts, though, also included some that resembled flippy skating skirts and others that were grass-like raffia so short they barely covered the wearer. His earlier fitted, curve-accenting skirts, usually in a just-above-the-knee length that sometimes rose to the lower thigh, would be very influential in the second half of the decade, spawning imitations by companies like North Beach Leather and Body Glove.


title: Miniskirt

text: During the mid- to late eighties, Patrick Kelly put his own whimsical signature on the familiar, high-heel-accompanied, tight, stretch minidresses of the decade, covering them with bright buttons, bright bowties, cartoon faces, etc.


title: Miniskirt

text: For fall of 1987 and spring of '88, designers united in presenting a great proportion of miniskirts in almost all collections, with very few mainstream designers bucking the trend. Though a few designers showed these minis in somewhat sixties shapes with flat shoes or boots, most showed truncated versions of the eighties suits and cocktail dresses. They were themselves revivals of 1940s and '50s styles, with slightly narrower shoulders and worn with high-heeled over-the-knee boots or high-heeled eighties pumps that looked like ones from the late fifties/early sixties. Dark hose were recommended for them. Many of the new minis were stretch-fit tight, and some were very short, with Ungaro's so brief they were likened to 1950s bathing suits. The fashion industry's miniskirt campaign was so intense that newspaper articles appeared on women considering plastic surgery on their knees to suit the new lengths.


title: Miniskirt

text: However, though there was a rush on miniskirts for a time, the unanimity around mini lengths didn't last long, as women continued to consider minis just one option among the many available during the decade and didn't replace their entire wardrobes with them as they had in the sixties. This 1987-88 miniskirt push, though, would help cement the mini's status as a basic item in the average woman's wardrobe for many years to come.


title: Miniskirt

text: From the 1980s, many women began to incorporate the miniskirt into their business attire, a trend which grew during the remainder of the century. The titular character of the 1990s television program "Ally McBeal", a lawyer portrayed by Calista Flockhart, has been credited with popularising micro-skirts.


title: Miniskirt

text: The very short skirt is an element of Japanese school uniform, which since the 1990s has been exploited by young women who are part of the "kogal" (or "gyaru") subculture as part of their look.


title: Miniskirt

text: In the early 2000s, micro-minis were once again revived. In 2003, Tom Ford, at that time described as one of the few designers able to effortlessly dictate changes in fashion, stated that micro-skirts would be the height of fashion for Spring/Summer 2003. For fashionable wear, early 21st century microskirts were often worn with leggings or tights in order to avoid revealing too much. At this time, an even briefer version of the micro-mini emerged, creating a garment sometimes described as a "belt-skirt".


title: Miniskirt

text: A BBC article in 2014 wrote that miniskirts remained as contemporary a garment as ever, retaining their associations with youth. In an early 2010s study the department store Debenhams found that women continued buying miniskirts up to the age of 40, whilst 1983 studies showed that 33 years old was when the average woman had stopped buying them. Debenham's report concluded that by the 2020s, miniskirts would be seen as a wardrobe staple for British women in their 40s and early 50s.


title: Miniskirt

text: Despite this, in the early 21st century, miniskirts are still seen as controversial, and remain subject to bans and regulation. Valerie Steele told the BBC in 2014 that even though miniskirts no longer had the power to shock in most Western cultures, she would hesitate to wear one in most parts of the world. She described the garment as symbolic of looking forward to future freedom and backwards to a "much more restricted past" and noted that international rises in extreme conservatism and religious fundamentalism had led to an anti-women backlash, some of which was shown through censure and criticism of women wearing "immodest" clothing. In 2010, the mayor of Castellammare di Stabia in Italy ordered that police fine women for wearing "very short" miniskirts. In the 2000s, a ban on miniskirts at a teacher's college in Kemerovo was claimed by lawyers to be against the terms of equality and human rights as laid out by the Russian constitution, whilst in Chile, the women's minister, Carolina Schmidt, described a regional governor's ban on public employees wearing minis and strapless tops as "absolute nonsense" and challenged their right to regulate other people's clothing. In July 2010, Southampton city council also tried to regulate their female employees's wardrobes, telling them to avoid miniskirts and dress "appropriately."


title: Miniskirt

text: Miniskirts regularly appear in Africa as part of controversies, something that has continued since the 1960s. In the early 21st century alone, instances have included a proposed ban on miniskirts in Uganda justified by claiming that they were a dangerous distraction to drivers and would cause road accidents, and in 2004, a leaflet campaign in Mombasa instructed women to dress modestly and "shun miniskirts", leading to the Kenyan government denying that they wanted a ban. Since the 1990s, women perceived to be "indecently dressed" might be stripped in public often by gangs of men, but sometimes by other women. These acts took place in Kenya, Zambia and elsewhere, including incidents in Johannesburg in 2008 and 2011 which led to similar attacks in various states including Sudan, Malawi, Zimbabwe and elsewhere. The President of Malawi, Bingu wa Mutharika, was forced to make a statement in 2012 after male gangs forcibly stripped women in Lilongwe and Mzuzu. By this point, "miniskirt protests" regularly followed these acts of violence, with the protesters defiantly wearing miniskirts. In late February 2010, a group of about 200 Ugandan women demonstrated against a so-called "miniskirt law", an anti-pornography legislation which specifically forbade women to dress "in a manner designed to sexually excite", or from wearing clothing that revealed their thighs and/or other body parts. Uganda revisited their proposed ban in 2013, with Simon Lokodo, Minister of Ethics and Integrity, proposing another anti-pornography bill which would outlaw revealing "intimate parts", defined as "anything above the knee", and vowing that women who wore miniskirts would be arrested. While most of these proposed bans come from male politicians, in 2009 Joice Mujuru, Zimbabwe's vice president, had to deal with rumours that she intended to ban miniskirts and trousers for women. In Africa, one of the main issues with the miniskirt since the 1960s is that it is seen as representative of protest against predominantly male authority, an accusation also applied to trousers for women which are perceived as blurring the gender divide.


title: Pure Heroine

text: Pure Heroine is the debut studio album by New Zealand singer-songwriter Lorde. It was released on 27 September 2013 by Universal, Lava, and Republic Records. After several unsuccessful sessions with songwriters, Lorde was paired with Joel Little by A&R representative Scott Maclachlan, who assisted with the album's production. Recording took place at Golden Age Studios in Auckland. "Pure Heroine" has been described as a dream pop, electronica and electropop album with minimalist production, deep bass and programmed beats.


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Pure Heroine" received generally positive reviews from music critics, many of whom praised its songwriting, production, and Lorde's vocal performance. It appeared on several year-end critics' lists, and was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards. The album deals with themes of youth and critiques mainstream culture, exploring materialism, fame, consumer culture and social status. "Pure Heroine" has been noted for its influence on modern pop music.


title: Pure Heroine

text: Lorde released the album's lead single, "Royals", to critical and commercial success; it was followed by "Tennis Court", "Team" and "Glory and Gore". The album debuted at number three on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, selling 129,000 album-equivalent units, and topped the charts in Australia and New Zealand. "Pure Heroine" was one of 2014's best-selling albums. It was certified platinum in the United Kingdom, double platinum in Canada and triple platinum in Australia and the United States, selling more than 5 million copies worldwide. In November 2021, the extended version of "Pure Heroine" was pulled from all music streaming services, with the additional songs made available through the re-release of "The Love Club EP" and other singles on all streaming services.


title: Pure Heroine

text: Since she was 14 years old, Lorde worked with Universal to develop her sound and artistic vision. She was signed to Universal by her manager, Scott Maclachlan, at age 13 and was paired with a succession of songwriters in unsuccessful attempts to develop her own music. Maclachlan told HitQuarters, "Fundamentally I think she understood that she was going to write her own music but would need someone to help with the production side of it." Lorde began writing songs on guitar at the age of "13 or 14". She was eventually paired with New Zealand writer and producer Joel Little in December 2011, and their working relationship clicked almost immediately. Lorde's debut extended play (2013's "The Love Club EP") was praised by music critics, who compared the EP to work by other female alternative pop artists such as Sky Ferreira, Florence and the Machine, Lana Del Rey, and Grimes. It reached number one in New Zealand, number two in Australia, where it was certified five times platinum for shipments of 350,000 copies, and number twenty-three on the US "Billboard" 200.


title: Pure Heroine

text: Before beginning work on "Pure Heroine", Lorde said that she intended her debut album to be a "cohesive" work. Like "The Love Club EP", "Pure Heroine" was recorded with producer Joel Little at Golden Age Studios, a small studio without expensive technology, in Auckland, and was completed in less than a year. Initially, Lorde and Little played demos to A&R Scott Maclachlan in which they discussed songs, exchanged comments and changed aspects of the songs. She later showed the lyrics to James Lowe, her boyfriend at the time, saying that sharing things with him inspired her to write most of the album. Recording of the album was overseen by Lorde and Little, and was described by Maclachlan as a fairly-short process; most of what Lorde played for him ended up on the album. Lorde wanted to write her own music, and the album's content was co-written with Little. Ten songs were included in the album's final track listing, with seven or eight tracks not making the cut. Lorde and Maclachlan decided to keep the final track listing at ten to avoid "filler material."


title: Pure Heroine

text: Lorde's vocals on "Pure Heroine" have been noted for her range and powerful delivery. She said that she felt it essential for her voice to be the album's focus, since she was unfamiliar with playing instruments. "The A.V. Club" editor Kevin McFarland called the singer's voice the "alpha and omega of her talent. ... Her voice isn't booming or overpowering, but rather mystifying and alluring, both floating on its own in a sea of reverb and digital blips and awash in an army of chorused overdubs." According to "PopMatters"s Evan Sawdey described Lorde's vocals as being "unique and powerfully intriguing", while "Billboard" noted her vocals for being "smoky and restrained".


title: Pure Heroine

text: The album is built around Little's production, which incorporates deep bass, loops, and programmed beats. During its recording, Lorde said that she "didn't really have a specific sound in mind". She cited James Blake and minimalist music as the main inspirations for "Pure Heroine". The album's song structures were influenced by hip hop, electronic and pop music as the singer listened to those genres to develop a "real taste" of the direction the production would follow. Several publications noted its minimalist production, and compared its arrangements to singers such as Robyn and Santigold. "Pure Heroine" has been described by critics as an electronica, dream pop, and electropop album.


title: Pure Heroine

text: The album deals with themes of youth, and critiques mainstream culture, exploring materialism, fame, consumer culture, and social status. Classic teen pop themes such as social anxiety, romance, and "adolescent aggrievance and angst" are also present on the album. According to "NME", its lyrics indicate that Lorde is "bored". In an interview with the magazine, she said that she used words of inclusion (such as "we" and "us") throughout the album. The singer's lyrics detail "the mundanity of teenage life" and celebrate the "often ignored intelligence of the next generation." Lorde also uses metaphors involving teeth, describing the "Hollywood smile", which several publications related to social class structures and economic inequality. In an analysis piece from "i-D", writer Wendy Syfret states that "Pure Heroine" presented suburban dreams and a realistic teenage life, saying the record is "perhaps the most direct and eloquent statement about the eternal teen juxtaposition of wanting it all ... but knowing deep down that to leave this stage is to make an exit you can never undo."


title: Pure Heroine

text: The album's opening track, "Tennis Court", addresses Lorde's new fame and criticises the "high life." Described by critics as a downtempo hip hop and EDM-influenced alternative pop, art pop and electropop song, it uses synthesisers and electronic pulses in its arrangement. Little and Lorde first wrote the music and beat, and the lyrics were written later. "400 Lux", named for the brightness of a sunrise or sunset, was interpreted by critics as the album's first love song, with lyrics detailing suburban life. Lipshutz of "Billboard" described its instrumentation as "over canyon-sized bass and popping percussion".


title: Pure Heroine

text: Lorde wrote the lyrics to "Royals" in half an hour, and recorded the song within a week during a school break. She was inspired after seeing a photo by Ted Spiegel in the July 1976 issue of "National Geographic" of Kansas City Royals player George Brett signing baseballs, with his team name (Royals) emblazoned across his shirt. Although Lorde was also inspired by historic aristocrats and hip hop-influenced artists such as Jay-Z, Kanye West and Lana Del Rey when writing the song, she criticised their "bullshit" references to "expensive" alcohol and cars. Lorde cited her fear of ageing and a party she threw at her house while her parents were away as the main inspirations behind "Ribs", described by critics as a deep house-influenced electronica and electropop song. "Buzzcut Season", influenced by tropical music, uses a xylophone in its instrumentation. Its lyrics, describing the "ridiculousness of modern life", include themes of refuge and reassurance.


title: Pure Heroine

text: The album's sixth song, "Team", is a hybrid alternative pop and electro-hop song which features synthesiser, bass, and snare drum instrumentation over a handclap-based beat. Written when Lorde was traveling the world, the song was a "tribute to her friends and country". The next song, "Glory and Gore" is a chillwave and hip hop-influenced electropop ballad with pulsing synthesisers. Lorde uses black satire throughout the song to express disdain for the modern emphasis on violence, and compares celebrity culture to gladiatorial combat.


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Still Sane" is a spare ballad, with lyrics grappling with Lorde's "ambition and fears of how fame will affect her." "White Teeth Teens", influenced by doo-wop music, incorporates military drums with lyrics detailing the differences between the appearance and true character of a white-toothed teen. In a "PopMatters" analysis, Scott Interrante describes the use of teeth in the song's lyrics as "preppy, popular teens, using their white teeth as their defining characteristic." "A World Alone", the album's closing track, was described as a "dark disco diamond". It begins with a "lonely guitar note" before transitioning into a "roaring dance beat". The song's final line, "Let 'em talk", was cited by critics as a call and response to the album's opening line, "Don't you think that its boring how people talk?" in "Tennis Court".


title: Pure Heroine

text: Lorde posted the album's release date along with its cover art and track listing to her Twitter account on 12 August 2013. The album's release was preceded by an advertising campaign which had the lyrics of her songs displayed on buses and shop windows and faxed to media outlets. On 23 September 2013, "Buzzcut Season" was released as a promotional single in several iTunes Stores in Asia. "Ribs" was subsequently offered as the free single of the week on the iTunes Store during the week of the album's release. An extended version of the album was released on 13 December 2013, featuring "No Better", previously released as a free promotional single, and five tracks from "The Love Club EP".


title: Pure Heroine

text: To promote the album, Lorde did several performances worldwide. She made her first televised performance in the United States on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon", performing "Royals" and "White Teeth Teens". Lorde replaced Frank Ocean, who cancelled due to illness, at the 2013 Splendour in the Grass Festival. In September 2013, Lorde appeared on New Zealand's "3rd Degree" and performed on "Later... with Jools Holland". Two months later, Lorde performed several songs from the album and her EP on "Live with Letterman" and at a concert the singer held at the Warsaw Venue in Brooklyn. She further promoted the album by performing "Royals" on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" on 9 October 2013. The singer also performed "Team" at the 2013 ARIA Awards and opened the 2013 New Zealand Music Awards with "Royals". At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, Lorde performed a stripped-down version of the song; the performance received praise from rapper Mac Miller and Chrissy Teigen.


title: Pure Heroine

text: The album received further promotion from her first headlining concert tour, the Pure Heroine Tour, which started on 28 July 2013 in Byron Bay, Australia. It was Lorde's first concert tour with North American shows in August, followed by two dates in Europe. The singer returned to North America to perform in eight additional shows before flying to Australia for six shows. In 2014, Lorde performed an additional 40 shows in North America, 19 in Asia, 6 in Europe and 3 in South America. 9 Oceania dates were cancelled; one due to scheduling conflict and 8 for a chest infection she was diagnosed with.


title: Pure Heroine

text: The set list consisted of songs from "The Love Club EP" and "Pure Heroine". Lorde appeared on stage with new outfits to accommodate the mood of the songs. The singer performed most of her songs in a silhouette; her face was frequently hidden from the crowd. She also premiered an unreleased song called "Good Fights". It received positive critical reception with critics complementing her vocal clarity, stage presence and minimalist setting.


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Royals" was released as the album's lead single on 3 June 2013, through digital distribution. The song received widespread acclaim with reviewers complimenting its minimalist production and lyrics. It achieved commercial success by topping the charts in New Zealand, Canada, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom and the United States. She became the youngest artist to top the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart since Tiffany's "I Think We're Alone Now" (1987) and the first New Zealand act to reach number one as a lead artist. The song received three Grammy nominations for Record of the Year, Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance, winning in the latter two categories.


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Tennis Court" was released as the second single from the album. It was also well-received from critics, most of whom praised the song's production and musical style. To promote the song, Lorde released an accompanying EP of the same name through digital stores in the United Kingdom on 7 June 2013 and a physical CD single on 22 June 2013. It performed modestly on international charts, debuting at number one in New Zealand and charting in Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States.


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Team" was announced as the third single from the album. It was leaked by Australian radio station Triple J on 12 September and as a result, the single was released digitally in Australia and New Zealand on 13 September. The single became available in the United States on 13 September as part of the pre-order for "Pure Heroine". The song was critically acclaimed by critics who praised its catchy production and "club-ready" atmosphere. "Team" was a commercial success, reaching the top 10 in New Zealand, Canada, Mexico, and the United States.


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Glory and Gore" was released as the album's fourth and final single on 11 March 2014 after being sent to US modern rock radio. The song received mixed reviews. Some praised its hook while others criticized its forced lyrics and production. It failed to match the success of the previous singles, charting outside the top 10 in New Zealand, and at low-tier positions in Australia and the United States.


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Pure Heroine" received generally positive reviews from critics; aggregating website Metacritic reports a normalized rating of 79, based on 28 reviews. Jason Lipshutz of "Billboard" described it as "immaculate" and an "exploration into the soul of a quiet girl in the Internet age, trying to feel something and not envy everything." In his favorable A− review, Ray Rahman of "Entertainment Weekly" said the album's production, vocal performance and lyricism "signals the arrival of a new kind of star." In contrast, "Spin" reviewer Maura Johnston suggested that Lorde used her age as a "clumsy ploy", declaring her music "aggressively okay" and washed in "(possibly fake) teen-pop-star ennui". Lindsay Zoladz, writing for "Pitchfork", described Lorde as a "correspondent on the front lines of elegantly wasted post-digital youth culture and working-class suburban boredom".


title: Pure Heroine

text: James Reed of "The Boston Globe" said "Pure Heroine" was similar to the production aesthetic of R&B singers the Weeknd and Jessie Ware. "PopMatters"s Evan Sawdey suggested that the "album's production... [evokes] an ethereal, nighttime soundscape that just so happens to congeal into sturdy pop songs, sometimes in exciting, unexpected ways." "The New Zealand Herald"s Lydia Jenkin concluded, "[Lorde's] knack for combining her insights, with strong phrasing, and ear-worm phonaesthetics ... make her a musical heroine ... The impressive level of self-awareness is what makes her youthful commentary so compelling." Conversely, Adam Offitzer of "Pretty Much Amazing" awarded the album a B grade, asserting it was "no masterpiece", but engaging enough to keep Lorde relevant. Robert Christgau gave the album a two-star honourable mention () and said, "Her ambition's in the right place, but the reason she always co-writes is that 16-year-olds don't just crank out hits."


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Pure Heroine" was named the best album of 2013 by "FasterLouder", "The Herald Sun", "The Mercury News", and "The New York Times". It featured highly in other end-of-year best album lists: at number two by "Entertainment Weekly", at number four by "Billboard", at number four by "Slant", at number seven by "Rolling Stone", and at number ten by "The A.V. Club". The record featured at number 25 in "The Village Voice"s 2013 Pazz & Jop critics' poll, with 317 points. Metacritic ranked it the fifth best-reviewed album of 2013, with 34 points. In 2014, "Pure Heroine" was named Album of the Year and Best Pop Album at the New Zealand Music Awards, and was awarded the Taite Music Prize. It was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 56th Grammy Awards.


title: Pure Heroine

text: The album debuted atop the Official New Zealand Chart, and was certified platinum in its first week; it remained at number one for the following two weeks. After eleven weeks on the chart, "Pure Heroine" rebounded to number two and was certified triple platinum. At week eighteen, it rose from number three to number one and was certified quadruple platinum. The album also debuted at number one on Australia's ARIA Chart. It then fell to number two, but was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). The album was ninth on ARIA's 10 Albums of 2013, with sales of about 100,000 copies.


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Pure Heroine" entered the Canadian Albums Chart at number two, with first-week sales of 15,000 copies, and was later certified platinum by Music Canada (MC) for shipments of 80,000 copies. The album sold 18,294 copies in its debut at number four on the Official Charts Company's UK Albums Chart, where it was later certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 100,000 copies.


title: Pure Heroine

text: It debuted at number three on the US "Billboard" 200, with first-week sales of 129,000 copies. In its second week on the chart the album fell to number six, with a 51-percent drop in sales to 63,000 copies. "Pure Heroine" fell to number seven in its third week, selling 48,000 copies, but rose to number five the following week and sold 40,000 copies. According to Nielsen Soundscan, the album sold 413,000 copies by 3 December 2013; by 19 December, it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of 541,000 copies. "Pure Heroine" had a 14-percent US sales increase during the holiday season, selling 78,000 copies and moving from number eleven to number seven on the "Billboard" 200. On 9 January 2014, the album rose from seventh to fifth on the chart and sold a further 46,000 copies; it held its position the following week, selling 33,000 copies. In July 2014, "Billboard" released a mid-year chart; "Pure Heroine" was number four, selling 641,000 copies in the first half of the year. It was the sixth-bestselling album of 2014, selling 841,000 copies and 6.8 million tracks.


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Pure Heroine" had an 86-percent increase in sales after Lorde's performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, rising from number five back to number three on the "Billboard" 200 and selling 68,000 copies. After slipping to number eight for the week ending 19 February, "Pure Heroine" rose to number seven with 39,000 copies sold (a nine-percent increase). It rose to number six the following week, selling 30,000 copies and passing the one-million mark with 1.01 million copies sold. "Pure Heroine" was the first debut album to reach the one-million mark since October 2013; Lorde was the first woman whose debut album sold a million copies since April 2011 and Adele's "19". According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), the album sold 1.4 million copies in 2013 and two million copies in 2014, with 3.4 million combined copies for both years.


title: Pure Heroine

text: After its release, "Pure Heroine" was called a "game-changer". It was further praised by critics for its refreshing take on pop, and for challenging present-day music and its performers, including artists such as Miley Cyrus and Rihanna. According to "Clash", the "popularity of "Pure Heroine" suggests all is not lost. It says there's still an intellectual, polished and important place for pop, that doesn't rely on open letters, open legs, Twitter, twerking and obscenely desperate electro hooks." English singer-songwriter David Bowie called her "the future of music", while Dave Grohl saw her as revolutionary.


title: Pure Heroine

text: The success of "Pure Heroine" affected Joel Little's career. According to "The Guardian", the album's international success "thrust Little into the limelight". Milly Petriella, head of member relations for APRA AMCOS, noted that Little's "influence is still heard on local releases". Ashley Page, Little's manager, said: "Since ... "Pure Heroine"s US success, Joel has consistently released songs with major artists in the UK and US be it with Sam Smith, Ellie Goulding, Tove Lo, Fitz and the Tantrums, or Broods." He has also worked on Imagine Dragons' "Evolve" (2017), Khalid's "American Teen" (2017), and Taylor Swift's "Lover" (2019).


title: Pure Heroine

text: "Forbes" placed Lorde on their "30 Under 30" list of young people "who are changing our world". She was the youngest person in the music category. Lorde also topped "Time" list of the world's most influential teenagers; according to "Time", she was "forging her own path." "Forbes" called "Pure Heroine" a "breakout success", with a "larger evolution on the horizon." "Billboard" also named Lorde "your new alt-rock heroine" in their September 2013 cover story.


title: Pure Heroine

text: Music publications have cited "Pure Heroine" as an influential album in mainstream pop music. Lindsay Zoladz from "The Ringer" indicated that "Pure Heroine"s "impact [was] larger and harder to define because it completely rewrote the rules for young women making radio-friendly pop." "The New Yorker"s Carrie Battan echoed similar statements, arguing that the "pop scene—particularly for women—has altered radically since "Pure Heroine" was released", making it "almost unrecognizable from the sugary-sweet, overtly sexual realm of the early aughts."


title: Pure Heroine

text: Lorde's vocal performance on the album was credited by Peter Robinson of "The Guardian" for contributing to the rise of "whisperpop" in mainstream music, defined as "deceptively understated, intricate vocal performances" in vocalists; Robinson also noted that Lorde was one of several artists that inspired a "raft of major signings". Elle Hunt, writing for "The Spinoff" said the album's "almost conversational style of singing is now so ubiquitous, it's easy to forget it would not have been associated with pop ten years ago or fewer."


title: Pure Heroine

text: American singer Conan Gray cited "Pure Heroine" as a major source of inspiration while writing his debut EP "Sunset Season" (2018) and debut album "Kid Krow" (2020). He credits the album for starting his "obsession with pop music". In an interview with "NME", American singer Olivia Rodrigo stated that the album served as inspiration for her debut single, "Drivers License" (2021).


title: Pure Heroine

text: In 2019, "Pure Heroine" was ranked as the best record of the 2010s by "The Mercury News", ahead of Kanye West's "My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy" (2010). "Insider" ranked it at number 11 on their 15 Best Albums of the 2010s list, while "Billboard" featured it at number 23 in its critics' picks of the 100 Best Albums of the 2010s. The same year, "Uproxx" included "Pure Heroine" at number 29 on its Albums of the Decade list, while "Slant" ranked it at number 31 on their list of the 100 Best Albums of the 2010s. "Clash" ranked it at number 35 on its list of the Top 100 Albums of "Clash"s Lifetime (2004–2014). It was ranked at number 45 in "NME"s editorial staff list of the decade's 100 Best Albums, while "Paste" included the record at 60 on its Top 100 Best Albums of the 2010s catalog. Genius ranked "Pure Heroine" at number 50 on its list of the 100 Best Albums of the 2010s. The record is included in "The Evening Standard"s 20 Best Albums of the Decade list. In July 2022, "Rolling Stone" ranked "Pure Heroine" as the 100th best debut album of all time.


title: Pure Heroine

text: All tracks written by Ella Yelich-O'Connor and Joel Little, and produced by Little, except where noted.


title: Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness

text: Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness is a fantasy real-time strategy computer game developed by Blizzard Entertainment and released for DOS in 1995 and Mac OS in 1996 by Blizzard's parent, Davidson & Associates. A sequel to "", the game was met with positive reviews and won most of the major PC gaming awards in 1996. In 1996, Blizzard released an expansion pack, "", for DOS and Mac OS, and a compilation, "Warcraft II: The Dark Saga", for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn. The Battle.net edition, released in 1999, included "Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal", provided Blizzard's online gaming service, and replaced the MS-DOS version with a Windows one.


title: Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness

text: In "Warcraft II", as in many real-time strategy (RTS) games, players collect "resources" to produce buildings and units in order to defeat an opponent in combat. Players gain access to more advanced units upon construction of "tech" buildings and research. The majority of the display screen shows the part of the territory on which the player is currently operating, and, using the small minimap, the player can select another location to view and operate on. The "fog of war" completely hides all territory (appears black) which the player has not explored: terrain that has been explored is always visible in gray tones, but enemy units remain visible only so long as they stay within a friendly unit's visual radius. Buildings remain displayed as the player last saw them, and do not register unobserved changes such as being built, damaged, or repaired, etc.