title: Popol Vuh

text: Father Ximénez's manuscript sank into obscurity until Adrián Recinos rediscovered it at the Newberry in 1941. Recinos is generally credited with finding the manuscript and publishing the first direct edition since Scherzer. But Munro Edmonson and Carlos López attribute the first rediscovery to Walter Lehmann in 1928. Experts Allen Christenson, Néstor Quiroa, Rosa Helena Chinchilla Mazariegos, John Woodruff, and Carlos López all consider the Newberry volume to be Ximénez's one and only "original."


title: Popol Vuh

text: It is generally believed that Ximénez borrowed a phonetic manuscript from a parishioner for his source, although Néstor Quiroa points out that "such a manuscript has never been found, and thus Ximenez's work represents the only source for scholarly studies." This document would have been a phonetic rendering of an oral recitation performed in or around Santa Cruz del Quiché shortly following Pedro de Alvarado's 1524 conquest. By comparing the genealogy at the end of "Popol Vuh" with dated colonial records, Adrián Recinos and Dennis Tedlock suggest a date between 1554 and 1558. But to the extent that the text speaks of a "written" document, Woodruff cautions that "critics appear to have taken the text of the first folio recto too much at face value in drawing conclusions about "Popol Vuh"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s survival." If there was an early post-conquest document, one theory (first proposed by Rudolf Schuller) ascribes the phonetic authorship to Diego Reynoso, one of the signatories of the "Título de Totonicapán". Another possible author could have been Don Cristóbal Velasco, who, also in "Titulo de Totonicapán", is listed as "Nim Chokoh Cavec" ('Great Steward of the Kaweq'). In either case, the colonial presence is clear in "Popol Vuh"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s preamble: "This we shall write now under the Law of God and Christianity; we shall bring it to light because now the "Popol Vuh", as it is called, cannot be seen any more, in which was clearly seen the coming from the other side of the sea and the narration of our obscurity, and our life was clearly seen." Accordingly, the need to "preserve" the content presupposes an imminent disappearance of the content, and therefore, Edmonson theorized a pre-conquest glyphic codex. No evidence of such a codex has yet been found.


title: Popol Vuh

text: A minority, however, disputes the existence of pre-Ximénez texts on the same basis that is used to argue their existence. Both positions are based on two statements by Ximénez. The first of these comes from "Historia de la provincia" where Ximénez writes that he found various texts during his curacy of Santo Tomás Chichicastenango that were guarded with such secrecy "that not even a trace of it was revealed among the elder ministers" although "almost all of them have it memorized." The second passage used to argue pre-Ximénez texts comes from Ximénez's addendum to "Popol Vuh". There he states that many of the natives' practices can be "seen in a book that they have, something like a prophecy, from the beginning of their [pre-Christian] days, where they have all the months and signs corresponding to each day, one of which I have in my possession." Scherzer explains in a footnote that what Ximénez is referencing "is only a secret calendar" and that he himself had "found this rustic calendar previously in various indigenous towns in the Guatemalan highlands" during his travels with Wagner. This presents a contradiction because the item which Ximénez has in his possession is not "Popol Vuh", and a carefully guarded item is not likely to have been easily available to Ximénez. Apart from this, Woodruff surmises that because "Ximenez never discloses his source, instead inviting readers to infer what they wish [. . .], it is plausible that there was no such alphabetic redaction among the Indians. The implied alternative is that he or another missionary made the first written text from an oral recitation."


title: Popol Vuh

text: Many versions of the legend of the Hero Twins Hunahpú and Xbalanqué circulated through the Mayan peoples, but the story that survives was preserved by the Dominican priest Francisco Ximénez who translated the document between 1700 and 1715. Maya deities in the Post-Classic codices differ from the earlier versions described in the Early Classic period. In Mayan mythology Hunahpú and Xbalanqué are the second pair of twins out of three, preceded by Hun-Hunahpú and his brother Vucub-Hunahpú, and precursors to the third pair of twins, Hun Batz and Hun Chuen. In the "Popol Vuh", the first set of twins, Hun-Hunahpú and Vucub-Hanahpú were invited to the Mayan Underworld, Xibalba, to play a ballgame with the Xibalban lords. In the Underworld the twins faced many trials filled with trickery; eventually they fail and are put to death. The Hero Twins, Hunahpú and Xbalanqué, are magically conceived after the death of their father, Hun-Hunahpú, and in time they return to Xibalba to avenge the deaths of their father and uncle by defeating the Lords of the Underworld.


title: Popol Vuh

text: "Popol Vuh" encompasses a range of subjects that includes creation, ancestry, history, and cosmology. There are no content divisions in the Newberry Library's holograph, but popular editions have adopted the organization imposed by Brasseur de Bourbourg in 1861 in order to facilitate comparative studies. Though some variation has been tested by Dennis Tedlock and Allen Christenson, editions typically take the following form:


title: Popol Vuh

text: A visual comparison of two sections of the "Popol Vuh" are presented below and include the original Kʼiche, literal English translation, and modern English translation as shown by Allen Christenson.


title: Popol Vuh

text: Since Brasseur's and Scherzer's first editions, the "Popol Vuh" has been translated into many other languages besides its original Kʼicheʼ. The Spanish edition by Adrián Recinos is still a major reference, as is Recino's English translation by Delia Goetz. Other English translations include those of Victor Montejo, Munro Edmonson (1985), and Dennis Tedlock (1985, 1996). Tedlock's version is notable because it builds on commentary and interpretation by a modern Kʼicheʼ daykeeper, Andrés Xiloj. Augustín Estrada Monroy published a facsimile edition in the 1970s and Ohio State University has a digital version and transcription online. Modern translations and transcriptions of the Kʼicheʼ text have been published by, among others, Sam Colop (1999) and Allen J. Christenson (2004). In 2018, The New York Times named Michael Bazzett's new translation as one of the ten best books of poetry of 2018. The tale of Hunahpu and Xbalanque has also been rendered as an hour-long animated film by Patricia Amlin.


title: Popol Vuh

text: The "Popol Vuh" continues to be an important part in the belief system of many Kʼicheʼ. Although Catholicism is generally seen as the dominant religion, some believe that many natives practice a syncretic blend of Christian and indigenous beliefs. Some stories from the "Popol Vuh" continued to be told by modern Maya as folk legends; some stories recorded by anthropologists in the 20th century may preserve portions of the ancient tales in greater detail than the Ximénez manuscript. On August 22, 2012, the "Popol Vuh" was declared "intangible cultural heritage" of Guatemala by the Guatemalan Ministry of Culture.


title: Popol Vuh

text: Since its rediscovery by Europeans in the nineteenth century, the "Popol Vuh" has attracted the attention of many creators of cultural works.


title: Popol Vuh

text: Mexican muralist Diego Rivera produced a series of watercolors in 1931 as illustrations for the book.


title: Popol Vuh

text: In 1934, the early avant-garde Franco-American composer Edgard Varèse wrote his "Ecuatorial", a setting of words from the "Popol Vuh" for bass soloist and various instruments.


title: Popol Vuh

text: The planet of Camazotz in Madeleine L'Engle's "A Wrinkle in Time" (1962) is named for the bat-god of the hero-twins story.


title: Popol Vuh

text: In 1969 in Munich, Germany, keyboardist Florian Fricke—at the time ensconced in Mayan myth—formed a band named Popol Vuh with synth player Frank Fiedler and percussionist Holger Trulzsch. Their 1970 debut album, "Affenstunde", reflected this spiritual connection. Another band by the same name, this one of Norwegian descent, formed around the same time, its name also inspired by the Kʼicheʼ writings.


title: Popol Vuh

text: The text was used by German film director Werner Herzog as extensive narration for the first chapter of his movie "Fata Morgana" (1971). Herzog and Florian Fricke were life long collaborators and friends.


title: Popol Vuh

text: The Argentinian composer Alberto Ginastera began writing his symphonic work "Popol Vuh" in 1975, but neglected to complete the piece before his death in 1983.


title: Popol Vuh

text: The myths and legends included in Louis L'Amour's novel "The Haunted Mesa" (1987) are largely based on the "Popol Vuh".


title: Popol Vuh

text: The "Popol Vuh" is referenced throughout Robert Rodriguez's television show "" (2014). In particular, the show's protagonists, the Gecko Brothers, Seth and Richie, are referred to as the embodiment of Hunahpú and Xbalanqué, the hero twins, from the "Popol Vuh".


title: Popol Vuh

text: Contemporary archaeologists (first of all Michael D. Coe) have found depictions of characters and episodes from "Popol Vuh" on Mayan ceramics and other art objects (e.g., the Hero Twins, Howler Monkey Gods, the shooting of Vucub-Caquix and, as many believe, the restoration of the Twins' dead father, Hun Hunahpu). The accompanying sections of hieroglyphical text could thus, theoretically, relate to passages from the "Popol Vuh". Richard D. Hansen found a stucco frieze depicting two floating figures that might be the Hero Twins at the site of El Mirador.


title: Popol Vuh

text: Following the Twin Hero narrative, mankind is fashioned from white and yellow corn, demonstrating the crop's transcendent importance in Maya culture. To the Maya of the Classic period, Hun Hunahpu may have represented the maize god. Although in the "Popol Vuh" his severed head is unequivocally stated to have become a calabash, some scholars believe the calabash to be interchangeable with a cacao pod or an ear of corn. In this line, decapitation and sacrifice correspond to harvesting corn and the sacrifices accompanying planting and harvesting. Planting and harvesting also relate to Maya astronomy and calendar, since the cycles of the moon and sun determined the crop seasons.


title: Nayara Energy

text: Nayara Energy Limited (pronounced na-yaa-raa -ˈnæ.ˈjɑː rə) () is an Indo-Russian downstream oil company based in Mumbai, India, that encompasses refining, marketing, production and a network of over 6,000+ retail fuel outlets in India. It operates India's second-largest oil refinery in Vadinar, Gujarat. In 2017, Essar Oil was acquired by Rosneft and an investment consortium led by Trafigura & UCP Investment Group. Nayara ranked 21st in the Fortune India 500 list in 2020.


title: Nayara Energy

text: Nayara Energy operates the second-largest refinery in India. It is located in Vadinar, Devbhoomi Dwarka District, a few kilometers away from the world's largest refining complex (Jamnagar Refinery of Reliance Industries)


title: Nayara Energy

text: It was a publicly traded company ( and ) until it was taken private in a leveraged buyout which closed on 30 December 2015. It was delisted valued at ₹380 billion (US$5.3 billion).


title: Nayara Energy

text: In August 2017, Rosneft Singapore Pte Limited (49.13%) and Kesani Enterprises Company Limited (49.13%) acquired 98.26% equity stake in Nayara Energy, along with captive port and power assets. Kesani Enterprises Company Limited is owned by Trafigura Holdings Pte Ltd (49%), United Capital Partners PE Investments Ltd (49%), and Oil Holdings Ltd (2%). In 2018, they renamed the company to Nayara Energy, from the Hindi word naya (new) and the English word era.


title: Mulligatawny

text: Mulligatawny () is a soup which originated from South Indian cuisine. The name originates from the Tamil words ( 'black pepper'), and (, 'water'); literally, "pepper-water". It is related to the dish .


title: Mulligatawny

text: Mulligatawny was popular in India by the end of the 18th century, and by the 19th century it began to appear in cookbooks of the day, with each cook (or cookbook) featuring its own recipe. Recipes for mulligatawny varied greatly at that time and over the years (e.g., Maria Rundell's "A New System of Domestic Cookery" contained three versions), and later versions of the soup included British modifications that included meat, although the local Madras (modern Chennai) recipe on which it was based did not. Early references to it in English go back to 1784. In 1827, William Kitchiner wrote that it had become fashionable in Britain:


title: Mulligatawny

text: By the mid 1800s, Wyvern, the pen-name of Arthur Robert Kenney-Herbert (1840–1916), wrote in his popular ""Culinary Jottings"" that "really well-made "mulligatunny" is ... a thing of the past." He also noted that this simple recipe prepared by poorer natives of Madras as made by "Mootoosamy" was made by pounding:


title: Mulligatawny

text: According to the "Oxford Companion to Food", the simplest version of the soup included chicken or mutton, fried onion, and spices. More complex versions may call for "a score of ingredients". Versions originating in southern India commonly called for lentils.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: Ryan Dean Shazier (; born September 6, 1992) is a former American football linebacker. He played college football at Ohio State and was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the first round of the 2014 NFL Draft.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: Shazier had a successful first few seasons in the league, including a Pro Bowl appearance in 2016. During the 2017 season against the Cincinnati Bengals, Shazier attempted to make a head first tackle that left him a paraplegic, and he had to have spinal stabilization surgery and learn to walk again. After spending two seasons on the Steelers' physically unable to perform list, Shazier announced his retirement from football in 2020.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: Shazier initially committed to play for Urban Meyer at Florida but rescinded his commitment after Meyer resigned as the Gators head coach. He then committed to play under Jim Tressel at Ohio State, but Tressel resigned five months later and was eventually replaced with Urban Meyer.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: As a true freshman, Shazier played in every regular season contest and started 3 games. His first start came near the end of the season against Penn State, where he recorded 15 tackles. He started the next two games and ended his season with 57 tackles, 5 tackles for a loss, 3 sacks, and 2 forced fumbles.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: In 2012, he started all 12 regular season games for Ohio State. Against Penn State, Shazier posted 8 tackles, 2 sacks, and an interception in the third quarter that he returned for the game-deciding touchdown. In a victory against Wisconsin, he had 12 tackles, three tackles for a loss, and he made a game-saving tackle on a goal line stand on fourth and inches. He would finish 2012 leading the Big Ten with 17 tackles for a loss and place second in the league with 115 tackles. Shazier also had 5 sacks and 3 forced fumbles for the season.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: Against Indiana in 2013, he posted more than 20 tackles and tied the school record with 16 solo tackles and 5 tackles for loss. He was voted a first-team All-American by the Associated Press, "USA Today", ESPN.com, and "Sports Illustrated". His 101 solo tackles were the second best in the league and his 143 tackles led the Big Ten Conference. He also had a career-high 6 sacks and 4 forced fumbles.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: On January 5, 2014, Shazier announced that he would forgo his senior season and enter the 2014 NFL Draft.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: Coming out of Ohio State, many analysts and scouts projected him as an early-to-mid first round draft selection. He was ranked the third best outside linebacker and the 19th best prospect by NFLDraftScout.com. He was invited to the NFL Combine and was able to perform almost all the workouts and positional drills except for the 40, 20, and 10 yard dash. Shazier also participated at Ohio State's Pro Day and was able to finish the drills he didn't complete at the combine. He received numerous positive reviews for his athleticism, agility, production, flexibility, acceleration, strong hands, and lateral movement. Most negative reviews by analysts were based on his lack of ideal size and his under developed vision, instincts, anticipation, and awareness.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: The Pittsburgh Steelers selected Shazier in the first round with the 15th overall pick in the 2014 NFL Draft. He was the third linebacker taken in the draft behind Khalil Mack (5th) and Anthony Barr (9th).


title: Ryan Shazier

text: On June 5, 2014, the Pittsburgh Steelers signed Shazier to a fully guaranteed four-year, $9.50 million contract with a signing bonus of $5.23 million.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: Shazier began the season as the starting left inside linebacker. He made his professional regular season debut and first career start in the Steelers' home opener against the Cleveland Browns. In his first career game, he made six total tackles (five solo) and a pass deflection. The following week against the Baltimore Ravens, he had 15 total tackles, with 11 of them being solo, in a 6–20 loss. Shazier missed weeks 4–7 of his rookie season with a knee injury. He returned for his first game back from his injury on October 26, 2014, against the Indianapolis Colts. He finished the game with four tackles (two solo tackles). After playing two games, Shazier then injured his ankle and missed another four games. After returning, Shazier made six combined tackles in a 27–17 victory over the Cincinnati Bengals on December 24. Following an 11–5 season the Steelers made the playoffs. In his first career playoff game, Shazier made 3 solo tackles and one assist in a 17–30 wild-card loss to the Baltimore Ravens. In his first season, he finished with a total of 36 tackles, 24 solo tackles, and a pass deflection in five starts and eight games.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: After his rookie season, Shazier returned the next season to again be the starting inside linebacker. On September 10, 2015, Shazier made five solo tackles and two assists in the season opener at the New England Patriots. The next game against the San Francisco 49ers, he left the game with a shoulder injury in the fourth quarter after making a career-high 15 total tackles and 11 solo tackles. He also sacked 49ers quarterback Colin Kaepernick for his first career sack. Shazier missed weeks 3–6 with nerve damage in his shoulder. After returning, he made five solo tackles, one assist, and a sack in a Week 10 win over the Cleveland Browns. On November 29, 2015, he sustained a concussion and left in the fourth quarter against the Seattle Seahawks. On December 20, 2015, Shazier made three solo tackles, three assists, and three pass deflections in a 34–27 win over the Denver Broncos. He also made his first career interception, after picking off Broncos quarterback Brock Osweiler. On January 9, 2016, during the AFC wild card game against the Cincinnati Bengals, Shazier stripped the ball from Jeremy Hill with 1:36 left in the fourth quarter. The ball was recovered by Ross Cockrell, leading to the game-winning field goal from Chris Boswell. Shazier finished the 18–16 victory with nine combined tackles and two forced fumbles. He finished the season with 87 combined tackles, 3 sacks, and an interception in 12 starts and 12 games.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: Shazier returned to his starting inside linebacker role to begin the 2016 season. He started the Steelers' season-opener against the Washington Redskins and made six combined tackles, two pass deflections, a forced fumble, and intercepted Kirk Cousins as the Steelers routed the Redskins 38–16. The next game, Shazier recorded a season-high 12 combined tackles in a 24–16 victory over the Cincinnati Bengals. He re-injured his knee the following game against the Philadelphia Eagles and was inactive from Weeks 4–6. He made his return in a Week 7 matchup against the New England Patriots and was limited to two assisted tackles and a pass deflection in the 27–16 loss. On November 20, 2016, Shazier racked up seven total tackles, a pass deflection, and sacked Josh McCown for his first of the season, as the Steelers defeated the Cleveland Browns 24–9. On December 25, 2016, he recorded ten combined tackles and intercepted Joe Flacco in a 31–27 playoff clinching victory over the Baltimore Ravens. The next game, Shazier made eight combined tackles and intercepted Robert Griffin III in a 27–24 win over the Browns on their season finale.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: He finished the regular season with 87 combined tackles, 9 pass deflections, 3 sacks, and 3 interceptions in 12 starts and 13 games. On January 8, 2017, Shazier recorded six combined tackles and intercepted Matt Moore, as the Pittsburgh Steelers defeated the Miami Dolphins in the AFC Wildcard game 30–12. On January 15, 2017, he recorded 5 combined tackles and intercepted Alex Smith in the Steelers' 18–16 Divisional Round victory over the Kansas City Chiefs.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: On September 10, 2017, Shazier had one of the best statistical games of his career, tying a career-high with 11 solo tackles and forcing a career-high of two forced fumbles during a 21–18 victory over the Cleveland Browns.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: During a "Monday Night Football" game against the Cincinnati Bengals on December 4, 2017, Shazier sustained what appeared to be a severe back injury after a head-on tackle. The hit left Shazier seemingly unable to move his legs. After stabilization he was taken to the hospital and the next morning revealed that he had sustained a spinal contusion. On December 7, Shazier underwent spinal stabilization surgery to secure the injured section of spine and to aid in his recovery. The surgery ended his 2017 season. But despite the injury, Shazier was named to his second Pro Bowl on December 19, 2017. He was ranked 47th by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: On February 28, 2018, Steelers GM Kevin Colbert announced that Shazier would not be able to play during the 2018 season. On April 26, 2018, Shazier walked onto the AT&T Stadium stage with his fiancée, Michelle Rodriguez, to announce the 28th pick of the NFL draft, Terrell Edmunds. On May 2, the Steelers placed Shazier on the reserve/PUP list, ending his 2018 season. On November 30, 2018, Shazier jogged for the first time since his spinal stabilization surgery, according to Steelers linebacker coach Joey Porter. On April 29, 2019, the Steelers placed Shazier on the reserve/PUP list, ending his 2019 season. The Steelers placed Shazier on the reserve/retired list on March 17, 2020, effectively ending his playing career. On September 9, 2020, Shazier announced his retirement from the NFL.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: Shazier has alopecia, an autoimmune condition which prevents the growth of hair on the body. Throughout his childhood, he was the subject of ridicule and taunting because of this. However, with support and encouragement from his parents, Shazier developed an altruistic temperament to deal with the jabs and name calling. In May 2017, he wrote of his experiences when his hair unexpectedly began growing back.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: On May 3, 2019, Shazier married Michelle Rodriguez. Seventeen months after suffering a spinal injury that doctors feared would leave him paralyzed, Shazier was able to dance at his wedding. Shazier has a son from a previous relationship named Ryan Dean Shazier Jr., and another son born in January 2019 to him and Rodriguez.


title: Ryan Shazier

text: In the Fall of 2019, Shazier returned to college, and graduated in December 2020 at his alma mater, Ohio State University.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC) is an American neo-Confederate hereditary association for female descendants of Confederate Civil War soldiers engaging in the commemoration of these ancestors, the funding of monuments to them, and the promotion of the pseudohistorical Lost Cause ideology and corresponding white supremacy.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: Established in Nashville, Tennessee in 1894, the group venerated the Ku Klux Klan during the first half of the 20th century and funded the construction of a monument to the Klan in 1926. According to the Institute for Southern Studies, the UDC "elevated [the Klan] to a nearly mythical status. It dealt in and preserved Klan artifacts and symbology. It even served as a sort of public relations agency for the terrorist group."


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The group's headquarters are in the Memorial to the Women of the Confederacy building in Richmond, Virginia, the former capital city of the Confederate States. In May 2020 the building was damaged by fire during the George Floyd protests.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The group was founded on September 10, 1894, by Caroline Meriwether Goodlett and Anna Davenport Raines as the National Association of the Daughters of the Confederacy. The first chapter was formed in Nashville. The name was soon changed to United Daughters of the Confederacy. Their stated intention was to "tell of the glorious fight against the greatest odds a nation ever faced, that their hallowed memory should never die." Their primary activity was to support the construction of Confederate memorials. The UDC has said that its members also support U.S. troops and honor veterans of all U.S. wars.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: In 1896, the organization established the Children of the Confederacy to impart similar values to younger generations through a mythical depiction of the Civil War and Confederacy. According to historian Kristina DuRocher, "Like the KKK's children's groups, the UDC utilized the Children of the Confederacy to impart to the rising generations their own white-supremacist vision of the future." The UDC denies assertions that it promotes white supremacy.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The communications studies scholar W. Stuart Towns notes the UDC's role "in demanding textbooks for public schools that told the story of the war and the Confederacy from a definite southern point of view." He adds that their work is one of the "essential elements [of] perpetuating Confederate mythology."


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The UDC was incorporated on July 18, 1919. Its headquarters is in the Memorial Building to the Women of the Confederacy, Richmond, Virginia, built in the 1950s.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: Across the Southern United States, associations were founded after the Civil War, chiefly by women, to organize burials of Confederate soldiers, establish and care for permanent cemeteries, organize commemorative ceremonies, and sponsor impressive monuments as a permanent way of remembering the Confederate cause and tradition.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The UDC was influential primarily in the early twentieth century across the South, where its main role was to preserve, uphold and romanticize the memory of the Confederate veterans, especially those husbands, sons, fathers and brothers who died in the Civil War. Memory and memorials became the central focus of the organization.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: Historian Jacquelyn Dowd Hall notes that the UDC had a particular interest in the position of Southern (Confederate) women, with "a commitment to bolstering vanquished and disheartened veterans and keeping the memory of the dead alive. But it was also committed to immortalizing the heroism of Confederate women, whose valor, its leaders believed, had been every bit as important as men's." The UDC's methods were wide-ranging and ahead of their times:


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: UDC leaders were determined to assert women's cultural authority over virtually every representation of the region's past. This they did by lobbying for state archives and museums, national historic sites, and historic highways; compiling genealogies; interviewing former soldiers; writing history textbooks; and erecting monuments, which now moved triumphantly from cemeteries into town centers. More than half a century before women's history and public history emerged as fields of inquiry and action, the UDC, with other women's associations, strove to etch women's accomplishments into the historical record and to take history to the people, from the nursery and the fireside to the schoolhouse and the public square.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: "The number of women's clubs devoted to filiopietism and history was staggering," says historian W. Fitzhugh Brundage, noting that women were much more likely to be involved in a variety of (historical) organizations than men, who devoted their energies to fraternal societies. Brundage notes that after women's suffrage came in 1920, the historical role of the women's organizations eroded.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: After 1900 the UDC became an umbrella organization coordinating local memorial groups. The UDC women specialized in sponsoring local memorials. After 1945, they were active in placing historical markers along Southern highways. The UDC has also been active in national causes during wartime. According to the organization, during World War I, it funded 70 hospital beds at the American Military Hospital on the Western front and contributed over US$82,000 for French and Belgian war orphans. The homefront campaign raised $24 million for war bonds and savings stamps. Members also donated $800,000 to the Red Cross. During World War II, they gave financial aid to student nurses.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: In 1933 the Tennessee branch of UDC donated $50,000 for the construction of a Confederate memorial hall on the campus of the George Peabody College for Teachers which merged with Vanderbilt University in 1979. A university effort to remove the inscription "Confederate" from the building, resisted by the UDC, led to a 2005 Tennessee appeals court ruling that the inscription could be removed only if the UDC donation was returned at present value. In 2016 an anonymous source donated $1.2 million to the university specifically for that purpose, and the inscription was removed.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The UDC encouraged women to publish their experiences in the war, beginning with biographies of major southern figures, such as Varina Davis's of her husband Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy. Later, women began adding more of their own experiences to the "public discourse about the war," in the form of memoirs, such as those published in the early 1900s by Sara Pryor, Virginia Clopton, Louise Wright and others. They also recommended structures for the memoirs. By the turn of the twentieth century, a dozen memoirs by southern women were published. These memoirs were part of the growing public memory about the antebellum years and the Lost Cause narrative, which critics have described as white supremacist, as they vigorously defended the Confederacy and its founding principles (which included the enslavement of African-Americans).


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The Southern Cross of Honor was a commemorative medal established by the United Daughters of the Confederacy for members of the United Confederate Veterans. It was proposed at a meeting in 1898, with 78,761 crosses issued by 1913. The medal was never authorized to be worn on the United States Army, Navy, or Marine Corps uniform.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: During the first decades of their existence, the UDC focused on caring for Confederate soldiers and their widows. When the numbers of Confederate veterans began to dwindle, they focused on their remaining objectives.  Education of the descendants of those who served the Confederacy became one of the key interests of the organization. Some state divisions within the UDC built dormitories and sponsored scholarships, but there was no coordinated support for education by the national organization.  The divisions were responsible for scholarships and building dormitories for women.  At the 1907 General Convention, Caroline Meriwether Goodlett spoke of the shift in the UDC's focus.  As monuments were erected, she "sat by ... thinking that the monument fever would abate." She believed that "the most thoughtful and best educated women" in the organization should have realized that the "grandest monument (they) could build in the South would be an educated motherhood."


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The UDC combined education with support of the military during World War II by establishing a nurses' training fund. Each scholarship provided approximately $100 per year for a three-year nursing program.  When a scholarship was offered, local Chapters were encouraged to contact local schools to locate students who needed assistance to fund their education.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: In addition, the UDC sponsors essay and poetry compositions, in which the participants are not to use the phrase "Civil War," "War Between the States" being the preferred term.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The Children of the Confederacy, also known as the CofC, is an auxiliary organization to the UDC. The official name is "Children of the Confederacy of the United Daughters of the Confederacy". It comprises children from birth through the time of the Children of the Confederacy Annual General Convention following their 18th birthday. All Children of the Confederacy chapters are sponsored by UDC chapters. Children are taught Lyon Gardiner Tyler's "Catechism on the History of the Confederate States of America, 1861–1865," which says that Northerners did away with slavery because the climate was unsuitable, that they had no intention of ever paying the South for its slaves after abolition, that slaves in the South were faithful to their owners, who were caring and gentle people: cruel slave owners existed only in the North.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The phrase "nor was its underlying cause to sustain slavery" was deleted by the UDC General Convention of 2015.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: Meredith College history professor and former CofC member Daniel L. Fountain states that organisations like the UDC have deeply "implanted the Lost Cause’s falsified version of history" in the South. "Rallying behind powerful women such as Mildred Lewis Rutherford, the UDC relentlessly lobbied legislatures for public school textbooks that presented a pro-Confederate version of regional history and successfully blacklisted" other books. "By targeting the region’s middle- to upper-class children, they ensured an army of future teachers and leaders would carry forward and defend their message for decades to come. Embedding their version of Confederate history into the sacred spaces of Southern society (the home, cemeteries, churches, city squares, street names, colleges and schools) made erasing it physically difficult and personally painful."


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: During the early morning hours of May 31, 2020, the Memorial to the Women of the Confederacy headquarters building in Richmond was vandalized with graffiti and set ablaze during a chain of protests across the city in the wake of the murder of George Floyd. The Richmond Fire Department extinguished the fire using nine fire trucks. The President-General of the UDC reported that the building's windows had been broken and fire was set to the curtains hanging in the building's Caroline Meriwether Goodlett Library. The fire was largely contained to the library, but there was extensive smoke and water damage throughout the building and charring on the building's Georgia marble façade. Staff reported that all the books in the building's library had incurred some damage and that library shelving had been destroyed.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: During the period 1880–1910, the UDC was one of many groups that celebrated Lost Cause mythology and presented "a romanticized view of the slavery era" in the United States. The UDC promoted white Southern solidarity, allowing white Southerners to refer to a mythical past in order to legitimize racial segregation and white supremacy. The UDC worked to "define southern identity around images from an Old South that portrayed slavery as benign and slaves as happy and a Reconstruction that portrayed blacks as savage and immoral." In 1919 their lost cause narrative was codified in Mildred Rutherford's "Measuring Rod to Test Text Books and Reference Books", which the UDC endorsed and successfully used in debates over history textbooks across the South. More recently, historian James M. McPherson has said that the UDC promotes a white supremacist and neo-Confederate agenda:


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: I think I agree a hundred percent with Ed Sebesta, though, about the motives or the hidden agenda not too deeply hidden I think of such groups as the United Daughters of the Confederacy and the Sons of the Confederate Veterans. They are dedicated to celebrating the Confederacy and rather thinly veiled support for white supremacy. And I think that also is the again not very deeply hidden agenda of the Confederate flag issue in several Southern states.


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) considers the UDC as part of the Neo-Confederate movement, intrinsically white supremacist, that began in the early 1890s. The SPLC contends that the UDC promotes "a reactionary conservative ideology that has made inroads into the Republican Party from the political right, and overlaps with the views of white nationalists and other more radical extremist groups." In August 2018, its website still stated that "Slaves, for the most part, were faithful and devoted. Most slaves were usually ready and willing to serve their masters."


title: United Daughters of the Confederacy

text: According to lawyer Greg Huffman, writing in "Facing South", "perhaps nothing illuminates the UDC's true nature more than its relationship with the Ku Klux Klan. Many commentators have said the UDC simply supported the Klan. That is not true. The UDC during Jim Crow venerated the Klan and elevated it to a nearly mythical status. It dealt in and preserved Klan artifacts and symbology. It even served as a sort of public relations agency for the terrorist group." At its 1913 annual national convention, the UDC unanimously endorsed "The Ku Klux Klan, or The Invisible Empire", a book written by UDC historian Laura Martin Rose, then president of the UDC's Mississippi Division, which alleged that the Klan had rescued the South from carpetbagger-inspired racial violence. Published near the height of the UDC's Confederate statue-installation and textbook-vetting efforts, the book became a supplementary reader for Southern school children. A local chapter of the UDC funded a now-vanished memorial to the Klan erected in 1926 near Concord, North Carolina. As late as 1936, the UDC's official publication featured an article which lauded the role of the Ku Klux Klan.


title: They shall not pass

text: "They shall not pass" (; ; ) is a slogan, most notably used by France in World War I, to express a determination to defend a position against an enemy. It was also used during the Spanish Civil War by the Republican faction.


title: They shall not pass

text: The widespread use of the slogan originates from the 1916 Battle of Verdun in the First World War when French General Robert Nivelle urged his troops not to let the enemy pass. The simplified slogan of "they shall not pass" appeared on French war propaganda posters, most notably by French artist in the last year of the war after the Allied victory at the Second Battle of the Marne.


title: They shall not pass

text: Later during the First World War, the slogan was used by Romanian soldiers during the Battle of Mărășești, with the Romanian translation of the phrase being "", translating as "One does not pass through here".


title: They shall not pass

text: French socialist politician Léon Blum (SFIO), in 1934, used this sentence "" against the Ligue's demonstration of the 6 February. ("they") designated the fascist protesters.


title: They shall not pass

text: It was also used during the Spanish Civil War, this time at the siege of Madrid by Dolores Ibárruri Gómez, a member of the Communist Party of Spain, in her famous "" speech on 18 July 1936. The leader of the Nationalist forces, Generalísimo Francisco Franco, upon gaining Madrid, responded to this slogan by declaring "" ("We have passed").


title: They shall not pass

text: "" was used by British anti-fascists during the October 1936 Battle of Cable Street, and is still used in this context in some political circles. It was often accompanied by the words (we will pass) to indicate that communists rather than fascists will be the ones to seize state power.


title: They shall not pass

text: The phrase was brought to the public consciousness again following action in December 1943 by French-Canadian officer Paul Triquet of the Royal 22 Regiment; his action included his use of Nivelle's phrase "to win a key objective at Ortona, Italy, in the face of overwhelming German opposition."


title: They shall not pass

text: In the 1980s, the phrase was a theme in the civil wars in Central America, particularly in Nicaragua. is also the title of a 1984 documentary by David Bradbury about the events in Nicaragua that led to the overthrow of Somoza's dictatorship.


title: Angkor

text: Angkor ( , 'Capital city'), also known as Yasodharapura (; ), was the capital city of the Khmer Empire. The city and empire flourished from approximately the 9th to the 15th centuries. The city houses the Angkor Wat, one of Cambodia's most popular tourist attractions.


title: Angkor

text: The name "Angkor" is derived from "nokor" (), a Khmer word meaning "kingdom" which in turn derived from Sanskrit "nagara" (), meaning "city". The Angkorian period began in AD 802, when the Khmer Hindu monarch Jayavarman II declared himself a "universal monarch" and "god-king", and lasted until the late 14th century, first falling under Ayutthayan suzerainty in 1351. A Khmer rebellion against Siamese authority resulted in the 1431 sacking of Angkor by Ayutthaya, causing its population to migrate south to Longvek.


title: Angkor

text: The ruins of Angkor are located amid forests and farmland north of the Great Lake (Tonlé Sap) and south of the Kulen Hills, near modern-day Siem Reap city (13°24′N, 103°51′E), in Siem Reap Province. The temples of the Angkor area number over one thousand, ranging in scale from nondescript piles of brick rubble scattered through rice fields to the Angkor Wat, said to be the world's largest single religious monument. Many of the temples at Angkor have been restored, and together, they comprise the most significant site of Khmer architecture. Visitors approach two million annually, and the entire expanse, including Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom is collectively protected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The popularity of the site among tourists presents multiple challenges to the preservation of the ruins.


title: Angkor

text: In 2007, an international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other modern techniques concluded that Angkor had been the largest pre-industrial city in the world, with an elaborate infrastructure system connecting an urban sprawl of at least to the well-known temples at its core. Angkor is considered to be a "hydraulic city" because it had a complicated water management network, which was used for systematically stabilizing, storing, and dispersing water throughout the area. This network is believed to have been used for irrigation in order to offset the unpredictable monsoon season and to also support the increasing population. Although the size of its population remains a topic of research and debate, newly identified agricultural systems in the Angkor area may have supported between 750,000 and one million people.


title: Angkor

text: The Angkorian period may have begun shortly after 800 AD, when the Khmer King Jayavarman II announced the independence of Kambujadesa (Cambodia) from Java. According to Sdok Kok Thom inscription, circa 781 Indrapura was the first capital of Jayavarman II, located in Banteay Prei Nokor, near today's Kompong Cham. After he eventually returned to his home, the former kingdom of Chenla, he quickly built up his influence, conquered a series of competing kings, and in 790 became king of a kingdom called Kambuja by the Khmer. He then moved his court northwest to Mahendraparvata, in present day Kulen mountains, far inland north from the great lake of Tonle Sap.


title: Angkor

text: He also established the city of Hariharalaya (now known as Roluos) at the northern end of Tonlé Sap. Through a program of military campaigns, alliances, marriages and land grants, he achieved a unification of the country bordered by China to the north, Champa (now Central Vietnam) to the east, the ocean to the south and a place identified by a stone inscription as "the land of cardamoms and mangoes" to the west. In 802, Jayavarman articulated his new status by declaring himself "universal monarch" ("chakravartin") and, in a move that was to be imitated by his successors and that linked him to the cult of Siva, taking on the epithet of "god-king" ("devaraja"). Before Jayavarman, Cambodia had consisted of a number of politically independent principalities collectively known to the Chinese by the names Funan and Chenla.


title: Angkor

text: In 889, Yasovarman ascended to the throne. A great king and an accomplished builder, he was celebrated by one inscription as "a lion-man; he tore the enemy with the claws of his grandeur; his teeth were his policies; his eyes were the Veda." Near the old capital of Hariharalaya, Yasovarman constructed a new city, called Yasodharapura. In the tradition of his predecessors, he also constructed a massive reservoir called baray.


title: Angkor

text: The significance of such reservoirs has been debated by modern scholars, some of whom have seen in them a means of irrigating rice fields, and others of whom have regarded them as religiously charged symbols of the great mythological oceans surrounding Mount Meru, the abode of the gods. The mountain, in turn, was represented by an elevated temple, in which the "god-king" was represented by a lingam. In accordance with this cosmic symbolism, Yasovarman built his central temple on a low hill known as Phnom Bakheng, surrounding it with a moat fed from the baray. He also built numerous other Hindu temples and ashrams, or retreats for ascetics.


title: Angkor

text: Over the next 300 years, between 900 and 1200, the Khmer Empire produced some of the world's most magnificent architectural masterpieces in the area known as Angkor. Most are concentrated in an area approximately east to west and north to south, although the Angkor Archaeological Park, which administers the area, includes sites as far away as Kbal Spean, about to the north. Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area, and the remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered throughout the landscape beyond.


title: Angkor

text: Because of the low-density and dispersed nature of the medieval Khmer settlement pattern, Angkor lacks a formal boundary, and its extent is therefore difficult to determine. However, a specific area of at least beyond the major temples is defined by a complex system of infrastructure, including roads and canals that indicate a high degree of connectivity and functional integration with the urban core. In terms of spatial extent (although not in terms of population), this makes it the largest urban agglomeration in recorded history prior to the Industrial Revolution, easily surpassing the nearest claim by the Mayan city of Tikal. At its peak, the city occupied an area greater than modern Paris, and its buildings use far more stone than all of the Egyptian structures combined.


title: Angkor

text: The principal temple of the Angkorian region, Angkor Wat, was built between 1113 and 1150 by King Suryavarman II. Suryavarman ascended to the throne after prevailing in a battle with a rival prince. An inscription says that, in the course of combat, Suryavarman leapt onto his rival's war elephant and killed him, just as the mythical bird-man Garuda slays a serpent.


title: Angkor

text: After consolidating his political position through military campaigns, diplomacy, and a firm domestic administration, Suryavarman launched into the construction of Angkor Wat as his personal temple mausoleum. Breaking with the tradition of the Khmer kings, and influenced perhaps by the concurrent rise of Vaisnavism in India, he dedicated the temple to Vishnu rather than to Siva. With walls nearly half a mile long on each side, Angkor Wat grandly portrays the Hindu cosmology, with the central towers representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond.


title: Angkor

text: The traditional theme of identifying the Khmer devaraja with the gods, and his residence with that of the celestials, is very much in evidence. The measurements themselves of the temple and its parts in relation to one another have cosmological significance. Suryavarman had the walls of the temple decorated with bas reliefs depicting not only scenes from mythology, but also from the life of his own imperial court. In one of the scenes, the king himself is portrayed as larger in size than his subjects, sitting cross-legged on an elevated throne and holding court, while a bevy of attendants make him comfortable with the aid of parasols and fans.


title: Angkor

text: Following the death of Suryavarman around 1150 AD, the kingdom fell into a period of internal strife. Its neighbors to the east, the Cham of what is now southern Vietnam, took advantage of the situation in 1177 to launch a water-borne invasion up the Mekong River and across Tonlé Sap. The Cham forces were successful in sacking the Khmer capital of Yasodharapura and in killing the reigning king. However, a Khmer prince who was to become King Jayavarman VII rallied his people and defeated the Cham in battles on the lake and on the land. In 1181, Jayavarman assumed the throne. He was to be the greatest of the Angkorian kings.


title: Angkor

text: Over the ruins of Yasodharapura, Jayavarman constructed the walled city of Angkor Thom, as well as its geographic and spiritual center, the temple known as the Bayon. Bas-reliefs at the Bayon depict not only the king's battles with the Cham, but also scenes from the life of Khmer villagers and courtiers. Jayavarman oversaw the period of Angkor's most prolific construction, which included building of the well-known temples of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan, dedicating them to his parents.


title: Angkor

text: This massive program of construction coincided with a transition in the state religion from Hinduism to Mahayana Buddhism, since Jayavarman himself had adopted the latter as his personal faith. During Jayavarman's reign, Hindu temples were altered to display images of the Buddha, and Angkor Wat briefly became a Buddhist shrine. Following his death, the revival of Hinduism as the state religion included a large-scale campaign of desecrating Buddhist images, and continued until Theravada Buddhism became established as the land's dominant religion from the 14th century.


title: Angkor

text: The year 1296 marked the arrival at Angkor of the Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan representing the Yuan dynasty. Zhou's one-year sojourn in the Khmer capital during the reign of King Indravarman III is historically significant, because he penned a still-surviving account, "The Customs of Cambodia", of approximately forty pages detailing his observations of Khmer society. Some of the topics he addressed in the account were those of religion, justice, kingship, agriculture, slavery, birds, vegetables, bathing, clothing, tools, draft animals, and commerce.


title: Angkor

text: In one passage, he described a royal procession consisting of soldiers, numerous servant women and concubines, ministers and princes, and finally, "the sovereign, standing on an elephant, holding his sacred sword in his hand." Together with the inscriptions that have been found on Angkorian stelae, temples and other monuments, and with the bas-reliefs at the Bayon and Angkor Wat, Zhou's journal is the most important source of information about everyday life at Angkor. Filled with vivid anecdotes and sometimes incredulous observations of a civilization that struck Zhou as colorful and exotic, it is an entertaining travel memoir as well.


title: Angkor

text: The end of the Angkorian period is generally set as 1431, the year Angkor was sacked and looted by Ayutthaya invaders, though the civilization already had been in decline in the 13th and 14th centuries. During the course of the 15th century, nearly all of Angkor was abandoned, except for Angkor Wat, which remained a Buddhist shrine.


title: Angkor

text: It is widely believed that the abandonment of the Khmer capital occurred as a result of Ayutthaya invasions. Ongoing wars with the Siamese were already sapping the strength of Angkor at the time of Zhou Daguan toward the end of the 13th century. In his memoirs, Zhou reported that the country had been completely devastated by such a war, in which the entire population had been obligated to participate.


title: Angkor

text: After the collapse of Angkor in 1431, many statues were taken to the Ayutthaya capital of Ayutthaya in the west. Others departed for the new center of Khmer society at Longvek further south. The official capital later moved, first to Oudong around from Phnom Penh in Ponhea Leu District, and then to the present site of Phnom Penh.


title: Angkor

text: Some scholars have connected the decline of Angkor with the conversion of the Khmer Empire to Theravada Buddhism following the reign of Jayavarman VII, arguing that this religious transition eroded the Hindu concept of kingship that underpinned the Angkorian civilization. According to Angkor scholar George Coedès, Theravada Buddhism's denial of the ultimate reality of the individual served to sap the vitality of the royal personality cult which had provided the inspiration for the grand monuments of Angkor. The vast expanse of temples required an equally large body of workers to maintain them; at Ta Prohm, a stone carving states that 12,640 people serviced that single temple complex. Not only could the spread of Buddhism have eroded this workforce, but it could have also affected the estimated 300,000 agricultural workers required to feed them all.


title: Angkor

text: According to Coedès, the weakening of Angkor's royal government by ongoing war and the erosion of the cult of the "devaraja", undermined the government's ability to carry out important public works, such as the construction and maintenance of the waterways essential for irrigation of the rice fields upon which Angkor's large population depended for its sustenance. As a result, Angkorian civilization suffered from a reduced economic base, and the population was forced to scatter.


title: Angkor

text: Other scholars attempting to account for the rapid decline and abandonment of Angkor have hypothesized natural disasters such as disease (Bubonic Plague), earthquakes, inundations, or drastic climate changes as the relevant agents of destruction. A study of tree rings in Vietnam produced a record of early monsoons that passed through this area. From this study, we can tell that during the 14th–15th centuries monsoons were weakened and eventually followed by extreme flooding. Their inability to adapt their flooding infrastructure may have led to its eventual decline.


title: Angkor

text: Recent research by Australian archaeologists suggests that the decline may have been due to a shortage of water caused by the transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age. LDEO dendrochronological research has established tree-ring chronologies indicating severe periods of drought across mainland Southeast Asia in the early 15th century, raising the possibility that Angkor's canals and reservoirs ran dry and ended expansion of available farmland.


title: Angkor

text: A 16th century Portuguese friar, António da Madalena, was the first European visitor to visit Angkor Wat in 1586. By the 17th century, Angkor Wat was not completely abandoned. Fourteen inscriptions from the 17th century testify to Japanese settlements alongside those of the remaining Khmer. The best-known inscription tells of Ukondafu Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New Year there in 1632.


title: Angkor

text: While Angkor was known to the local Khmer and was shown to European visitors; Henri Mouhot in 1860 and Anna Leonowens in 1865, it remained cloaked by the forest until the end of the 19th century. European archeologists such as Louis Delaporte and ethnologists such as Adolf Bastian visited the site and popularized the site in Europe. This eventually led to a long restoration process by French archaeologists.


title: Angkor

text: From 1907 to 1970, work was under the direction of the École française d'Extrême-Orient, which cleared away the forest, repaired foundations, and installed drains to protect the buildings from water damage. In addition, scholars associated with the school including George Coedès, Maurice Glaize, Paul Mus, Philippe Stern and others initiated a program of historical scholarship and interpretation that is fundamental to the current understanding of Angkor.


title: Angkor

text: Work resumed after the end of the Cambodian Civil War and, since 1993, has been jointly co-ordinated by India, Germany, Japan and UNESCO through the International Co-ordinating Committee on the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), while Cambodian work is carried out by the Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap (APSARA), created in 1995. Some temples have been carefully taken apart stone by stone and reassembled on concrete foundations, in accordance with the method of anastylosis.


title: Angkor

text: The World Monuments Fund has aided Preah Khan, the Churning of the Sea of Milk (a 49-meter-long bas-relief frieze in Angkor Wat), Ta Som, and Phnom Bakheng. International tourism to Angkor has increased significantly in recent years, with visitor numbers reaching around 2 million a year by 2014. This poses additional conservation problems but has also provided financial assistance to the restoration effort.


title: Angkor

text: With the increased growth in tourism at Angkor, new hotels and restaurants are being built to accommodate such growth. Each new construction project drills underground to reach the water table, which has a limited storage capacity. This demand on the water table could undermine the stability of the sandy soils under the monuments at Angkor, leading to cracks, fissures and collapses. Making matters worse, the peak tourist season corresponds with Cambodia's dry season, which leads to excessive pumping of ground water when it is least replenished naturally.


title: Angkor

text: Looting has been an ever-growing threat to the Angkor archaeological landscape. According to APSARA, the official Cambodian agency charged with overseeing the management of Angkor, "vandalism has multiplied at a phenomenal rate, employing local populations to carry out the actual thefts, heavily armed intermediaries transport objects, often in tanks or armored personnel carriers, often for sale across the Cambodian border."


title: Angkor

text: The increasing number of tourists, around two million per year, exerts pressure on the archaeological sites at Angkor by walking and climbing on the (mostly) sandstone monuments at Angkor. This direct pressure created by unchecked tourism is expected to cause significant damage to the monuments in the future.


title: Angkor

text: In sites such as Angkor, tourism is inevitable. Therefore, the site management team cannot exclusively manage the site. The team has to manage the flow of people. Millions of people visit Angkor each year, making the management of this flow vital to the quickly decaying structures. Western tourism to Angkor began in the 1970s. The sandstone monuments and Angkor are not made for this type of heightened tourism.


title: Angkor

text: Moving forward, UNESCO and local authorities at the site are in the process of creating a sustainable plan for the future of the site. Since 1992, UNESCO has moved towards conserving Angkor. Thousands of new archaeological sites have been discovered by UNESCO, and the organization has moved towards protected cultural zones. Two decades later, over 1000 people are employed full-time at the site for cultural sensitivity reasons. Part of this movement to limit the impacts of tourism has been to only open certain areas of the site.


title: Angkor

text: However, much of the 1992 precautionary measures and calls for future enforcement have fallen through. Both globally and locally the policy-making has been successful, but the implementation has failed for several reasons. First, there are conflicts of interest in Cambodia. While the site is culturally important to them, Cambodia is a poor country. Its GDP is marginally larger than Afghanistan's.


title: Angkor

text: Tourism is a vital part to the Cambodian economy, and shutting down parts of Angkor, the largest tourist destination in the country, is not an option. A second reason stems from the government's inability to organize around the site. The Cambodian government has failed in organizing a robust team of cultural specialists and archaeologists to service the site.


title: Angkor

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the lack of visitors resulted in 10,000 people working in the Cambodian tourist trade being out of work.


title: Angkor

text: Historical Angkor was more than a site for religious art and architecture. It was the site of vast cities that served all the needs of the Khmer people. Aside from a few old bridges, however, all of the remaining monuments are religious edifices. In Angkorian times, all non-religious buildings, including the residence of the king himself, were constructed of perishable materials, such as wood, "because only the gods had a right to residences made of stone." Similarly, the vast majority of the surviving stone inscriptions are about the religious foundations of kings and other potentates. As a result, it is easier to write the history of Angkorian state religion than it is to write that of just about any other aspect of Angkorian society.


title: Angkor

text: The religion of pre-Angkorian Cambodia, known to the Chinese as Funan (1st century AD to ca. 550) and Chenla (ca. 550 – ca. 800 AD), included elements of Hinduism, Buddhism and indigenous ancestor cults.


title: Angkor

text: Temples from the period of Chenla bear stone inscriptions, in both Sanskrit and Khmer, naming both Hindu and local ancestral deities, with Shiva supreme among the former. The cult of Harihara was prominent; Buddhism was not, because, as reported by the Chinese pilgrim Yi Jing, a "wicked king" had destroyed it. Characteristic of the religion of Chenla also was the cult of the lingam, or stone phallus that patronized and guaranteed fertility to the community in which it was located.


title: Angkor

text: The Khmer king Jayavarman II, whose assumption of power around 800 AD marks the beginning of the Angkorian period, established his capital at a place called Hariharalaya (today known as Roluos), at the northern end of the great lake, Tonlé Sap. Harihara is the name of a deity that combines the essence of Vishnu (Hari) with that of Shiva (Hara) and that was much favored by the Khmer kings. Jayavarman II's adoption of the epithet "devaraja" (god-king) signified the monarch's special connection with Shiva.


title: Angkor

text: The beginning of the Angkorian period was also marked by changes in religious architecture. During the reign of Jayavarman II, the single-chambered sanctuaries typical of Chenla gave way to temples constructed as a series of raised platforms bearing multiple towers. Increasingly impressive temple pyramids came to represent Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods, with the moats surrounding the temples representing the mythological oceans.


title: Angkor

text: Thus, an inscription dated 881 AD indicates that king Indravarman I erected a lingam named "Indresvara". Another inscription tells us that Indravarman erected eight lingams in his courts and that they were named for the "eight elements of Shiva". Similarly, Rajendravarman, whose reign began in 944 AD, constructed the temple of Pre Rup, the central tower of which housed the royal lingam called "Rajendrabhadresvara".


title: Angkor

text: In the early days of Angkor, the worship of Vishnu was secondary to that of Shiva. The relationship seems to have changed with the construction of Angkor Wat by King Suryavarman II as his personal mausoleum at the beginning of the 12th century. The central religious image of Angkor Wat was an image of Vishnu, and an inscription identifies Suryavarman as "Paramavishnuloka," or "he who enters the heavenly world of Vishnu." Religious syncretism, however, remained thoroughgoing in Khmer society: the state religion of Shaivism was not necessarily abrogated by Suryavarman's turn to Vishnu, and the temple may well have housed a royal lingam.


title: Angkor

text: Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism did not abrogate the royal personality cult of Angkor. by which the reigning king was identified with the deity. According to Angkor scholar Georges Coedès, "Angkor Wat is, if you like, a vaishnavite sanctuary, but the Vishnu venerated there was not the ancient Hindu deity nor even one of the deity's traditional incarnations, but the king Suryavarman II posthumously identified with Vishnu, consubstantial with him, residing in a mausoleum decorated with the graceful figures of apsaras just like Vishnu in his celestial palace." Suryavarman proclaimed his identity with Vishnu, just as his predecessors had claimed consubstantiation with Shiva.


title: Angkor

text: In the last quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII departed radically from the tradition of his predecessors when he adopted Mahayana Buddhism as his personal faith. Jayavarman also made Buddhism the state religion of his kingdom when he constructed the Buddhist temple known as the Bayon at the heart of his new capital city of Angkor Thom. In the famous face towers of the Bayon, the king represented himself as the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara moved by compassion for his subjects. Thus, Jayavarman was able to perpetuate the royal personality cult of Angkor, while identifying the divine component of the cult with the bodhisattva rather than with Shiva.


title: Angkor

text: The Hindu restoration began around 1243 AD, with the death of Jayavarman VII's successor, Indravarman II. The next king, Jayavarman VIII, was a Shaivite iconoclast who specialized in destroying Buddhist images and in reestablishing the Hindu shrines that his illustrious predecessor had converted to Buddhism. During the restoration, the Bayon was made a temple to Shiva, and its central 3.6 meter tall statue of the Buddha was cast to the bottom of a nearby well. Everywhere, cultist statues of the Buddha were replaced by lingams.


title: Angkor

text: When Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan came to Angkor in AD 1296, he found what he took to be three separate religious groups. The dominant religion was that of Theravada Buddhism. Zhou observed that the monks had shaven heads and wore yellow robes. The Buddhist temples impressed Zhou with their simplicity. He noted that the images of Buddha were made of gilded plaster.


title: Angkor

text: The other two groups identified by Zhou appear to have been those of the Brahmans and of the Shaivites. About the Brahmans, Zhou had little to say, except that they were often employed as high officials. Of the Shaivites, whom he called "Taoists", Zhou wrote, "the only image which they revere is a block of stone analogous to the stone found in shrines of the god of the soil in China."


title: Angkor

text: During the course of the 13th century, Theravada Buddhism transmitted through the Mon kingdoms of Dvaravati and Haripunchai made its appearance at Angkor. Gradually, it became the dominant religion of Cambodia, displacing both Mahayana Buddhism and Shaivism. The practice of Theravada Buddhism at Angkor continues until this day.


title: Angkor

text: The area of Angkor has many significant archaeological sites, including the following: Angkor Thom, Angkor Wat, Baksei Chamkrong, Banteay Kdei, Banteay Samré, Banteay Srei, Baphuon, the Bayon, Chau Say Tevoda, East Baray, East Mebon, Kbal Spean, the Khleangs, Krol Ko, Lolei, Neak Pean, Phimeanakas, Phnom Bakheng, Phnom Krom, Prasat Ak Yum, Prasat Kravan, Preah Khan, Preah Ko, Preah Palilay, Preah Pithu, Pre Rup, Spean Thma, Srah Srang, Ta Nei, Ta Prohm, Ta Som, Ta Keo, Terrace of the Elephants, Terrace of the Leper King, Thommanon, West Baray, West Mebon. Another city at Mahendraparvata was discovered in 2013.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: Brooke Gabrielle Ligertwood (née Fraser; born 15 December 1983) better known by her maiden name Brooke Fraser, is a New Zealand singer and songwriter best known for her hit single "Something in the Water", released in 2010. Fraser released two studio albums "What to Do with Daylight" (2003) and "Albertine" (2006) through Columbia Records before signing a recording contract with Wood + Bone. Her third studio album, "Flags", was released in 2010 and is her most successful album to date. Her most recent album, "Brutal Romantic", was released in November 2014 through Vagrant Records.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: Fraser became a member of the Australian Christian music group Hillsong Worship from 2005 to 2010; she rejoined the group in 2016 since she was the songwriter and lead vocalist for the Grammy winning song "What a Beautiful Name", which was credited under her married name Brooke Ligertwood. Other well-known songs written and performed by Fraser (both with Hillsong Worship and as a solo artist) include "Hosanna", "Lead Me To The Cross", "Better", "Who You Say I Am", "King of Kings", "Awake My Soul".


title: Brooke Fraser

text: Fraser is the eldest of three children born to former All Black Bernie Fraser, who was born in Lautoka, Fiji, and his wife Lynda. Her father is of Fijian, Portuguese, and Scottish descent. She has two brothers: Matthew, who lives in Wellington, and Shea, who lives in Dunedin. Fraser grew up in Naenae, Lower Hutt and attended Dyer Street School, Naenae Intermediate School and Naenae College.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: Fraser took piano lessons between the ages of seven and seventeen. She started writing songs at age twelve and taught herself the acoustic guitar at age fifteen.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: She began writing for the "Soul Purpose" magazine at age fifteen and was later made editor in 2002. She gave up her job as editor shortly after moving to Auckland in late 2002 in order to pursue her music career. In 2002, at the age of 18, Fraser signed a multi album deal with Sony Music, after a fierce bidding war between labels.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: Fraser's first album, "What to Do with Daylight", was released in New Zealand in late 2003, which debuted at No. 1 and achieved gold status the same week. The album eventually went seven times platinum, which sold over 105,000 copies in New Zealand alone. It remained on the album charts for sixty-six weeks. All five singles from the album reached the top twenty in the New Zealand Singles Chart. Her album also topped the New Zealand Top 50 Albums for all of 2004. The album also achieved gold status in Australia.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: Following the release of "What to Do with Daylight", Fraser toured Australia and New Zealand with American recording artist John Mayer and then toured New Zealand with veteran English rock artist David Bowie.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: In 2005, prior to writing and preparing her follow-up album, Fraser went to Rwanda before visiting her World Vision sponsor children in Tanzania. Fraser wrote the song "Albertine" about a young genocide victim (named Albertine), whom she met while in Rwanda. This song became her second album's title track. For this album, Fraser decided to enlist a new band of American session musicians who had worked with an array of notable artists, both live and recorded.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: In 2006, Fraser and the band went into the studio in Los Angeles to record the album with producer Marshall Altman. The first single, "Deciphering Me", reached No. 4 in the New Zealand single charts in 2006. On 4 December 2006, the album, "Albertine", was released in New Zealand, which achieved double platinum status less than a month after its release. The album was released in Australia and internationally on 31 March 2007. In Australia, it charted at No. 29 in its first week on 9 April and has achieved Gold sales status. "Albertine" also became Fraser's US debut, released on 27 May 2008. It entered the "Billboard" 200 at No. 90 on 19 July 2008. The album was propelled by online sales after being chosen as Editor's Choice on iTunes. In 2008, Fraser undertook a major world tour, culminating the Montreal Jazz Festival and the Shepherd's Bush Empire in London, UK. "Albertine" (the single) won the prestigious APRA Silver Scroll for Song of the Year in 2007.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: "Flags" was recorded at East West Studios in Hollywood in mid 2010 and released on 12 October 2010, in New Zealand, Australia and North America. Fraser celebrated with sold-out tours in all territories. "Flags" reached No. 1 on the New Zealand album chart, No. 3 in Australia and entered at No. 59 on the "Billboard" 200 in the US. "Flags" has been certified Gold in Australia and 3× Platinum in New Zealand, where it was also the sixth-highest-selling album of 2010. The first single, "Something in the Water", achieved extensive radio success across the globe; it notably received BBC Radio 2 A-list rotation in the top 10 in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Finland and Belgium and is a gold single in Germany and Italy. The single achieved double platinum sales in NZ where it spent 21 weeks in the 2010 singles chart. "Flags" was released in July 2011 in Europe and debuted in the album charts at No. 6 in Germany, No. 33 in Austria and No. 24 in Switzerland. A month after its release, "Flags" remained in the German top twenty at No. 13 and "Something in the Water" on the singles charts at No. 8. "Flags" was released in October 2011 in Hungary and reached No. 15 on the national album chart by the second week of release. "Flags" was later released in Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland on 7 November 2011.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: In its review of "Flags", "Glide Magazine" said: "Brooke Fraser's third release, "Flags", is a wonder. From the stunning lyrical imagery throughout to the impressive guest vocalists who join her (Cary Brothers, Jon Foreman and Aqualung among them), from Fraser's ethereal and breathy performances to the wide-ranging soundscapes, this record is drenched in beauty and stands as one of the more remarkable achievements of 2010."


title: Brooke Fraser

text: After the release of "Flags", Fraser signed a recording contract with Vagrant Records and started recording her fourth studio album. On 13 August 2014, Fraser released a "taster track" titled "Psychosocial" on SoundCloud. The song marked a shift in musical direction for Fraser, as she moved from more acoustic and singer-songwriter based tunes to more electronic sounds. Her single "Kings and Queens" went to radio on 22 September 2014 and was available for digital download on 26 September 2014. On 1 October, she announced her fourth studio album, "Brutal Romantic", would follow in November. The album was released in Australia, New Zealand and South East Asia on 14 November 2014 and in North America on 17 November 2014. The album was produced by Fraser and David Kosten, except the track "Magical Machine" which was produced by Fraser, Kosten and Dan Wilson. In September 2015, Fraser performed a song titled "Team, Ball, Player, Thing" as a part of a charity supergroup #KiwisCureBatten. It was an official supporters' song of the All Blacks in the 2015 Rugby World Cup. It was also in aid of research into Batten disease via the New Zealand charity Cure Kids. It was released as a single on 11 September 2015. The day after it was released, the single debuted at No. 6 on the New Zealand Top 40 chart.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: In 2016, she released "Therapy", off her first compilation album, "A Sides", which was released 25 November 2016. This was followed by her second compilation album, "B Sides", on 16 November 2018.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: Already part of Hillsong Church since 2005, Fraser joined the Australian church's worship band—Hillsong Worship—where she participates under her married name: Brooke Ligertwood. The first album she was included on was the 2006 album "Mighty to Save", on which she co-wrote "None But Jesus" from "United We Stand", released in 2006. Her last live album with the band was the 2010 album "A Beautiful Exchange", after which Fraser left Hillsong Worship. The 2016 live album "Let There Be Light" marked Fraser's return and her first live recording with Hillsong Worship since her departure in 2010. She co-wrote and sang lead vocals on the song "What a Beautiful Name" for the 2016 live album. At the 2018 Grammy Awards, the group won the Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song award for "What a Beautiful Name". "Billboard" ranked the song as the top Christian Song of 2017 and third of the 2010s decade.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: On February 25, 2022, Fraser released "SEVEN". It is her first live solo album, her first solo work since rejoining Hillsong Worship and the first to be released under her married name.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: Since 2016, Ligertwood has led the Hillsong Worship team, both in Australia and abroad and she also tours under her own individual brand.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: After the success of her first album, Fraser moved to Sydney in 2004. On 17 March 2008, she married Scott Ligertwood, in Sydney. She continues to perform under her maiden name "Brooke Fraser" for her solo career with the exception of her live album "Seven".


title: Brooke Fraser

text: In March 2015, Fraser announced she was pregnant with their first child. A daughter was born on 18 September 2015. Fraser currently lives in Los Angeles, where she is occasionally on the Sunday worship team at the Hillsong Church Los Angeles campus. Another daughter was born on 10 July 2017.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: Fraser's music tends to contain Christian themes and imagery while "her work with Hillsong allowed her to fully express her faith." Her genres include folk-pop with more recent pop elements incorporated into her work. Fraser's image as an artist is described as a "dark-haired, wide-eyed, eternally innocent Christian who sang of happy feet, being thrown a lifeline and things in the water." As an artist who writes her songs, she is described as "fast-paced and diligent; she throws herself into everything," fashion and lyric-wise.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: In late 2010 whilst on tour in the US promoting her third album "Flags", Fraser, in conjunction with , ran a birthday campaign asking her fans to donate $27 in honour of her 27th birthday. The goal was to raise $50,000 to build clean water wells in Ethiopia. The campaign was similar to those of Justin Bieber, Will Smith and Adam Lambert.


title: Brooke Fraser

text: Fraser has worked with World Vision as an Artist Associate since 2001. She has visited Cambodia and Tanzania with World Vision, the Philippines with Opportunity International and independently travelled to Rwanda in June 2005, in June 2006 as part of charity event "Hope Rwanda", and in May 2007 when she filmed the music video for the song "Albertine" off her second studio album of the same name. Fraser was one of many New Zealand performers to work alongside New Zealand comedy band Flight of the Conchords in their 2012 New Zealand Red Nose Day charity song "Feel Inside (And Stuff Like That)".


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: The Hughes Aircraft Company was a major American aerospace and defense contractor founded on February 14, 1934 by Howard Hughes in Glendale, California, as a division of Hughes Tool Company. The company was known for producing, among other products, the Hughes H-4 Hercules "Spruce Goose" aircraft, the atmospheric entry probe carried by the "Galileo" spacecraft, and the AIM-4 Falcon guided missile.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: Hughes Aircraft was founded to construct Hughes' H-1 Racer world speed record aircraft, and it later modified aircraft for his transcontinental and global circumnavigation speed record flights. The company relocated to Culver City, California, in 1940 and began manufacturing aircraft parts as a subcontractor. Hughes attempted to mold it into a major military aircraft manufacturer during World War II; however, its initial military projects ended in failure, with millions of dollars in U.S. government funds expended but only three aircraft actually built, resulting in a highly publicized U.S. Senate investigation into alleged mismanagement. The U.S. military consequently hesitated to award new aircraft contracts to Hughes Aircraft, prompting new management installed in the late 1940s to instead pursue contracts for fire-control systems and guided missiles, which were then new technologies. The company soon became a highly profitable industry leader in these fields.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In a 1953 accounting maneuver designed to reduce his income tax liabilities, Howard Hughes donated most of Hughes Aircraft's stock and assets to a charity he created, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI), and subsequently ceased managing the company directly. Hughes retained a small cadre of engineers under his personal control as the "Hughes Tool Company Aircraft Division", which initially operated from the same Culver City complex as Hughes Aircraft, despite being under a separate corporate umbrella. This entity subsequently became fully independent from Hughes Aircraft and changed its name to Hughes Helicopters. After Hughes' 1976 death, Hughes Aircraft was acquired by General Motors from HHMI in 1985 and was put under the umbrella of Hughes Electronics, now known as DirecTV, until GM sold its assets to Raytheon in 1997.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: During World War II the company designed and built several prototype aircraft at Hughes Airport. These included the famous Hughes H-4 Hercules, better known by the public's nickname for it, the "Spruce Goose", the H-1 racer, D-2, and the XF-11. However the plant's hangars at Hughes Airport, location of present-day Playa Vista in the Westside of Los Angeles, California, were primarily used as a branch plant for the construction of other companies' designs. At the start of the war Hughes Aircraft had only four full-time employees—by the end the number was 80,000. During the war, the company was awarded contracts to build B-25 struts, centrifugal cannons, and machine gun feed chutes.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: Hughes Aircraft was one of many aerospace and defense companies which flourished in Southern California during and after World War II and was at one time the largest employer in the area.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: Yet, employment had dropped to 800 by 1947. By the summer of 1947 certain politicians had become concerned about Hughes' alleged mismanagement of the Spruce Goose and the XF-11 photo reconnaissance plane project. They formed a special committee to investigate Hughes which culminated in a much-followed Senate investigation, one of the first to be televised to the public. Despite a highly critical committee report, Hughes was cleared.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: The company then expanded into the booming electronics field, eventually employing 3,300 Ph.D.s. Hughes hired Ira Eaker, Harold L. George, and Tex Thornton to run the company. By 1953, the company employed 17,000 and had $600,000,000 in government contracts.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In 1948 Hughes created a new division of the company, the Aerospace Group. Two Hughes engineers, Simon Ramo and Dean Wooldridge, had new ideas on the packaging of electronics to make complete fire control systems. Their MA-1 system combined signals from the aircraft's radar with a digital computer to automatically guide the interceptor aircraft into the proper position for firing missiles. At the same time other teams were working with the newly formed US Air Force on air-to-air missiles, delivering the AIM-4 Falcon, then known as the F-98. The MA-1/Falcon package, with several upgrades, was the primary interceptor weapon system of the USAF for many years, lasting into the 1980s. Ramo and Wooldridge, having failed to reach an agreement with Howard Hughes regarding management problems, resigned in September 1953 and founded the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation, later to join Thompson Products to form the Thompson-Ramo-Wooldridge based in Canoga Park, with Hughes leasing space for nuclear research programs (present day West Hills (Canoga Park)). The company became TRW in 1965, another aerospace company and a major competitor to Hughes Aircraft.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In 1951 Hughes Aircraft Co. built a missile plant in Tucson, Arizona. The construction of this plant, wrote David Leighton, in the Arizona Daily Star newspaper, was due to "Howard Hughes’ long-held fear that his plant in Culver City, California, was vulnerable to enemy attack because it was on the Pacific Coast." By the end of that year, the U.S. Air Force had purchased the property but allowed the company to continue to run day to day operations of the site. This Tucson plant is still in operation under the ownership of Raytheon Missiles & Defense.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: Howard Hughes donated Hughes Aircraft to the newly formed Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) in 1953 allegedly as a way of avoiding taxes on its huge income. The next year, L.A. "Pat" Hyland was hired as vice president and general manager of Hughes Aircraft; he would ultimately become company president and CEO after Howard Hughes' death in 1976.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: Under Hyland's guidance, the Aerospace Group continued to diversify and become massively profitable, and became a primary focus of the company. The company developed radar systems, electro-optical systems, the first working laser, aircraft computer systems, missile systems, ion-propulsion engines (for space travel), and many other advanced technologies. The 'Electronic Properties Information Center' (EPIC) of the United States was hosted at the Hughes Culver City library in the 1970s. EPIC published the multi-volume "Handbook of Electronic Materials" as public documents.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: Nobel Laureates Richard Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann had Hughes connections: Feynman would hold weekly seminars at Hughes Research Laboratories; Gell-Mann shared an office with Malcolm Currie, later a chairman of the board and chief executive officer at Hughes Aircraft. Greg Jarvis and Ronald McNair, two of the astronauts on the last flight of the Space Shuttle "Challenger", were Hughes alumni.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: Hughes Aircraft Ground Systems Group was located in Fullerton, California. The facility was 3 million square feet and included manufacturing, laboratories, offices, and a Munson road test course. It designed developed and produced the Air Defense Systems that replaced the Semi Automatic Defense Ground Environment (SAGE) in the United States with the Joint Surveillance System (JSS) AN/FYQ-93 including NORAD with Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS) and provided defense systems and air traffic control systems around the world. These systems are massive and at its peak Ground Systems Group employed 15,000 people and generated revenue in excess of $1 billion per year.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: These systems included the following Ground Systems Group subsystems: Computer H5118, Consoles HMD-22 and HMD-44, Liquid Crystal Large Screen Displays, and Software that set the standard for software development based on science and engineering starting with the Combat Grande System. Ground Systems Group was known to push technology envelopes in the computers, displays, local area networks, human interfaces, and software in their systems. They also blazed the path to very highly distributed human intensive systems.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: Hughes Space and Communications Group and the Hughes Space Systems Division built the world's first geosynchronous communications satellite, Syncom, in 1963 and followed by the first geosynchronous weather satellite, ATS-1, in 1966. Later that year their Surveyor 1 made the first soft landing on the Moon as part of the lead-up to the moon landings in Project Apollo. Hughes also built Pioneer Venus in 1978, which performed the first extensive radar mapping of Venus, and the "Galileo" probe that flew to Jupiter in the 1990s. The company built nearly 40 percent of commercial satellites in service worldwide in 2000.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In 1947, Howard Hughes redirected Hughes Aircraft's efforts from airplanes to helicopters. The effort began in earnest in 1948, when helicopter manufacturer Kellett Aircraft Co. sold its latest design to Hughes for production. The XH-17 "Sky Crane" first flew in October 1952, but was commercially unsuccessful. In 1955, Howard Hughes split the helicopter production unit from the Hughes Aircraft Company, and reconstituted it with Hughes Tool Company, calling it Hughes Tool Company's Aircraft Division. The Aircraft Division had a focus on the production of light helicopters, mainly the Hughes 269/300 and the OH-6 Cayuse/Hughes 500.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: Hughes left no will and following his death in 1976 there were numerous claims to his estate. A Hughes executive and a Hughes lawyer claimed they had the right to set up an "executive committee" to take over the running of the HHMI and its Hughes Aircraft subsidiary. The Attorney General of Delaware Richard R. Wier challenged this and filed suit in 1978. Charles M. Oberly continued the action when he became attorney general in 1983. Oberly stated he wished to see an independent board of trustees to ensure both that the institute fulfilled its charitable mission and that it did not continue to operate as a tax shelter.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In January 1984 Judge Grover C. Brown ruled that the Chancery Court should appoint the trustees because Hughes had not left a succession plan. Brown asked for both the executive committee and the attorney general's office to submit a list of recommendations that he could approve. Brown approved a list in April 1984. In January 1985 the new board of trustees of the HHMI announced they would sell Hughes Aircraft either by private sale or public stock offering.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: On June 5, 1985, General Motors was announced as the winner of a secretive five-month sealed-bid auction. Other bidders included Ford Motor Company and Boeing. The purchase was completed on December 20, 1985, for an estimated $5.2 billion, $2.7 billion in cash and the rest in 50 million shares of GM Class H stock.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: On December 31, 1985, General Motors merged Hughes Aircraft with its Delco Electronics unit to form Hughes Electronics Corporation, an independent subsidiary. The group then consisted of: Delco Electronics Corporation and Hughes Aircraft Company.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In August 1992 Hughes Aircraft completed its purchase of General Dynamics' missile businesses for $450 million. This brought the Tomahawk Cruise Missile, Advanced Cruise Missile, Standard missile, Stinger missile, Phalanx Close-in weapon system, and Rolling Airframe Missile into Hughes' portfolio.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In 1994 Hughes Electronics introduced DirecTV, the world's first high-powered DBS service. In 1995 Hughes Electronic's Hughes Space and Communications division became the largest supplier of commercial satellites. Also in 1995 the group purchased Magnavox Electronic Systems from the Carlyle Group. In 1996 Hughes Electronics and PanAmSat agree to merge their fixed satellite services into a new publicly held company, also called PanAmSat with Hughes Electronics as majority shareholder.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In 1995, Hughes Aircraft sold its Technology Products Division (automated wire and die bonder) to an investor group led by Citicorp and incorporated the division as Palomar Technologies. In 2008, Citicorp sold the bonder division to the current management team at Palomar Technologies.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In 1997 GM transferred Delco Electronics to its Delphi Automotive Systems business. Later that year the assets of Hughes Aircraft were sold to Raytheon for $9.5 billion. The remaining companies remained under the Hughes Electronics name and within GM.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In 2000, the Boeing Company purchased three units within Hughes Electronics Corp.: Hughes Space and Communications Co., Hughes Electron Dynamics, and Spectrolab Inc., in addition to Hughes Electronics' interest in HRL, the company's primary research laboratory. The four joined Boeing Satellite Systems, a company subsidiary, later becoming the Satellite Development Center, part of Boeing Integrated Defense Systems.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: In 2003 the remaining parts of Hughes Electronics (DirecTV, DirecTV Latin America, PanAmSat, Hughes Network Systems) were purchased by News Corporation from GM and renamed The DirecTV Group.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: The wide range of science and technology developed by Hughes Aircraft never included medical applications because the company was owned by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI). This restriction was imposed to avoid even the appearance of a conflict of interest.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: The money provided to HHMI by Hughes Aircraft led to major improvements in genetics and cancer research.


title: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: The city of Fullerton, California, named Hughes Drive after the site that the company formerly occupied before 1997. After Hughes closed, the city developed Amerige Heights, a residential community.


title: Uterine fibroid

text: Uterine fibroids, also known as uterine leiomyomas or fibroids, are benign smooth muscle tumors of the uterus. Most women with fibroids have no symptoms while others may have painful or heavy periods. If large enough, they may push on the bladder, causing a frequent need to urinate. They may also cause pain during penetrative sex or lower back pain. A woman can have one uterine fibroid or many. Occasionally, fibroids may make it difficult to become pregnant, although this is uncommon.


title: Uterine fibroid

text: The exact cause of uterine fibroids is unclear. However, fibroids run in families and appear to be partly determined by hormone levels. Risk factors include obesity and eating red meat. Diagnosis can be performed by pelvic examination or medical imaging.


title: Uterine fibroid

text: Treatment is typically not needed if there are no symptoms. NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, may help with pain and bleeding while paracetamol (acetaminophen) may help with pain. Iron supplements may be needed in those with heavy periods. Medications of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist class may decrease the size of the fibroids but are expensive and associated with side effects. If greater symptoms are present, surgery to remove the fibroid or uterus may help. Uterine artery embolization may also help. Cancerous versions of fibroids are very rare and are known as leiomyosarcomas. They do not appear to develop from benign fibroids.


title: Uterine fibroid

text: About 20% to 80% of women develop fibroids by the age of 50. In 2013, it was estimated that 171 million women were affected worldwide. They are typically found during the middle and later reproductive years. After menopause, they usually decrease in size. In the United States, uterine fibroids are a common reason for surgical removal of the uterus.


title: Uterine fibroid

text: Some women with uterine fibroids do not have symptoms. Abdominal pain, anemia and increased bleeding can indicate the presence of fibroids. There may also be pain during intercourse (penetration), depending on the location of the fibroid. During pregnancy, they may also be the cause of miscarriage, bleeding, premature labor, or interference with the position of the fetus. A uterine fibroid can cause rectal pressure. The abdomen can grow larger mimicking the appearance of pregnancy. Some large fibroids can extend out through the cervix and vagina.


title: Uterine fibroid

text: While fibroids are common, they are not a typical cause for infertility, accounting for about 3% of reasons why a woman may not be able to have a child. The majority of women with uterine fibroids will have normal pregnancy outcomes. In cases of intercurrent uterine fibroids in infertility, a fibroid is typically located in a submucosal position and it is thought that this location may interfere with the function of the lining and the ability of the embryo to implant.


title: Uterine fibroid

text: Fibroids are more common in obese women. Fibroids are dependent on estrogen and progesterone to grow and therefore relevant only during the reproductive years.


title: Uterine fibroid

text: Diets high in fruits and vegetables tend to lower the risk of developing fibroids. Fibers, vitamin A, C and E, phytoestrogens, carotenoids, meat, fish, and dairy products are of unclear effect. Normal dietary levels of vitamin D may reduce the risk of developing fibroids.