title: Limited-slip differential

text: Automotive limited-slip differentials have some type of mechanism that applies a torque (internal to the differential) that resists the relative motion of the output shafts. In simple terms, this means they have some mechanism which resists a speed difference between the outputs, by creating a resisting torque between either the two outputs, or the outputs and the differential housing. There are many mechanisms used to create this resisting torque. Types of limited-slip differential typically are named from the type of the resisting mechanism. Examples include viscous and clutch-based LSDs. The amount of limiting torque provided by these mechanisms varies by design.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: A limited-slip differential has a more complex torque-split and should be considered in the case when the outputs are spinning the same speed and when spinning at different speeds. The torque difference between the two axles is called "Trq". (In this work it is called "Trq" for torque friction). "Trq" is the difference in torque delivered to the left and right wheel. The magnitude of "Trq" comes from the slip-limiting mechanism in the differential and may be a function of input torque (as in the case of a gear differential), or the difference in the output speeds (as in the case of a viscous differential).


title: Limited-slip differential

text: When traveling in a straight line, where one wheel starts to slip (and spin faster than the wheel with traction), torque is reduced to the slipping wheel ("Trq") and provided to the slower wheel ("Trq").


title: Limited-slip differential

text: In the case when the vehicle is turning and neither wheel is slipping, the inside wheel will be turning slower than the outside wheel. In this case the inside wheel will receive more torque than the outside wheel, which can result in understeer.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: This means the maximum torque to either wheel is statically indeterminate but is in the range of "½ Trq ±( ½ Trq )".


title: Limited-slip differential

text: In this differential the maximum torque difference between the two outputs, "Trq", is a fixed value at all times regardless of torque input to the differential or speed difference between the two outputs. Typically this differential used spring-loaded clutch assemblies.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: These limited-slip differentials use helical gears, clutches or cones (an alternative type of clutch) where the engagement force of the gears or clutch is a function of the input torque applied to the differential (as the engine applies more torque the gears or clutches grip harder and "Trq" increases).


title: Limited-slip differential

text: Torque sensing LSDs respond to driveshaft torque, so that the more driveshaft input torque present, the harder the clutches, cones or gears are pressed together, and thus the more closely the drive wheels are coupled to each other. Some include spring loading to provide some small torque so that with little or no input torque (trailing throttle/gearbox in neutral/main clutch depressed) the drive wheels are minimally coupled. The amount of preload (hence static coupling) on the clutches or cones is affected by the general condition (wear) and by how tightly they are loaded.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: The clutch type has a stack of thin clutch-discs, half of which are coupled to one of the drive shafts, the other half of which are coupled to the spider gear carrier. The clutch stacks may be present on both drive shafts, or on only one. If on only one, the remaining drive shaft is linked to the clutched drive shaft through the spider gears. In a cone type the clutches are replaced by a pair of cones which are pressed together achieving the same effect.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: One method for creating the clamping force is the use of a cam-ramp assembly such as used in a Salisbury/ramp style LSD. The spider gears mount on the pinion cross shaft which rests in angled cutouts forming cammed ramps. The cammed ramps are not necessarily symmetrical. If the ramps are symmetrical, the LSD is 2 way. If they are saw toothed (i.e. one side of the ramp is vertical), the LSD is 1 way. If both sides are sloped, but are asymmetric, the LSD is 1.5 way. (See the discussion of 2, 1.5 and 1 way below)


title: Limited-slip differential

text: An alternative is to use the natural separation force of the gear teeth to load the clutch. An example is the center differential of the 2011 Audi Quattro RS 5.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: As the input torque of the driveshaft tries to turn the differential center, internal pressure rings (adjoining the clutch stack) are forced sideways by the pinion cross shaft trying to climb the ramp, which compresses the clutch stack. The more the clutch stack is compressed, the more coupled the wheels are. The mating of the vertical ramp (80–85° in practice to avoid chipping) surfaces in a one-way LSD on overrun produces no cam effect or corresponding clutch stack compression.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: Broadly speaking, there are three input torque states: load, no load, and over run. During load conditions, as previously stated, the coupling is proportional to the input torque. With no load, the coupling is reduced to the static coupling. The behavior on over run (particularly sudden throttle release) determines whether the LSD is 1 way, 1.5 way, or 2 way.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: A 2-way differential will have the same limiting torque "Trq" in both the forward and reverse directions. This means the differential will provide some level of limiting action under engine braking.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: A 1-way differential will provide its limiting action in only one direction. When torque is applied in the opposite direction it behaves like an open differential. In the case of a FWD car it is argued to be safer than a 2-way differential. The argument is if there is no additional coupling on over run, i.e. a 1-way LSD as soon as the driver lifts the throttle, the LSD unlocks and behaves somewhat like a conventional open differential. This is also the best for FWD cars, as it allows the car to turn in on throttle release, instead of ploughing forward.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: A 1.5-way differential refers to one where the forward and reverse limiting torques, "Trq", are different but neither is zero as in the case of the 1-way LSD. This type of differential is common in racing cars where a strong limiting torque can aid stability under engine braking.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: Geared, "torque-sensitive" mechanical limited-slip differentials use worm gears and spur gears to distribute and differentiate input power between two drive wheels or front and back axles. This is a completely separate design from the most common beveled spider gear designs seen in most automotive applications. As torque is applied to the gears, they are pushed against the walls of the differential housing, creating friction. The friction resists the relative movement of the outputs and creates the limiting torque "Trq".


title: Limited-slip differential

text: Unlike other friction-based LSD designs that combine a common spider gear "open" differential in combination with friction materials that inhibit differentiation, the torque sensing design is a unique type of differential, with torque bias inherent in its design, not as an add-on. Torque bias is only applied when needed, and does not inhibit differentiation. The result is a true differential that does not bind up like LSD and locking types, but still gives increased power delivery under many road conditions.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: Speed-sensitive differentials limit the torque difference between the outputs, "Trq", based on the difference in speed between the two output shafts. Thus for small output speed differences the differential’s behavior may be very close to an open differential. As the speed difference increases, the limiting torque increases. This results in different dynamic behavior as compared to a torque sensitive differential.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: The "viscous type" is generally simpler because it relies on hydrodynamic friction from fluids with high viscosity. Silicone-based oils are often used. Here, a cylindrical chamber of fluid filled with a stack of perforated discs rotates with the normal motion of the output shafts. The inside surface of the chamber is coupled to one of the driveshafts, and the outside coupled to the differential carrier. Half of the discs are connected to the inner, the other half to the outer, alternating inner/outer in the stack. Differential motion forces the interleaved discs to move through the fluid against each other. In some viscous couplings when speed is maintained the fluid will accumulate heat due to friction. This heat will cause the fluid to expand, and expand the coupler causing the discs to be pulled together resulting in a non-viscous plate to plate friction and a dramatic drop in speed difference. This is known as the hump phenomenon and it allows the side of the coupler to gently lock. In contrast to the mechanical type, the limiting action is much softer and more proportional to the slip, and so is easier to cope with for the average driver. New Process Gear used a viscous coupling of the Ferguson style in several of their transfer cases including those used in the AMC Eagle.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: Viscous LSDs are less efficient than mechanical types, that is, they "lose" some power. In particular, any sustained load which overheats the silicone results in sudden permanent loss of the differential effect. They do have the virtue of failing gracefully, reverting to semi-open differential behavior. Typically a visco-differential that has covered or more will be functioning largely as an open differential. The silicone oil is factory sealed in a separate chamber from the gear oil surrounding the rest of the differential. This is not serviceable; when the differential's behavior deteriorates, the VLSD center must be replaced.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: This style limited-slip differential works by using a gerotor pump to hydraulically compress a clutch to transfer torque to the wheel that is rotating slower. The gerotor pump uses the differential carrier or cage to drive the outer rotor of the pump and one axle shaft to drive the inner rotor. When there is a difference between the left and right wheels' speed, the pump pressurizes the hydraulic fluid causing the clutch to compress, thereby causing the torque to be transferred to the wheel that is rotating slower. These pump-based systems have lower and upper limits on applied pressure which allows the differential to work like a conventional or open differential until there is a significant speed difference between the right and left wheel, and internal damping to avoid hysteresis. The newest gerotor pump based system has computer regulated output for more versatility and no oscillation.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: An electronic limited-slip differential will typically have a planetary or bevel gear set similar to that of an open differential and a clutch pack similar to that in a torque sensitive or gerotor pump based differential. In the electronic unit the clamping force on the clutch is controlled externally by a computer or other controller. This allows the control of the differential’s limiting torque, "Trq", to be controlled as part of a total chassis management system. An example of this type of differential is Subaru’s DCCD used in the Subaru WRX STi. The Jeep Quadra-Drive II four-wheel-drive system produced beginning in 2005 utilizes this type of differential. Another example is the Porsche PSD system used on the Porsche 928. An additional example is the SAAB XWD (Haldex Generation 4) with eLSD, which uses a common (electronically controlled via the vehicle computer network) hydraulic power pack to control both the longitudinal and transversal torque transfer of the XWD system. The same Haldex system is used on several other GM Epsilon based vehicles such as the Cadillac SRX etc.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: These systems are alternatives to a traditional limited-slip differential. The systems harness various chassis sensors such as speed sensors, anti-lock braking system (ABS) sensors, accelerometers, and microcomputers to electronically monitor wheel slip and vehicle motion. When the chassis control system determines a wheel is slipping, the computer applies the brakes to that wheel. A significant difference between the limited-slip differential systems listed above and this brake-based system, is that brake-based systems do not inherently send the greater torque to the slower wheel, plus the added brake friction material wear that results from the use of such a system if the vehicle is driven in an environment where the brake-based system will activate on a regular basis.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: BMW's electronic limited-slip differential used on the F10 5 Series is an example of such a system. Another example began on the first year (1992) production of the re-styled, and new 4.6L V-8 overhead cam Ford Crown Victoria model with its optional anti-lock brakes. This option was available on the 1992 Crown Victoria, onward; on those cars equipped with anti-lock brakes.


title: Limited-slip differential

text: In The Beach Boys' song "409", the lyrics mention the presence of a limited-slip differential: "...My four-speed, dual-quad, Positraction 4-0-9 (4-0-9, 4-0-9)."


title: Limited-slip differential

text: In the 1992 film "My Cousin Vinny", the proof of innocence of two young men falsely accused of murder relies heavily on a photograph of tire marks made by a car which has a limited-slip differential, which (as Marisa Tomei's character famously declares in an Oscar-winning performance) "was not available on the '64 Buick Skylark," the car driven by the defendants. She argues that the evidence proves, rather, that the getaway car was a 1963 Pontiac Tempest, which did offer an optional Safe-T-Track (Pontiac's version of Positraction) limited-slip differential.


title: National Service Scheme

text: The National Service Scheme (NSS) is an Indian government sector public service program conducted by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports of the Government of India. Popularly known as NSS, the scheme was launched in Gandhiji's Centenary year in 1969. Aimed at developing student's personality through community service, NSS is a voluntary association of young people in Colleges, Universities and at +2 level working for a campus-community (esp. Villages) linkage.


title: National Service Scheme

text: After independence the University Grants Commission, headed by S. Radhakrishnan, recommended the introduction of voluntary national service in academic institutions. This idea was again considered by the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) at its meeting in January, 1950; after examining the idea and the experiences of other countries in this field, the board recommended that students and teachers should devote time to voluntary manual work. In the draft, the first Five-Year Plan adopted by the government in 1952 and the need for social and labour service by Indian students for one year was stressed. In 1958 Jawaharlal Nehru, in a letter to the chief ministers, considered the idea of social service as a prerequisite for graduation. He directed the Ministry of Education to formulate a suitable scheme for the introduction of national service into academic institutions.


title: National Service Scheme

text: In May 1969, a conference of student representatives (of universities and institutions of higher education) convened by the Ministry of Education and the University Grants Commission also unanimously agreed that a national-service scheme could be an instrument for national integration. The Planning Commission sanctioned an outlay of ₹5 crores for the NSS during the Fourth Five-Year Plan, stipulating that the NSS be a pilot project in selected institutions and universities. On 24 September 1969, the then Union Education Minister Shri.V.K.R.V. Rao launched the NSS at 37 universities in several states of India. The scheme has been extended to all states and universities in the country, and also +2 level institutes in many states. The then Minister attached to PM of India legendary Smt. Nandini Satpathy had a strong hand in the conceptualisation as well as in the launch of NSS.


title: National Service Scheme

text: The symbol for the NSS has been based on the giant Rath Wheel of the world-famous Konark Sun Temple (The Black Pagoda) situated in Odisha, India. The wheel portrays the cycle of creation, preservation and release. It signifies the movement in life across time and space, the symbol thus stands for continuity as well as change and implies the continuous striving of NSS for social change. The eight bars in the wheel represents 24 hours of a day. The red colour indicates that the volunteer is full of young blood that is lively, active, energetic and full of high spirit. The navy blue colour indicates the cosmos of which the NSS is tiny part, ready to contribute its share for the welfare of the mankind. It stands for continuity as well as change and implies the continuous striving of NSS.


title: National Service Scheme

text: The programme aims to instilling the idea of social welfare in students, and to provide service to society without bias. NSS volunteers work to ensure that everyone who is needy gets help to enhance their standard of living and lead a life of dignity. In doing so, volunteers learn from people in villages how to lead a good life despite a scarcity of resources. it also provides help in natural and man-made disasters by providing food, clothing and first aid to the disaster's victims.


title: National Service Scheme

text: At National level Headquarters,the Directorate of NSS, New Delhi is the Nodal Authority of the NSS Scheme and covers 28 States and 8 UTs across the country. The 15 Regional Directorates are the nodal authority in the regions, which works with state-level NSS cells, within states each university has University level NSS cell under which institutions (schools and colleges) based NSS units operate. Most government and government-aided institutions have volunteer NSS units. Institutions are encouraged to have NSS volunteers. A unit typically comprises 20–40 students (it can be more base on the capacity of institution). They are managed internally by a responsible party from the school or college, who reports to the NSS coordinator. Most institutions do not have a separate uniform for NSS volunteers as one of the great and dedicated toward welfare of India Captain.


title: National Service Scheme

text: There are two types of activities: Regular Activities(120 hours) and Annual Special Camp(120 hours). All the NSS Volunteers who have served NSS for at least 2 years and have performed 240 hours of work under NSS are entitled to a certificate from the university under the signature of the Vice-Chancellor and the Programme Coordinator.


title: National Service Scheme

text: The Annual camps are known as Special Camps. Camps are held annually, funded by the government of India, and are usually located in a rural village or a city suburb. Volunteers may be involved in such activities as:


title: National Service Scheme

text: There are no predefined or preassigned tasks; it is left up to the volunteers to provide service in any way that is feasible. Camps typically last between a week and 10 days, although camps for shorter periods are also conducted by NSS.


title: National Service Scheme

text: 'Youth for Sustainable Development with special focus on Watershed Management and Wasteland Development' `Healthy Youth For Healthy India`


title: National Service Scheme

text: In some institutions and colleges volunteers are involved in regular blood donation and traffic control (regulating queues in temples and preventing stampedes at functions). National conferences are held regularly to conduct white-paper and project presentations. and


title: National Service Scheme

text: NSS resembles the Bharat Scouts and Guides, National Cadet Corps (NCC) and other programmes developed for national welfare.


title: National Service Scheme

text: To recognize the voluntary service rendered by NSS volunteers, Programme Officers (PO's), NSS Units and the University NSS Cells, it has been proposed to provide suitable incentives/ awards under the scheme. Awards include:


title: National Service Scheme

text: This award for the appreciable work of the volunteer in the College level camp. and overall performance of the student in the given year.


title: Candice Michelle

text: Candice Michelle Beckman (born September 30, 1978), better known as Candice Michelle, is an American retired professional wrestler, model and actress, best known for her time with WWE.


title: Candice Michelle

text: After spending years modeling and acting, Candice Michelle was hired by WWE in 2004, after she participated in the WWE Diva Search. Outside wrestling, she is considered to be a sex symbol and is known as the Go Daddy Girl, performing in the company's annual Super Bowl commercials. She also posed for a cover and nude pictorial in the April 2006 issue of "Playboy". At in 2007, she defeated Melina to win her first WWE Women's Championship and became the first former Diva Search contestant to win a WWE title. She was released from her WWE contract on June 19, 2009. She made a return to WWE on the "Raw Reunion" episode on July 22, 2019 and became the second woman to win the WWE 24/7 Championship.


title: Candice Michelle

text: Beckman was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin to Michael Beckman (1951–1980) and his wife, Kathleen (née Iwen; 1951–2002). Beckman is of German and Costa Rican descent. She has one older sister, Dana. She played varsity and college basketball and has an avid interest in many sports. Candice is a Green Bay Packers fan.


title: Candice Michelle

text: At sixteen, Beckman won a modeling competition at her local skating rink. Around 1999, she moved to Los Angeles, California to become a professional model and actress. She studied Theater Arts at Santa Monica College and had on-camera acting and Meisner technique training at The Piero Dusa Acting Studio. It was during this time that Beckman adopted her middle name Michelle as her working last name. She appeared in numerous bodybuilding and car magazines such as "FLEX" and "Lowrider Magazine", as well as being named "Cyber Girl of the Week" in the June 2002 issue of "Playboy", and between 2002 and 2006, she worked as a fetish model under the name "Mackenzie Montgomery". Beckman also made appearances on television programs such as "Party of Five", "7th Heaven" and "Hotel Erotica", as well as appearing in such films as "Tomcats", "Anger Management", "DodgeBall" and "A Man Apart".


title: Candice Michelle

text: In July 2004, Beckman auditioned to be a contestant for World Wrestling Entertainment's "Raw" Diva Search. Despite not being chosen to be in the final ten, she was hired by the company under the gimmick of a makeup artist. She competed on Raw in several Diva contests, including lingerie fashion shows and limbo contests, until the end of the year.


title: Candice Michelle

text: On June 30, 2005, Candice was moved to SmackDown! where she became involved in a storyline between Torrie Wilson and Melina. On July 24, Candice made her pay-per-view debut at The Great American Bash where she served as the Special Guest Referee for the Bra and Panties match between Wilson and Melina. She was then moved back to "Raw" in a trade along with Wilson. In her next storyline, Candice and Torrie became villains by taunting 2005 Diva Search winner Ashley Massaro, and they joined forces with fellow "Raw" Diva Victoria to form an alliance known as Ladies in Pink (later Vince's Devils). On the September 5 episode of "Raw", Wilson defeated Massaro after the interference from Victoria and Candice. They continued feuding with Massaro until Trish Stratus returned from a legitimate injury to help Massaro "retaliate" against Vince's Devils. On the October 17 episode of "Raw", where she, Torrie and Victoria faced off against the team of Stratus, Massaro, and their new ally Mickie James in a winning effort after Wilson pinned James. On November 28 episode of "Raw", Candice teamed up with Victoria and Torrie Wilson in losing effort to Trish, Ashley and Mickie. In November, Candice signed on to pose for the April 2006 issue of "Playboy". She had her first shot at the WWE Women's Championship in a Fulfill Your Fantasy Battle Royal at Taboo Tuesday but was eliminated from the match by Massaro. At the Tribute to The Troops on December 19, Michelle teamed up with Maria Kanellis in a winning effort defeating then Women's Champion Trish Stratus and Ashley Massaro in a divas-tag-team match after Candice pinned Ashley.


title: Candice Michelle

text: In January, Candice appeared at New Year's Revolution in the first ever Bra and Panties Gauntlet match, where she was eliminated by Maria. On the February 13 episode of "Raw", Michelle accompanied Torrie in a losing effort to Ashley. After winning a number one contender's Diva battle royal on "Raw", Candice got her first singles WWE Women's Championship match, but lost to then-champion Trish Stratus on February 27. After the match, Candice slapped Wilson, blaming her, in storyline, for the loss. Vince's Devils later broke up when Torrie became a fan favorite after Candice and Victoria turned on her during Candice's "Playboy" cover unveiling. This feud led to a match at WrestleMania 22 in which both "Playboy" cover girls competed in a "Playboy" Pillow Fight. Torrie Wilson won the match. On the June 12 episode of "Raw", Candice was defeated by Torrie in the first ever ""Wet and Wild match"", a wrestling match involving water balloons and squirt guns, in which the winner of the match would be on the cover of the "WWE 2006 Summer Special" magazine. The feud continued sporadically in backstage segments where Candice was depicted as Vince McMahon's "sex slave". On the July 11 episode of "ECW", the villainous Candice appeared as Kelly Kelly's dance partner on that night's "Kelly's Exposé" segment, and attempted to seduce Kelly in a backstage segment before the two divas went out to perform.


title: Candice Michelle

text: On the July 17 episode of "Raw", Candice was the Special Guest Referee during a tag team match of Stratus and Wilson against Victoria and Mickie James. James entered the match without being tagged in, so Candice threw her out of the ring. Afterwards, Victoria tried to clothesline Candice, but she ducked out of the way, allowing Stratus to perform a Stratusfaction for the victory. As a result of her participation in the match, Candice became a fan favorite. On the "Raw" following Unforgiven, Candice won a match against Lita. The next week, in her second match against Lita, Candice was pinned after she was speared by guest referee Edge, in the first round of the WWE Women's Championship tournament. On the November 27 episode of "Raw", during the Diva battle royal, Candice suffered a legitimate broken nose when Victoria kicked her in the face. She had surgery on November 30 to repair her deviated septum.


title: Candice Michelle

text: Candice returned at New Year's Revolution on January 7, when she went to the ring with Maria to fight off Melina as she tried to interfere in the Women's Championship match between then-champion Mickie James and Victoria. Candice made her in-ring return on January 22 when she and Mickie James defeated Victoria and Melina in a tag team match with Candice scoring the pinfall. Candice then resumed her feud with Melina, who claimed in her blogs that no "Playboy" cover model was capable of defeating her in the ring. Candice took offense to this, which led to a Bra and Panties match between the two, which she lost. During this time, Candice began training on her off-days to improve her in-ring abilities. Weeks later, Candice was beginning to receive more air-time and higher profile matches, and she won tag matches that pitted her with Mickie James against Victoria and Melina. She also picked up several wins against the latter two in singles matches, which culminated at One Night Stand, where Candice defeated Melina in the first ever match held in a swimming pool full of pudding. Candice defeated Melina to capture her first WWE Women's Championship at , becoming the first ever WWE Diva Search contestant to win the Women's Title. Candice retained her title against Melina in a rematch at The Great American Bash as well as debuting a new finisher called the Candywrapper.


title: Candice Michelle

text: Beth Phoenix became the number one contender for the Women's Title after winning a Diva battle royal at SummerSlam. At the Unforgiven pay-per-view, however, Candice successfully retained her title in their match by countering one of Phoenix's moves with a crucifix pin. Their feud continued when Phoenix pinned Candice during a non-title mixed tag team match on "Raw" on September 24. At No Mercy on October 7, Candice dropped the title to Phoenix, ending her reign as Women's Champion. On October 22, Candice legitimately cracked her clavicle during her rematch for the Women's Title against Phoenix in a two out of three falls match; Phoenix ran into the ropes, causing Candice to fall face-first off of the turnbuckle onto her face, neck, and shoulders necessitating a rushed finish and putting her out of action for 14 weeks.


title: Candice Michelle

text: Candice made her on-screen return on the February 18, 2008 episode of "Raw", distracting Beth Phoenix during a match with Maria. She returned to in-ring action on March 17, teaming up with Maria to defeat Jillian Hall and Victoria. During the match, Candice injured her left shoulder by tearing the scar tissue over her previously broken left clavicle. Unlike her previous injury, Candice broke her clavicle in four separate places, in essence, shattering it. As a result, Candice was replaced by Ashley for her scheduled match at WrestleMania XXIV. On March 23, Candice underwent successful surgery on her re-broken clavicle.


title: Candice Michelle

text: On the September 1 episode of "Raw", Candice made her in-ring return match teaming up with Kelly Kelly and Mickie James to defeat Jillian Hall, Katie Lea Burchill and Beth Phoenix, with Candice pinning Phoenix. Candice received a push upon her return as she was named the number one contender for the Women's Championship, but lost to Beth Phoenix at No Mercy. On November 23, 2008, Candice competed in 5 on 5 Survivor Series Elimination Match where her team went victorious. On the February 2 episode of "RAW", Candice was defeated by Beth Phoenix after an interference by Mendes and Marella. On the February 16 episode of "RAW", Candice, James and Kelly stopped Marella and Mendes from interfering in the Women's Championship match between Melina and Phoenix, which was won by Melina.


title: Candice Michelle

text: On April 15, 2009, Candice was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft. She, however, never reappeared on the brand and was released from her WWE contract on June 19, 2009.


title: Candice Michelle

text: In October 2017, it was announced that Candice Michelle's retirement match would take place on December 2, at the House of Hardcore 36 – Blizzard Brawl show, where she defeated Lisa Marie Varon in singles action.


title: Candice Michelle

text: On July 22, 2019, Candice returned to WWE during the "Raw Reunion" episode in a backstage segment with Melina, Naomi, and 24/7 Champion Kelly Kelly, who Candice congratulated for winning the title. After Melina revealed herself as a referee, Candice turned heel and attacked Kelly, after which she pinned Kelly to become the new 24/7 Champion. Shortly after, Candice lost the title via submission to Alundra Blayze.


title: Candice Michelle

text: Candice has appeared in three WWE video games. She made her in-game debut in SmackDown vs. Raw 2007 and also appears in, SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 and SmackDown vs. Raw 2009.


title: Candice Michelle

text: In December 2011, Candice Michelle along with Torrie Wilson filmed Lilian Garcia's music video "U Drive Me Loca".


title: Candice Michelle

text: On October 11, 2002, Candice starred in an episode of the softcore porn television series – Hotel Erotica that aired on Cinemax, playing a character called "Natasha".


title: Candice Michelle

text: During the week of November 5, 2007, Candice appeared on five episodes of "Family Feud" with several other WWE superstars and Divas. Also in 2007, Candice Michelle was No. 82 on AskMen.com's "100 Most Desirable Women" list.


title: Candice Michelle

text: Beckman appeared on the February 6, 2008 episode of "Project Runway", in an episode where the contestants were challenged to design wrestling attire for several of WWE's female wrestlers. Beckman made a special appearance on the November 12, 2008 episode of "Redemption Song", which is hosted by fellow WWE wrestler Chris Jericho, with several other Divas. She also appeared in the February 2009 issue of "FLEX magazine".


title: Candice Michelle

text: Beckman gained national attention in 2005 when she appeared in a commercial for internet domain provider Go Daddy, which aired during Super Bowl XXXIX. She played a character named "Nikki Cappelli" who had trouble with a snapped spaghetti strap on her tank top as she testified before a panel holding broadcast censorship hearings. The commercial was a parody of the 2004 "wardrobe malfunction" in which Janet Jackson's right breast was exposed. She then became widely known as "Miss GoDaddy.com" and the "Go Daddy Girl".


title: Candice Michelle

text: The following year, she was featured in several more Go Daddy commercials. During the 2006 NFC playoffs, she was featured cleaning windows. She later appeared in a commercial during Super Bowl XL, where she seduced an ABC executive to acquire an advertising slot for Go Daddy. She appeared in another commercial for Super Bowl XLI in 2007, where she danced in a room being doused with champagne. Beckman appeared on "American Chopper" to promote the commercial as well as Go Daddy's custom made chopper. In 2008, she was featured in her fourth consecutive Go Daddy commercial for Super Bowl XLII, entitled "White Light", but Fox refused to air it.


title: Candice Michelle

text: On May 7, 2005, she married Ken Gee Ehrlich, a Los Angeles chiropractor. Together they have three daughters: AkiAnne Rose, born May 23, 2010, Ryumi Grace, born October 20, 2012 and Aloha Von Ehrlich, born July 17, 2015.


title: Candice Michelle

text: She has a tattoo of the word "faith" on her inner wrist, which she considers a "personal affirmation". It is also a reminder, in her words, to "believe in myself and have 'faith'". She got the tattoo, which was documented on the reality show "LA Ink", after breaking her collarbone in 2007. The tattoo is also related to her Christian beliefs. When Candice made her return, she had new tattoos on her back, her new tattoos are of five stars, which starts at the lower part of her back then finished at the middle of her back.


title: Candice Michelle

text: Candice, along with Batista, Shelton Benjamin, and Josh Mathews, represented WWE at the 2008 Democratic National Convention in an effort to persuade fans to register to vote in the 2008 Presidential election.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: Real Husbands of Hollywood (abbreviated RHOH) is an American reality television parody that originally aired on BET from January 15, 2013 to December 13, 2016. A revival series produced for streaming service BET+ premiered on February 10, 2022.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: The series was co-created by comedian Kevin Hart, and follows the daily lives of him and other married celebrities, each playing a fictionalized version of themselves, as they venture through their surreal life in Hollywood. Members of the initial cast include: Boris Kodjoe, Nelly, Duane Martin, J. B. Smoove, Nick Cannon, Oliver (Hart's assistant, played by James Davis), and Robin Thicke, who did not return for the second season due to his music career, though Hart has stated that the door is open for Thicke to return.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: The series is intentionally filmed in a style similar to Bravo's "The Real Housewives". Episodes often hinge on the "real" Kevin Hart's desperately unsuccessful attempts to climb Hollywood's celebrity social ladder (which always backfire in humiliating ways), and the character's barely-hidden jealousy of his more successful celebrity friends. A sneak peek was shown as a segment during the 2012 BET Awards and the official promo was released in October 2012.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: Special guests during the first season include: Laila Ali, Ed O'Neill, Jennifer Freeman, Russell Simmons, Melanie Fiona, Estelle, Cedric the Entertainer, Shane Mosley, Elise Neal, Keri Hilson, La La Anthony, Rocsi Diaz, KJ Smith, Alec Mapa, Terry Crews, Tisha Campbell-Martin, Takhorra Taylor, Young Jeezy, Nicole Ari Parker, Jay Leno, Shaquille O'Neal, Faizon Love, James Davis, Common and Trey Songz.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: Season 2 guest stars include Chris Rock, Conan O'Brien, Wanda Sykes, Katie Couric, Keenen Ivory Wayans, Nadine Velazquez, Kelly Rowland, Bobby Brown, Ralph Tresvant, Tichina Arnold, James Davis, Wayne Brady, Eric Benet, Selita Ebanks, Eva Marcille, Erykah Badu, and more.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: Season 3: Tamar Braxton, Mariah Carey, Regina Hall, Sanaa Lathan, George Lopez, Snoop Dogg, Jennifer Freeman, Lance Bass, Chrisette Michele, Jessica White, Fred Williamson, and more.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: Season 4: Bobby Shmurda, Chris Brown, Brandy, Nia Long, Arsenio Hall, Wayne Brady, Mary J. Blige, Craig Robinson, EJ Johnson, Faith Evans, NeNe Leakes, Terry Crews, and more.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: After it was announced in March 2013, a twelve episode second season premiered on October 15, 2013. The following day, on October 16, 2013, the show began airing on The Comedy Channel in Australia. In April 2014, "Real Husbands of Hollywood" was renewed for a third season, which premiered on October 14, 2014.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: The fourth season premiered on August 18, 2015. On January 21, 2016, the show was renewed for a fifth season, which premiered on October 11, 2016.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: On July 29, 2021, it was announced that BET+ has ordered a six-episode limited series revival and Kevin Hart, Duane Martin, Boris Kodjoe, Nick Cannon, J. B. Smoove, Robin Thicke, Nelly, Cynthia McWilliams, and Jackie Long are all set to return as well as Erica Ash. In 2022, the revival was revealed under the title "Real Husbands of Hollywood -- More Kevin, More Problems", and premiered on February 10, 2022. In addition to the returning cast, the revival see new additions Michele Weaver and Angela Rye.


title: Real Husbands of Hollywood

text: The show has received positive reviews from critics. "Entertainment Weekly" chose the show as No.1 for their "The Must List: The Top 10 Things We Love This Week," writing, "Step aside, "Housewives"! Our new favorite divas are the men who take the spotlight in star/exec producer Kevin Hart's uproariously funny reality TV spoof."


title: Two-round system

text: The two-round system (TRS), also known as runoff voting, second ballot, or ballotage, is a voting method used to elect a single candidate, where voters cast a single vote for their preferred candidate. It generally ensures a majoritarian result, not a simple plurality result as under First past the post. Under the two-round election system, the election process usually proceeds to a second round only if in the first round no candidate received a simple majority (more than 50%) of votes cast, or some other lower prescribed percentage. Under the two-round system, usually only the two candidates who received the most votes in the first round, or only those candidates who received above a prescribed proportion of the votes, are candidates in the second round. Other candidates are excluded from the second round.


title: Two-round system

text: The two-round system is widely used in the election of legislative bodies and directly elected presidents, as well as in other contexts, such as in the election of political party leaders or within companies.


title: Two-round system

text: The second round of voting must be held after there is sufficient time to count and verify the results of the first round. Second rounds may be held on the same day in smaller settings, or up to one month later, as in the US state of Georgia. France traditionally has a two-week break before the second round.


title: Two-round system

text: The two-round system is known as runoff voting in the United States, where the second round is known as a runoff election.


title: Two-round system

text: Runoff voting may also sometimes be used as a generic term to describe any voting method that involves a number of rounds of voting, with eliminations after each round. By this broader definition the two-round system is not the only form of runoff voting, and others include the exhaustive ballot and instant runoff voting. However the subject of this article is the two-round system. In Canada, for example, when there are more than two candidates for political party leadership, an exhaustive ballot system (often called a runoff voting method) is used where one candidate must win a simple majority (over half). Candidates with the fewest votes or candidates who want to move their support to other candidates may also move to remove themselves from the next vote.


title: Two-round system

text: In both rounds of an election conducted using runoff voting, the voter simply marks their preferred candidate. If no candidate has an absolute majority of votes (i.e. more than half) in the first round, then the two candidates with the most votes proceed to a second round, from which all others are excluded. In the second round, because there are only two candidates, and absent a tie vote, one candidate will achieve an absolute majority. Voters may change the candidate they support in the second round.


title: Two-round system

text: Some variants of the two-round system use a different rule for choosing candidates for the second round, and allow more than two candidates to proceed to the second round. Under such methods, it is sufficient for a candidate to receive a plurality of votes (more votes than anyone else) to be elected in the second round. In Czech and Kenyan presidential elections, the candidates in the first and second places are permitted to stand in the second round, with all other candidates eliminated, thus providing the contingency for a first- or second-place tie; a plurality is then sufficient to be elected. However, in Ghana, which also employs this contingency method, the majority requirement still holds in the second round, and a third round would be held if it is not obtained, etc.. Under some variants of runoff voting, there is no formal rule for eliminating candidates, but candidates who receive fewer votes in the first round are expected to withdraw voluntarily.


title: Two-round system

text: In the 2002 French presidential election, the two contenders described by the media as possible winners were Jacques Chirac and Lionel Jospin, who represented the largest two political parties in France at the time. However, 16 candidates were on the ballot, including Jean-Pierre Chevènement (5.33%) and Christiane Taubira (2.32%) from the Plural Left coalition of Jospin, who refused by excess of confidence to dissuade them. With the left vote divided among a number of candidates, a third contender, Jean-Marie Le Pen, unexpectedly obtained slightly more than Jospin in the first round:


title: Two-round system

text: Because no candidate had obtained an absolute majority of the votes in the first round, the top two candidates went into the second round. Most supporters of the parties which did not get through to the second round (and Chirac's supporters) voted for Chirac, who won with a very large majority:


title: Two-round system

text: The President of Germany was popularly elected in 1925 and 1932 by a two-round system. In the second round, a candidate could run even if they had not done so in the first round, and they did not require an absolute majority to win. In both elections, the communist candidate, Ernst Thälmann, did not withdraw and ran in the second round. In 1925, that probably ensured the election of Paul von Hindenburg (with only 48.3% of the vote), rather than Wilhelm Marx, the centrist candidate. Hindenburg had not run in the first round of the 1925 election.


title: Two-round system

text: A variant of the two-round system, where only the top two parties from the first round enter the second round, is applied in Bhutanese National Assembly.


title: Two-round system

text: The exhaustive ballot (EB) is similar to the two-round system, but involves more rounds of voting rather than just two. If no candidate receives an absolute majority in the first round then the candidate(s) with the fewest votes is eliminated and excluded from further ballots. The process of exclusion and reballot continues until one candidate has an absolute majority. Because voters may have to cast votes several times, EB is not used in large-scale public elections. Instead it is used in smaller contests such as the election of the presiding officer of an assembly; one long-standing example of its use is in the United Kingdom, where local associations (LCAs) of the Conservative Party use EB to elect their prospective parliamentary candidates (PPCs). Exhaustive ballot is also used by FIFA and the International Olympic Committee to select hosts. EB often elects a different winner from runoff voting. Because the two-round system excludes more than one candidate after the first round, it is possible for a candidate to be eliminated who would have gone on to win the election under EB.


title: Two-round system

text: A hybrid system of EB is used by the Libertarian Party of the United States to select its presidential and vice-presidential nominees. It is hybrid because "None of the Above" (NOTA) is always on the ballot, regardless of its percentage, and because in the first round, if no majority is reached for any candidate, the lowest candidate (other than NOTA) is eliminated, along with all other candidates who did not earn 5% of the vote. The end result of this is that the first round of voting tends to eliminate the lesser candidates, and there is always the possibility that nobody wins.


title: Two-round system

text: Instant-runoff voting (IRV) (also known as preferential voting or ranked-choice voting) like the exhaustive ballot involves multiple reiterative counts in which the candidate with fewest votes is eliminated each time. Whilst the exhaustive ballot and the two-round system both involve voters casting a separate vote in each round, under instant-runoff, voters vote only once. This is possible because, rather than voting for only a single candidate, the voter ranks all of the candidates in order of preference. These preferences are then used to transfer the votes of those whose first preference has been eliminated during the course of the count. Because the two-round system and the exhaustive ballot involve separate rounds of voting, voters can use the results of one round to decide how they will vote in the next, whereas this is not possible under IRV. Because it is necessary only to vote once, IRV is used for elections in many places. For such as Australian general and state elections (called "preferential voting"). In the United States, it's known as ranked-choice voting and is used in a growing number of states and localities. In Ireland it is known as single transferable vote and is used for presidential elections and parliamentary elections.


title: Two-round system

text: Variants of instant-runoff voting can be designed to reflect the same rules as a two-round voting system. If no single candidate has an absolute majority of votes then only the two highest polling candidates progress to the second count, while all other candidates are excluded and their votes redistributed according to the recorded preferences for continuing candidates. One variant that works this way is called the Contingent vote, detailed below.


title: Two-round system

text: The contingent vote is a variant of instant-runoff voting that has been used in the past in Queensland, Australia. Under the contingent vote voters cast only one vote, by ranking all of the candidates in order of preference. However it involves only two rounds of counting and uses the same rule for eliminating candidates as the two-round system. After the first round all but the two candidates with most votes are eliminated. Therefore, one candidate always achieves an absolute majority in the second round. Because of these similarities the contingent vote tends to elect the same winner as the two-round system, and may produce different results to instant-runoff voting.


title: Two-round system

text: A variant of the contingent vote, called the supplementary vote, is used to elect some mayors in the United Kingdom. Another variant elects the President of Sri Lanka. A criticism of this method is that "it requires two polls, and gives opportunity for intrigue of various kinds."


title: Two-round system

text: In the United States, the Louisiana primary, introduced in Louisiana for partisan state elections in 1975 and federal elections in 1978 (with a brief return using a closed primary system in 2010), is virtually identical to the two-round system. Instead of the standard American system of primary elections to choose each party's candidate, followed by a general election contest between the winners of the primaries, the Louisiana primary allows voters to select any candidate, regardless of party affiliation. Candidates receiving an absolute majority of the votes cast are declared the winner. Otherwise, the two highest vote-winners in the first round—in effect, the first round of a two-round system—are then the only candidates whose names appear on the ballot at a runoff election, effectively requiring one candidate to win an absolute majority to take office. The key difference between the Louisiana primary and a typical two-round system is that political parties do not select the individuals using their party labels; rather, candidates can self-identify using the label of their preferred political party (or no party at all).


title: Two-round system

text: The state of Washington adopted a system similar to Louisiana's in 2008, which came into effect in 2010 after legal difficulties. California approved a similar system in 2010, coming into effect for the 36th congressional district election in February 2011. The system used in Washington and California is referred to as the nonpartisan blanket primary or top-two primary system. Like the Louisiana primary, candidates self-select their party label on the ballot rather than being nominated by a particular political party.


title: Two-round system

text: The main difference between a nonpartisan blanket primary and either a standard two-round system or the Louisiana primary is that a second round of voting is "required", even if a candidate wins an absolute majority of votes in the primary.


title: Two-round system

text: In Australian politics (predominantly in the lower (senatorial/house) level(s)), the two-party-preferred vote (TPP or 2PP), is the result of an election or opinion poll after preferences have been distributed to the highest two candidates, who in some cases can be independents. For the purposes of TPP, the Liberal/National Coalition is usually considered a single party, with Labor being the other major party. Typically the TPP is expressed as the percentages of votes attracted by each of the two major parties, e.g. "Coalition 45%, Labor 55%", where the values include both primary votes and preferences. The TPP is an indicator of how much swing has been attained/is required to change the result, taking into consideration preferences, which may have a significant effect on the result.


title: Two-round system

text: Most of the mathematical criteria by which voting methods are compared were formulated for voters with ordinal preferences. Some methods, like approval voting, request information than cannot be unambiguously inferred from a single set of ordinal preferences. The two-round system is such a method, because the voters are not forced to vote according to a single ordinal preference in both rounds.


title: Two-round system

text: Since the two-round system requires more information from each voter than a single ordinal ballot provides, one cannot fit the criteria that are formulated expressly for voters with ordinal preferences without making a generalization as to how the voters will behave. The same problem exists in Approval voting, where one has to make assumptions as to how the voters will place their approval cutoffs.


title: Two-round system

text: If the voters determine their preferences before the election and always vote directly consistent to them, they will emulate the contingent vote and get the same results as if they were to use that method. Therefore, in that model of voting behavior, the two-round system passes all criteria that the contingent vote passes, and fails all criteria the contingent vote fails.


title: Two-round system

text: Since the voters in the two-round system do not have to choose their second round votes while voting in the first round, they are able to adjust their votes as players in a game. More complex models consider voter behavior when the voters reach a game-theoretical equilibrium from which they have no incentive, as defined by their internal preferences, to further change their behavior. However, because these equilibria are complex, only partial results are known. With respect to the voters' internal preferences, the two-round system passes the majority criterion in this model, as a majority can always coordinate to elect their preferred candidate. Also, in the case of three candidates or less and a robust political equilibrium, the two-round system will pick the Condorcet winner whenever there is one, which is not the case in the Contingent vote model.


title: Two-round system

text: The equilibrium mentioned above is a perfect-information equilibrium and so only strictly holds in idealized conditions where every voter knows every other voter's preference. Thus it provides an upper bound on what can be achieved with rational (self-interested) coordination or knowledge of others' preferences. Since the voters almost surely will not have perfect information, it may not apply to real elections. In that matter, it is similar to the perfect competition model sometimes used in economics. To the extent that real elections approach this upper bound, large elections would do so less so than small ones, because it is less likely that a large electorate has information about all the other voters than that a small electorate has.


title: Two-round system

text: Runoff voting is intended to reduce the potential for eliminating "wasted" votes by tactical voting. Under the plurality voting system (also known as first past the post), voters are encouraged to vote tactically, by voting for only one of the two leading candidates, because a vote for any other candidate will not affect the result. Under runoff voting, this tactic, known as "compromising", it is sometimes unnecessary because even if a voter's favorite candidate is eliminated in the first round, they will still have an opportunity to influence the result of the election by voting for a more popular candidate in the second round. However the tactic of compromising can still be used in runoff voting—it is sometimes necessary to compromise as a way of influencing which two candidates will survive to the second round. In order to do this it is necessary to vote for one of the "three" leading candidates in the first round, just as in an election held under the plurality method it is necessary to vote for one of the "two" leading candidates.


title: Two-round system

text: Runoff voting is also vulnerable to another tactic called "push over". This is a tactic by which voters vote tactically for an unpopular "push over" candidate in the first round as a way of helping their true favourite candidate win in the second round. The purpose of voting for the push over, in theory, is to ensure that it is this weak candidate, rather than a stronger rival, who survives to challenge one's preferred candidate in the second round. But in practice, such a tactic may prove counter-productive. If so many voters give their first preferences to the "weak" candidate that it ends up "winning" the first round, it is highly likely they will gain enough campaign momentum to have a strong chance of winning the runoff, too, and with it, the election. At the very least, their opponent would have to start taking the so-called weak candidate seriously, particularly if the runoff follows quickly after the first round.


title: Two-round system

text: Runoff voting can be influenced by strategic nomination; this is where candidates and political factions influence the result of an election by either nominating extra candidates or withdrawing a candidate who would otherwise have stood. Runoff voting is vulnerable to strategic nomination for the same reasons that it is open to the voting tactic of compromising. This is because a candidate who knows they are unlikely to win can ensure that another candidate they support makes it to the second round by withdrawing from the race before the first round occurs, or by never choosing to stand in the first place. By withdrawing candidates a political faction can avoid the spoiler effect, whereby a candidate "splits the vote" of its supporters. A famous example of this spoiler effect occurred in the 2002 French presidential election, when so many left-wing candidates stood in the first round that all of them were eliminated and two right-wing candidates advanced to the second round. Conversely, an important faction may have an interest in helping fund the campaign of smaller factions with a very different political agenda, so that these smaller parties end up weakening their own agenda.


title: Two-round system

text: Runoff voting encourages candidates to appeal to a broad cross-section of voters. This is because, in order to win an absolute majority in the second round, it is necessary for a candidate to win the support of voters whose favourite candidate has been eliminated. Under runoff voting, between rounds of voting, eliminated candidates, and the factions who previously supported them, often issue recommendations to their supporters as to whom to vote for in the second round of the contest. This means that eliminated candidates are still able to influence the result of the election. This influence leads to political bargaining between the two remaining candidates and the parties and candidates who have been eliminated, sometimes resulting in the two successful candidates making policy concessions to the less successful ones. Because it encourages conciliation and negotiation in these ways, runoff voting is advocated, in various forms, by some supporters of deliberative democracy.


title: Two-round system

text: Runoff voting is designed for single-seat constituencies. Therefore, like other single-seat methods, if used to elect a council or legislature it will not produce proportional representation (PR). This means that it is likely to lead to the representation of a small number of larger parties in an assembly, rather than a proliferation of small parties. In practice, runoff voting produces results very similar to those produced by the plurality method, and encourages a two-party system similar to those found in many countries that use plurality. Under a parliamentary system, it is more likely to produce single-party governments than are PR methods, which tend to produce coalition governments. While runoff voting is designed to ensure that each individual candidate elected is supported by a majority of those in their constituency, if used to elect an assembly it does not ensure this result on a national level. As in other non-PR methods, the party or coalition which wins a majority of seats will often not have the support of an absolute majority of voters across the nation.


title: Two-round system

text: The intention of runoff voting is that the winning candidate will have the support of an absolute majority of voters. Under the first past the post method the candidate with most votes (a plurality) wins, even if they do not have an absolute majority (more than half) of votes. The two-round system tries to overcome this problem by permitting only two candidates in the second round, so that one must receive an absolute majority of votes.


title: Two-round system

text: Critics argue that the absolute majority obtained by the winner of runoff voting is an artificial one. Instant-runoff voting and the exhaustive ballot are two other voting methods that create an absolute majority for one candidate by eliminating weaker candidates over multiple rounds. However, in cases where there are three or more strong candidates, runoff voting will sometimes produce an absolute majority for a different winner than the candidate elected by the other two.


title: Two-round system

text: Advocates of Condorcet methods argue that a candidate can claim to have majority support only if they are the "Condorcet winner" – that is, the candidate who would beat every other candidate in a series of one-on-one elections. In runoff voting the winning candidate is only matched, one-on-one, with one of the other candidates. When a Condorcet winner exists, the candidate does not necessarily win a runoff election due to insufficient support in the first round.


title: Two-round system

text: Runoff advocates counter that voters' first preference is more important than lower preferences because that is where voters are putting the most effort of decision and that, unlike Condorcet methods, runoffs require a high showing among the full field of choices in addition to a strong showing in the final head-to-head competition. Condorcet methods can allow candidates to win who have minimal first-choice support and can win largely on the compromise appeal of being ranked second or third by more voters.


title: Two-round system

text: In smaller elections, such as those in assemblies or private organisations, it is sometimes possible to conduct both rounds in quick succession. More commonly, however, large-scale public elections the two rounds of runoff voting are held on separate days, and so involve voters going to the polls twice and governments conducting two elections.


title: Two-round system

text: Holding two elections typically leads to voter fatigue and a reduced turnout, especially in the second round. Voter fatigue by design can also be called voter suppression.


title: Two-round system

text: One of the strongest criticisms against the two-round voting system is the cost to the taxpayer required to conduct two ballots can be nearly twice that of holding a single ballot. The reason the cost is probably not quite double, is that an instant-runoff ballot method, for example, may have more expensive voting machines (at least until more places adopt this method) and the longer vote-counting time could pose additional costs to election administrators.


title: Two-round system

text: The two-round voting system also has the potential to cause political instability between the two rounds of voting, adding further to economic impact.


title: Two-round system

text: In runoff voting, the counting of votes in each round is simple and occurs in the same way as under the plurality methods. Ranked voting systems, such as instant-runoff voting, involve a longer, more complicated count.


title: Two-round system

text: The two-round system is the most common way used to elect heads of state (presidents) of countries worldwide, a total of 83 countries elect their heads of state directly with a two-round system as opposed to only 22 countries that used single-round plurality (first-past-the-post).


title: Two-round system

text: Two-round voting is also used in French departmental elections. In Italy, it is used to elect mayors, but also to decide which party or coalition receives a majority bonus in city councils. In the United States, Georgia and Louisiana use the two-round system to elect most state and federal officials, while California and Washington use the nonpartisan blanket primary variant for all elections (see below).


title: Two-round system

text: Historically it was used to elect the Reichstag in the German Empire between 1871 and 1918 and the Storting of Norway from 1905 to 1919, in New Zealand in the 1908 and 1911 elections, and in Israel to elect the Prime Minister in the 1996, 1999 and 2001 elections.


title: The ABCs of Death

text: The ABCs of Death is a 2012 American comedy horror anthology film produced by international producers and directed by filmmakers from around the world. The film contains 26 shorts, each by different directors spanning fifteen countries, including Nacho Vigalondo, Kaare Andrews, Adam Wingard, Simon Barrett, Banjong Pisanthanakun, Ben Wheatley, Lee Hardcastle, Noboru Iguchi, Ti West, and Angela Bettis.


title: The ABCs of Death

text: It premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2012. In 2013, it was released on VOD January 31 and in theaters March 8. The end credits of the film feature Australian band Skyhooks' 1974 song "Horror Movie". A sequel, "ABCs of Death 2", was released in late 2014 and a second sequel, "ABCs of Death 2.5" in 2016.


title: The ABCs of Death

text: The film is divided into 26 individual chapters, each helmed by a different director assigned a letter of the alphabet. The directors were then given free rein in choosing a word to create a story involving death. The varieties of death range from accidents to murders.


title: The ABCs of Death

text: A contest was held for the role of the 26th director. The winner was UK-based director Lee Hardcastle, who submitted the claymation short for T.


title: The ABCs of Death

text: The film begins showing a close up of a funnel with blood pouring ominously from it. The blood proceeds to fill up various rooms inside of a house before filling up the interior of a small room containing letter blocks. The room floods as the blocks float to the top spelling out the title. Throughout the film, the blocks spell out the titles to all the segments with each of the segments ending and beginning with a focus on, or a fade into, the color red.


title: The ABCs of Death

text: Rotten Tomatoes reports that 37% of critics gave the film a positive review and an average score of 4.8/10 based on 68 reviews. The consensus says the film "is wildly uneven, with several legitimately scary entries and a bunch more that miss the mark". "Nerdist" calls it "a midnight movie for folks with a sick sense of humour". "The Austin Chronicle" says it "soars to such artistic heights, and such tasteless depths, on a global scale, no less, bodes well for the future of cinema fantastique and otherwise", while Inside Pulse says the movie has a "brilliant concept but not great execution". Many reviewers criticized the film shorts' unevenness.


title: The ABCs of Death

text: Dread Central gave a mixed review for the film, saying the film is "full of installments that are more bad than good" but that it was an "easy watch" overall. Film School Rejects gave "The ABCs of Death" a B rating, praising "D is for Dogfight" while saying that ""M is for Miscarriage" is almost insulting in its laziness". Screen Crush gave an overall positive review, saying that it was "a good time at the movies".


title: The ABCs of Death

text: Dave Canfield writing for film magazine "Magill's Cinema Annual" said of the film: "The ABCs of Death is for anyone who loves horror since it is easy to skip through segments that are not to taste. Any viewer should be prepared to laugh pretty hard; feel tense; get grossed out like they would at any halfway decent horror film. But that same viewer now has a chance to find out about some of the best directors working in horror today."


title: The ABCs of Death

text: After showing the film to a group of high school Spanish students, former Ohio substitute teacher Sheila Kearns was found guilty of four counts of disseminating matter harmful to juveniles. As of Thursday, January 16, 2015, Kearns was convicted, and on 5 March 2015, she was sentenced to 90 days in jail and probation for three years.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: Kate Spade New York is an American fashion house founded in January 1993 by Kate and Andy Spade. Kate Spade New York competes with Michael Kors. In 2017, the company was purchased by Tapestry, Inc., formerly known as Coach, Inc.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: Katherine Noel Brosnahan (later known as Kate Spade) was born on December 24, 1962, in Kansas City, Missouri. She grew up in Kansas City and went to an all-girls Catholic high school. Eventually she moved to Arizona, where she attended Arizona State University and graduated in 1985. It is there that she met her future husband, Andy Spade. Katherine majored in journalism, while Andy majored in architecture.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: In 1986, after completing their education, the couple moved to New York City. It was in New York that Katherine worked as a style editor for "Mademoiselle", but left in 1991 (with the title of senior editor/head of accessories) to start her own handbag line. To get inspiration, Kate browsed local flea markets and secondhand stores. She also researched the styles, fabrics, and potential production costs of making her own handbags. The team slowly worked their way up the social ladder until they were able to create a company that would be noticed by the public.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: Kate Spade New York was founded in 1993 by Katherine Noel Brosnahan and her husband/business partner Andy Spade. Kate Spade New York started after a suggestion from Andy when Katherine wasn't sure about her next career move after logging six years at "Mademoiselle". Originally, the business started out with the Sam handbag and was only making colorful lively bags for consumers. Eventually, Andy withdrew $35,000 from his 401K account to fund the production of Kate's handbags. Her debut line infused classic shapes, colors and fabrics into a now iconic square bag with a little black label sewn to the outside of the bag that said “Kate Spade New York.” Their main target market at this time was the upper middle class.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: In 1996, Spade's company opened its first shop in New York City's SoHo neighborhood. Kate Spade rose in eight months after a journalist at Cleveland Research Co. recommended buying the shares because of the brand’s growth potential.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: The company started from nothing, and after 1998 it started to expand, with sales totaling $27 million. In 1999, Neiman Marcus Group paid $34 million for a 56% stake of the company. In 2006 when Neiman Marcus Group acquired the remaining 44% stake in Kate Spade for $59.4 M, revenue was reportedly near $99 million. This acquisition valued the company at $134 M.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: In 2004, Kate Spade operated only 13 stores in the United States, and did not ship out of the country (Cohen 198). The company initially sold handbags, but eventually extended to include stationery, personal organizers, address books, shoes, beauty products, perfume, raincoats, pajamas, eyewear, and clothing. It now has a full women's clothing line. The business’ clothing and handbag lines are featured in retail stores all across America. Products are easily and continuously shipped around the world. By 2004, Kate Spade & Co. was worth $70 million, not including the complementary company Jack Spade. Kate Spade has over 180 stores around the world, and is sold in more than 400 stores worldwide (Cohen 198). Kate and Andy went from taking “the nothing black bag” to a creative personalized purse, now they create merchandise from the simple tote to home decor and bedding.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: In November 2006, apparel giant Liz Claiborne Inc. bought Kate Spade for about $124 million from Neiman Marcus Group. Andy Spade was initially in charge of company operations, but, in 2007 after the sale of the company, operational control was turned over to Liz Claiborne. Kate Spade expanded their retail stores to include Kate Spade New York Outlets. The brand has over 47 outlet locations across the United States. The outlets offer Kate Spade New York handbags, clothing, jewelry, and accessories at a discounted price. Kate Spade New York Products are also sold in major department stores including Nordstrom, Macy's, and Dillard's. Kate Spade New York handbags, clothing, jewelry, accessories, and home products can be found in these major department stores. Kate Spade Home products are also sold at Bed, Bath and Beyond. As of January 2017, Kate Spade New York also debuted an exclusive collection with Williams Sonoma, including dinnerware, glassware, and flatware.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: In June 2018, following the death of Kate Spade by suicide, Tapestry, Inc. announced a plan to donate $1 million towards mental health awareness, starting with a $250,000 donation to Crisis Text Line.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: Kate Spade's first handbag was sold in January 1993. Shortly after the initial products were released, new collections came out containing glasses, jewelry, and other small accessories (winter 36). In 2007, "kate spade at home" was launched as a home collection brand. It features bedding, bath items, china, and various items for the home and wallpaper. In April 2013, Kate Spade New York launched a new fragrance called Live Colorfully. Previous perfumes of the house include Kate Spade from 2003 and Twirl from 2010. Live Colorfully is a fragrance made in-house that marks the 20th anniversary of the brand. Each of Spade's products sold are packaged, and each one has a card that gives a description of Kate and Andy's journey to the top.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: Jack Spade was the complement to the Kate Spade brand for men. The brand operated as an independent business with its own visual identity, website, e-commerce platform, and physical stores for most of its twenty-three year run, Jack Spade was a line of furnishings for men. Jack Spade's product range included a full suite of furnishings for men best known for its bags, but also producing small leather goods (such as wallets, passport holders, coin purses, and phone cases), apparel (including all types of menswear), watches, and technology items. The retail stores in the US, UK, and Japan were designed by Steven Sclaroff, evoking "modern masculinity".


title: Kate Spade New York

text: Jack Spade bags are immediately identifiable by the brand label (or heat-embossed stamp) always placed in a corner of the bag. Original Jack Spade bags featured black cloth labels embroidered with "Jack Spade, Warren Street, New York" sewn onto a corner of a flap or panel. Newer bags feature "Jack Spade" heat-embossed or "Jack Spade, New York" on a cloth or leather patch. All Jack Spade bags include a cloth identification patch on the inside of the bag for the owner to fill out.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: All Jack Spade bags were named by series. For example, one of the brand's staple items was the Wayne duffel, reinvented season after season in new materials.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: Jack Spade was known for its many series of messenger bags. Often designed as a single-compartment leather bag, secured with a flap closure and two snaps.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: Jack Spade's series of duffel bags for men are one of the most recognizable bags from the brand. Series such as "Wayne" and "Nolan" were constant staples in the brand's collections. The Wayne duffel came in a variety of materials, mostly leather, nylon, and canvas; and included a roomy interior, four metal feet, and a detachable shoulder strap.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: Jack Spade took inspiration from bags engineers used to carry coal in the 1920s and fashioned large tote bags for men out of a heavy duty industrial canvas. Over the years, these coal bags were updated and redesigned with design elements such as pops of color (or "dipped" color in Jack Spade vernacular), and remade in leather, suede, canvas, and nylon.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: A special edition 20th Anniversary Coal Bag was designed in aged industrial canvas with "JACK" running down the right side of the front of the bag. These were available in both an aged blue canvas with white outline and a beige canvas with orange outline.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: All the Jack Spade stores were permanently closed in January 2015 following Kate Spade's acquisition by Tapestry (formerly the Coach Group) along with Kate Spade Saturday. This closure of brick and mortar locations prompted the transition away from "Jack Spade, Warren Street, New York" on the brands' iconic labels to simply, "Jack Spade" or "Jack Spade, New York". Notable locations included the Los Angeles boutique on Abbot Kinney in Venice, California, and the flagship boutique on Warren Street in New York City.


title: Kate Spade New York

text: Jack Spade's separate and dedicated e-commerce platform went away in mid-2017, becoming a sixteen-item section titled “Gifts for him” on the Kate Spade website. A full product line with staples such as the Coal Bag, backpacks, wallets, small leather goods, and apparel was carried on Amazon throughout 2017, but as of June 2018, Amazon appears to not be restocking inventory, discounting items and allowing them to permanently sell out.


title: Seymour Cassel

text: Seymour Joseph Cassel (January 22, 1935 – April 7, 2019) was an American actor who appeared in over 200 movies and television shows, and had a career that spanned over 50 years.


title: Seymour Cassel

text: Cassel first came to prominence in the 1960s in the pioneering independent films of writer/director John Cassavetes. The first of these was "Too Late Blues" (1961), followed by "Faces" (1968), for which he was nominated for an Academy Award and won a National Society of Film Critics Award. Cassel went on to appear in Cassavetes' "Minnie and Moskowitz" (1971), "The Killing of a Chinese Bookie" (1976), "Opening Night" (1977), and "Love Streams" (1984).


title: Seymour Cassel

text: He also appeared in other notable films, including: "Coogan's Bluff" (1968), "The Last Tycoon" (1976), "Valentino" (1977), "Convoy" (1978), "Johnny Be Good" (1988), "Mobsters" (1991), "In the Soup" (1992), "Honeymoon in Vegas" (1992), "Indecent Proposal" (1993), "Beer League" (2006), and "Fort McCoy" (2011). Like Cassavetes, Wes Anderson frequently cast Cassel – first in "Rushmore" (1998), then in "The Royal Tenenbaums" (2001), and finally in "The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou" (2004).


title: Seymour Cassel

text: Cassel was born in Detroit, Michigan, the son of Pancretia Ann (née Kearney), a performer, and Seymour Joseph Cassel, a nightclub owner.


title: Seymour Cassel

text: His mother was remarried to a master sergeant in the U.S. Army Air Forces, and the family moved to Panama, where Cassel's stepfather was said to have won a nightclub in a game of craps. After his mother filed for divorce in the late 1940s, she sent Seymour to live with his godmother in Detroit, where he soon joined a gang. He later said that at 17, he was given a choice: join the Navy, or go to jail. He picked the military, and after three years of service and a brief stint in college, he returned to Detroit, where he built props for a theater company and took small acting roles. Convinced he had a future in theater, he bought a bus ticket to New York, only to bomb at an Actors Studio audition.


title: Seymour Cassel

text: Cassel's early career was tied to fellow actor John Cassavetes, who was informally part of his clan of actors. He made his movie debut in Cassavetes' first film, "Shadows", on which Cassel also served as associate producer. In 1961 he co-starred with Cassavetes in "Too Late Blues" and 1962's "The Webster Boy".


title: Seymour Cassel

text: Cassel also appeared in "The Lloyd Bridges Show" in the episode "A Pair of Boots", directed by his friend Cassavetes. Cassel appeared on such popular programs as "Twelve O'Clock High", "Combat!", and "The F.B.I." He also appeared as "Cancelled", one of Colonel Gumm's henchmen in the 1960s "Batman" TV episode "A Piece of the Action", which also featured guest stars Van Williams and Bruce Lee as The Green Hornet and Kato, respectively.


title: Seymour Cassel

text: In 1968, Cassel was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Chet in John Cassavetes's "Faces". Other collaborations with Cassavetes included a starring role with Gena Rowlands in "Minnie and Moskowitz", supporting roles in "The Killing of a Chinese Bookie" and "Love Streams", and a cameo appearance in "Opening Night".


title: Seymour Cassel

text: Cassel appeared in many major Hollywood productions such as "Dick Tracy", "Tin Men", and "Indecent Proposal". He was also very supportive of the American independent film community, especially in the wake of Cassavetes's death. Cassel had a small role in Steve Buscemi's directorial debut "Trees Lounge" and appeared in three films by Wes Anderson: "Rushmore", "The Royal Tenenbaums" and "The Life Aquatic". Cassel appeared for four seasons on comedian Tracey Ullman's television series "Tracey Takes On...".


title: Seymour Cassel

text: Guitarist Slash, who was childhood friends with Cassel's son, credited Cassel with giving him his nickname, because he was "always zipping from one place to another and never sitting still."


title: Seymour Cassel

text: In September 2007, Cassel was a candidate for national president of the Screen Actors Guild, along with Charley M. De La Peña, Alan Rosenberg (incumbent), and Barry Simmonds.


title: Seymour Cassel

text: In 2009, Cassel was once again a candidate for national president of the Screen Actors Guild along with Anne Marie Johnson and Ken Howard. Howard was the eventual winner.


title: Seymour Cassel

text: In 2012, the Oldenburg Film Festival in Germany introduced an actors' prize named the "Seymour Cassel Award".


title: Seymour Cassel

text: He won the National Society of Film Critics Awards, USA award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in "Faces".


title: Dutch guilder

text: The guilder (, ) or florin was the currency of the Netherlands from the 15th century until 2002, when it was replaced by the euro.


title: Dutch guilder

text: The Dutch name "gulden" was a Middle Dutch adjective meaning "golden", and reflects the fact that, when first introduced in 1434, its value was about equal to (i.e., it was on par with) the Italian gold florin. The Dutch guilder was a "de facto" reserve currency in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.


title: Dutch guilder

text: Between 1999 and 2002, the guilder was officially a "national subunit" of the euro. However, physical payments could only be made in guilders, as no euro coins or banknotes were available. The exact exchange rate, still relevant for old contracts and for exchange of the old currency for euros at the central bank, is 2.20371 Dutch guilders for 1 euro. Inverted, this gives 0.453780 euros for 1 guilder.


title: Dutch guilder

text: Derived from the Dutch guilder are the Netherlands Antillean guilder (still in use in Curaçao and Sint Maarten) and the Surinamese guilder (replaced in 2004 by the Surinamese dollar).


title: Dutch guilder

text: The "gulden" emerged as the official currency of the Burgundian Netherlands after the 1434 monetary reform done under Philip the Good. This table summarizes the gulden's value in terms of silver until the gold standard was introduced in 1875.


title: Dutch guilder

text: Prior to 1434 the Dutch issued currency conforming to the Carolingian monetary system, with the Pound divided into 20 shillings and the shilling divided into 12 pennies. Dutch versions of the penny first came out in the 9th century, followed by local versions of the one-shilling in the 13th century. The most notable version of the latter, the Flemish "grote", subsequently depreciated faster than its counterparts in France, from its initial fine silver content of 4.044 g, to around 2.5 g by 1350 AD, and to just 0.815 g before the reforms of 1434.


title: Dutch guilder

text: Philip the Good devised a monetary system in 1434 relating the new Dutch currency to that of its neighbors: the French livre parisis of 38.25 g silver, and the English pound sterling of 215.8 g. The following units were defined:


title: Dutch guilder

text: The "stuiver" weighed 3.4 g of silver fineness and was divided into 8 "duiten" or 16 "penningen". As each stuiver was worth approximately 2 English pence, Dutch silver denominations of 1 duit and , , 1 & 2 stuivers neatly matched with English denominations of , , 1, 2 & 4 pence sterling.


title: Dutch guilder

text: French écus, English nobles & Dutch florins comprised the gold currency of the Low Countries and had a variable rate against the stuiver. A denomination worth 1 Gulden did not exist until the 1464 issue of the "Sint Andries florin" containing 2.735 g of fine gold, but this was a mere two years before the resumption of debasements in the stuiver.


title: Dutch guilder

text: The stuiver modestly depreciated between 1466 and 1475 before incurring more significant debasements up to the end of the 15th century. From 1469 to 1475 an agreement with England made the English groat (4-pence; 2.88 g fine silver) mutually exchangeable with the Burgundian "double patard" (or 2-"stuiver") minted under Charles the Rash.


title: Dutch guilder

text: Follow-up attempts to issue 1-gulden coins resulted in the minting of the gold Karolusgulden of 1.77 g fine gold in 1520, and the silver Karolusgulden of 19.07 grams fine silver in 1541. The bullion content of French and English currencies would eventually approach this value, with the French livre parisis becoming 20.4 g fine silver in 1549, and th of a pound sterling becoming 19.2 g fine silver in 1551.


title: Dutch guilder

text: The pace of depreciation of the Gulden quickened in the second half of the 16th century amidst the huge influx of precious metals from Germany & Spanish America arriving through the Habsburg Netherlands.


title: Dutch guilder

text: The loss in silver content of local Dutch coins in the form of "stuivers", (6 stuivers) and ( gulden or 30 stuivers) was the result of different provinces continually testing the market with coins of slightly reduced silver, aiming for their acceptance at par with full-bodied coins. As the Northern Dutch Republic just declared its independence from the Spanish crown, there was no central authority powerful enough to penalize the provinces responsible for the deterioration of the quality of Dutch currency. The inevitable official acceptance of new, debased rates for the gulden only set the stage for the next round of depreciations.


title: Dutch guilder

text: As a result, the gulden equivalent of different trade coins passing through the Low Countries also rose in value, as follows:


title: Dutch guilder

text: The solution which immediately halted the downward spiral of the gulden was the establishment of the Amsterdam Wisselbank (Bank of Amsterdam) in 1609, mandated to accept & assay the bullion content of coins received from its depositors, and then to credit the equivalent of 1 Rijksdaalder ( gulden after 1618) for each 25.40 g fine silver actually received. Combined with rules requiring payments above 600 gulden to be cleared through the bank, it halted incentives for provinces to tamper with the silver content of its coins.


title: Dutch guilder

text: In 1626, Pieter Schaghen wrote in Dutch of the purchase of "the Island Manhattes" (Manhattan) "from the Indians for the value of 60 guilders."


title: Dutch guilder

text: Even with the Bank of Amsterdam's success in halting the depreciation of Dutch currency, attempts to further increase the stuiver equivalent of trade coins continued among the provinces. After the 1630s came moves to raise the Patagon's value from 48 to 50 stuivers (4.17% advance), followed by moves to raise the Ducaton's value from 60 to 63 stuivers (5.0% advance). Fearing damage to its Europe-wide reputation if 50-stuiver deposits in rixdollars were repaid in cheaper 50-stuiver patagons, in the 1640s the bank firmly rejected the advanced values of these coins and upheld its old values of 48 and 60 stuivers.


title: Dutch guilder

text: This was the origin of a permanent Gulden Banco valued at 5% more against provincial Gulden currency valuations. In 1659 the Dutch Republic made this duality permanent by issuing its own trade coins, namely:


title: Dutch guilder

text: The result was a Gulden Banco unit of 10.15 g silver & a Gulden currency unit of 9.67 g silver as determined from the ducaton. These reforms helped cement the Dutch Republic's role as Europe's financial center, made the Bank of Amsterdam the world's first modern central bank, and made the bank-stabilized Gulden as Europe's "de facto" reserve currency until the end of the 18th century. In 1694, a new mint ordinance recognized the gulden as a valid coin for the entire Republic.


title: Dutch guilder

text: As the bank was also an active reseller of "negotiepenningen", or trade coins that happen to be undervalued in the Netherlands (e.g. older rixdollars still valued at 50 stuivers currency), Dutch trade coins like liondollars, rixdollars & silver ducats were exported and became staple currency for the rest of Europe until the end of the 18th century. The Royal Dutch Mint still mints the famed silver ducat to this day.


title: Dutch guilder

text: A silver 1-gulden denomination weighing 10.61 g, 0.91 fine, was minted by the States of Holland and West Friesland in 1680. The gulden design featured Pallas Athena standing, holding a spear topped by a hat in her right hand, resting with her left forearm on Gospels set on an ornate basis, with a small shield in the legend.


title: Dutch guilder

text: Following the collapse of the Bank of Amsterdam in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1817 the United Kingdom of the Netherlands redefined the Gulden as either 9.613 g silver or 0.60561 g gold. It was decimally divided into 100 cents, and the 1-Gulden coin was permanently issued. This standard was doomed to fail due to


title: Dutch guilder

text: Following Belgium's secession from the Netherlands in 1830, a more permanent solution was implemented in 1840 by reducing the Gulden to 9.45 g fine silver and repealing its fixed equivalence in gold.


title: Dutch guilder

text: As a result of the adoption of the Gold Standard by the newly established German Empire in 1873, the Netherlands in 1875 repealed the free coinage of silver into Gulden coins, substituted by the free coinage of gold into 10-Gulden coins containing 6.048 g fine gold. This arrangement continued until the worldwide suspension of the gold standard in 1914 due to the First World War. The gold standard was revived in 1925 but was abandoned in 1936.


title: Dutch guilder

text: In 1914 the guilder was traded at a rate of 2.46 guilders = 1 U.S. dollar. As of 1938, the rate was 1.82 guilders = 1 U.S. dollar. One Dutch guilder in 1914 could buy roughly the same amount of goods and services as 10.02 U.S. dollars or 8.17 euros in December 2017. In 1938, the guilder purchasing power would be approximately equal to 9.54 U.S. dollars or 7.78 euros in December 2017. Overall, the guilder remained a very stable currency and was also the third highest-valued currency unit in Europe in the interwar period (after the British Pound Sterling and the Irish pound, which, at this time, were pegged to each other at par).


title: Dutch guilder

text: Following the German occupation, on 10 May 1940, the guilder was pegged to the Reichsmark at a rate of 1 guilder = 1.5 Reichsmark. This rate was reduced to 1.327 on 17 July of the same year. The liberating Allied forces set an exchange rate of 2.652 guilders = 1 U.S. dollar, which became the peg for the guilder within the Bretton Woods system. In 1949, the peg was changed to 3.8 guilders = 1 dollar, approximately matching the devaluation of the British pound. In 1961, the guilder was revalued to 3.62 guilders = 1 dollar, a change approximately in line with that of the German mark. After 1967 guilders were made from nickel instead of silver.


title: Dutch guilder

text: In 2002, the guilder was replaced by the euro at an exchange rate of 2.20371 guilders = 1 Euro. Coins remained exchangeable for euros at branches of the Netherlands Central Bank until 1 January 2007. Most guilder banknotes that were valid at the time of conversion can be exchanged until the deadline of 1 January 2032. There are some exceptions to this, and furthermore no banknote received as payment for commercial goods or services after 27 January 2002 is exchangeable. Refer Banknotes of the Dutch guilder for a full list of guilder Banknotes and their last valid exchange date.


title: Dutch guilder

text: In the 18th century, coins were issued by the various provinces. There were copper 1 duit, silver 1, 2, 6 and 10 stuivers, 1 and 3 guilders, and 1 silver ducat rijksdaalder and and 1 silver rider ducaton. Gold 1 and 2 ducat trade coins were also minted. Between 1795 and 1806, the Batavian Republic issued coins in similar denominations to the earlier provincial issues. The Kingdom of Holland minted silver 10 stuivers, 1 florin and 1 guilder (equivalent), 50 stuivers and guilder (also equivalent) and 1 rijksdaalder, along with gold 10 and 20 guilders. Before decimalization, the Kingdom of the Netherlands briefly issued some 1 rijksdaalder coins.


title: Dutch guilder

text: In 1817, the first coins of the decimal currency were issued, the copper 1 cent and silver 3 guilders. The remaining denominations were introduced in 1818. These were copper cents, silver 5, 10 and 25 cents, and 1 guilder, and gold 10 guilders. In 1826, gold 5-guilder coins were introduced.


title: Dutch guilder

text: In 1840, the silver content of the coinage was reduced (see above) and this was marked by the replacement of the 3 guilder coin by a guilder piece. The gold coinage was completely suspended in 1853, five years after the suspension of the gold standard. By 1874, production of silver coins greater in value than 10 cents had ceased, to be only fully resumed in the 1890s. Gold 10 guilder coins were struck again from 1875. In 1877, bronze cent coins were introduced. In 1907, silver 5-cent coins were replaced by round, cupro-nickel pieces. These were later replaced in 1913 by square shaped 5 cent pieces. In 1912, gold 5-guilder coins were reintroduced but the gold coinage was ended in 1933. The guilder saw discontinuation after 1930. Throughout the Wilhelmina period, a number of infrequent changes were made to the 10 and 25 cent coins as well, with the largest changes being periodic updates of the Queen's effigy and smaller changes to designs on the reverse (back).


title: Dutch guilder

text: In 1941, following the German occupation, production of all earlier coin types ceased and zinc coins were introduced by the occupational government for 1, , 5, 10 and 25 cents. Large quantities of pre-war type silver 10 and 25 cent and 1 guilder coins were minted in the United States between 1943 and 1945 for use following liberation. Afterwards, the zinc coins were quickly demonetized and melted.


title: Dutch guilder

text: In 1948, all half cents and cents were taken out of circulation, though no further production of either denomination had continued after 1940 and 1942, respectively. New bronze 1 and 5 cent coins featuring Queen Wilhelmina on the obverse were issued, phasing out previous types. At the same time, new nickel 10 and 25 cent coins were introduced. In 1949, 1 and guilder banknotes were introduced. Five years later, the silver 1-guilder coin was reintroduced, followed by the silver guilder coin in 1959. The silver content was replaced with nickel in 1967, although no guilder coins were minted in 1967 and 1968. The silver coins were demonetized in 1973. In 1950, Queen Juliana's profile replaced the image of Wilhelmina on the obverse (front) of all coins.


title: Dutch guilder

text: In 1980, production of the 1-cent coin ceased and was demonetized three years later. Soon after, it was decided to replace the 5-guilder banknote with a coin of the same value. However, it was not until 1988 that a bronze-coated nickel 5 guilder coin was finally introduced. The 5 guilder banknote remained legal tender until 1995. The guilder coin gradually began losing widespread use shortly after the introduction of the 5 guilder coin, and mintage figures for the denomination declined until the discontinuation of the guilder. 1980 also saw a circulating two coin commemorative series of 1 and guilder coins celebrating Queen Beatrix's ascension to the throne.


title: Dutch guilder

text: All circulating coins went through a complete redesign in 1982, a short while after Queen Beatrix's coronation. They depict abstract designs featuring grids and a layered silhouette profile of the Queen as opposed to the more formal designs of the previous generation of coins. Production of these coins ceased after 2001.


title: Dutch guilder

text: All the coins carried a profile image of the Queen on the obverse and a simple grid on the other side. The 1-guilder, guilder, and 5-guilder coins had "God zij met ons" ("God be with us") inscribed on the edge.


title: Dutch guilder

text: Between 1814 and 1838, The Dutch Bank issued notes in denominations of 25, 40, 60, 80, 100, 200, 300, 500 and 1000 guilders. These were followed, from 1846 by state notes ("muntbiljetten") in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 1000 guilders, with the 10 and 50 guilders issued until 1914.