title: Names of Myanmar

text: While both the names "Bama" and "Mranma" historically referred only to the Burmans and not other ethnic minorities, Burmese governments in the post-independence period have instituted a differentiation of meaning between Mranma and Bama in the official Burmese language usage. The name Myanma/Myanmar was expanded to include all citizens of the country while the name Bama was kept to its original meaning. Both are widespread use in colloquial usage. Most still use Bama/Myanma interchangeably, to refer to the country, depending on the context. Ironically, because of the official renaming of the country, the dominant ethnic group is now known by its colloquial name, "Bama", rather than by its literary name, "Mranma" in official Burmese usage.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In English, the official name chosen for the country at the time of independence was "Burma". This was already the name that the British called their colony before 1948. This name most likely comes from Portuguese "Birmânia" and was adopted by English in the 18th century. The Portuguese name itself, a Latinate back-formation ("cp." Germânia "vs." Alemanha), came from the Indian name "Barma" which was borrowed by the Portuguese from any of the Indian languages in the 16th or 17th century. This Indian name "Barma" may derive from colloquial Burmese "Bama", but it may also derive from the Indian name "Brahma-desh."


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In 1989, the military regime of Burma set up a commission in charge of reviewing the place names of Burma in the English language. The aim of the commission was to correct the spelling of the place names of Burma in English, to discard spellings chosen by British colonial authorities in the 19th century, and adopt spellings closer to the actual Burmese pronunciation (compare with what happened in India with Calcutta/Kolkata and Calicut/Kozhikode). These renamings took the form of the "Adaptation of Expressions Law", passed on 18 June 1989. Thus, for instance, Rangoon was changed to Yangon to reflect the fact that the "r" sound is no longer used in Standard Burmese and merged with a "y" glide.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: As for the country's name, the commission decided to replace the English name "Burma" with "Myanmar", for three reasons. First, "Myanma" is the official name of the country in the Burmese language, and the aim of the commission was to have English place names aligned with Burmese place names and pronunciation. Second, the commission thought that the name "Myanma" was more inclusive of minorities than the name "Bama", and wanted the English name of the country to reflect this. Finally, the military regime has long been suspicious of the colloquial Burmese language, which it perceives as subversive; the English name "Burma" mirrors the colloquial Burmese name "Bama".


title: Names of Myanmar

text: The final "r" in the English "Myanmar" is absent in Burmese "Myanma" (much as the medial "r" in "Burma" is absent in standard Burmese "Bama"). The commission added a final "r" in English to represent the low tone of Burmese, in which the word "Myanma" is pronounced. In the low tone, the final vowel "a" is lengthened. The commission was influenced by Received Pronunciation and other non-rhotic English English dialects, in which "ar" (without a following vowel) is also pronounced as long "a" (often given as "ah" in American English). However, in variants of English in which final "r" is pronounced, such as standard American English, adding this final "r" leads to a pronunciation very different from the Burmese pronunciation.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In the Burmese language, there have been controversies about the name of the country since the 1930s, and the decision of the regime in 1989 carried the controversy into the English language. The regime believes that "Myanma" is more inclusive of minorities than "Bama", while opponents point out that historically, "Myanma" is only a more literary version of "Bama".


title: Names of Myanmar

text: Quite the opposite of being more inclusive, opposition parties and human rights groups contend that the new English name "Myanmar" is actually disrespectful of the minorities of Burma. Minorities, many of whom do not speak Burmese, had become accustomed to the English name "Burma" over the years, and they perceive the new name "Myanmar" as a purely Burmese name reflecting the policy of domination of the ethnic Burman majority over the minorities.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: The regime changed the name of the country in English; it did not change the official name of the country in Burmese. Former opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi at first opposed the new name "Myanmar", pointing out the hypocritical justification of inclusivity put forward by the regime. Opposition parties, although they oppose the English name "Myanmar", do not oppose the official Burmese name "Mranma", and no opposition party is proposing to use the colloquial name "Bama" as the official name of the country. Culturally, when speaking, locals refer to the country as Burma, but in literature, it is named "Myanmar".


title: Names of Myanmar

text: Finally, a lot of criticism also focused on the lack of linguistic soundness of the reform. Only four language scholars sat in the 1989 commission, while the majority of the commission was made up of military officials and civil servants with no particular knowledge of linguistics. The new names adopted often lacked serious linguistic credibility, and some appear questionable (the final "r" at the end of the name Myanmar makes sense only for a speaker of a non-rhotic dialect of English).


title: Names of Myanmar

text: Since the 1989 decision to change the English name from "Burma" to "Myanmar", adoption of the new name in the English-speaking world has been mixed. Use of "Burma", along with many other name changes within Myanmar has remained widespread, largely based on the question of whether the regime has the legitimacy to change the country's name, particularly without a referendum.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: The United Nations, of which Myanmar is a member, endorsed the name change five days after its announcement. However, the United States still refers to the country as "Burma". The United States government attributes its choice to support for the party deemed to have won the 1990 election, but been denied power by the junta. That party opposes the new name.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: Following the 2011–2012 democratic reforms in Burma, politicians started using "Myanmar" more frequently. The British government also cites the elected party's preference in its statement on its choice of name. A spokesman for the Department of Foreign Affairs in Canada said that his government's choice was "in support of the struggle for democracy". Others, including the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the governments of China, India, Japan, Germany, Australia, Canada and Russia recognize "Myanmar" as the official name.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: During the 2005 ASEAN summit in Thailand, the Foreign Minister Nyan Win complained about the US insistence of calling his country "Burma" instead of "Myanmar" as it was renamed more than a decade ago. In January 2011, during the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) of the country at the United Nations, the delegate of Myanmar interrupted the delegate of the United States, who had begun her comments on human rights in Myanmar by "welcom[ing] the Burmese delegation to the UPR working group". Myanmar's delegate insisted that the American delegation should use the name "Myanmar", and appealed to the session's president to enforce that rule. The latter commented that "we're here to discuss human rights in Myanmar, we're not here to discuss the name of the country", and asked the American delegation to use Myanmar's official, UN-recognised name. The American delegate continued her comments on human rights violations in Myanmar, without using either name for the country. On 19 November 2012, US President Barack Obama, accompanied by Secretary of State Hillary Clinton on her second visit to the country, referred to the nation as both Myanmar and Burma.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: Media usage is also mixed. In spite of the usage by the US government, American news outlets including "The New York Times", "The Wall Street Journal", The "International Herald Tribune" and CNN, and US-based international news agencies the Associated Press and Reuters have adopted the name "Myanmar". Others have continued to use "Burma", some of whom have switched to using "Myanmar" years after the name change, such as the "Financial Times", citing increasing international acceptance of the new name. The BBC changed to using "Myanmar" in 2014.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: Another approach taken by some historians is to continue to use the name "Burma" for describing the history of the country prior to the 1988 military coup and "Myanmar" from there on. This also contravenes the intentions of the government, whose naming reform in 1989 was to apply to the entire history of the country. Those using this approach argue that it is the most politically neutral option.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In June 2014, the Australian government, led by Prime Minister Tony Abbott, continued a long-running discussion on the manner in which Australian officials would refer to the Southeast Asian nation. While Burma was the formal title used by the Australian government, the Labor government revised the national name to the Union of Myanmar in 2012. However, the matter has resurfaced, as the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) reverted to the former title under Abbott's leadership in late 2013. A reason for the change has not appeared in the media, but, as of June 2014, the Abbott government's policy advises officials to switch between Burma and Myanmar, in accordance with the circumstances at hand. DFAT secretary Peter Varghese explained to the media: "Our ambassador to Myanmar would be our ambassador to Myanmar, because the country to which she Brontë Moules is accredited is Myanmar, in the eyes of the government of Myanmar."


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In April 2016, soon after taking office, Aung San Suu Kyi clarified that foreigners are free to use either name, "because there is nothing in the constitution of our country that says that you must use any term in particular".


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In Burmese, the word "Myanma", when used as a noun, is pronounced in the low tone (long "a", Okell: "Myañma/Myăma"), whereas when used as an adjective, it is pronounced in the creaky tone (short "a") as if it were spelt "မြန်မ" or "မြန်မာ့" (MLCTS: "mranma.", Okell: "Myañmá/Myămá"). To reflect this, in the 1989 government renaming the adjectival form of the country's name "Myanmar" is formed by dropping the final "r" to get "Myanma" (since the final "r" indicates lengthening in Oxford English).


title: Names of Myanmar

text: Most people, even in Burma, are unaware of these subtleties, as it occurs only in the spoken language and . Thus we find both "Myanma Airways" (correct spelling) and "Myanmar Airways" (incorrect spelling, but used officially and recognised anyway). Some English speakers have even coined the adjective "Myanmarese" or "Myanmese", to follow English rather than Burmese grammatical rules. These adjectives are not recommended as most natives of Myanmar preferred to be called either the old way of "Burmese", "Myanmar", or "Myanma" representing the many diverse races in the country.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: According to the renaming, the name of the dominant ethnicity of Burma, whose people speak the Burmese language, is "Bamar" (again, final "r" only added to denote a long "a" in Burmese). Thus, "Myanmar" is a country inhabited by the "Bamars" plus many minorities; and the "Bamars" and minorities are collectively known as "Myanma" people.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: While the use of the name "Myanmar" is widespread and rivals the use of "Burma", adoption of adjectival forms has been far more limited; in general, terms in use before 1989 have persisted. Citizens of Burma, regardless of their ethnicity, are known as "Burmese", while the dominant ethnicity is called "Burman". The language of the Burmans, however, is known as the Burmese language, not as the Burman language, although confusingly enough the "Burmese" language is considered one of the Tibeto-"Burman" languages.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In Assamese the country is known as মান দেশ "Man Dex" ("Maan Country") since the time when the 1st Ahom king Sukapha crossed Patkai hills to come to Assam valley from Myanmar. The period of Burmese invasions to Assam are known as মানৰ দিন "Manor Din" ("Days of Maan").


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In Bengali the name is ব্রহ্মদেশ or 'Brahmadesh'. It is the same in case of Sanskrit and Sanskrit-based languages in other parts of India. This name predates the Portuguese or British names but it is not clear whether this name has roots connected to the 'Mrnma' people or it predates them also.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In Chinese, the name appeared for the first time in 1273 and was recorded as 緬 (pronounced "miɛn" in the Middle Chinese of the period, and "Miǎn" in Modern Standard Mandarin). The present name in the Chinese is 緬甸 (pronounced "Miǎndiàn"). The Vietnamese "Miến Điện" is derived from the same term.


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In Japan, although the Japanese government's basic position is to use , often media organisations indicate in parentheses afterwards. "Biruma" may be used more often in the spoken language, while "Myanmā" is more common in written language. Popular Japanese fictional works such as "The Burmese Harp" ("Biruma no tategoto") mean that the name "Biruma" may have more of an emotional resonance to readers. Historically Japan used the Chinese characters of "Menden" (緬甸) to refer to Burma. This form remains in contemporary usage in abbreviations; for example, the World War II-era Burma-Thailand Railway is still referred to almost exclusively as the "Tai-Men Tetsudō" (泰緬鉄道).


title: Names of Myanmar

text: Myanmar is known by a name deriving from "Burma" as opposed to "Myanmar" in Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Greek – "Birmania" being the local version of "Burma" in both Italian and Spanish, "Birmânia" in Portuguese, and "Birmanie" in French. As in the past, French-language media today consistently use "Birmanie".


title: Names of Myanmar

text: In Tamil, although not used as much anymore, Myanmar was referred to as "Putpagam" (புட்பகம்). It is most likely derived from the name of the Pagan Kingdom. The most iconic reference using this name occurs in Subramania Bharati's "Senthamizh Nadenum" song which also lists other Tamilized place names.


title: The Egg (Weir short story)

text: "The Egg" is a short story published by American writer Andy Weir, originally published on his website Galactanet on August 15, 2009. It is Weir's most popular short story, and has been translated into over 30 languages by readers. The story follows a nameless 48-year-old man who discovers the "meaning of life" after he dies.


title: The Egg (Weir short story)

text: The story is about the main character, who is referred to as "you" (in the second person), and God, who is "me" (in the first person). You, a 48-year-old man who dies in a car crash, meets God, the narrator, who says that you have been reincarnated many times before, and that you are next to be reincarnated as a Chinese peasant girl in 540 AD. God then explains that you are, in fact, constantly reincarnated across time, and that all human beings who have ever lived and will ever live are incarnations of you. You remark about being Abraham Lincoln, Adolf Hitler, and Jesus. God adds that you were also once John Wilkes Booth, every Holocaust victim and every person who followed Jesus.


title: The Egg (Weir short story)

text: God explains that in fact there are other godlike beings elsewhere, and that you too will one day become a god. The entire universe was created as an egg for the main character (all of humanity), and once you have lived every human life ever, you will be born as a god. The reason God created the universe was for the main character, you, to understand this point: "Every time you victimized someone...you were victimizing yourself. Every act of kindness you’ve done, you’ve done to yourself. Every happy and sad moment ever experienced by any human was, or will be, experienced by you."


title: The Egg (Weir short story)

text: In a 2015 interview with the Craftsman Founder Podcast, Weir discussed his motivation for writing The Egg, among other topics. In the interview, Weir stated that he "wanted to write a story where life was fair after all". According to Weir, most religions have their own take on the proverb "what goes around comes around" and revolve around this idea in some way. When asked why he chose to have one soul reincarnating constantly across time instead of linearly forward though time, Weir said that the only way his idea of everyone being one soul would work was if reincarnation could happen across time. Weir stated that he wrote the story quickly, saying "I banged it out in 40 minutes and posted it, and that was it." He did not expect the traction that the story got after it was published.


title: The Egg (Weir short story)

text: The rapper Logic used "The Egg" as inspiration for his album "Everybody" released in 2017, re-imagined in the interlude track "Waiting Room" and featuring Neil DeGrasse Tyson as God.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Peter James Meijer (, ; born January 10, 1988) is an American politician and business analyst who has served as the U.S. representative for since 2021. He is a member of the Republican Party.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer is a member of the Meijer family, the founders and owners of the Meijer superstore chain. He was one of 10 Republicans who voted to impeach Donald Trump during Trump's second impeachment. On August 2, 2022, Meijer lost the Republican primary for his seat to John Gibbs.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He is the oldest son of Hank Meijer and the grandson of Frederik Meijer, whose father, Hendrik Meijer, founded supermarket chain Meijer after he emigrated to the United States from the Netherlands. "Forbes" has recognized his family as one of the wealthiest in Michigan, with a net worth above $6 billion. His financial disclosures list more than $50 million in assets, primarily from a Meijer family trust.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer graduated from East Grand Rapids High School in 2006. He initially studied for one year at the United States Military Academy at West Point before transferring to Columbia University in 2008, graduating with a bachelor's degree in cultural anthropology in 2012. At Columbia, he was an advocate for reinstating the Reserve Officers' Training Corps on campus. He was also a volunteer emergency medical technician for Columbia University's emergency medical services. From 2008 to 2016, Meijer served in the United States Army Reserve and was deployed to Iraq from 2010 into 2011, serving as an intelligence advisor.


title: Peter Meijer

text: In 2017, Meijer graduated from the New York University Stern School of Business with a Master of Business Administration.


title: Peter Meijer

text: From 2013 to 2015, Meijer worked as a conflict analyst for an international NGO. He was later employed by Olympia Development of Michigan of Ilitch Holdings as an analyst from April 2018 to January 2019. During this time, Meijer also worked on veterans projects such as Project Rubicon, was on the advisory board of the With Honor super political action committee, and assisted with urban renewal projects throughout Michigan.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Following Justin Amash's departure from the Republican Party in July 2019, Meijer announced his candidacy for Michigan's 3rd congressional district, competing in the Republican primary. He voiced his support for President Donald Trump, saying he would work with Trump to "make sure that we advance policies and an agenda that is in the best interest of West Michigan." In his primary campaign, Meijer received funding from several wealthy Michigan-based business families and outraised the other Republican candidates.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer ran for reelection in the district for the 2022 elections. His primary opponent was John Gibbs, a former Trump administration official. In the final days of the primary, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee bought TV ads designed to raise Gibbs' profile, believing that Meijer would be the more difficult opponent in the general election. Meijer lost the August 2 primary to Gibbs. Meijer said he would not support Gibbs in the November election. In November 2022, Gibbs lost the general election to Meijer's 2020 opponent, Hillary Scholten.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer accepted the 2020 presidential election results, announcing publicly that he accepted the outcome and recognized Joe Biden as president-elect. After experiencing the 2021 United States Capitol attack, he called on Republicans to take responsibility for their "lies" about election fraud. On January 13, 2021, he voted to impeach Donald Trump alongside nine other Republicans. The next day, Meijer stated in an interview with MSNBC that he had purchased body armor and made changes to his daily schedule due to threats against his life in reaction to his vote for impeachment. On January 20, 2021, the day of Biden's inauguration, Meijer was one of 17 newly elected House Republicans to sign a letter congratulating him and expressing hope of working across the partisan divide.


title: Peter Meijer

text: On May 23, 2021, Meijer condemned Representative Marjorie Taylor Greene's comparison between having to wear face masks in the House and the Holocaust. He was the first Republican to condemn Greene's remarks and said that "such comparisons demean the Holocaust and contaminate American political speech."


title: Peter Meijer

text: On August 24, 2021, Meijer and Representative Seth Moulton flew unannounced into Hamid Karzai International Airport during the 2021 Taliban offensive amid the evacuation of Americans and allies. The Defense Department and House Speaker Nancy Pelosi were not given advance notice. The next day, Pelosi sent a letter to all House members saying that "the Departments of Defense and State have requested that Members not travel to Afghanistan and the region during this time of danger" because such travel "would unnecessarily divert needed resources" from the evacuation efforts.


title: Peter Meijer

text: During the presidency of Joe Biden, Meijer has voted in line with the president's stated position 36% of the time.


title: Peter Meijer

text: On May 19, 2021, Meijer became one of 35 Republicans who joined all Democrats in voting to approve legislation to establish the January 6 commission meant to investigate the 2021 United States Capitol attack.


title: Peter Meijer

text: On October 21, 2021, Meijer was one of nine House Republicans to vote to hold Steve Bannon in contempt of Congress.


title: Peter Meijer

text: In June 2021, Meijer was one of 49 House Republicans to vote to repeal the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002.


title: Peter Meijer

text: In July 2021, Meijer voted for the bipartisan ALLIES Act, which would increase by 8,000 the number of special immigrant visas for Afghan allies of the U.S. military during its invasion of Afghanistan, while also reducing some application requirements that caused long application backlogs; the bill passed the House, 407–16.


title: Peter Meijer

text: In September 2021, Meijer was among 135 House Republicans to vote for the National Defense Authorization Act of 2022, which contains a provision that would require women to register for the draft.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer voted for H.R. 7691, the Additional Ukraine Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2022, which would provide the Ukrainian government with $40 billion in emergency aid.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer has acknowledged the existence of anthropogenic climate change. He believes Republicans should take on the problem with conservative solutions. "Not only embracing conservatism and the Republican party's long history of conservation and environmental protection but extending that forward is frankly where the country is. I think that it is a political imperative and a moral imperative as well", he said.


title: Peter Meijer

text: On March 21, 2021, Meijer signed a letter pressing Biden to stop Enbridge Line 5, an oil pipeline, from being shut down in May. Congressional members' concerns about the pipeline's closure intensified after Biden revoked the Keystone XL Pipeline permit.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer was one of eight House Republicans to vote for the Colorado Wilderness Act. The bill would designate 600,000 acres of public lands in the State of Colorado as components of the National Wilderness Preservation System.


title: Peter Meijer

text: in May 2022, Meijer was one of 16 House Republicans to vote for the Recovering America's Wildlife Act. The bill would provide states, territories, and tribes with $1.39 billion annually to catalyze efforts to restore habitats and implement conservation strategies, as described in each state's Wildlife Action Plan.


title: Peter Meijer

text: In 2021, Meijer co-sponsored the Fairness for All Act, the Republican alternative to the Equality Act. The bill would prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity, and protect the free exercise of religion.


title: Peter Meijer

text: In 2021, Meijer was one of 29 Republicans to vote to reauthorize the Violence Against Women Act. This bill expanded legal protections for transgender people, and contained provisions allowing transgender women to use women's shelters and serve time in prisons matching their gender identity.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer was one of 31 Republicans to vote for the LGBTQ Business Equal Credit Enforcement and Investment Act.


title: Peter Meijer

text: In 2022, Meijer was one of six Republicans to vote for the Global Respect Act, which imposes sanctions on foreign persons responsible for violations of the internationally recognized human rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (LGBTQI) people, and for other purposes.


title: Peter Meijer

text: On July 19, 2022, Meijer and 46 other Republican representatives voted for the Respect for Marriage Act, which would codify the right to same-sex marriage in federal law.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer is a co-sponsor of the America's CHILDREN Act. The bill would prevent the children of long-term visa holders who came to the U.S. legally with their parents from having their visas expire the day they turn 21. If they have maintained legal status in the U.S. for ten years and graduated from an institution of higher education, they are eligible to apply for permanent residency.


title: Peter Meijer

text: In 2022, Meijer was one of 14 House Republicans to support a bipartisan agreement on gun control, which included a red flag provision, support for state crisis intervention orders, funding for school safety resources, stronger background checks for buyers under 21, and penalties for straw purchases. On July 29, 2022, Meijer joined a majority of his Republican colleagues and five Democrats in voting against H.R. 1808, a bill to ban assault weapons.


title: Peter Meijer

text: In 2022, Meijer was one of 39 Republicans to vote for the Merger Filing Fee Modernization Act of 2022, an antitrust package that would crack down on corporations for anti-competitive behavior.


title: Peter Meijer

text: Meijer opposes abortion. He has consistently voted against bills to expand abortion access and has an A+ rating from the Susan B. Anthony list.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: The enteric nervous system (ENS) or intrinsic nervous system is one of the main divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal tract. It is capable of acting independently of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, although it may be influenced by them. The ENS is nicknamed the "second brain". It is derived from neural crest cells.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: The enteric nervous system is capable of operating independently of the brain and spinal cord, but does rely on innervation from the vagus nerve and prevertebral ganglia in healthy subjects. However, studies have shown that the system is operable with a severed vagus nerve. The neurons of the enteric nervous system control the motor functions of the system, in addition to the secretion of gastrointestinal enzymes. These neurons communicate through many neurotransmitters similar to the CNS, including acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin. The large presence of serotonin and dopamine in the gut are key areas of research for neurogastroenterologists.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: The enteric nervous system in humans consists of some 500 million neurons (including the various types of Dogiel cells), 0.5% of the number of neurons in the brain, five times as many as the one hundred million neurons in the human spinal cord, and about as many as in the whole nervous system of a cat. The enteric nervous system is embedded in the lining of the gastrointestinal system, beginning in the esophagus and extending down to the anus.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: The neurons of the ENS are collected into two types of ganglia: myenteric (Auerbach's) and submucosal (Meissner's) plexuses. Myenteric plexuses are located between the inner and outer layers of the muscularis externa, while submucosal plexuses are located in the submucosa.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: Auerbach's plexus, also known as the myenteric plexus, is a collection of unmyelinated fibers and postganglionic autonomic cell bodies that lie between the circular and longitudinal layers of the muscularis externa in the gastrointestinal tract. It was discovered and named by German neuropathologist Leopold Auerbach. These neurons provide motor inputs to both layers of the muscularis externa and provide both parasympathetic and sympathetic input. The anatomy of the plexus is similar to the anatomy of the central nervous system. The plexus includes sensory receptors, such as chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors, that are used to provide sensory input to the interneurons in the enteric nervous system. The plexus is the parasympathetic nucleus of origin for the vagus nerve and communicates with the medulla oblongata through both the anterior and posterior vagal nerves.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: The submucosal plexus (also known as Meissner's plexus) is found in the submucosal layer of the gastrointestinal tract. It was discovered and named by German physiologist Georg Meissner. It functions as a pathway for the innervation in the mucosa layer of the gastrointestinal wall.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: The ENS is capable of autonomous functions like the coordination of reflexes; although it receives considerable innervation from the autonomic nervous system, it can and does operate independently of the brain and the spinal cord. Its study is the focus of neurogastroenterology.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: The enteric nervous system has been described as a "second brain" for several reasons. The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. It normally communicates with the central nervous system (CNS) through the parasympathetic (e.g., via the vagus nerve) and sympathetic (e.g., via the prevertebral ganglia) nervous systems. However, vertebrate studies show that when the vagus nerve is severed, the enteric nervous system continues to function.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: In vertebrates, the enteric nervous system includes efferent neurons, afferent neurons, and interneurons, all of which make the enteric nervous system capable of carrying reflexes and acting as an integrating center in the absence of CNS input. The sensory neurons report on mechanical and chemical conditions. Through intestinal muscles, the motor neurons control peristalsis and churning of intestinal contents. Other neurons control the secretion of enzymes. The enteric nervous system also makes use of more than 30 neurotransmitters, most of which are identical to the ones found in CNS, such as acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin. More than 90% of the body's serotonin lies in the gut, as well as about 50% of the body's dopamine, which is currently being studied to further our understanding of its utility in the brain.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: The enteric nervous system has the capacity to alter its response depending on such factors as bulk and nutrient composition. In addition, the ENS contains support cells which are similar to astroglia of the brain and a diffusion barrier around the capillaries surrounding ganglia which is similar to the blood–brain barrier of cerebral blood vessels.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: Peristalsis is a series of radially symmetrical contractions and relaxations of muscles which propagate down a muscular tube. In humans and other mammals, peristalsis is found in the smooth muscles of the digestive tract to propel contents through the digestive system. The word is derived from New Latin and comes from the Greek peristallein, "to wrap around," from peri-, "around" + stallein, "to place". Peristalsis was discovered in 1899 by the work of physiologists William Bayliss and Ernest Starling. Working on the small intestines of dogs, they found that the response of increasing the pressure in the intestine caused the contraction of the muscle wall above the point of stimulation and the relaxation of the muscle wall below the point of stimulation.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: Segmentation contractions are the contractions in intestines carried out by the smooth muscle walls. Unlike peristalsis, which involves the contraction and relaxation of muscles in one direction, segmentation occurs simultaneously in both directions as the circular muscles alternatively contract. This allows for thorough mixing of intestinal contents, known as chyme, to allow greater absorption.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: The secretion of gastrointestinal hormones, such as gastrin and secretin, is regulated through cholinergic neurons residing in the walls of the digestive tract. Hormone secretion is controlled by the vagovagal reflex, where the neurons in the digestive tract communicate through both afferent and efferent pathways with the vagus nerve.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: Neurogastroenterology encompasses the study of the brain, the gut, and their interactions with relevance to the understanding and management of gastrointestinal motility and functional gastrointestinal disorders. Specifically, neurogastroenterology focuses on the functions, malfunctions, and the malformations of the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions of the digestive tract. The term also describes a medical sub-specialism of gastroenterology dedicated to the treatment of motility and functional gastrointestinal disorders.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: Functional gastrointestinal (GI) disorders are a class of gastrointestinal disorders where there is a malfunction in the normal activities of the gastrointestinal tract, but there are no structural abnormalities that can explain the cause. There are rarely any tests that can detect the presence of these disorders. Clinical research in neurogastroenterology focuses mainly on the study of common functional gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, the most common functional GI disorder.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: Motility disorders are the second classification of gastrointestinal disorder studied by neurogastroenterologists. Motility disorders are divided by what they affect, with four regions: The esophagus, the stomach, the small intestines, and the large intestines. Clinical research in neurogastroenterology focuses mainly on the study of common motility disorders such as gastroesophageal reflux disease, the damage of the mucosa of the esophagus caused by rising stomach acid through the lower esophageal sphincter.


title: Enteric nervous system

text: ENS function can be damaged by ischemia. Transplantation, previously described as a theoretical possibility, has been a clinical reality in the United States since 2011 and is regularly performed at some hospitals.


title: The Clash discography

text: The discography of the British punk rock band the Clash consists of six studio albums, two extended plays, two live albums and 31 singles.


title: The Clash discography

text: The Clash's first official recording was the single for "White Riot", released by CBS Records in March 1977. In April, CBS released their self-titled debut album, "The Clash", in the United Kingdom, but refused to release it in the United States, saying that the sound was not "radio friendly". A US version of the album with a modified track listing—four songs from the original version were replaced with five non-album singles and B-sides—was released by Epic Records in 1979, after the UK original became the best-selling import album of all time in the United States. Terry Chimes left the band for the second time soon after the recording, so only Joe Strummer, Mick Jones and Paul Simonon were featured on the album's cover, and Chimes was credited as "Tory Crimes". The album ranked number 12 on the UK Albums Chart and number 126 on the "Billboard" Pop albums chart.


title: The Clash discography

text: In the same month, the band also released an EP single, "Capital Radio", which was given away to "NME"s readers. In May, CBS released the single "Remote Control" without asking them first, and, in September, "Complete Control", produced by Lee "Scratch" Perry, was Topper Headon's first recording with the band. It rose to number 28 on the British Singles Chart.


title: The Clash discography

text: In February 1978, the band came out with the single "Clash City Rockers". June saw the release of "(White Man) In Hammersmith Palais". The Clash second album, "Give 'Em Enough Rope", was released by CBS and produced by Sandy Pearlman in November, receiving largely positive reviews. It hit number 2 in the UK, and number 128 on the "Billboard" chart. The album's first UK single, "Tommy Gun", rose to number 19.


title: The Clash discography

text: In February 1979, CBS released the single, "English Civil War", and in May the EP, "The Cost of Living". In August and September 1979, the Clash recorded their third studio album, "London Calling". Produced by Guy Stevens, the double album was a mix of different styles, with greater maturity and production polish. "London Calling", released in December 1979 by CBS and regarded as one of the greatest rock albums ever recorded, reached number 9 on the British chart and number 27 on the US chart. In the UK, "London Calling"'s title track, released a few days before the album's release, rose to number 11—the highest position any Clash single reached in the UK before the band's breakup. The album's final track, "Train in Vain"—included at the last minute and thus not appearing in the track listing on the cover—was released in the Netherlands, Germany, Spain, Brazil, New Zealand, and Australia in June 1980. The single was not released in the UK, and in the US was backed with "London Calling". It turned out to be the band's biggest US hit to date, reaching number 23 on the "Billboard" chart.


title: The Clash discography

text: In August, the band came out with another single, "Bankrobber", which reached number 12 in the UK. In October, Epic released the compilation album "Black Market Clash", only in the US. The compilation reached number 74 in the US. In the following November, CBS released the single "The Call Up", which reached number 40 in the UK. In December, CBS released the 3-LP, 36-song "Sandinista!". The album again reflected a broad range of musical styles, including extended dubs and the first forays into rap by a major rock band. Produced by the band members with the participation of Mikey Dread, "Sandinista!" was their most controversial album to date, both politically and musically. The album fared well in America, charting at number 24.


title: The Clash discography

text: During 1981, the band came out with a single, "Hitsville UK". Released in January, the single reached number 56 in the UK and number 53 on the US Mainstream Rock chart. In April, CBS released the single for the song "The Magnificent Seven" which peaked at number 34 on the UK Singles Chart in 1981, and at number 21 on the US "Billboard" Club Play Singles in 1982. In the same month, CBS released the 12-inch single "The Magnificent Dance". In November, CBS released the single, "This Is Radio Clash", which further demonstrated their ability to mix diverse influences such as dub and hip hop. It reached number 47 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: The Clash discography

text: They set to work on their fifth studio album in the fall of 1981. "Combat Rock" was originally planned to be a 2-LP set with the title "Rat Patrol from Fort Bragg", but were unable to mix it to either the group's or to CBS's satisfaction. Glyn Johns, brought in by manager Bernie Rhodes to edit and mix the album, reconceived it as a single LP and had Joe Strummer re-record several vocals. In April 1982, the band released the first single from the album, "Know Your Rights", which reached number 43 in the UK. The album contains two "US-radio friendly" singles, "Should I Stay or Should I Go" and "Rock the Casbah". "Should I Stay or Should I Go" reached number 17 in the UK and number 45 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, while "Rock the Casbah" peaked at number 17 in the UK and number 8 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The album itself was the band's most successful, hitting number 2 in the UK and number 7 in the US.


title: The Clash discography

text: After "Combat Rock" was released, Topper Headon was asked to leave the band, and then in September 1983, Mick Jones was fired. The first single from "Cut the Crap", "This Is England", was released by CBS in September 1985. It reached number 24 in the UK. "Cut the Crap", the last studio album of the band, actually composed by Strummer, Simonon, Pete Howard, Nick Sheppard, and Vince White, was produced by manager Bernard Rhodes and released by CBS in November. It reached number 16 in the UK and number 88 in the US. The Clash effectively disbanded in early 1986.


title: The Clash discography

text: In 1988, Epic released the double-disc, 28-track compilation "The Story of the Clash, Volume 1" presenting a relatively thorough overview of their career. In March 1991, a reissue of "Should I Stay or Should I Go" gave the band its first and only number 1 UK single. In the same year, CBS and Epic released the triple-disc, 64-song box set "Clash on Broadway" that covers their entire career, and the compilation album "The Singles", that includes all their singles, except for 1985's "This Is England". In 1993, Epic released "Super Black Market Clash", a compilation that contains B-sides and rare tracks not available on their other albums. In 1999, Epic released the compilation album of live material, "".


title: The Clash discography

text: "", a documentary film about the band, was released by Sony Music Entertainment in 2000, and, in 2003, it won the Grammy Award for the best long form music video. In 2003, Epic and Sony BMG released "The Essential Clash", a career-spanning greatest hits album and DVD, dedicated to Joe Strummer, who died during the production of the album. In 2004, Sony Legacy released "London Calling: 25th Anniversary Edition". It contains "The Vanilla Tapes", missing recordings made by the band in mid-1979 during the "London Calling" sessions, as a bonus disc, and a DVD featuring the making of the album, the music videos for "London Calling", "Train in Vain" and "Clampdown", and video footage of The Clash recording sessions in Wessex Studios. In 2006, Sony BMG released the box set "Singles Box" which includes all the singles that they released in the UK. In 2007, Sony BMG released "The Singles" that presents a stripped-down view of the singles of the band. In 2008, Sony Music Entertainment released "The Clash Live: Revolution Rock", produced and directed by Don Letts, it features live material and interviews from 1978 to 1983, and, in October, the live album "Live at Shea Stadium", which features the recording of the band's second night at Shea Stadium in 1982.


title: The Clash discography

text: September 2013 saw the arrival of three releases by The Clash: the 12-CD box set "Sound System", featuring the band's entire studio catalogue re-mastered (minus "Cut the Crap"), plus three extra CDs, one DVD and various other materials; "5 Album Studio Set", featuring the band's first five studio albums re-mastered; and the 2-CD, 33-song best of collection "The Clash Hits Back". All the music within the three releases had been remastered, mainly by Mick Jones, from the original tapes. "Sound System" had an enthusiastic reception, and both the 12-CD box set and the best of compilation both entered the UK Albums Chart.


title: Lamb to the Slaughter

text: "Lamb to the Slaughter" is a 1954 short story by Roald Dahl. It was initially rejected, along with four other stories, by "The New Yorker", but was published in "Harper's Magazine" in September 1953. It was adapted for an episode of "Alfred Hitchcock Presents" (AHP) that starred Barbara Bel Geddes and Harold J. Stone. Originally broadcast on April 13, 1958, this was one of only 17 "AHP" episodes directed by Hitchcock. The episode was ranked #59 of the Top 100 Episodes by "TV Guide" in 2009. The story was adapted for Dahl's British TV series "Tales of the Unexpected". Dahl included it in his short story compilation "Someone Like You". The narrative element of the housewife killing her husband and letting the policemen partake in eating the evidence was used by Pedro Almodóvar in his 1984 movie "What Have I Done to Deserve This?", with a leg of mutton.


title: Lamb to the Slaughter

text: "Lamb to the Slaughter" demonstrates Dahl's fascination with horror (with elements of black comedy), which is seen in both his adult fiction and his stories for children. The story was suggested to Dahl by his friend Ian Fleming: "Why don't you have someone murder their husband with a frozen leg of mutton which she then serves to the detectives who come to investigate the murder?"


title: Lamb to the Slaughter

text: Hitchcock presents this episode from a supermarket setting, where he is given a ticket "for blocking an aisle during the rush hour", even though he claims to have been in the slow lane. In the story proper, Patrick declares that he is leaving Mary, played by Barbara Bel Geddes, for another woman. The adaptation otherwise follows the original story, with Harold J. Stone as the police detective in charge of the investigation. At the very end of the program, because network practices of the time would not allow a murderer to get away with their crimes, Hitchcock returns to explain that Mary Maloney finally was caught after trying to bump off her second husband in the same manner. Apparently, her second husband "was the forgetful type and had forgotten to plug in the freezer", making the meat "as soft as jelly".


title: Lamb to the Slaughter

text: In 1979, the story was adapted by Robin Chapman for Roald Dahl's British television series "Tales of the Unexpected", with Susan George as Mary and Brian Blessed as the police detective in charge of the investigation of her husband's murder. This episode ends slightly differently from the original story: having finished the leg of lamb, the four police officers get up and leave the kitchen. The last of them stops and turns back, looking intently at the leg bone resting on the serving platter. He then scrapes the contents of the platter into the kitchen bin.


title: Lamb to the Slaughter

text: The 2021 Sri Lankan short film Mutton by Sri Lankan filmmaker Hasantha Dissanayake was based on the story of "Lamb to the Slaughter". It has won few international awards from few international film festivals in many countries.


title: Flag of the Dominican Republic

text: The flag of the Dominican Republic represents the Dominican Republic and, together with the coat of arms and the national anthem, has the status of a national symbol. The blue on the flag stands for liberty, the white for salvation, and the red for the blood of heroes. The civil flag follows the same design, but without the charge in the center. The flag was designed by Juan Pablo Duarte.


title: Flag of the Dominican Republic

text: As described by Article 21 of the Dominican Constitution, the flag features a centered white cross that extends to the edges and divides the flag into four rectangles; the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, and the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue. The national coat of arms, featuring a shield with the flag design and supported by a bay laurel branch (left) and a palm frond (right), is at the center of the cross. Above the shield, a blue ribbon displays the national motto "Dios, Patria, Libertad" (English: God, Homeland, Liberty). Below the shield, the words "República Dominicana" appear on a red ribbon (this red ribbon is depicted in more recent versions as having its tips pointing upward). In the center of the shield, flanked by three spears (two of them holding Dominican banners) on each side, is a Bible with a small cross above it and said to be opened to the Gospel of John, chapter 8, verse 32, which reads "Y la verdad os hará libres" (And the truth shall make you free). It is one of 28 national flags to contain overtly Christian symbols. Additionally, along with Haiti, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, and Venezuela, it is one of only seven national flags whose design incorporates a depiction of the flag itself.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: , also , , and , are Japanese emblems used to decorate and identify an individual, a family, or (more recently) an institution or business entity. While is an encompassing term that may refer to any such device, and refer specifically to emblems used to identify a family. An authoritative reference compiles Japan's 241 general categories of based on structural resemblance (a single may belong to multiple categories), with 5,116 distinct individual . However, it is well-acknowledged that there exist a number of lost or obscure .


title: Mon (emblem)

text: The devices are similar to the badges and coats of arms in European heraldic tradition, which likewise are used to identify individuals and families. are often referred to as crests in Western literature, the crest being a European heraldic device similar to the in function.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: may have originated as fabric patterns to be used on clothes in order to distinguish individuals or signify membership of a specific clan or organization. By the 12th century, sources give a clear indication that heraldry had been implemented as a distinguishing feature, especially for use in battle. It is seen on flags, tents, and equipment.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: Like European heraldry, were initially held only by aristocratic families, and were gradually adapted by commoners. On the battlefield, served as army standards, even though this usage was not universal and uniquely designed army standards were just as common as -based standards (cf. , ). were also adapted by various organizations, such as merchant and artisan guilds, temples and shrines, theater troupes and even criminal gangs. In an illiterate society, they served as useful symbols for recognition.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: Japanese traditional formal attire generally displays the of the wearer. Commoners without often used those of their patron or the organization they belonged to. In cases when none of those were available, they sometimes used one of the few which were seen as "vulgar", or invented or adapted whatever they wished, passing it on to their descendants. It was not uncommon for shops, and therefore shop-owners, to develop to identify themselves.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: Rules regulating the choice and use of were somewhat limited, though the selection of was generally determined by social customs. It was considered improper to use a that was known to be held by someone else, and offensive to use a that was held by someone of a high rank. When came into conflict, the lower-ranked person sometimes changed their to avoid offending their superior. The held by the ruling clans of Japan, such as Tokugawa's hollyhock and the Emperor's chrysanthemum , were legally protected from unauthorized usage.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: Occasionally, patron clans granted the use of their to their retainers as a reward. Similar to the granting of the patron's surnames, this was considered a very high honor. Alternatively, the patron clan may have added elements of its to that of its retainer, or chosen an entirely different for them.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: There are no set rules in the design of a . Most consist of a roundel encircling a figure of plant, animal, man-made, natural or celestial objects, all abstracted to various degrees. Religious symbols, geometric shapes and kanji were commonly used as well.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: Similar to the blazon in European heraldry, are also named by the content of the design, even though there is no set rule for such names. Unlike in European heraldry, however, this "blazon" is not prescriptive—the depiction of a does not follow the name—instead the names only serve to describe the . The pictorial depictions of the are not formalized and small variations of what is supposed to be the same can sometimes be seen, but the designs are for the most part standardized through time and tradition.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: The degree of variation tolerated differ from to as well. For example, the paulownia crest with 5-7-5 leaves is reserved for the prime minister, whereas paulownia with fewer leaves could be used by anyone. The imperial chrysanthemum also specifies 16 petals, whereas chrysanthemum with fewer petals are used by other lesser imperial family members.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: Japanese heraldry does not have a cadency or quartering system, but it is not uncommon for cadet branches of a family to choose a slightly different from the senior branch. Each princely family (Shinnōke), for example, uses a modified chrysanthemum crest as their . holders may also combine their with that of their patron, benefactor or spouse, sometimes creating increasingly complicated designs.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: Virtually all modern Japanese families have a , but unlike before the Meiji Restoration when rigid social divisions existed, play a more specialized role in everyday life. On occasions when the use of a is required, one can try to look up their families in the temple registries of their ancestral hometown or consult one of the many genealogical publications available. Many websites also offer lookup services. Professional wedding planners, undertakers and other "ritual masters" may also offer guidance on finding the proper .


title: Mon (emblem)

text: Items symbolizing family crafts, arts or professions were often chosen as a . A fan design might be chosen by a geisha, though in the present day, geisha typically wear the of their (geisha house) on their clothing when working; individual geisha districts, known as , also have their own distinctive , such as the plover crest () of Ponto-chō in Kyoto.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: A woman may still wear her maiden if she wishes and pass it on to her daughters; she does not have to adopt her husband's or father's . Flowers, trees, plants and birds are also common elements of designs.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: As in the past, modern are not regulated by law, with the exception of the Imperial Chrysanthemum, which doubles as the national emblem, and the paulownia, which is the mon of the office of prime minister and also serves as the emblem of the cabinet and government (see national seals of Japan for further information). Some local governments and associations may use a as their logo or trademark, thus enjoying its traditional protection, but otherwise are not recognized by law. One of the best known examples of a serving as a corporate logo is that of Mitsubishi, a name meaning "three lozenges" (occasionally translated as "three buffalo nuts"), which are represented as rhombuses. Another example of corporate use is the logo for the famous soy sauce maker Kikkoman, which uses the family of the founder, and finally, the logo of music instrument/equipment and motorcycle builder Yamaha, which shows three tuning forks interlocked into the shape of a capital 'Y' in reference to both their name and the origin of the company.


title: Mon (emblem)

text: Japanese are sometimes used as charges or crests in Western heraldry. They are blazoned in traditional heraldic style rather than in the Japanese style. Examples include the swastika with arrows used by Japanese ambassador Hasekura Tsunenaga, the Canadian-granted arms of the Japanese-Canadian politician David Tsubouchi, and Akihito's arms as a Knight of the Garter.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP, cyclic AMP, or 3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate) is a second messenger important in many biological processes. cAMP is a derivative of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and used for intracellular signal transduction in many different organisms, conveying the cAMP-dependent pathway.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Earl Sutherland of Vanderbilt University won a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1971 "for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones", especially epinephrine, via second messengers (such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate, cyclic AMP).


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Cyclic AMP is synthesized from ATP by adenylate cyclase located on the inner side of the plasma membrane and anchored at various locations in the interior of the cell. Adenylate cyclase is "activated" by a range of signaling molecules through the activation of adenylate cyclase stimulatory G (G)-protein-coupled receptors. Adenylate cyclase is "inhibited" by agonists of adenylate cyclase inhibitory G (G)-protein-coupled receptors. Liver adenylate cyclase responds more strongly to glucagon, and muscle adenylate cyclase responds more strongly to adrenaline.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: cAMP is a second messenger, used for intracellular signal transduction, such as transferring into cells the effects of hormones like glucagon and adrenaline, which cannot pass through the plasma membrane. It is also involved in the activation of protein kinases. In addition, cAMP binds to and regulates the function of ion channels such as the HCN channels and a few other cyclic nucleotide-binding proteins such as Epac1 and RAPGEF2.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: cAMP is associated with kinases function in several biochemical processes, including the regulation of glycogen, sugar, and lipid metabolism.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: In eukaryotes, cyclic AMP works by activating protein kinase A (PKA, or cAMP-dependent protein kinase). PKA is normally inactive as a tetrameric holoenzyme, consisting of two catalytic and two regulatory units (CR), with the regulatory units blocking the catalytic centers of the catalytic units.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Cyclic AMP binds to specific locations on the regulatory units of the protein kinase, and causes dissociation between the regulatory and catalytic subunits, thus enabling those catalytic units to phosphorylate substrate proteins.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: The active subunits catalyze the transfer of phosphate from ATP to specific serine or threonine residues of protein substrates. The phosphorylated proteins may act directly on the cell's ion channels, or may become activated or inhibited enzymes. Protein kinase A can also phosphorylate specific proteins that bind to promoter regions of DNA, causing increases in transcription. Not all protein kinases respond to cAMP. Several classes of protein kinases, including protein kinase C, are not cAMP-dependent.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Further effects mainly depend on cAMP-dependent protein kinase, which vary based on the type of cell.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Still, there are some minor PKA-independent functions of cAMP, e.g., activation of calcium channels, providing a minor pathway by which growth hormone-releasing hormone causes a release of growth hormone.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: However, the view that the majority of the effects of cAMP are controlled by PKA is an outdated one. In 1998 a family of cAMP-sensitive proteins with guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) activity was discovered. These are termed Exchange proteins activated by cAMP (Epac) and the family comprises Epac1 and Epac2. The mechanism of activation is similar to that of PKA: the GEF domain is usually masked by the N-terminal region containing the cAMP binding domain. When cAMP binds, the domain dissociates and exposes the now-active GEF domain, allowing Epac to activate small Ras-like GTPase proteins, such as Rap1.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: In the species "Dictyostelium discoideum", cAMP acts outside the cell as a secreted signal. The chemotactic aggregation of cells is organized by periodic waves of cAMP that propagate between cells over distances as large as several centimetres. The waves are the result of a regulated production and secretion of extracellular cAMP and a spontaneous biological oscillator that initiates the waves at centers of territories.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: In bacteria, the level of cAMP varies depending on the medium used for growth. In particular, cAMP is low when glucose is the carbon source. This occurs through inhibition of the cAMP-producing enzyme, adenylate cyclase, as a side-effect of glucose transport into the cell. The transcription factor cAMP receptor protein (CRP) also called CAP (catabolite gene activator protein) forms a complex with cAMP and thereby is activated to bind to DNA. CRP-cAMP increases expression of a large number of genes, including some encoding enzymes that can supply energy independent of glucose.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: cAMP, for example, is involved in the positive regulation of the lac operon. In an environment with a low glucose concentration, cAMP accumulates and binds to the allosteric site on CRP (cAMP receptor protein), a transcription activator protein. The protein assumes its active shape and binds to a specific site upstream of the lac promoter, making it easier for RNA polymerase to bind to the adjacent promoter to start transcription of the lac operon, increasing the rate of lac operon transcription. With a high glucose concentration, the cAMP concentration decreases, and the CRP disengages from the lac operon.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Since cyclic AMP is a second messenger and plays vital role in cell signalling, it has been implicated in various disorders but not restricted to the roles given below:


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Some research has suggested that a deregulation of cAMP pathways and an aberrant activation of cAMP-controlled genes is linked to the growth of some cancers.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Recent research suggests that cAMP affects the function of higher-order thinking in the prefrontal cortex through its regulation of ion channels called hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (HCN). When cAMP stimulates the HCN, the channels open, closing the brain cell to communication and thus interfering with the function of the prefrontal cortex. This research, especially the cognitive deficits in age-related illnesses and ADHD, is of interest to researchers studying the brain.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: cAMP is involved in activation of trigeminocervical system leading to neurogenic inflammation and causing migraine.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Disrupted functioning of cAMP has been noted as one of the mechanisms of several bacterial exotoxins.


title: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: Forskolin is commonly used as a tool in biochemistry to raise levels of cAMP in the study and research of cell physiology.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: James John Liautaud (born January 12, 1964) is an American restaurateur, who is widely known as the founder and former chairman of Jimmy John's sandwich chain.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In October 2018, Liautaud was included in the Forbes list of the world's wealthiest people. At this time, Forbes estimated Liautaud's documented wealth at $1.7 billion.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: Liautaud was born in Arlington Heights, Illinois on January 12, 1964. His father is James Liautaud, longtime entrepreneur, and his mother is Gina Gudaityte Liautaud. He was born the second of four siblings, with brothers Greg and Robby Liautaud and a sister Lara Liautaud Berry. He attended high school at Elgin Academy, a private prep school in Elgin, Illinois, where he became close with and was influenced by the dean, James Lyons.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: He studied at Eastern Illinois University, but left after one semester to grow his up-and-coming restaurant business.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: After Liautaud graduated from high school in 1982, his father offered him a loan of $25,000 to open a business on the condition that if the business failed, he would enlist in the US Army. Although his father wanted him to enlist, he agreed to loan the money in exchange for a 48% stake in the business. Initially Jimmy John wanted to open a hot dog stand, but after visiting numerous such stands throughout the summer of 1982, he realized the $25,000 would not be enough for such a venture. After a chance encounter at a sandwich shop, Jimmy John realized that he could open a sandwich shop within his available budget by purchasing premium meats at a neighborhood market and baking his own bread. With the help of his family as tasters, he decided to put four sandwiches on his original menu. On January 13, 1983 Jimmy John's Gourmet Sandwiches opened in Charleston, Illinois. Due to the poor location of his first store, Liautaud decided to include delivery of his sandwiches to boost sales. He began by bringing samples door-to-door to the nearby Eastern Illinois University dorms. By the end of his first year, the restaurant started making a profit. At the end of his second year, Liautaud was able to purchase his father's share in the business and he became sole owner. The business continued to grow, and he was able to open his second and third shops in 1986 and 1987.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In 1988, Liautaud met businessman Jamie Coulter. At the time, Coulter was a Pizza Hut Franchisee, and later founded and ran Lone Star Steakhouse and Saloon and other chains. Coulter helped Liautaud take his business to the next level. In 1994 he sold his first Jimmy John's franchise, in addition to the 10 stores owned by Liautaud himself.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: By 2002, the company had about 200 stores, 10% of which were corporate stores that Liautaud oversaw himself. Sales at the stores managed by Liautaud were outpacing the franchised stores by a wide margin. Together with his partner, and now President & CEO, James North, he visited 70 of the poorest-performing stores. After 18 months of getting the stores “back to basics” and instilling in them “some of that initial spark”, he was able to help the stores become more profitable.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In January 2007, Liautaud selected Weston Presidio, a private-equity firm, to help acquire better locations for the expanding company. Weston Presidio bought a 33% stake in the company, and during the first year closed on over 100 real estate deals.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In September 2016, Roark Capital Group agreed to purchase a majority stake in Liautaud's company, as Weston Presidio sold their minority investment after 10 years. Terms of the transaction were not immediately disclosed, though it was later clarified that Liautaud retained 35% ownership of the company as part of the deal. As part of the agreement, Liautaud, as the company's founder and largest individual shareholder, continued as chairman of the board.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In his 2018 book, Dick Portillo of Portillo's Restaurants called Liautaud his "good friend" and relayed that Liautaud tried to buy Portillo's before it was ultimately sold to Berkshire Partners.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In September 2019, Roark's Inspire Brands announced it was acquiring Jimmy John's for an unspecified amount in a deal unanimously approved by Liautaud and the rest of the Jimmy John's Board of Directors. At the close of the deal, Liautaud said that he will step down as chairman of the company and transition to become an advisor to the brand. The acquisition was completed on October 18.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In 2008, Liautaud donated $1 million to his high school, Elgin Academy, on the condition that the building constructed using his donation bear not only his name, but also the name of the man who had been the dean of the school when Liautaud attended: James Lyons.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In 2011, Liautaud and his wife pledged $1 million toward the construction of the new Champaign County YMCA.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In July 2014, Liautaud donated $1 million to the Folds of Honor Foundation, an organization that supports the spouses and children of America's fallen and disabled service-members.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In 2017, Liautaud and his wife, Leslie, donated $2 million to help Brewster Academy kick off the fundraising for their new residence hall to house 22 students and 4 faculty residences. In May 2018, the new residence opened, and is called "Toad Hall" after a common mispronunciation of the family's last name.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In January 2019, Camp Southern Ground, a non-profit summer camp founded by musician Zac Brown, announced that the Liautauds had donated over $3.2 million to date to help build the camp's first residential lodge and fund ongoing operations. In non-summer months, the camp's facilities are used to support military veterans and their families transitioning back to civilian life.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: The Liautaud Family Foundation directed $1.291 million to the Horatio Alger Association to support scholarships for underprivileged students in 2019.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: Liautaud partnered with his father to create with an endowment gift of $5 million, the Liautaud Graduate School of Business at the University of Illinois-Chicago.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: The Liautauds donated $1 million to Chicago's Youth Guidance Becoming a Man program, which helps disadvantaged young men learn how to handle tough life challenges and give them the tools to succeed in the future.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: Other causes supported by the Liautauds include: the Frances Nelson Smile Healthy Dental Clinic, the Kickapoo Rail Trail, Crisis Nursery in Urbana, Illinois, Champaign County's Youth Assessment Center, Champaign Unit 4 schools, Christmas layaway purchases, the American Heart Association, the Mayo Clinic Center for Individualized Medicine, MD Anderson, the Pancreatic Cancer Action Network, the Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, the Goodman Theater, and the Detroit Symphony.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: Liautaud is a member of the University of Illinois at Chicago's Chicago Area Entrepreneurship Hall of Fame.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In 2004, he was named the Ernst & Young Food & Beverage Entrepreneur of the Year in Illinois. The winners were selected by an independent panel of judges composed of local community and business leaders. In the same year, he was given the Lifetime Achievement Award at the National CEO Conference and inducted into the Collegiate Entrepreneurs' Organization Hall of Fame.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In 2007, Liautaud delivered the commencement speech at his alma mater, now known as the Liautaud-Lyons Upper School, a program of Elgin Academy.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In 2012, Liautaud was awarded the Nation's Restaurant News Golden Chain award for outstanding accomplishments that have benefited consumers in the food industry.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: In March 2017, he was named Franchise Times' "Dealmaker of the Year" for the deal that brought Roark Capital Group in as the company's new majority owner. Beth Ewen, FT's editor-in-chief called the deal "one of the best private equity deals of all time in the restaurant business." In December of that year, Liautaud was chosen to receive the Horatio Alger Award for 2018. The Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans recognizes people who have overcome personal challenges to achieve personal and professional success.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: Liautaud is an avid hunter and fisherman. In an interview in 2015 with the "Chicago Tribune", Liautaud said that the largest misconception about him is that people still connect him to photos of him posing with big game from 10 years ago. According to Liautaud, he used to hunt big game in Africa on legally organized safaris, but he no longer does. Starting in 2015, his hunting prompted people to call for a boycott of his business.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: Liautaud is married to Leslie Liautaud and has three children, Spencer, Lucy, and Fred. Liautaud is an investor in wines and vineyards, at least one of which has been featured on the cover of "Wine Spectator". He also owns thousands of acres of farmland in Central Illinois.


title: Jimmy John Liautaud

text: Liautaud also owns a superyacht named ROCK.IT, a 198-foot ship built with his input by Feadship in 2014. The ship, which can accommodate ten guests with a crew of 13, has been a finalist for a few yacht awards and been featured in a number of industry publications.


title: Silver Slugger Award

text: The Silver Slugger Award has been awarded annually since 1980 to the best offensive player at each position in both the American League and the National League, as determined by the coaches and managers of Major League Baseball.


title: Silver Slugger Award

text: These voters consider several offensive statistics, including batting average, slugging percentage, and on-base percentage, as well as their "general impressions of a player's overall offensive value". They are not permitted to vote for players on their team.


title: Silver Slugger Award

text: The award is a bat-shaped trophy, 3 feet (91 cm) tall, engraved with the names of each of the winners from the league and plated with sterling silver. It is given by Hillerich & Bradsby, the manufacturer of Louisville Slugger bats.


title: Silver Slugger Award

text: Ten Silver Slugger Awards are given each year per league. One each goes to a catcher, first baseman, second baseman, third baseman, and shortstop. Three outfielders receive the award, irrespective of their specific position; for instance, three left fielders could win the award in a given year. One award goes to a designated hitter (a player who bats in place of the pitcher) and one to a utility player (a player who can play multiple fielding positions).


title: Silver Slugger Award

text: Pitchers in the National League received a Silver Slugger Award each year until 2019 and in 2021. In the COVID-shortened season, the MLB required National League teams to use a designated hitter, so an NL DH received a Silver Slugger Award for the first time. In 2022, MLB began to require both leagues to use the DH. That year also saw the introduction of the utility player award.


title: Silver Slugger Award

text: Home run record-holder Barry Bonds won 12 Silver Slugger Awards, the most of any player, and won the award in five consecutive seasons twice: from 1990 to 1994, and again from 2000 to 2004. Mike Piazza and Alex Rodriguez are tied for second, with ten each. Rodriguez won seven Silver Sluggers as a shortstop for the Seattle Mariners and Texas Rangers, and three with the Yankees as a third baseman. Wade Boggs leads third basemen with eight awards; Barry Larkin leads shortstops with nine. Other leaders include Ryne Sandberg (seven wins as a second baseman), Mike Hampton (five wins as a pitcher), and Paul Goldschmidt (five wins as a first baseman). David Ortiz has won seven awards as a designated hitter, the most at that position. In 2018, J. D. Martinez collected two Silver Slugger Awards: one as a designated hitter and the other as an outfielder, becoming the only player to win twice in one year. In 2021, Max Fried became the final pitcher to win a Silver Slugger Award.


title: Silver Slugger Award

text: (^) = A universal designated hitter rule was implemented temporarily during the MLB season and was fully implemented starting in ; the National League awarded its first Silver Slugger for DH in 2020. No award for pitchers was given.


title: Inedia

text: Inedia (Latin for 'fasting') or breatharianism () is the claimed ability for a person to live without consuming food, and in some cases water. It is a deadly pseudoscience and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation or dehydration. Multiple cases where this practice was attempted have resulted in failure or death.


title: Inedia

text: Breatharians claim that food (and sometimes water) is not necessary for survival, and that humans can be sustained solely by "prana", the vital life force in Hinduism. According to Ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of prana, and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone. The terms "breatharianism" or "inedia" may also be used when it is practiced as a lifestyle in place of a usual diet.


title: Inedia

text: Documented studies on the physiological effects of food restriction clearly show that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death. In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle. Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting.


title: Inedia

text: Some breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of Indian mystic Prahlad Jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days. However, the hospital Jani attended has not published official documentation about the event. In other cases, people have attempted to survive on sunlight alone, only to abandon the effort after losing a large percentage of their body weight.


title: Inedia

text: In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died. Scientific societies such as the British Dietetic Association strongly disadvise the breatharian diet, qualifying it as "dangerous", and stating that "the basic fact is we all need food and liquid in our diet to live."


title: Inedia

text: The 1670 Rosicrucian text "Comte de Gabalis" attributed the practice to the physician and occultist Paracelsus (1493–1541) who was described as having lived "several years by taking only one half scrupule of Solar Quintessence". In this book, it is also stated that "Paracelsus affirms that He has seen many of the Sages fast twenty years without eating anything whatsoever."


title: Inedia

text: Ram Bahadur Bomjon is a Nepalese Buddhist monk who lives as an ascetic in a remote area of Nepal. Bomjon appears to go for long periods of time without ingesting either food or water. One such period was chronicled in a 2006 Discovery Channel documentary titled "The Boy With Divine Powers", which reported that Bomjon neither moved, ate, nor drank anything during 96 hours of filming. The documentary makers were, however, prevented from filming Bomjon continuously for that period of time. His claims have never been objectively verified. Bomjon has attracted controversy for abuse and violence against his followers and against any who investigate him. He has been accused of rape, kidnapping, and physical violence.


title: Inedia

text: Prahlad Jani was an Indian sadhu who claimed to have lived without food and water for more than 70 years. His claims were investigated by doctors at Sterling Hospital, Ahmedabad, Gujarat in 2003 and 2010. The study concluded that Prahlad Jani was able to survive under observation for two weeks without either food or water, and had passed no urine or stool, with no need for dialysis. Interviews with the researchers speak of strict observation and relate that round-the-clock observation was ensured by multiple CCTV cameras. Jani was subjected to multiple medical tests. The research team could not comment on his claim of having been able to survive in this way for decades.


title: Inedia

text: The case has attracted criticism, both after the 2003 tests and the 2010 tests. Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, criticized the 2010 experiment for allowing Jani to move out of a certain CCTV camera's field of view, meet devotees, and leave the sealed test room to sunbathe. Edamaruku stated that the regular gargling and bathing activities were not sufficiently monitored, and accused Jani of having had some "influential protectors" who denied Edamaruku permission to inspect the project during its operation.


title: Inedia

text: Jasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was a prominent advocate of breatharianism in the 1990s. She said "I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea. My body runs on a different kind of nourishment." Interviewers found her house stocked with food; Jasmuheen claimed the food was for her husband and daughter. In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program "60 Minutes" for one week without eating, to demonstrate her methods. Jasmuheen stated that she found it difficult on the third day of the test because the hotel room in which she was confined was located near a busy road, causing stress and pollution that prevented absorption of required nutrients from the air. "I asked for fresh air. Seventy percent of my nutrients come from fresh air. I couldn’t even breathe," she said. The third day, the test was moved to a mountainside retreat, where her condition continued to deteriorate. After Jasmuheen had fasted for four days, Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test.


title: Inedia

text: According to Wink, Jasmuheen's pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, and she was "quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%". Towards the end of the test, she said, "Her pulse is about double what it was when she started. The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure. "60 Minutes" would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue. She should stop now." The test was stopped. Wink said, "Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health." Jasmuheen challenged the results of the program, saying, "Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem."


title: Inedia

text: Jasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 ("presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle"). She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for "Living on Light". Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and "more recent channelled material" from St. Germain. She stated that some people's DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to "absorb more hydrogen". When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance as she was not referring to herself.


title: Inedia

text: , five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism as a result of Jasmuheen's publications. Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for the deaths.


title: Inedia

text: Wiley Brooks (1936–2016) was the founder of the Breatharian Institute of America. He was first introduced to the public in 1980 when he appeared on the TV show "That's Incredible!" Brooks stopped teaching shortly before his death in 2016 to "devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely". Brooks claims to have found "four major deterrents" which prevented him from living without food: "people pollution", "food pollution", "air pollution", and "electro pollution".


title: Inedia

text: In 1983 he was reportedly observed leaving a Santa Cruz 7-Eleven with a Slurpee, a hot dog, and Twinkies. He told "Colors" magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance.


title: Inedia

text: Wiley Brooks later claimed that Diet Coke and McDonald's cheeseburgers have special "5D" properties. The idea of separate but interconnected 5D and 3D worlds is a major part of Wiley Brooks' ideology, and Wiley Brooks encourages his followers to only eat these special 5D foods, as well as to meditate on a set of magical 5D words.


title: Inedia

text: Brooks's institute has set various prices for prospective clients wishing to learn how to live without food, ranging from US$100,000 with an initial deposit of $10,000, to fifty billion dollars, to be paid via bank wire transfer with a preliminary deposit of $100,000, for a session called an "Immortality workshop". A payment plan was also offered. These charges were typically presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires.


title: Inedia

text: Hira Ratan Manek (1937–2022) claims that since 18 June 1995, he has lived on water and occasionally tea, coffee, and buttermilk. Manek states that sungazing is the key to his health, citing yogis, ancient Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayans, and Native Americans as practitioners of the art. While he and his proponents state that medical experts have confirmed his ability to draw sustenance by gazing at the Sun, he was caught on camera eating a big meal in a San Francisco restaurant in the 2011 documentary "Eat the Sun".


title: Inedia

text: In a television documentary produced by the Israeli television investigative show "The Real Face" (פנים אמיתיות), hosted by Amnon Levy, Israeli practitioner of inedia Ray Maor (ריי מאור) appeared to survive without food or water for eight days and eight nights. According to the documentary, he was restricted to a small villa and placed under constant video surveillance, with medical supervision that included daily blood testing. The documentary claimed Maor was in good spirits throughout the experiment; that he lost after eight days; that blood tests showed no change before, during or after the experiment; and that cardiologist Ilan Kitsis from Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center was "baffled".


title: Inedia

text: Some Hindu religious texts contain accounts of saints and hermits practicing what would be called inedia, breatharianism or Sustenance through Light in modern terms. In Valmiki's "Ramayana", Book III, Canto VI, an account of anchorites and holy men is given, who flocked around Rama when he came to Śarabhanga's hermitage. These included, among others, the "...saints who live on rays which moon and daystar give" and "those ... whose food the wave of air supplies". In Canto XI of the same book a hermit named Māṇḍakarṇi is mentioned: "For he, great votarist, intent – On strictest rule his stern life spent – ... – Ten thousand years on air he fed..." (English quotations are from Ralph T. H. Griffith's translation).


title: Inedia

text: Paramahansa Yogananda's 1946 book "Autobiography of a Yogi" details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Hari Giri Bala and Therese Neumann.


title: Inedia

text: Bigu (grain avoidance) is a fasting technique with various different interpretations, from simply avoiding eating specific grains, to avoiding all grains, to eating no food at all, and drawing sustenance from gulps of air.


title: Inedia

text: There are varying types of fasts practised by followers of Jainism. Some Jain monks and laities continuously fast for months. These fasts last six months or even longer. A Jain monk Sahaj Muni Maharaj is said to have completed his 365-day fast on 1 May 1998. Another Jain monk Hansaratna Vijayji was said to have completed 423-day fast in 494 days in 2015. He had previously claimed to have fasted for 108 days in 2013 and for 180 days in 2014. Several others have claimed to have fasted for six months.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: Sayeeda Hussain Warsi, Baroness Warsi, (; born 28 March 1971) is a British lawyer, politician, and member of the House of Lords who served as co-Chairwoman of the Conservative Party from 2010 to 2012. She served in the Cameron–Clegg coalition, first as the Minister without portfolio between 2010 and 2012, then as the Minister of State for the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (styled as "Senior Minister of State") and as the Minister of State for Faith and Communities, until her resignation citing her disagreement with the Government's policy relating to the Israel–Gaza conflict in August 2014.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: Warsi grew up in a family of Pakistani Muslim immigrants living in West Yorkshire. She became a solicitor with the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS). In 2004, she left the CPS to stand, unsuccessfully, for election to the House of Commons.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: After being raised to the peerage in 2007, Warsi served as Shadow Minister for Community Cohesion and Social Action. She became the first Muslim to serve as a Cabinet Minister.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: Warsi is the second of five daughters born in Dewsbury, West Riding of Yorkshire to Pakistani immigrants from Bewal, Gujar Khan; her ancestors are from southern Punjab. Her father, Safdar Hussain, is owner of a bed manufacturing company, with a turnover of £2 million a year, who started life as a mill worker and a bus driver. Warsi has said that her father's success led her to adopting Conservative principles.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: Warsi was educated at Birkdale High School, Dewsbury College (now Kirklees College), and the University of Leeds. She attended the College of Law, York (now the University of Law), and completed her professional legal training thereafter with both the Crown Prosecution Service and the Home Office Immigration Department. After qualifying as a solicitor in 1996, she worked for the Conservative MP for Dewsbury, John Whitfield, at Whitfield Hallam Goodall Solicitors, and then set up a practice in Dewsbury.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: Warsi was the Conservative parliamentary candidate for Dewsbury at the 2005 general election, having been added to the Conservative Party A-List for priority candidates, and thereby becoming the first Muslim woman to be selected by the Conservatives.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: Although she was unsuccessful in her 2005 election bid, she served as a Special Adviser to Michael Howard for Community Relations, and was appointed by David Cameron as Vice Chair of the Conservative Party with specific responsibility for cities.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: On 2 July 2007, Warsi was appointed Shadow Minister for Community Cohesion. To enable her to fulfil this post, she was created a life peer as Baroness Warsi, of Dewsbury in the County of West Yorkshire, on 11 October 2007 and was introduced in the House of Lords on 15 October 2007. On joining the House of Lords, she became its youngest member.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: On 1 December 2007, Warsi travelled to Khartoum, with the Labour peer Lord Ahmed, to mediate in the Sudanese teddy bear blasphemy case (a British citizen teaching at Unity High School had been prosecuted and jailed for insulting Islam after allowing her class to name a teddy bear Muhammad). Although the peers' meeting with Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir did not lead directly to Gillian Gibbons being pardoned, it is acknowledged that, along with the enormous efforts made by her family, friends, and others, it was a helpful contribution to her release. Gibbons' son thanked Warsi and Ahmed for "their hard work behind the scenes" and the Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, praised both peers, saying "I applaud the particular efforts of Lord Ahmed and Baroness Warsi in securing her freedom." "The Guardian" newspaper referred to the incident as "Tory Peer's Triumph".


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: On 12 May 2010, David Cameron appointed Warsi as Minister without Portfolio in Cabinet, when she succeeded Eric Pickles as Chairman of the Conservative Party. This appointment made Warsi the first Muslim woman to serve in the Cabinet. Warsi was sworn into the Privy Council the next day.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: Ahead of David Cameron's first Cabinet reshuffle in 2012, Warsi told "The Daily Telegraph": "If I genuinely had a choice, I would like to stay doing what I'm doing." Speaking in Tampa Bay, Florida, where she had been attending the United States' Republican Party Convention, Warsi said the Prime Minister knew her strengths and weaknesses. She said the Party needed more votes from people in urban areas and more women. She said: "If you look at the demographics, at where we need to be at the next election, we need more people in the North voting for us, more of what they call here blue collar workers and I call the white working class. We need more people from urban areas voting for us, more people who are not white and more women. I play that back and think, I'm a woman, I'm not white, I'm from an urban area, I'm from the North, I'm working class—I kind of fit the bill. All the groups that we're aiming for are groups that I'm familiar with. I believe you've got to have the right people in the right job," she added.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: In the same interview, she said that she was angry some viewed hers "as a tokenistic appointment". Lord Ashcroft found "at the 2010 election, only 16% of ethnic minority voters supported the Conservatives. More than two thirds voted Labour. Not being white was the single best predictor that somebody would not vote Conservative. The gulf between the Conservative Party and ethnic minorities is a well-known feature of British politics. It persists in spite of the Tories' efforts in recent years to reach beyond their core voters." In the event, on 4 September 2012, Warsi was appointed to the restyled post of "Senior Minister of State" in the Foreign Office and Minister for Faith and Communities in the Department of Communities and Local Government (a role created specifically for her in a ministry she had shadowed in Opposition). Warsi announced she had been removed as Party Chairman via Twitter, tweeting, "It's been a privilege and an honour to serve my party as co-chairman, signing off @ToryChairman".


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: At the Department for Communities and Local Government Lady Warsi worked with religious and community leaders to promote faith, religious tolerance and stronger communities within the UK.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: She said that the industry is worth around $1.85 trillion (£1.15 trillion) globally, with growth rates of up to 15 percent each year. She argued "with billions of pounds in reported assets, and with the world's financial capital, the UK is an increasingly important global player in the Islamic finance". Iconic buildings like London's Shard have been given life with the help of Islamic finance, and London is home to a growing number of banks, law firms and other service providers with expertise in the sector.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: Added to this she argued "is Britain’s wider business offer. From our legal system and regulatory framework to our time-zone and track record of innovation, the UK is rightly seen as a partner of choice". She said the Government was determined to play its part in the development of the Islamic finance market. This is why the Prime Minister announced that we want to become the first country outside the Islamic world to issue an Islamic bond, a sukuk. She argues Britain is "a first class destination for trade and investment" and she is determined to "cement Britain's position as the leading player for Islamic finance". At the World Islamic Economic Forum, the UK Government announced that Warsi would chair a new Global Islamic Finance and Investment Group.


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: In a public speech at Washington D.C. in 2013, Warsi stated, "there are parts of the world today where to be a Christian is to put your life in danger. From continent to continent, Christians are facing discrimination, ostracism, torture, even murder, simply for the faith they follow."


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: Declaring it a "global crisis", Warsi made the case for an international response, calling for a "cross-faith, cross-continent unity on this issue – for a response which isn't itself sectarian. Because a bomb going off in a Pakistani church shouldn't just reverberate through Christian communities; it should stir the world."


title: Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi

text: The gay rights organisation Stonewall, as well as several Labour politicians, questioned her suitability for a high-profile Conservative Party role owing to leaflets issued during her 2005 election campaign that contained views which they claimed were homophobic. Some of her 2005 campaign leaflets claimed that Labour's lowering of the homosexual age of consent from 18 to 16, under the Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000, was "allowing schoolchildren to be propositioned for homosexual relationships", and that homosexuality was being "peddled" to children as young as seven in schools.