title: Bobo doll experiment

text: Bandura found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to pursue physically aggressive behavior than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. The results concerning gender differences strongly satisfied Bandura's prediction that same-sex models have more influence over children. Results also showed that boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than aggressive female models. While the results for the girls show similar findings, they were less drastic.


title: Bobo doll experiment

text: Bandura also found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in verbally aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. The number of imitative verbal aggressions exhibited by the boys was much more than by the girls. Additionally, the results indicated that the boys and girls who observed the non-aggressive model exhibited much less non-imitative aggression than those in the control group, which did not have a model. Lastly, the evidence demonstrates that males tend to be more aggressive than females. When all instances of aggression are tallied, males exhibited 270 aggressive instances compared to 128 aggressive instances exhibited by females.


title: Bobo doll experiment

text: For his 1963 study, Albert Bandura wanted to vary his original 1961 study by seeing if there were any differences in imitated aggressive behavior after witnessing a filmed or cartoon model compared to a live model. He also wished to see if children watching aggressive behavior from a filmed or cartoon model would experience a cathartic effect, or in other words, if they would experience a release of aggressive emotions from seeing a model carrying out aggressive behaviors.


title: Bobo doll experiment

text: For the experiment, 96 children, 48 girls, and 48 boys, from the Stanford University nursery were divided into three groups. The first group watched a live model become aggressive towards a Bobo doll. The second group watched a movie version of the human model become aggressive to a Bobo doll, and the third group watched a cartoon version of a cat become aggressive towards a Bobo doll. Each child watched the aggressive acts individually to control for group biases. Data from the original 1961 study was used for the control group where children did not view a model. After being exposed to their respective models, all three groups of children were then placed individually in a room with an experimenter. They were exposed to a mildly frustrating situation to elicit aggression. Next, the children were allowed to play freely in an adjoining room full of toys, including the Bobo doll and the "weapons" that the models used. The researchers observed the children and noted any interaction with the Bobo doll.


title: Bobo doll experiment

text: The study results show that compared to the control group, all three groups showed similar increases in aggressive behavior. From this, Bandura concluded that children would imitate aggressive behavior they witness from a model regardless of who or how it is presented. He also found that watching aggressive behavior does not cause a cathartic effect. The results of this study are of particular significance because of their contributions to the controversial topic of whether or not violent media can influence children to become more aggressive.


title: Bobo doll experiment

text: For his 1965 study, Albert Bandura wanted to see if children's learned behavior would be influenced by vicarious reinforcement, or the act of imitating a behavior observed in another person after witnessing that person be reinforced for said behavior.


title: Bobo doll experiment

text: In the experiment, 66 children, 33 boys and 33 girls were divided into one of three groups. The first group would witness a model display aggressive behaviors toward a Bobo doll, followed by a researcher praising the model for his behavior and rewarding him with candy. The second group would witness the same scripted scenario of aggressive behaviors, but the model was instead reprimanded for his actions and hit with a rolled wooden golf club. The third group served as the control group, and the model was neither rewarded nor punished after his displayed behavior. The children would watch individually to control for group biases. Afterward, each child would be placed individually in a room structured similarly to the one they saw for 10 minutes. Experimenters would score children based on the number and variation of aggressive behaviors they acted in. The experiment would be repeated a second time, and this time the children would be incentivized with various rewards including candy, juice, and stickers to mimic the behavior they just witnessed.


title: Bobo doll experiment

text: The study showed little difference between the reward and control groups; however, the punishment group displayed much less aggressive behavior, especially girls. In all three groups, personal incentives substantially increased aggressive behavior for both boys and girls. An analysis of the study shows that reinforcement and punishment do not influence learned aggressive behavior, only the outward expression of it.


title: Bobo doll experiment

text: The findings of these experiments support the principles of social learning theory proposed by Bandura. His research found that behavior is influenced by observing the behavior of others and imitating it. Central to this theory is the idea that the inclination to imitate behavior increases with the presence of an admirable model. Models are a crucial component to the learning of new behaviors and achieving change across different institutions. Unlike behaviorism, in which learning is directly influenced by reinforcement and punishment, social learning theory suggests that watching others be rewarded and punished can indirectly influence behavior. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. If a model receives validation for exhibiting certain behaviors, someone who looks up to the model will be likelier to imitate those behaviors to receive the same validation. The role of vicarious reinforcement is shown through the Bobo Doll Experiment, which demonstrates how the behavior of adults easily influences children. During the experiment, adults received praise for their aggressive behavior, and as a result, the likelihood of the children striking the doll increased. However, when adults were punished for behaving aggressively towards the doll, the children stopped hitting the doll.


title: Viaduct

text: A viaduct is a specific type of bridge that consists of a series of arches, piers or columns supporting a long elevated railway or road. Typically a viaduct connects two points of roughly equal elevation, allowing direct overpass across a wide valley, road, river, or other low-lying terrain features and obstacles. The term "viaduct" is derived from the Latin "via" meaning "road", and "ducere" meaning "to lead". It is a 19th-century derivation from an analogy with ancient Roman aqueducts. Like the Roman aqueducts, many early viaducts comprised a series of arches of roughly equal length.


title: Viaduct

text: The longest in antiquity may have been the Pont Serme which crossed wide marshes in southern France. At its longest point, it measured 2,679 meters with a width of 22 meters.


title: Viaduct

text: Viaducts are commonly used in many cities that are railroad hubs, such as Chicago, Birmingham, London and Manchester. These viaducts cross the large railroad yards that are needed for freight trains there, and also cross the multi-track railroad lines that are needed for heavy rail traffic. These viaducts provide grade separation and keep highway and city street traffic from having to be continually interrupted by the train traffic. Likewise, some viaducts carry railroads over large valleys, or they carry railroads over cities with many cross-streets and avenues.


title: Viaduct

text: Many viaducts over land connect points of similar height in a landscape, usually by bridging a river valley or other eroded opening in an otherwise flat area. Often such valleys had roads descending either side (with a small bridge over the river, where necessary) that become inadequate for the traffic load, necessitating a viaduct for "through" traffic. Such bridges also lend themselves for use by rail traffic, which requires straighter and flatter routes. Some viaducts have more than one deck, such that one deck has vehicular traffic and another deck carries rail traffic. One example of this is the Prince Edward Viaduct in Toronto, Canada, that carries motor traffic on the top deck as Bloor Street, and metro as the Bloor-Danforth subway line on the lower deck, over the steep Don River valley. Others were built to span settled areas, crossing over roads beneath—the reason for many viaducts in London.


title: Viaduct

text: Viaducts over water make use of islands or successive arches. They are often combined with other types of bridges or tunnels to cross navigable waters as viaduct sections, while less expensive to design and build than tunnels or bridges with larger spans, typically lack sufficient horizontal and vertical clearance for large ships. See the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel.


title: Viaduct

text: The Millau Viaduct is a cable-stayed road-bridge that spans the valley of the river Tarn near Millau in southern France. It opened in 2004 and is the tallest vehicular bridge in the world, with one pier's summit at 343 metres (1,125 ft). The viaduct Danyang–Kunshan Grand Bridge in China was the longest bridge in the world .


title: Viaduct

text: Where a viaduct is built across land rather than water, the space below the arches may be used for businesses such as car parking, vehicle repairs, light industry, bars and nightclubs. In the United Kingdom, many railway lines in urban areas have been constructed on viaducts, and so the infrastructure owner Network Rail has an extensive property portfolio in arches under viaducts. In Berlin the space under the arches of elevated subway lines (S-Bahn) is used for several different purposes, including small eateries or bars.


title: Viaduct

text: Elevated expressways were built in major cities such as Boston (Central Artery), Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seoul, Tokyo and Toronto (Gardiner Expressway). Some were demolished because they were unappealing and divided the city. In other cases, viaducts were demolished because they were structurally unsafe, such as the Embarcadero Freeway in San Francisco, which was damaged following an earthquake in 1989. However, in developing nations such as Thailand, India (Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway), China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nicaragua elevated expressways have been built and more are under construction to improve traffic flow, particularly as a workaround of land shortage when built atop surface roads.


title: Viaduct

text: Other uses have been found for some viaducts. In Paris, France, a repurposed rail viaduct provides a garden promenade on top and workspace for artisans below. The garden promenade is called the Coulée verte René-Dumont while the workspaces in the arches below are the Viaduc des Arts. The project was inaugurated in 1993. Manhattan’s High Line, inaugurated in 2009, also uses an elevated train line as a linear urban park.


title: Viaduct

text: In Indonesia viaducts are used for railways in Java and also for highways such as the Jakarta Inner Ring Road. In January 2019 the Alaskan Way Viaduct in Seattle was closed and replaced with a tunnel after several decades of use due to being seismically unsafe.


title: The Bay (film)

text: The Bay is a 2012 American mockumentary horror film directed by Barry Levinson and written by Michael Wallach. It stars Kether Donohue, Nansi Aluka, Christopher Denham, Frank Deal, and Kristen Connolly and premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival. It was released in theaters on November 2, 2012.


title: The Bay (film)

text: The opening text explains the footage shown in the film was confiscated by the U.S. government until an anonymous source leaked it for the entire world to see.


title: The Bay (film)

text: Claridge, a town located on Maryland's Eastern Shore, thrives on its water supply. However, the nearby chicken farm has come under fire for polluting the Chesapeake Bay due to the dumping of chicken excrement and other toxins into the water. As rookie reporter Donna Thompson covers a local Fourth of July celebration, dozens of citizens fall violently ill and exhibit severe lesions. Dr. Jack Abrams, the head of the Atlantic Hospital, is overwhelmed with patients and contacts the Centers for Disease Control, who initially believe the issue to be caused by a viral outbreak. The town descends into chaos as people begin dying "en masse" within hours. Several citizens, including a teenager named Jennifer, use FaceTime to report bizarre symptoms, including the feeling of bugs in their bodies.


title: The Bay (film)

text: Months beforehand, two oceanographers discovered high toxicity levels in the bay. After encountering multiple eviscerated fish eaten from the inside out, they realized that the true culprit was massive, mutated tongue-eating lice. The isopods have evolved to affect humans due to the high volume of chicken excrement dumped into the bay, the chickens having been fed steroids to promote rapid growth. Because of this, the isopods proliferate at a massive rate, killing off millions of fish and causing 40% of the bay to become lifeless. The lesions are the result of the isopods eating their hosts from the inside out. The oceanographers attempted to alert city authorities, but the mayor, John Stockman, ignored the warnings. The oceanographers were eventually killed by a swarm of fully-grown isopodsh, and their bodies are discovered shortly before the film's events.


title: The Bay (film)

text: The Talmet family sail to Claridge, unaware of the danger as the town has been forcibly quarantined and local law enforcement has shut down cell towers. Unbeknownst to the family, wife Stephanie's parents have been affected by the isopods. Meanwhile, two deputies, Jimson and Paul answer a call concerning someone screaming in pain; in a digitally enhanced audio recording, Jimson encounters an infected family begging to be killed. Having gone insane from seeing what has happened, he euthanizes them and subsequently murders Paul after one of the isopods bites him. After being confronted by Stockman and Sheriff Lee Roberts, the lesion-covered Jimson kills Roberts and himself. Stockman attempts to flee in Roberts' police car, only to be killed in a car accident.


title: The Bay (film)

text: The CDC eventually learns that the water in Claridge likely has a considerable radioactive rating, which had gone unreported. Upon learning about the mutated isopods, the CDC contacts the White House. Dr. Abrams is told that no additional help is forthcoming and that he and the staff should evacuate. Abrams reveals he is all that he is the sole surviving staff member at the hospital, but refuses to leave. Upon realizing that he too is now infected, he uses his final hours to document the mass of dead bodies within the hospital, among whom is Jennifer. Meanwhile, the CDC contacts the Department of Homeland Security, who reveal that they themselves had received the report about the oceanographers but did not report it immediately due to not wanting to cause undue panic; they write off the chaos as happening in a "small town" and refuse to offer help.


title: The Bay (film)

text: Donna and her cameraman, Jim Hoyt, continue to document the carnage despite her station's blog being shut down by the FBI. Donna, in narration, reveals that after fleeing Claridge she never reported anything else and that Jim later died. The Talmets arrive to find the town mostly deserted, with corpses littering the street. Horrified, they manage to contact a friend Bill on Skype to ask for help. However, Alex, who swam in the bay earlier, realizes he has lesions on his neck when Bill points them out. He quickly dies from isopods crawling out of his neck, while Stephanie is able to escape unharmed with infant son Andrew. They are frightened by a still-living woman hiding in a police car who begs for help before Stephanie hits her, accidentally snapping her neck.


title: The Bay (film)

text: Years later, Donna leaks the gathered footage, revealing that the government managed to kill the isopods by filling the water with chlorine; they then covered up the incident as the result of "unusually high water temperatures" and paid off the few survivors (including Donna) in exchange for silence. She then reveals that Stephanie is still living but refused to participate in the film. The movie ends with shots of civilians innocently enjoying the water of the bay, unaware of the dangers, as 40% of the bay remains lifeless.


title: The Bay (film)

text: The film came about as a result of a documentary Levinson was asked to produce about problems facing the Chesapeake Bay. Although Levinson chose to abandon the documentary upon learning that "Frontline" already covered the same issue, Levinson instead decided to use the research to produce a horror film which he hoped would shed light on the issues facing Chesapeake. As such when promoting the film he noted that it's "80 percent factual information."


title: The Bay (film)

text: According to script writer Michael Wallach, the script originally started out as a short story about a young couple who comes across a dead town. After having pieced together what happened from footage scattered across town, they realize the town had not fully died yet. Barry was happy with the script, and sent Wallach the movie "" and asked if the movie could be made into a documentary.


title: The Bay (film)

text: Levinson chose to use the found footage format after thinking about the Pompeii disaster and noting that if such a disaster happened today there would be much more evidence of what happened with him telling Yahoo! "For the very first time in history, you can get a picture of that town, if you collect all the footage from everyone's cell phones and their digital cameras and the Skypes, and the texting and everything else" A byproduct of the format was that much of the footage was able to be shot by the actors themselves as opposed to a more traditional camera crew. According to Levinson roughly one third of the film was shot this way.


title: The Bay (film)

text: Though the film is set in Levinson's home state of Maryland, it was shot on locations in North Carolina and South Carolina.


title: The Bay (film)

text: The film has received mostly positive reviews from critics, with a 76% "certified fresh" approval rating and an average rating of 6.6 out of 10 on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 82 reviews. The website's critical consensus states that "Barry Levinson's eco-horror flick cleverly utilizes familiar found-footage methods in service of a gruesome yet atmospheric chiller." It also holds a score of 65 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 20 reviewers, indicating "generally favorable reviews". David Cox of "The Guardian" awarded the film 5 out of 5 stars and called it a "horror film for grown ups". Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times", however, was less positive, awarding the film 2.5 out of a possible 4, stating "Although there are some scary moments here, and a lot of gruesome ones, this isn't a horror film so much as a faux eco-documentary".


title: Caravanserai

text: A caravanserai (or caravansary; ) was a roadside inn where travelers (caravaners) could rest and recover from the day's journey. Caravanserais supported the flow of commerce, information and people across the network of trade routes covering Asia, North Africa and Southeast Europe, most notably the Silk Road. Often located along rural roads in the countryside, urban versions of caravanserais were also historically common in cities throughout the Islamic world, and were often called other names such as "khan", "wikala", or "funduq".


title: Caravanserai

text: Caravanserai (), is the Persian compound word variant combining "kārvān" "caravan" with "-sarāy" "palace", "building with enclosed courts". Here "caravan" means a group of traders, pilgrims or other travellers, engaged in long-distance travel. The word is also rendered as "caravansary", "caravansaray", "caravanseray", "caravansara", and "caravansarai". In scholarly sources, it is often used as an umbrella term for multiple related types of commercial buildings similar to inns or hostels, whereas the actual instances of such buildings had a variety of names depending on the region and the local language. However, the term was typically preferred for rural inns built along roads outside of city walls.


title: Caravanserai

text: The word "khan" () derives from Middle Persian "hʾn"' ("xān", "house"). It could refer to an "urban caravanserai" built within a town or a city, or generally to any caravanserai, including those built in the countryside and along desert routes. In Turkish the word is rendered as "han". The same word was used in Bosnian and Bulgarian, having arrived through Ottoman conquest. In addition to Turkish and Persian, the term was widely used in Arabic as well, and examples of such buildings are found throughout the Middle East from as early as the Ummayyad period. The term "han" is also used in Romanian being adopted from Ottoman Turkish.


title: Caravanserai

text: The term "funduq" (; sometimes spelled "foundouk" or "fondouk" from the French transliteration) is frequently used for historic inns in Morocco and around western North Africa. The word comes from Greek "pandocheion", lit.: "welcoming all", thus meaning 'inn', led to "funduq" in Arabic (), "pundak" in Hebrew (), "fundaco" in Venice, "fondaco" in Genoa and "alhóndiga" or "fonda" in Spanish ("funduq" is the origin of Spanish term "fonda"). In the cities of this region such buildings were also frequently used as housing for artisan workshops.


title: Caravanserai

text: The Arabic word "wikala" (), sometimes spelled "wakala" or "wekala", is a term found frequently in historic Cairo for an urban caravanserai which housed merchants and their goods and served as a center for trade, storage, transactions and other commercial activity. The word "wikala" means roughly "agency" in Arabic, in this case a commercial agency, which may also have been a reference to the customs offices that could be located here to deal with imported goods. The term "khan" was also frequently used for this type of building in Egypt.


title: Caravanserai

text: Caravanserais were a common feature not only along the Silk Road, but also along the Achaemenid Empire's Royal Road, a ancient highway that stretched from Sardis to Susa according to Herodotus: "Now the true account of the road in question is the following: Royal stations exist along its whole length, and excellent caravanserais; and throughout, it traverses an inhabited tract, and is free from danger." Other significant urban caravanserais were built along the Grand Trunk Road in the Indian subcontinent, especially in the region of Mughal Delhi and Bengal Subah.


title: Caravanserai

text: Throughout most of the Islamic period (7th century and after), caravanserais were a common type of structure both in the rural countryside and in dense urban centers across the Middle East, North Africa, and Ottoman Europe. A number of 12th to 13th-century caravanserais or "han"s were built throughout the Seljuk Empire, many examples of which have survived across Turkey today (e.g. the large Sultan Han in Aksaray Province) as well as in Iran (e.g. the Ribat-i Sharaf in Khorasan). Urban versions of caravanserais also became important centers of economic activity in cities across these different regions of the Muslim world, often concentrated near the main "souq" areas, with many examples still standing in the historic areas of Damascus, Aleppo, Cairo, Istanbul, Fes, etc.


title: Caravanserai

text: Ibn Battuta, a 14th-century Muslim traveler, described the function of a caravenserai in the region of China:


title: Caravanserai

text: In many parts of the Muslim world, caravanserais also provided revenues that were used to fund charitable or religious functions or buildings. These revenues and functions were managed through a "waqf", a protected agreement which gave certain buildings and revenues the status of mortmain endowments guaranteed under Islamic law. Many major religious complexes in the Ottoman and Mamluk empires, for example, either included a caravanserai building (like in the "külliye" of the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul) or drew revenues from one in the area (such as the Wikala al-Ghuri in Cairo, which was built to contribute revenues for the nearby complex of Sultan al-Ghuri).


title: Caravanserai

text: Al-Muqaddasi the Arab geographer wrote in 985 CE about the hostelries, or wayfarers' inns, in the Province of Palestine, a province at that time listed under the topography of Syria, saying: "Taxes are not heavy in Syria, with the exception of those levied on the Caravanserais ("Fanduk"); Here, however, the duties are oppressive..." The reference here being to the imposts and duties charged by government officials on the importation of goods and merchandise, the importers of which and their beasts of burden usually stopping to take rest in these places. Guards were stationed at every gate to ensure that taxes for these goods be paid in full, with the revenues going to the Fatimid kingdom of Egypt.


title: Caravanserai

text: Most typically a caravanserai was a building with a square or rectangular walled exterior, with a single portal wide enough to permit large or heavily laden beasts such as camels to enter. The courtyard was almost always open to the sky, and the inside walls of the enclosure were outfitted with a number of identical animal stalls, bays, niches or chambers to accommodate merchants and their servants, animals, and merchandise.


title: Caravanserai

text: Caravanserais provided water for human and animal consumption, washing and ritual purification such as "wudu" and "ghusl". Sometimes they had elaborate public baths (hammams), or other attached amenities such as a fountain or a sabil/sebil. They kept fodder for animals and had shops for travellers where they could acquire new supplies. Some shops bought goods from the travelling merchants. Many caravanserais were equipped with small mosques, such as the elevated examples in the Seljuk and Ottoman caravanserais in Turkey.


title: Caravanserai

text: In Cairo, starting in the Burji Mamluk period, "wikala"s (urban caravanserais) were frequently several stories tall and often included a "rab"', a low-income rental apartment complex, which was situated on the upper floors while the merchant accommodations occupied the lower floors. While making the best use of limited space in a crowded city, this provided the building with two sources of revenue which were managed through the "waqf" system.


title: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes

text: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes is a 2004 stealth game co-developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan and Silicon Knights and published by Konami for the GameCube. Released in March, the game is a remake of "Metal Gear Solid", originally developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan for the PlayStation in 1998.


title: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes

text: "The Twin Snakes" features graphical improvements over the original, new cutscenes written and directed by Ryuhei Kitamura, and gameplay functions originally introduced in the sequel "". The game includes a revised translation with re-recorded voice acting, using almost all of the original English voice cast. The game was met with positive reception.


title: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes

text: The gameplay of "The Twin Snakes" was altered to resemble that of "Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty". While all of the original areas and enemies were kept, new ways for the player to combat them were introduced, such as the ability to shoot from a first-person view. Enemy AI was improved, giving enemy soldiers the ability to communicate with each other and detect the player more intelligently with senses of sight and sound enhanced.


title: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes

text: "The Twin Snakes" was first announced in 2003 by Nintendo of America, confirming that Silicon Knights would be developing under the guidance of "Metal Gear" creator Hideo Kojima and "Mario" creator Shigeru Miyamoto.


title: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes

text: Although "The Twin Snakes" was largely developed at Silicon Knights, Ryuhei Kitamura directed many of the game's cinematics while Silicon Knights implemented them into the game to look identical to those in the original "Metal Gear Solid", but upon inspection Hideo Kojima asked Kitamura to redo them in his well-known action style. The reworked cinematics did receive some criticism due to Kitamura's excessive use of the bullet time effect, which was largely inspired by the then popular hit movie "The Matrix". The game's composition duties were split: some of the in-game music was handled by Steve Henifin and Silicon Knights' music staff, while the rest of the music (in-game, menus and cut scenes) was handled by Konami's music staff, including "Metal Gear Solid 2" co-composer Norihiko Hibino.


title: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes

text: The voice acting was re-recorded with the original cast from "Metal Gear Solid", except for the role of the Cyborg Ninja. David Hayter, the English voice of Solid Snake, persuaded Konami Computer Entertainment Japan to have the original voice cast reprise their roles. The main reason for the re-recording, according to an interview with Hayter, was because the increased audio quality allowed by the GameCube picked up outside noise from the original recordings that were inaudible in the PlayStation version. In the original game, Gray Fox and Donald Anderson were both voiced by Greg Eagles. However, in "The Twin Snakes", Greg Eagles voices only Anderson, whereas Gray Fox was voiced by Rob Paulsen. The revised voice acting is used in "" during Snake's reminiscence as the English-language voice-recording used in the original game was not recorded in a sound-proof studio. Mei Ling, Nastasha Romanenko, and Naomi Hunter speak with American accents in "The Twin Snakes", whereas in the original "Metal Gear Solid", they spoke with Chinese, Ukrainian, and British accents, respectively.


title: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes

text: "The Twin Snakes" was released on March 9, 2004 in North America. It was originally to be released in November 2003, but was pushed back, along with the other versions. The European date was pushed back several weeks.


title: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes

text: In Japan "The Twin Snakes" was released on March 11 alongside an exclusive Premium Package. The box includes the game itself; a platinum-colored GameCube adorned with the FOXHOUND logo; a 44-page book titled "Memorandum" containing production notes, sketches and photos; and a GameCube disc called the "Special Disc" containing an emulated version of the Family Computer version of the original "Metal Gear".


title: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes

text: Much like the original "Metal Gear Solid" was met with positive reviews from critics, "The Twin Snakes" received an 85.58% and 85/100 from GameRankings and Metacritic, respectively. "IGN" gave "The Twin Snakes" 8.5 out of 10, praising its superior graphics and likening the presentation to epic movies. "GameSpot" gave it an 8.2 out of 10 or "Great" on their scale, "Eurogamer" rated "The Twin Snakes" as 8 out of 10 and Gaming Age gave it an "A−" rating. "Game Informer" gave "The Twin Snakes" a 9.25 out of 10, citing its improved gameplay and graphics, and also its faithful retelling of the original "Metal Gear Solid" story. The publication later placed "The Twin Snakes" at #11 on their list of "Top 25 GameCube Games" in 2009. "Official Nintendo Magazine" placed the game 80th on their list of the Top 100 Best Nintendo games.


title: Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes

text: Despite receiving generally favorable reviews, "The Twin Snakes" has also drawn criticism. According to "GamePro", the game has a "flagging framerate and bouts of slowdown that occur when too much activity crowds the screen." The use of new gameplay elements from "Sons of Liberty" was seen as unnecessary, as "GamePro" thought that the level design was virtually unchanged from "Metal Gear Solid", which "spoils the challenge... and completely ruins one boss battle (Revolver Ocelot)."


title: Bakuman

text: It is the first manga released online by Shueisha in multiple languages before becoming available in print outside Japan. In 2009, Viz Media licensed the manga for English release in North America. Besides releasing the series in collected volumes, they also released it in their online manga anthology "Weekly Shonen Jump Alpha". A 75-episode anime television adaptation of the series by J.C.Staff was broadcast for three seasons on NHK Educational TV from October 2010 to March 2013. A live-action film adaptation was released in October 2015.


title: Bakuman

text: "Bakuman" topped the "Kono Manga ga Sugoi!" list for male readers in 2010, was the seventh best-selling manga series of 2011 and the tenth best of 2012, and has over 15 million volumes in circulation.


title: Bakuman

text: When Moritaka Mashiro, a middle school student, forgets his notebook in class, he finds his classmate, Akito Takagi, who notes Mashiro's drawings. Takagi asks him to become a manga artist to his stories. However, Mashiro declines, citing his late manga artist uncle, who died from overworking. Takagi incites Mashiro to meet with Miho Azuki, Mashiro's crush, and tells her the two plan to become manga artists. In response, Azuki reveals her plans to be a voice actress. Mashiro proposes to her that they should both marry when Azuki becomes a voice actress for the anime adaptation of their manga. She accepts, but under the condition that they not meet face-to-face again until then. The two boys then start creating manga, under the pen name Muto Ashirogi, in hopes of getting serialized in "Weekly Shōnen Jump".


title: Bakuman

text: After submitting many one-shots to Shueisha, Ashirogi begin their first serialized manga in "Weekly Shōnen Jump", , which is eventually canceled due to its declining popularity, after Mashiro is hospitalized for overworking on it. Their next series is the gag manga , which they give up on, realizing it will never be popular, coupled with Takagi's difficulty with writing rapid-fire humor. After being challenged by the editor-in-chief of "Jump" to create a superior manga to their rival's, Ashirogi develops their current series . It is met with considerable popularity but due to its theme, is unfit for an anime series. When their rival, Eiji Nizuma, submits a one-shot for serialization, Ashirogi competes by submitting "Reversi" which replaces "Perfect Crime Party" while the latter is moved to Shueisha's fictional monthly magazine, "Hisshou Jump". After many conflicts involving the graphic novel sales and the voice actress choice, "Reversi" is chosen for an anime adaptation with Miho as the primary actress, after she passes a public audition. After fulfilling their dreams, the series ends with Mashiro officially proposing to Miho at the place they made their promise, the front gate of Miho's old home, followed by their first kiss.


title: Bakuman

text: Tsugumi Ohba came up the idea for "Bakuman" after thinking of all the people who long to be manga artists. Because he is in the industry, he felt he could create a manga about manga. Takeshi Obata, illustrator of the series, said that the title "means "bakuhatsu" (explosion), "bakuchi" (gamble) and "baku" (an animal that supposedly eats dreams)... It has many meanings to it, and I think it's a very fun title." Ohba said that for the fictional manga created in the series, he did not worry about the plot and settings, only focusing on "cranking them out." He revealed that he did actually make storyboards for the fictional "The Classroom of Truth", and one he created for "Otter No. 11" is actually seen in "Bakuman".


title: Bakuman

text: When creating a chapter, Ohba did not meet with Obata. He would discuss things with his editor and create storyboards that were given to Obata. Obata then would create his own storyboards that were given to Ohba and their editor. The author said only minor changes were ever made and they never had disagreements. Obata said that when he started the manga, he struggled with the large amount of dialogue and information, not having enough space to draw the detailed backgrounds that he wanted. But he eventually realized that the dialogue is "the main character" of the series and shifted to making the art as unobtrusive as possible, such as using simple camera angles so that the composition was not too elaborate and the text could be read smoothly. Ohba referred to "Bakuman" as "a weird series." He revealed that the hardest part was coming up with new ideas as the story kept getting longer. But said because of this, he was able to include stories that he never initially considered.


title: Bakuman

text: When asked how accurate the manga process depicted in "Bakuman" is to reality, current "Weekly Shōnen Jump" editor-in-chief Hiroyuki Nakano said that as a work of fiction, some things are exaggerated for dramatic effect, "But it takes a lot of details from real life, so I think it's quite close." "Bakuman" features many homages to Fujiko A. Fujio's "Manga Michi", a semi-autobiographical manga series with a similar premise that Obata is a big fan of.


title: Bakuman

text: Written by Tsugumi Ohba and drawn by Takeshi Obata, "Bakuman" was serialized in Shueisha's "shōnen" manga magazine "Weekly Shōnen Jump" from August 11, 2008, to April 23, 2012. The 176 chapters were then collected into 20 "tankōbon" volumes from January 5, 2009 to July 4, 2012. Several chapters of the series were released on Jumpland's official website in Japanese, English, French, and German; the first chapter released on August 19, 2008. It is Shueisha's first manga to be released online in multiple languages before becoming available in print outside Japan. A 15-page one-shot of the series , the gag manga created by the character Kazuya Hiramaru in "Bakuman", was published in the August 8, 2010 issue of "Weekly Shōnen Jump". It was then published the following week in "Shōnen Jump Next" on August 16. Viz Media included an English translation of it in the free SJ Alpha Yearbook 2013, which was mailed out to annual subscribers of "Weekly Shonen Jump Alpha" in December 2012. In commemoration of the live-action film release, two new chapters were created by Ohba and Obata under the titles "Age 13" and "Age 14". They are set before Takagi and Mashiro first met, with the first chapter published in "Weekly Shōnen Jump" on September 21 and the second on September 28, 2015. The two chapters were also included in the "bunkoban" edition of "Bakuman", published as 12 volumes between July 18 and December 15, 2017.


title: Bakuman

text: In addition to the success of "Bakuman" in Japan, the series has also been licensed worldwide: in Korea by Daiwon C.I. and serialized in their "Comic Champ" manhwa magazine, by Tong Li Publishing in Taiwan, Kana in France, Norma in Spain, Tokyopop in Germany, Comics House in Malaysia, Kim Dong Publishing House in Vietnam, in Brazil by Editora JBC and NED in Thailand. At San Diego Comic-Con International 2009, Viz Media announced it had licensed the series for English release in the US and Canada. The first volume was released on August 3, 2010, and all 20 volumes have been published as of August 6, 2013. In addition to the collected volumes, Viz also published the series online in their manga anthology "Weekly Shonen Jump Alpha" (now known as simply "Weekly Shonen Jump"). "Bakuman" started with chapter 162 in the anthology's debut issue on January 30, 2012, and ended with the series' final chapter released on May 7, 2012. Viz digitally released the two "Bakuman. Age 13" chapters in "Weekly Shonen Jump" on the same days that they ran in Japan.


title: Bakuman

text: A 25-episode anime television series based on "Bakuman" was announced in "Weekly Shōnen Jump"s second issue of 2010. Produced by J.C.Staff, it began broadcasting on NHK on October 2, 2010 and ran until April 2, 2011. In December 2010, "Weekly Shōnen Jump" announced that a second season would air in Fall 2011; it ran from October 1, 2011 to March 24, 2012. A third and final season was announced in the 3/4th (2012) combined issue of "Weekly Shōnen Jump" and began airing on October 6, 2012. It ran for 25 episodes between October 6, 2012 and March 30, 2013.


title: Bakuman

text: In August 2011, Media Blasters licensed the first two seasons of the "Bakuman" anime for North America, including an English-language dub. The first seven episodes were included on a 2-disc DVD set released on November 22, 2011, however, the second was halted in February 2012. The first Blu-ray release was cancelled indefinitely in June 2012. Viz Media Europe acquired the rights for release in Europe and the United Kingdom in March 2012, in collaboration with Manga Entertainment and Kazé. After Media Blasters' cancellation, Kazé revealed the UK release would be subtitled only. In November 2012, Media Blasters officially announced they are discontinuing the series, but added that Viz Media might pick up the license for NA.


title: Bakuman

text: A live-action film adaptation of "Bakuman" was released on October 3, 2015. Written and directed by Hitoshi Ōne ("Moteki"), the film stars Takeru Satoh as Moritaka Mashiro and Ryunosuke Kamiki as Akito Takagi. Japanese rock band Sakanaction performed the soundtrack, "Motion Music of Bakuman", including the theme song "Shin Takarajima", which they released as a single four days before the film's release.


title: Bakuman

text: A play adaptation, "Bakuman The Stage", ran at three locations in Tokyo and Osaka throughout October 2021. Written and directed by Worry Kinoshita, it starred Hiroki Suzuki as Mashiro and Yoshihiko Aramaki as Takagi. A recorded performance was released on home video on March 29, 2022.


title: Bakuman

text: "Bakuman" received a four-episode Vomic adaptation, where voice actors, music and sound effects are heard as the manga images appear on screen, that was broadcast on the TV show "Sakiyomi Jum-Bang!" in June 2009. Mashiro and Takagi were voiced by Jun Fukuyama and Shinnosuke Tachibana respectively.


title: Bakuman

text: A video game based on "Bakuman" was made for the Nintendo DS by Namco Bandai Games. was released in Japan on December 15, 2011.


title: Bakuman

text: A novel titled "PCP -Perfect Crime Party-" and based on the fictional manga of the same name created by Takagi and Mashiro in "Bakuman" was released by Shueisha on October 2, 2015. It was written by Sei Hatsuno, although Takagi and Mashiro's fictional pen name "Muto Ashirogi" is credited with the original story.


title: Bakuman

text: "Bakuman" was chosen as the best manga for male readers in the 2010 "Kono Manga ga Sugoi!" guidebook, which surveys people in the manga and publishing industry. It was nominated for the third annual Manga Taishō award in 2010. The first volume of the series placed fourth on the Oricon manga chart during its debut week, selling 154,675 copies. The second volume followed suit, placing second during its first week with 228,056 copies. The third volume continued the trend and placed fourth during its debut week, selling 200,369 copies. During the first half of 2009, the first volume placed twenty-eighth and the second volume placed twenty-seventh on Oricon's list of fifty top-selling manga in Japan, selling 381,633 and 394,567 copies respectively. "Bakuman" was the seventh best-selling manga series of 2011, with almost 4.4 million copies sold, and the tenth best of 2012, with over 3.2 million sold that year. As of April 2012, over 13 million copies had been sold, with this number growing to over 15 million copies in publication by May 2014. In the United States, volume one debuted at number 6 on "The New York Times" Manga Graphic Books list for the week of August 12 and remained on the list for eight weeks straight.


title: Bakuman

text: Jason Thompson referred to "Bakuman." as "a love letter to the manga industry done in old-school shonen manga style." He felt that while it can be "text-heavy" on the process of making manga, it is ultimately a "heroic story of self-improvement, friendship and striving to succeed." Thompson cited the villain characters as the most interesting, but called the series sexist for only portraying females as either "bitter, man-hating viragos motivated by grudges against men" or "patient helpmates" striving to support them instead.


title: Bakuman

text: Carlo Santos of Anime News Network praised the conflicting viewpoints of the protagonists and was surprised that the series succeeds, not only as a manga about manga, but as a slice-of-life story about the dreams of youth. However, Santos remarked that the series could learn from Ohba and Obata's previous serial "Death Note"; commenting that the beginning is not as gripping and the plot twists are "pretty weak" and "seem like petty contrivances." Despite this, he believes that the series is "another hit."


title: Bakuman

text: Christopher Butcher reviewing volume one for About.com had strong praise for the art, calling it "quite possibly the best-drawn manga out today." He also enjoyed the behind-the-scenes information on the manga industry. Like Thompson, Butcher did state that while he enjoyed it, he has reservations about recommending "Bakuman." because it is "horribly sexist."


title: Bakuman

text: The film was number-one at the Japanese box office on its opening weekend, with . It earned during the October 18 weekend. At the 39th Japan Academy Prize awards, its editor Yasuyuki Ōzeki won the Japan Academy Prize for Best Film Editing award, while Sakanaction's "Motion Music of Bakuman" won the Outstanding Achievement in Music award. The film was also one of two releases that won the Popularity award, alongside "Maku ga Agaru". Matt Schley of "Otaku USA" wrote that "Bakuman." is "a real celebration of and testament to the unique power of Japan's comics culture" and the best live-action manga adaptation he's seen this year. "Kotaku"s Toshi Nakamura also suggested that it is possibly the best live-action manga adaptation he's seen. However, he said the motivational romance between Mashiro and Azuki was "surprisingly inconsequential" and boring. Mark Schilling for "The Japan Times" gave the film four out of five stars, with strong praise for director and screenwriter Hitoshi Ōne.


title: Ulsan

text: Ulsan (), officially the Ulsan Metropolitan City is South Korea's seventh-largest metropolitan city and the eighth-largest city overall, with a population of over 1.1 million inhabitants. It is located in the south-east of the country, neighboring Busan to the south and facing Gyeongju to the north.


title: Ulsan

text: Ulsan is the industrial powerhouse of South Korea, forming the heart of the Ulsan Industrial District. It has the world's largest automobile assembly plant, operated by the Hyundai Motor Company; the world's largest shipyard, operated by Hyundai Heavy Industries; and the world's third largest oil refinery, owned by SK Energy. In 2020, Ulsan had a GDP per capita of $65,352, the highest of any region in South Korea.


title: Ulsan

text: Stone tools found at the Mugeo-dong Ok-hyeon archaeological site indicates that Ulsan was inhabited by humans at least as early as the Paleolithic Era. Other findings indicated human inhabitation in the Neolithic Era. Ulsan also contains a substantial number of town remains from the Bronze Age. During the Jinhan confederacy, Ulsan was a site of iron mining and production. In the Later Silla period, Ulsan served as an important port for the economic hub of Gyeongju, and likely saw the import of luxury Persian goods such as silver, glass, and peacock tails.


title: Ulsan

text: In 1592, the future Port of Ulsan was the site of a major battle when warrior monks joined citizen soldiers in resisting Japanese invasion. On January 29, 1598, a combined military operation between Korea and China tried to siege the castle, but failed as reinforcements from Japan came to delay the fighting. Records from the Joseon Dynasty show that Ulsan was developed as a shipbuilding site as early as 1642. Later on September 22, same attack happened but was failed so.


title: Ulsan

text: Owing to the two World Wars, Ulsan began to grow as an industrial center. During this time it was part of Keishōnan-dō. In 1962, Ulsan was chosen to become a Special Industrial Zone and in the following year, it formally became a city. It went to become one of the leading industrial cities of the world as like as Detroit, Belfast, Bochum, Sheffield, Leipzig, Visakhapatnam, Dresden and Jamshedpur. The Hyundai Group and SK Group began setting up there large businesses in Ulsan. Hyundai Heavy Industries established the shipyard in Ulsan and Hyundai Motor Company started here. Later on SK Energy developed an oil refinery and petrochemical hub here. By this soon Ulsan transformed into a modern metropolitan city.


title: Ulsan

text: Ulsan has a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate (Köppen: "Cfa"/"Cwa"), with cold but dry winters, and hot, humid summers. Monthly means range from in January to in August, with diurnal temperature ranges generally low. Its location on the Korean peninsula results in a seasonal lag. The warmest days occur in August and averaging very near . Precipitation is relatively low in the winter months, but there is high rainfall from April to September.


title: Ulsan

text: According to the 2015 census, a majority of Ulsan residents did not belong to any religion. Buddhism was the most common religion with 29.8% of residents being adherents, followed by Protestantism at 10.9% and Roman Catholicism at 4.2%.


title: Ulsan

text: As the centre of the "Ulsan Industrial District", the city is the corporate base of the multinational Hyundai conglomerate. Up to 1962, Ulsan operated as a fishing port and market centre. As part of South Korea's first five-year economic plan, Ulsan became an open port. Additionally, the government designated Ulsan as a Special Industrial District, which encouraged development of major industrial plants and factories: an oil refinery, fertilizer plants, automobile production, and heavy industries were developed here. The shipbuilding port Bangeojin was annexed by the city in 1962.


title: Ulsan

text: Hyundai Group founded Hyundai Heavy Industries in Ulsan in 1973, which effectively turned the city into a company town and drew a large influx of workers into the city. The company's importance to the city can be seen in its name's omnipresence, with a highway named after Hyundai's founder, and the hospital, school, theater, as well as many restaurants and department stores bearing the Hyundai name.


title: Ulsan

text: Amid a global downturn in shipbuilding, Hyundai Heavy Industries sold $1 billion of assets and laid off large numbers of employees in 2016. The company borrowed money from the state-run Korea Development Bank in order to purchase Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering, forming Korea Shipbuilding & Offshore Engineering, with plans to move corporate headquarters to Seoul. Some view this downturn as an indicator of South Korea's over-reliance on chaebols, and fear that a period of deindustrialization for Ulsan mirroring the United States' Rust Belt could be on the horizon.


title: Ulsan

text: The city has the world's third largest oil refinery with 840,000 BPD, owned by SK Energy South Korea no.3 S-oil refinery complex with 669,000BPD and 1.7million PX plant of world single largest facility, 39,000BPD lubricant base oil owned by Saudi Aramco is also in Ulsan.


title: Ulsan

text: Ulsan is the home of the world's largest automobile assembly plant of 300,000 annual capacity 5 assembly plants, proving ground and in-house peers, operated by Hyundai Motors started 50,000 capacity in 1968 now 30 times expansion of massive motor top complex in the world with own export piers with logistics competitiveness. Its integrated design of related functions was inspired by the Ford River Rouge Complex in Dearborn, Michigan.


title: Ulsan

text: In November 2011, SB LiMotive opened an advanced lithium-ion battery production plant in Ulsan. SB LiMotive was a 50-50 consortium of Samsung SDI and Robert Bosch GmbH. In September 2012, Samsung SDI bought out Robert Bosch GmbH's portion of SB LiMotive for $95 million to gain 100% ownership of the Ulsan production facility. The Ulsan plant is one of Samsung SDI's trio of advanced car-battery production facilities.


title: Ulsan

text: The city transport department plans to build a light-rail line. The public transportation system is as good as any other major Korean city. The bus system shows a specific ETA at most bus stops.


title: Ulsan

text: Ulsan Airport, constructed in 1970 and expanded in 1997, has more than 20 flights per day to and from Seoul's Gimpo International Airport and 4 flights per week to and from Jeju International Airport. In November 2010, Korea's high-speed train network, the KTX, was extended to Ulsan. This provides a high-speed link to Seoul, with a running time of just over 2 hours. The new KTX station (Ulsan Station) is in nearby Eonyang, with a series of express buses (5001-5005), as well as some city buses serving the new station. The original city station has been renamed Taehwa River Station.


title: Ulsan

text: The city hosts the K League 1 football club Ulsan Hyundai FC. After the 2002 FIFA World Cup, they relocated from their former stadium in Jung-gu, which is now a municipal ground, to the Munsu Stadium, which hosted several matches during the 2002 World Cup. The club have been crowned champions of Asia twice, winning the AFC Champions League in 2012 and 2020. Ulsan was home to another football team, Ulsan Hyundai Mipo Dolphin FC, which played in the Korea National League until 2016, when it was dissolved. Currently, Ulsan is home to another football team, Ulsan Citizen FC, which plays in the K3 League.


title: Ulsan

text: It is also home to the University of Ulsan and its sports programs. Ulsan also hosts Korean Basketball League team Ulsan Hyundai Mobis Phoebus. Their home ground is Dongchun Gymnasium, which located in jung-gu ulsan.


title: Ulsan

text: Lotte Giants, a KBO League baseball club in Busan, plays some of their home matches at the Ulsan Munsu Baseball Stadium.


title: Ulsan

text: In Yeongnam Alps, there are seven tall mountains (Gajisan, Sinbulsan, Ganwolsan, Cheonhwangsan, Yeongchuksan, Goheonsan, Jaeyaksan) over 1,000m above sea level. Sinbulsan (MT.) Ridge, where grasses turn silver in autumn, is one of the best sights to see in the Yeongnam Alps. Eoksae festival is held every early October in Ganwoljae, which is best known for its colony of silver grass. Korea's largest traditional folk Onggi (earthware) village is Oegosan. The traditional Onggi (earthware) manufacturing process is carried on here and is open to tourists, including Onggi workshops and kilns. The Ulsan Onggi museum offers a variety of information related to Onggi and displays a diversity of this earthware.


title: Ulsan

text: As the only whale museum in Korea, Jangsaengpo Whale Museum collects, maintains and displays whaling-related artifacts. They have become more rare since 1986, when whaling was internationally prohibited in order to protect the species. The museum provides a variety of information related to whales and marine ecosystems; it is a space for education, research and experience. Whale cruises depart from Jangsaengpo port.


title: Ulsan

text: Ulsan Grand Park is claimed as the best ecology park in a downtown area in Korea, boasting a vast area of . "Natural, Clean and Comfortable" are the main themes, and it is a place for urbanites to seek nature. It sponsors a variety of events and festivals for families. it is a pleasant place for relaxation where you can breathe in nature during daily life. In particular, the Rose Festival every June presents a feast for the eyes and nose. Taehwagang (River) National Garden ; Simnidaesup (10-ri bamboo grove), one of the 12 scenic beauties of Ulsan, was restored; now the river and the bamboo grove are connected. This space expresses the related ecology of the area, showing the importance of nature and environment. It allows visitors the chance to observe and experience wildlife in its natural environment and to relax while being one of nature. Ulsan has beautiful beaches (Jinha, Ilsan). Daewangam Park features a lush, hundred-year-old pine forest. Ganjeolgot Cape is noted as the first place to see the sunrise from the Korean peninsula. A sunrise festival is held every New Year's Day.


title: Ulsan

text: Ulsan Industry Park has been leading the Pacific Rim industry in the 21st century. Ulsan has Hyundai Motor Company, with the world's largest single-purpose plant; Hyundai Heavy Industries, the biggest heavy industry leader in the world; Hyundai Mipo Shipbuilding, and Petrochemical Park, leaders in Korea's chemistry industry.


title: Ulsan

text: Ulsan is one of the filming locations of the Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation 2012 South Korean television melodrama series "May Queen", starring Han Ji-hye, Kim Jae-won, and Jae Hee.


title: Hardcore hip hop

text: Hardcore hip hop (also hardcore rap) is a genre of hip hop music that developed through the East Coast hip hop scene in the 1980s. Pioneered by such artists as Run-DMC, Schoolly D, Boogie Down Productions and Public Enemy, it is generally characterized by anger, aggression and confrontation.


title: Hardcore hip hop

text: Music experts have credited Run-DMC as the first hardcore hip hop group. Other early artists to adopt an aggressive style were Schoolly D in Philadelphia and Too $hort in Oakland, California. Before a formula for gangsta rap had developed, artists such as Boogie Down Productions and Ice-T wrote lyrics based on detailed observations of "street life", while the confrontational and aggressive lyrics and chaotic, rough production style of Public Enemy's records set new standards for hardcore hip hop and hip hop production. Though initially a largely East Coast phenomenon, by the late 1980s, hardcore rap increasingly became largely synonymous with West Coast gangsta rap, with artists like N.W.A infusing "gangsta" themed stories of gritty gang life.


title: Hardcore hip hop

text: In the early 1990s, hardcore hip hop again became associated with the East Coast as Wu-Tang Clan emerged with minimalistic beats and piano-driven sampling, which became widely popular among other hardcore hip hop artists of the time. In the early, late 90s and early 2000s, other New York based artists like Onyx, DMX and M.O.P. incorporated yelling in their lyrics. In the 2010s, punk rap combined elements of hardcore hip hop and hardcore punk, with artists like Denzel Curry at the forefront.


title: Hardcore hip hop

text: Gangsta rap has often been associated with the hardcore hip hop style, and gangsta rap is generally considered a subgenre or offshoot of hardcore hip hop; however, not all hardcore hip hop revolves around "gangsta" lyrical themes, despite the considerable overlap between the two genres, especially within hardcore rappers of the 1990s. Hardcore hip hop is characterised by aggression and confrontation and generally describes violence or anger. Russell Potter wrote that while hardcore rap has been associated with a "monolithic 'gangsta' outlook" by the popular press, hardcore rappers have "laid claim to a wide variety of ground".


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Nadeem–Shravan were an Indian music directors duo in the Bollywood film industry of India. They derives its name from their first names as, Nadeem Akhtar Saifi (born 6 August 1954) and Shravan Kumar Rathod (13 November 1954 – 22 April 2021).


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Nadeem–Shravan were the most successful Bollywood music directors of the 1990s until the early 2000s. They displayed a strong influence of Hindustani (classical / semi-classical) music in their compositions, and were the only composers during the 1990s and 2000s who relied heavily on three particular instruments: the bansuri, the sitar and the shehnai in almost all of their songs. By using these instruments in a modern way without disconnecting them from their original value, their contribution is unique compared to some rising music directors evolving a new music style beginning in the mid-1990s. They are considered one of the most successful and greatest music composers in Hindi cinema history.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Their breakthrough soundtrack album was "Aashiqui" (1990), which sold 20 million units in India, and became the best-selling Bollywood soundtrack album of all time. Nadeem–Shravan were also behind many of the other best-selling Bollywood soundtrack albums of the 1990s. Their success helped establish the music label T-Series. The duo's career temporarily came to a halt with the murder of T-Series founder Gulshan Kumar by Mumbai underworld syndicate D-Company, with Nadeem Akhtar Saifi initially accused of involvement, before later being exonerated. The duo eventually made a comeback in the 2000s.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Nadeem–Shravan composed soundtracks for many Hindi films, including "Aashiqui" (1990), "Saajan" (1991), "Phool Aur Kaante" (1991), "Sadak" (1991), "Deewana" (1992), "Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin" (1992), "Dil Ka Kya Kasoor" (1992), "Sapne Sajan Ke" (1992), "Damini" (1993), "Hum Hain Rahi Pyar Ke" (1993), "Rang" (1993), "Dilwale" (1994), "" (1994), "Salaami" (1994), "Raja" (1995), "Barsaat" (1995), "Agni Sakshi" (1996), "Jeet" (1996), "Raja Hindustani" (1996), "Pardes" (1997), "Judaai" (1997), "Naseeb" (1998), "Maharaja" (1998), "Aa Ab Laut Chalen" (1999), "Sirf Tum" (1999), "Dhadkan" (2000), "Kasoor" (2000), "Hum Ho Gaye Aapke" (2001), "Yeh Dil Aashiqanaa" (2001), "Raaz" (2002), "Dil Hai Tumhaara" (2002), "Dil Ka Rishta" (2003), "Andaaz" (2003), "" (2003), "Tumsa Nahi Dekha" (2004) and "Bewafaa" (2005), among others.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Their most commonly featured and favorite singers include "Trimurti" Kumar Sanu, Alka Yagnik, Udit Narayan but other Hindi playback singers like Anuradha Paudwal, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Sonu Nigam Sadhana Sargam, Poornima, Jaspinder Narula, K. S. Chithra, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Hariharan, Suresh Wadkar, Pankaj Udhas, Mohammed Aziz, Sudesh Bhosle, Shailendra Singh, Shabbir Kumar, Nitin Mukesh, Roop Kumar Rathod, Vinod Rathod, Abhijeet, Sonu Nigam, Shaan, KK, Gurdas Maan, Shankar Mahadevan, Babul Supriyo, Manhar Udhas, Bali Brahmbhatt, Jolly Mukherjee, Sapna Mukherjee, Alisha Chinoy, Anwar, Vijay Benedict, Mukul Agrawal, Vipin Sachdeva and many others have sung under their baton. Veteran singer Mohammed Rafi also sang for them in their film Dangal and Kishore Kumar in the film Ilaaka. Singers Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle also sang in few albums for the duo.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: The association of Nadeem Akhtar Saifi and Shravan dates back to 1973 when they met each other at a function. Their first film assignment was "Dangal", a Bhojpuri movie in 1973 (released in 1977) which featured the popular Bhojpuri song "Kashi hile, Patna hile" sung by Manna Dey. Their first Hindi movie assignment was "Maine Jeena Seekh Liya" in 1981 sung by Amit Kumar. In 1985, the duo composed music for a commercial project called "Star Ten". Ten Hindi actors (Mithun, Jackie Shroff, Anil Kapoor, Sachin, Danny, Vijendra, Sulakshana Pandit, etc.) sang some songs with lyrics by Anwar Saagar. All the while, they struggled to get work and rarely did they get to compose the music for a full film. They suddenly found work, and in 1989, two big movies were released: "Ilaaka", "Hisaab Khoon Ka"." All of these films flopped at the box office and the music was rejected by audiences and critics alike.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Their breakthrough film, "Aashiqui" (1990), which brought them into the limelight, was gifted to them by none other than Gulshan Kumar. "Aashiqui" has been rated the 4th best soundtrack ever by Planet Bollywood on their "100 Greatest Bollywood Soundtracks". The soundtrack album sold 20 million units, making it the best-selling Bollywood soundtrack album of all time.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Their success continued with "Saajan", "Dil Hai Ki Manta Nahin", "Sadak", "Sainik", "Raja", "Dilwale", "Raja Hindustani" and "Phool Aur Kaante". Whether it was "Chehra Kya Dekhte Ho" ("Salaami"), "Adayein Bhi Hain" ("Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin") "Sochenge Tumhe Pyar" ("Deewana"), "Tujhe Na Dekhu Toh Chain" ("Rang"), they all had the distinct stamp of Nadeem–Shravan.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Most of their compositions fall under the filmi-ghazal genre, as they were greatly inspired by ghazal music, and Classical music.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: When "Pardes" soundtrack was released, the tracks had different varieties of songs; songs ("I Love My India" and "Meri Mehbooba"), love songs ("Do Dil Mil Rahe Hain") and qawwali ("Nahin Hona Tha)" pop ("My first day in America"), pain ("Ye Dil Deewana"). Planet Bollywood started the review by saying, "The music for Pardes is Nadeem-Shravan's best ever."


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: They have worked with lyricists like Sameer, Anand Bakshi, Faaiz Anwar, Hasrat Jaipuri, Rani Malik and many others. When they arrived on the music scene, Laxmikant–Pyarelal and Anand–Milind were at the top. But subsequently their hard work paid off and they had various hits in a row.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Their songs often contain Jhankaar, Conga, Bongos, Electronic drum fusion beats. They have insisted on sticking to lyricist Sameer and male singers Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan and female singer Alka Yagnik for most of their compositions.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Other soundtracks by them include "Saajan" (16), "Sadak" (51), "Raja Hindustani" (56), "Dhadkan" (73), "Deewana" (79).


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Gulshan Kumar, the owner of T-Series, was shot dead outside the Jeeteshwar Mahadev Mandir, a Hindu mandir dedicated to Lord Shiva of which he attended daily in Jeet Nagar, Andheri West suburb of Mumbai, on 12 August 1997. Mumbai underworld organization D-Company was involved with the murder. The police also accused Nadeem Saifi of having paid for the murder due to a personal dispute and fled the country after the murder. According to the police, Nadeem hatched the conspiracy in Dubai in May with Anees Ibrahim Kaskar, the brother of fugitive gangster Dawood Ibrahim Kaskar and Dawood's associates Abu Salem and Kayyum. Crime branch sources said Nadeem has been out of Bombay since Gulshan Kumar died. During the interrogation of the arrested gangsters, the police reportedly learned that Nadeem had organized a "secret" music function in June for Dawood Ibrahim Kaskar in Dubai. Many well-known Bollywood personalities, the police claim, were present.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: After the police's allegations against him, Nadeem Saifi had fled to the United Kingdom. In 2001, the case was taken to the London High Court, which rejected the Indian government's request for extradition on the grounds that there was no "prima facie" case against Saifi. In August 2001, the prosecution's main witness, Mohammed Ali Hussain Shaikh, who had earlier claimed Saifi participated in the murder, eventually revealed that he didn't know Saifi and had never seen him. Abu Salem also denied Nadeem's involvement on Indian national television. Saifi was also exonerated by four courts, including the House of Lords in the United Kingdom and the sessions court in Mumbai. Saifi eventually acquired British citizenship, and later moved to Dubai, where he runs a successful perfumery business.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: After being inactive for sometime, Nadeem–Shravan made a comeback of sorts with "Yeh Dil Aashiqanaa", "", "Kasoor", "Hum Ho Gaye Aapke", "Raaz", "Dil Hai Tumhaara", "", "Hungama", "Andaaz", "Bewafaa", "", "Barsaat", "" and "Do Knot Disturb".


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: Nadeem remained in the UK and despite the distance between England and India, he and Shravan continued to make music together. But they later split after "".


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: In 2005, the duo split, but came back for "Do Knot Disturb", which was their last movie together. Nadeem started his own perfume and bag company and was also involved in solo compositions. Shravan was uninterested in continuing with his music and instead focused on the music careers of his sons (Sanjeev–Darshan) and movie production. Another reason cited is probably the growing distance between the two. In an interview, Nadeem stated that there wasn't any conflict between him and Shravan. In late 2013 it was announced that the duo would work together again on the sequel of Deewana but they later split due to personal conflicts again as a result of which Nadeem decided to return as a solo composer for Ishq Forever in 2015 but it did not become a hit because of less promotion and also because the quality of Udit Narayan, Kumar Sanu and Alka Yagnik was missing from his tunes.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: In 2016, Nadeem Saifi-Akhtar made his comeback with lyricist Sameer in the film "Ishq Forever". He had split with his partner Shravan and worked on the film as a solo composer. The film features ten songs. In the year 2017 he continued his musical career in the film Ek Haseena Thi Ek Deewana Tha as a solo composer and film is produced and directed by Suneel Darshan.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: On 22 April 2021, Shravan died of COVID-19 after being hospitalized days before in critical condition, in Hinduja Hospital. His son and wife were admitted to another medical facility in the city.


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: In total span of 17 years only 4 years (1998, 1999, 2004, 2006) are such which don't have Nadeem–Shravan album in top 3. The yearly analysis is as follows:


title: Nadeem–Shravan

text: The following table lists the sales of Nadeem–Shravan's top-selling Bollywood music soundtrack albums in India. By 1993, their soundtrack albums had earned in sales.


title: Sex club

text: Sex clubs, also known as swinger clubs or lifestyle clubs, are formal or informal groups that organize sex-related activities, or establishments where patrons can engage in sex acts with other patrons. A sex club or swinger club differs from a brothel in that while sex club patrons pay an entrance fee and may pay an annual membership fee, they only have an opportunity to have sex with other patrons, not with sex workers.


title: Sex club

text: A similar type of club is a masturbation club in which members, either single-gender or mixed, masturbate together in public or private rooms. Sexual intercourse is generally prohibited in such clubs.


title: Sex club

text: There is also a very large and growing group of private sex clubs that, to avoid legal problems, do not operate in a specified location. These organizations focus on private parties in homes or rented facilities and make use of the Internet to build their membership. There is usually a small door fee and most are invitation-only. In addition to sexual orientation, these smaller groups often stratify on specific criteria, e.g., men with beards or those who are interested in BDSM and kink. The first sex club of this type exclusively for African American gay men was Black Jack, started in 1986 by Alan Bell.


title: Sex club

text: Many sex clubs have some form of online presence. Additionally, most adult dating and swinger social networks often provide listings of sex clubs, resorts and events. There is no non-profit impartial overarching organization of sex clubs "per se", although NASCA International serves as an umbrella organization for swinging groups in general.


title: Sex club

text: Most sex clubs cater to the swinging lifestyle. Most major cities in North America and Western Europe have sex clubs, many in a permanent location, but they often keep a low profile. Thousands of swinging clubs are listed on various adult websites and swinger social networks, but there are believed to be many other small neighborhood clubs, which are known among members of the lifestyle community, without a website. The rules of these clubs vary considerably, and admissions are not necessarily limited to married couples.


title: Sex club

text: Most clubs are upscale and professional places that provide a safe place to meet other swingers. There are some differences however among clubs, and one should not confuse swinger clubs with social clubs, swinger groups or Meet-and-Greets. The easiest and simplest way to know the difference between swinger clubs and socials, groups or Meet-n-Greets is that swinger clubs are usually a brick and mortar physical locations where people meet other swingers. Socials, groups, and Meet-and-Greets may often meet in the same location, but it is often either a residence or some space that they have secured to meet. However, swinger clubs are typically permanent places that are specifically established for catering to swingers.


title: Sex club

text: One of the biggest differences among clubs is the distinction of "On-Premises" or "Off-Premises" swinger clubs. On-Premises swingers lifestyle clubs are ones that offer rooms or areas that permit couples to engage in sex either alone or with others. Off-Premises clubs are ones that allow for couples to meet and often dance or can socialize, but have no areas or rooms where any sexual activity can occur. Larger establishments may include the facilities of an ordinary nightclub such as a bar and a dance floor. Each club sets the rules for activities which take place at club organized events. Some clubs organize events which cater to heterosexual couples or individuals, others to gay men or (rarely) lesbians, and others have no orientation policy. Some cater to non-conventional activities, such as gang bangs, BDSM or fetish.


title: Sex club

text: Many swinger clubs will have a dozen or more rooms for sexual activity. The lifestyle clubs are also often decorated in themes, with furniture to match. Rooms may be decorated like a tropical oasis to Arabian Nights to caves to rooms with mirrors everywhere. Most clubs will also have voyeur rooms that have windows where patrons can engage in sex and know that they are being watched by other patrons of the club.


title: Sex club

text: Some sex clubs have formal membership and requirements that can include membership fees, showing proof of identity, attending a formal orientation, possibly providing STI test results or showing that one is part of a stable, long-term relationship and is attending with that partner (intended to minimize the number of single males or cheating husbands). Other clubs are open to any person willing to pay an admission fee.


title: Sex club

text: Sex clubs normally do not directly advertise to the general public, but typically rely on their own websites, swinger social networking, vertical integration in the adult entertainment industry, or through affiliate promotions on other adult venues. Many clubs, websites, publications, travel agencies, resorts, and events catering to the lifestyle promote each other to their mutual financial benefit but also with the altruistic intent of encouraging the dissemination of accurate information about the swinging lifestyle.


title: Sex club

text: Female bisexuality and bicuriosity are common in swinging and tend to be the norm among participants; Similarly, the online swinger site Swinger Social Network demonstrates that their female membership approximates a 50% population of bisexual females. By contrast, male same-sex activity is usually, though not always, unwelcome. One source, covering "Chicago's first and only all bisexual [club]," stated that in the founders' view "The [swinging] lifestyle is pretty homophobic" and "male bisexuality was erased", although an "underground market" existed. Swing clubs and other facilities exist for gay and bisexual interests in both genders, but differ – for example bathhouses for gay men, many of which were forced to close because of concerns over AIDS transmission, whereas women's clubs are "comparatively rare" and tend to be organized as private events, or niche clubs with high popularity for their events.


title: Sex club

text: Most swingers' clubs do not bar entrance into their facilities based on race, national origin, physical appearance or age. The average swinger is married, professional, middle-class and in their 40s.


title: Sex club

text: However, younger swingers seeking peer group options find this is not always possible at conventional swingers' clubs because of normal demographics. Similarly, those individuals who seek to specifically exclude others they personally view as unattractive are often disappointed at many swingers' clubs because the patrons are not screened to their standards. This desire by some has given rise to exclusive parties and clubs that exclude people based on looks or impose an upper age limit.


title: Sex club

text: 'Selective swinging' or 'urban swinging' events include mostly childless, unmarried young graduates whose average ages are as low as the late 20s, a group sometimes derided as "Ken and Barbie in the lifestyle" because of the emphasis on youth and physical attractiveness. Selective parties are often derided by other swingers as "exclusive" or "elitist" and contrary to the open and accepting nature that they feel swinging should be about.


title: Sex club

text: There are hundreds of sex clubs in the United States, ranging from ongoing house parties and meet-up groups to fully licensed businesses. It is estimated that there are over 3,000 swingers lifestyle clubs in North America. Since there is no relevant federal legislation, the legal requirements and legality of such establishments varies from state to state and even from locality to locality. Zoning laws regulating proximity to schools or religious buildings, local norms, and other factors have all played a role. Most sex clubs in the U.S. and Canada do not serve alcohol because of restrictive state requirements associated with a liquor license, but some allow customers to bring their own.


title: Sex club

text: One of the first major "mainstream" sex/swinger clubs in the US was Plato's Retreat in NYC. It opened in 1977 and gained some notoriety because celebrities, porn stars, and well-to-do couples attended.


title: Sex club

text: Swinging is popular in the UK, with upwards of 150 clubs in existence; these vary from specially designed premises to hotels and leisure clubs that have been adapted to the lifestyle. Some offer accommodation alongside food and beverage to complement the swinging experience. As well as clubs, the UK has many online special interest groups that focus on a particular fetish or aspect of a sexually liberated lifestyle; these groups often hold pop-up events in swingers clubs or private venues. Conservative estimates suggest that there are around 1 million swingers in Britain. The popular social networking swinger site Fab Swingers attract over 25 million hits each month, with 90% being from the UK.


title: Fibroblast

text: A fibroblast is a type of biological cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, produces the structural framework (stroma) for animal tissues, and plays a critical role in wound healing. Fibroblasts are the most common cells of connective tissue in animals.


title: Fibroblast

text: Fibroblasts have a branched cytoplasm surrounding an elliptical, speckled nucleus having two or more nucleoli. Active fibroblasts can be recognized by their abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum. Inactive fibroblasts (called fibrocytes) are smaller, spindle-shaped, and have a reduced amount of rough endoplasmic reticulum. Although disjointed and scattered when they have to cover a large space, fibroblasts, when crowded, often locally align in parallel clusters.


title: Fibroblast

text: Unlike the epithelial cells lining the body structures, fibroblasts do not form flat monolayers and are not restricted by a polarizing attachment to a basal lamina on one side, although they may contribute to basal lamina components in some situations (e.g. subepithelial myofibroblasts in intestine may secrete the α-2 chain-carrying component of the laminin, which is absent only in regions of follicle-associated epithelia which lack the myofibroblast lining). Fibroblasts can also migrate slowly over substratum as individual cells, again in contrast to epithelial cells. While epithelial cells form the lining of body structures, it is fibroblasts and related connective tissues which sculpt the "bulk" of an organism.


title: Fibroblast

text: Fibroblasts and fibrocytes are two states of the same cells, the former being the activated state, the latter the less active state, concerned with maintenance and tissue metabolism. Currently, there is a tendency to call both forms fibroblasts. The suffix "-blast" is used in cellular biology to denote a stem cell or a cell in an activated state of metabolism.


title: Fibroblast

text: Fibroblasts are morphologically heterogeneous with diverse appearances depending on their location and activity. Though morphologically inconspicuous, ectopically transplanted fibroblasts can often retain positional memory of the location and tissue context where they had previously resided, at least over a few generations. This remarkable behavior may lead to discomfort in the rare event that they stagnate there excessively.


title: Fibroblast

text: The main function of fibroblasts is to maintain the structural integrity of connective tissues by continuously secreting precursors of the extracellular matrix. Fibroblasts secrete the precursors of all the components of the extracellular matrix, primarily the ground substance and a variety of fibers. The composition of the extracellular matrix determines the physical properties of connective tissues.


title: Fibroblast

text: Like other cells of connective tissue, fibroblasts are derived from primitive mesenchyme. Thus they express the intermediate filament protein vimentin, a feature used as a marker to distinguish their mesodermal origin. However, this test is not specific as epithelial cells cultured in vitro on adherent substratum may also express vimentin after some time.


title: Fibroblast

text: In certain situations, epithelial cells can give rise to fibroblasts, a process called epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT).


title: Fibroblast

text: Conversely, fibroblasts in some situations may give rise to epithelia by undergoing a mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET) and organizing into a condensed, polarized, laterally connected true epithelial sheet. This process is seen in many developmental situations (e.g. nephron and notocord development), as well as in wound healing and tumorigenesis.


title: Fibroblast

text: Fibroblasts make collagen fibres, glycosaminoglycans, reticular and elastic fibers. Growing individuals' fibroblasts are dividing and are synthesizing ground substance. Tissue damage stimulates fibrocytes and induces the production of fibroblasts.


title: Fibroblast

text: Besides their commonly known role as structural components, fibroblasts play a critical role in an immune response to a tissue injury. They are early players in initiating inflammation in the presence of invading microorganisms. They induce chemokine synthesis through the presentation of receptors on their surface. Immune cells then respond and initiate a cascade of events to clear the invasive microorganisms. Receptors on the surface of fibroblasts also allow regulation of hematopoietic cells and provide a pathway for immune cells to regulate fibroblasts.


title: Fibroblast

text: Fibroblasts, like the tumor-associated host fibroblasts (TAF), play a crucial role in immune regulation through TAF-derived extracellular matrix (ECM) components and modulators. TAF are known to be significant in the inflammatory response as well as immune suppression in tumors. TAF-derived ECM components cause alterations in the ECM composition and initiate the ECM remodeling. The ECM remodeling is described as changes in the ECM as a result of enzyme activity which can lead to degradation of the ECM. Immune regulation of tumors is largely determined by the ECM remodeling because the ECM is responsible for regulating a variety of functions, such as proliferation, differentiation, and morphogenesis of vital organs. In many tumor types, especially those related to the epithelial cells, ECM remodeling is common. Examples of TAF-derived ECM components include Tenascin and Thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), which can be found in sites of chronic inflammation and carcinomas, respectively.


title: Fibroblast

text: Immune regulation of tumors can also occur through the TAF-derived modulators. Although these modulators may sound similar to the TAF-derived ECM components, they differ in the sense that they are responsible for the variation and turnover of the ECM. Cleaved ECM molecules can play a critical role in immune regulation. Proteases like matrix metalloproteineases (MMPs) and the uPA system are known to cleave the ECM. These proteases are derived from fibroblasts.


title: Fibroblast

text: Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) are often used as "feeder cells" in human embryonic stem cell research. However, many researchers are gradually phasing out MEFs in favor of culture media with precisely defined ingredients of exclusively human derivation. Further, the difficulty of exclusively using human derivation for media supplements is most often solved by use of "defined media" where the supplements are synthetic and achieve the primary goal of eliminating the chance of contamination from derivative sources.


title: Fibroblast

text: In view of the clinical application of stem cell derived tissues, the use of human fibroblast as feeders has been studied. Whereas the fibroblasts are usually used to maintain pluripotency of the stem cells, they can also be used to facilitate development of the stem cells into specific type of cells such as cardiomyocytes.


title: Fibroblast

text: Fibroblasts from different anatomical sites in the body express many genes that code for immune mediators and proteins. These mediators of immune response enable the cellular communication with hematopoietic immune cells. The immune activity of non-hematopoietic cells, such as fibroblasts, is referred to as “structural immunity”. In order to facilitate a fast response to immunological challenges, fibroblasts encode crucial aspects of the structural cell immune response in the epigenome.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: In optics, and by analogy other branches of physics dealing with wave propagation, dispersion is the phenomenon in which the phase velocity of a wave depends on its frequency; sometimes the term chromatic dispersion is used for specificity to optics in particular.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: Although the term is used in the field of optics to describe light and other electromagnetic waves, dispersion in the same sense can apply to any sort of wave motion such as acoustic dispersion in the case of sound and seismic waves, and in gravity waves (ocean waves). Within optics, dispersion is a property of telecommunication signals along transmission lines (such as microwaves in coaxial cable) or the pulses of light in optical fiber. Physically, dispersion translates in a loss of kinetic energy through absorption.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: In optics, one important and familiar consequence of dispersion is the change in the angle of refraction of different colors of light, as seen in the spectrum produced by a dispersive prism and in chromatic aberration of lenses. Design of compound achromatic lenses, in which chromatic aberration is largely cancelled, uses a quantification of a glass's dispersion given by its Abbe number "V", where "lower" Abbe numbers correspond to "greater" dispersion over the visible spectrum. In some applications such as telecommunications, the absolute phase of a wave is often not important but only the propagation of wave packets or "pulses"; in that case one is interested only in variations of group velocity with frequency, so-called group-velocity dispersion.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: All common transmission media also vary in attenuation (normalized to transmission length) as a function of frequency, leading to attenuation distortion; this is not dispersion, although sometimes reflections at closely spaced impedance boundaries (e.g. crimped segments in a cable) can produce signal distortion with further aggravates inconsistent transit time as observed across signal bandwidth.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: The most familiar example of dispersion is probably a rainbow, in which dispersion causes the spatial separation of a white light into components of different wavelengths (different colors). However, dispersion also has an effect in many other circumstances: for example, group velocity dispersion causes pulses to spread in optical fibers, degrading signals over long distances; also, a cancellation between group-velocity dispersion and nonlinear effects leads to soliton waves.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: Most often, chromatic dispersion refers to bulk material dispersion, that is, the change in refractive index with optical frequency. However, in a waveguide there is also the phenomenon of "waveguide dispersion", in which case a wave's phase velocity in a structure depends on its frequency simply due to the structure's geometry. More generally, "waveguide" dispersion can occur for waves propagating through any inhomogeneous structure (e.g., a photonic crystal), whether or not the waves are confined to some region. In a waveguide, "both" types of dispersion will generally be present, although they are not strictly additive. For example, in fiber optics the material and waveguide dispersion can effectively cancel each other out to produce a zero-dispersion wavelength, important for fast fiber-optic communication.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: Material dispersion can be a desirable or undesirable effect in optical applications. The dispersion of light by glass prisms is used to construct spectrometers and spectroradiometers. However, in lenses, dispersion causes chromatic aberration, an undesired effect that may degrade images in microscopes, telescopes, and photographic objectives.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: In general, the refractive index is some function of the frequency "f" of the light, thus "n" = "n"("f"), or alternatively, with respect to the wave's wavelength "n" = "n"("λ"). The wavelength dependence of a material's refractive index is usually quantified by its Abbe number or its coefficients in an empirical formula such as the Cauchy or Sellmeier equations.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: Because of the Kramers–Kronig relations, the wavelength dependence of the real part of the refractive index is related to the material absorption, described by the imaginary part of the refractive index (also called the extinction coefficient). In particular, for non-magnetic materials ("μ" = "μ"), the susceptibility "χ" that appears in the Kramers–Kronig relations is the electric susceptibility "χ" = "n" − 1.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: The most commonly seen consequence of dispersion in optics is the separation of white light into a color spectrum by a prism. From Snell's law it can be seen that the angle of refraction of light in a prism depends on the refractive index of the prism material. Since that refractive index varies with wavelength, it follows that the angle that the light is refracted by will also vary with wavelength, causing an angular separation of the colors known as "angular dispersion".


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: For visible light, refraction indices "n" of most transparent materials (e.g., air, glasses) decrease with increasing wavelength "λ":


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: In this case, the medium is said to have "normal dispersion". Whereas, if the index increases with increasing wavelength (which is typically the case in the ultraviolet), the medium is said to have "anomalous dispersion".


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: At the interface of such a material with air or vacuum (index of ~1), Snell's law predicts that light incident at an angle "θ" to the normal will be refracted at an angle arcsin(). Thus, blue light, with a higher refractive index, will be bent more strongly than red light, resulting in the well-known rainbow pattern.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: Beyond simply describing a change in the phase velocity over wavelength, a more serious consequence of dispersion in many applications is termed group velocity dispersion (GVD). While phase velocity "v" is defined as "v" = , this describes only one frequency component. When different frequency components are combined, as when considering a signal or a pulse, one is often more interested in the group velocity which describes the speed at which a pulse or information superimposed on a wave (modulation) propagates. In the accompanying animation, it can be seen that the wave itself (orange-brown) travels at a phase velocity which is much faster than the speed of the "envelope" (black) which corresponds to the group velocity. This pulse might be a communications signal, for instance, and its information only travels at the group velocity rate even though it consists of wavefronts advancing at a faster rate (the phase velocity).


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: It is possible to calculate the group velocity from the refractive index curve "n"("ω") or more directly from the wavenumber "k" = "ωn"/"c" where "ω" is the radian frequency "ω"=2"πf". Whereas one expression for the phase velocity is "v=ω/k", the group velocity can be expressed using the derivative: "v"="dω/dk". Or in terms of the phase velocity "v",


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: When dispersion is present, not only will the group velocity not be equal to the phase velocity, but generally will itself vary with wavelength. This is known as group velocity dispersion and causes a short pulse of light to be broadened, as the different frequency components within the pulse travel at different velocities. Group velocity dispersion is quantified as the derivative of the "reciprocal" of the group velocity with respect to radian frequency which results in "group velocity dispersion" = .


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: If a light pulse is propagated through a material with positive group-velocity dispersion, then the shorter wavelength components travel slower than the longer wavelength components. The pulse therefore becomes "positively chirped", or "up-chirped", increasing in frequency with time. On the other hand, if a pulse travels through a material with negative group-velocity dispersion, shorter wavelength components travel faster than the longer ones, and the pulse becomes "negatively chirped", or "down-chirped", decreasing in frequency with time.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: An everyday example of a negatively chirped signal in the acoustic domain is that of an approaching train hitting deformities on a welded track. The sound caused by the train itself is impulsive, and travels much faster in the metal tracks than in air, so that the train can be heard well before it arrives. However from afar it isn't heard as causing impulses, but leads to a distinctive descending chirp, amidst reverberation caused by the complexity of the vibrational modes of the track. Group velocity dispersion can be heard in that the volume of the sounds stays audible for a surprisingly long time, up to several seconds.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: According to some authors a medium is said to have "normal dispersion"/"anomalous dispersion" for a certain vacuum wavelength "λ" if the "second" derivative of the refraction index calculated in "λ" is positive/negative or, equivalently, if "D"("λ") is negative/positive. This definition concerns group velocity dispersion and should not be confused with the one given in previous section. The two definitions do not coincide in general, so the reader has to understand the context.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: The result of GVD, whether negative or positive, is ultimately temporal spreading of the pulse. This makes dispersion management extremely important in optical communications systems based on optical fiber, since if dispersion is too high, a group of pulses representing a bit-stream will spread in time and merge, rendering the bit-stream unintelligible. This limits the length of fiber that a signal can be sent down without regeneration. One possible answer to this problem is to send signals down the optical fibre at a wavelength where the GVD is zero (e.g., around 1.3–1.5 μm in silica fibres), so pulses at this wavelength suffer minimal spreading from dispersion. In practice, however, this approach causes more problems than it solves because zero GVD unacceptably amplifies other nonlinear effects (such as four wave mixing). Another possible option is to use soliton pulses in the regime of negative dispersion, a form of optical pulse which uses a nonlinear optical effect to self-maintain its shape. Solitons have the practical problem, however, that they require a certain power level to be maintained in the pulse for the nonlinear effect to be of the correct strength. Instead, the solution that is currently used in practice is to perform dispersion compensation, typically by matching the fiber with another fiber of opposite-sign dispersion so that the dispersion effects cancel; such compensation is ultimately limited by nonlinear effects such as self-phase modulation, which interact with dispersion to make it very difficult to undo.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: Dispersion control is also important in lasers that produce short pulses. The overall dispersion of the optical resonator is a major factor in determining the duration of the pulses emitted by the laser. A pair of prisms can be arranged to produce net negative dispersion, which can be used to balance the usually positive dispersion of the laser medium. Diffraction gratings can also be used to produce dispersive effects; these are often used in high-power laser amplifier systems. Recently, an alternative to prisms and gratings has been developed: chirped mirrors. These dielectric mirrors are coated so that different wavelengths have different penetration lengths, and therefore different group delays. The coating layers can be tailored to achieve a net negative dispersion.