title: Voting

text: In Gambia, voting is carried out using marbles. The method was introduced in 1965 to deal with illiteracy. Polling stations contain metal drums painted in party colours and emblems with candidates' photos attached to them. Voters are given a marble to place in the drum of their chosen candidate; when dropped into the drum, a bell sounds to register the vote. To avoid confusion, bicycles are banned near polling booths on election day. If the marble is left on top of the drum rather than placed in it, the vote is deemed invalid.


title: Voting

text: A similar system used in social clubs sees voters given a white ball to indicate support and a black ball to indicate opposition. This led to the coining of the term blackballing.


title: Voting

text: Some votes are carried in person if all the people eligible to vote are present. This could be by a show of hands or keypad polling.


title: Cyberspace

text: Cyberspace is a concept describing a widespread interconnected digital technology. "The expression dates back from the first decade of the diffusion of the internet. It refers to the online world as a world 'apart', as distinct from everyday reality. In cyberspace people can hide behind fake identities, as in the famous The New Yorker cartoon." (Delfanti, Arvidsson, 150) The term entered popular culture from science fiction and the arts but is now used by technology strategists, security professionals, government, military and industry leaders and entrepreneurs to describe the domain of the global technology environment, commonly defined as standing for the global network of interdependent information technology infrastructures, telecommunications networks and computer processing systems. Others consider cyberspace to be just a notional environment in which communication over computer networks occurs. The word became popular in the 1990s when the use of the Internet, networking, and digital communication were all growing dramatically; the term "cyberspace" was able to represent the many new ideas and phenomena that were emerging.


title: Cyberspace

text: As a social experience, individuals can interact, exchange ideas, share information, provide social support, conduct business, direct actions, create artistic media, play games, engage in political discussion, and so on, using this global network. They are sometimes referred to as "cybernauts". The term "cyberspace" has become a conventional means to describe anything associated with the Internet and the diverse Internet culture. The United States government recognizes the interconnected information technology and the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures operating across this medium as part of the US national critical infrastructure. Amongst individuals on cyberspace, there is believed to be a code of shared rules and ethics mutually beneficial for all to follow, referred to as cyberethics. Many view the right to privacy as most important to a functional code of cyberethics. Such moral responsibilities go hand in hand when working online with global networks, specifically, when opinions are involved with online social experiences.


title: Cyberspace

text: According to Chip Morningstar and F. Randall Farmer, cyberspace is defined more by the social interactions involved rather than its technical implementation. In their view, the computational medium in cyberspace is an augmentation of the communication channel between real people; the core characteristic of cyberspace is that it offers an environment that consists of many participants with the ability to affect and influence each other. They derive this concept from the observation that people seek richness, complexity, and depth within a virtual world.


title: Cyberspace

text: The term "cyberspace" first appeared in the visual arts in the late 1960s, when Danish artist Susanne Ussing (1940-1998) and her partner architect Carsten Hoff (b. 1934) constituted themselves as Atelier Cyberspace. Under this name the two made a series of installations and images entitled "sensory spaces" that were based on the principle of open systems adaptable to various influences, such as human movement and the behaviour of new materials.


title: Cyberspace

text: Atelier Cyberspace worked at a time when the Internet did not exist and computers were more or less off-limit to artists and creative engagement. In a 2015-interview with Scandinavian art magazine Kunstkritikk, Carsten Hoff recollects, that although Atelier Cyberspace did try to implement computers, they had no interest in the virtual space as such:


title: Cyberspace

text: The works of Atelier Cyberspace were originally shown at a number of Copenhagen venues and have later been exhibited at The National Gallery of Denmark in Copenhagen as part of the exhibition "What's Happening?"


title: Cyberspace

text: The term "cyberspace" first appeared in fiction in the 1980s in the work of cyberpunk science fiction author William Gibson, first in his 1982 short story "Burning Chrome" and later in his 1984 novel "Neuromancer". In the next few years, the word became prominently identified with online computer networks. The portion of "Neuromancer" cited in this respect is usually the following:


title: Cyberspace

text: Now widely used, the term has since been criticized by Gibson, who commented on the origin of the term in the 2000 documentary "No Maps for These Territories":


title: Cyberspace

text: Don Slater uses a metaphor to define cyberspace, describing the "sense of a social setting that exists purely within a space of representation and communication ... it exists entirely within a computer space, distributed across increasingly complex and fluid networks." The term "Cyberspace" started to become a de facto synonym for the Internet, and later the World Wide Web, during the 1990s, especially in academic circles and activist communities. Author Bruce Sterling, who popularized this meaning, credits John Perry Barlow as the first to use it to refer to "the present-day nexus of computer and telecommunications networks". Barlow describes it thus in his essay to announce the formation of the Electronic Frontier Foundation (note the spatial metaphor) in June 1990:


title: Cyberspace

text: As Barlow, and the EFF continued public education efforts to promote the idea of "digital rights", the term was increasingly used during the Internet boom of the late 1990s.


title: Cyberspace

text: Although the present-day, loose use of the term "cyberspace" no longer implies or suggests immersion in a virtual reality, current technology allows the integration of a number of capabilities (sensors, signals, connections, transmissions, processors, and controllers) sufficient to generate a virtual interactive experience that is accessible regardless of a geographic location. It is for these reasons cyberspace has been described as the ultimate tax haven.


title: Cyberspace

text: In 1989, Autodesk, an American multinational corporation that focuses on 2D and 3D design software, developed a virtual design system called Cyberspace.


title: Cyberspace

text: Although several definitions of cyberspace can be found both in scientific literature and in official governmental sources, there is no fully agreed official definition yet. According to F. D. Kramer there are 28 different definitions of the term cyberspace. See in particular the following links: "Cyberpower and National Security: Policy Recommendations for a Strategic Framework," in Cyberpower and National Security, FD Kramer, S. Starr, L.K. Wentz (ed.), National Defense University Press, Washington (DC) 2009; see also Mayer, M., Chiarugi, I., De Scalzi, N., https://www.academia.edu/14336129/International_Politics_in_the_Digital_Age.


title: Cyberspace

text: The Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States Department of Defense define cyberspace as one of five interdependent domains, the remaining four being land, air, maritime, and space. "See United States Cyber Command"


title: Cyberspace

text: While cyberspace should not be confused with the Internet, the term is often used to refer to objects and identities that exist largely within the communication network itself, so that a website, for example, might be metaphorically said to "exist in cyberspace". According to this interpretation, events taking place on the Internet are not happening in the locations where participants or servers are physically located, but "in cyberspace". The philosopher Michel Foucault used the term heterotopias, to describe such spaces which are simultaneously physical and mental.


title: Cyberspace

text: Firstly, cyberspace describes the flow of digital data through the network of interconnected computers: it is at once not "real", since one could not spatially locate it as a tangible object, and clearly "real" in its effects. There have been several attempts to create a concise model about how cyberspace works since it is not a physical thing that can be looked at. Secondly, cyberspace is the site of computer-mediated communication (CMC), in which online relationships and alternative forms of online identity were enacted, raising important questions about the social psychology of Internet use, the relationship between "online" and "offline" forms of life and interaction, and the relationship between the "real" and the virtual. Cyberspace draws attention to remediation of culture through new media technologies: it is not just a communication tool but a social destination and is culturally significant in its own right. Finally, cyberspace can be seen as providing new opportunities to reshape society and culture through "hidden" identities, or it can be seen as borderless communication and culture.


title: Cyberspace

text: The "space" in cyberspace has more in common with the abstract, mathematical meanings of the term (see space) than physical space. It does not have the duality of positive and negative volume (while in physical space, for example, a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls, Internet users cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the Internet as an extension of the space they are in), but spatial meaning can be attributed to the relationship between different pages (of books as well as web servers), considering the unturned pages to be somewhere "out there." The concept of cyberspace, therefore, refers not to the content being presented to the surfer, but rather to the possibility of surfing among different sites, with feedback loops between the user and the rest of the system creating the potential to always encounter something unknown or unexpected.


title: Cyberspace

text: Video games differ from text-based communication in that on-screen images are meant to be figures that actually occupy a space and the animation shows the movement of those figures. Images are supposed to form the positive volume that delineates the empty space. A game adopts the cyberspace metaphor by engaging more players in the game, and then figuratively representing them on the screen as avatars. Games do not have to stop at the avatar-player level, but current implementations aiming for more immersive playing space (i.e. Laser tag) take the form of augmented reality rather than cyberspace, fully immersive virtual realities remaining impractical.


title: Cyberspace

text: Although the more radical consequences of the global communication network predicted by some cyberspace proponents (i.e. the diminishing of state influence envisioned by John Perry Barlow) failed to materialize and the word lost some of its novelty appeal, it remains current .


title: Cyberspace

text: Some virtual communities explicitly refer to the concept of cyberspace, for example Linden Lab calling their customers "Residents" of Second Life, while all such communities can be positioned "in cyberspace" for explanatory and comparative purposes (as did Sterling in "The Hacker Crackdown", followed by many journalists), integrating the metaphor into a wider cyber-culture.


title: Cyberspace

text: The metaphor has been useful in helping a new generation of thought leaders to reason through new military strategies around the world, led largely by the US Department of Defense (DoD). The use of cyberspace as a metaphor has had its limits, however, especially in areas where the metaphor becomes confused with physical infrastructure. It has also been critiqued as being unhelpful for falsely employing a spatial metaphor to describe what is inherently a network.


title: Cyberspace

text: A forerunner of the modern ideas of cyberspace is the Cartesian notion that people might be deceived by an evil demon that feeds them a false reality. This argument is the direct predecessor of modern ideas of a brain in a vat and many popular conceptions of cyberspace take Descartes's ideas as their starting point.


title: Cyberspace

text: Visual arts have a tradition, stretching back to antiquity, of artifacts meant to fool the eye and be mistaken for reality. This questioning of reality occasionally led some philosophers and especially theologians to distrust art as deceiving people into entering a world which was not real (see Aniconism). The artistic challenge was resurrected with increasing ambition as art became more and more realistic with the invention of photography, film (see "Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat"), and immersive computer simulations.


title: Cyberspace

text: American counterculture exponents like William S. Burroughs (whose literary influence on Gibson and cyberpunk in general is widely acknowledged) and Timothy Leary were among the first to extol the potential of computers and computer networks for individual empowerment.


title: Cyberspace

text: Some contemporary philosophers and scientists (e.g. David Deutsch in "The Fabric of Reality") employ virtual reality in various thought experiments. For example, Philip Zhai in "Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality" connects cyberspace to the Platonic tradition:


title: Cyberspace

text: Note that this brain-in-a-vat argument conflates cyberspace with reality, while the more common descriptions of cyberspace contrast it with the "real world".


title: Cyberspace

text: The “Geography of Notopia” (Papadimitriou, 2006) theorizes about the complex interplay of cyber-cultures and the geographical space. This interplay has several philosophical and psychological facets (Papadimitriou, 2009).


title: Cyberspace

text: The technological convergence of the mass media is the result of a long adaptation process of their communicative resources to the evolutionary changes of each historical moment. Thus, the new media became (plurally) an extension of the traditional media in cyberspace, allowing to the public access information in a wide range of digital devices. In other words, it is a cultural virtualization of human reality as a result of the migration from physical to virtual space (mediated by the ICTs), ruled by codes, signs and particular social relationships. Forwards, arise instant ways of communication, interaction and possible quick access to information, in which we are no longer mere senders, but also producers, reproducers, co-workers and providers. New technologies also help to "connect" people from different cultures outside the virtual space, which was unthinkable fifty years ago. In this giant relationships web, we mutually absorb each other's beliefs, customs, values, laws and habits, cultural legacies perpetuated by a physical-virtual dynamics in constant metamorphosis (ibidem). In this sense, Professor Doctor Marcelo Mendonça Teixeira created, in 2013, a new model of communication to the virtual universe, based in Claude Elwood Shannon (1948) article "A Mathematical Theory of Communication".


title: Cyberspace

text: Having originated among writers, the concept of cyberspace remains most popular in literature and film. Although artists working with other media have expressed interest in the concept, such as Roy Ascott, "cyberspace" in digital art is mostly used as a synonym for immersive virtual reality and remains more discussed than enacted.


title: Cyberspace

text: Cyberspace also brings together every service and facility imaginable to expedite money laundering. One can purchase anonymous credit cards, bank accounts, encrypted global mobile telephones, and false passports. From there one can pay professional advisors to set up IBCs (International Business Corporations, or corporations with anonymous ownership) or similar structures in OFCs (Offshore Financial Centers). Such advisors are loath to ask any penetrating questions about the wealth and activities of their clients, since the average fees criminals pay them to launder their money can be as much as 20 percent.


title: Cyberspace

text: In 2010, a five-level model was designed in France. According to this model, cyberspace is composed of five layers based on information discoveries: 1) language, 2) writing, 3) printing, 4) Internet, 5) Etc., i.e. the rest, e.g. noosphere, artificial life, artificial intelligence, etc., etc. This original model links the world of information to telecommunication technologies.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: Ghulam Nabi Azad (born 7 March 1949) is an Indian politician who served as Leader of Opposition in Rajya Sabha between 2014 to 2021. He also served as the Chief Minister of erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir from 2005 to 2008. On 26 September 2022, Azad announced his own political party as Democratic Azad Party. He is the chief patron cum founder of Democratic Azad Party.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: Azad served as Minister of Health and Family Welfare. He has served as the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs in the Manmohan Singh government until 27 October 2005, when he was appointed as the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. On 26 August 2022, Azad resigned from Indian National Congress and mulled creating a new party at the national level.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: He also led the party successfully in the 2002 Assembly election in Jammu and Kashmir. He was bestowed with the Padma Bhushan, India's third highest civilian award, in 2022 by the Indian Government in the field of Public Affairs.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: Ghulam Nabi Azad was born in a village named Soti of Gandoh tehsil (Bhalessa) in the formerly princely state of Jammu and Kashmir's Doda district. His parents were Rahamatullah Batt and Basa Begum. He attended the local school in his village. Later for higher studies he moved to Jammu and received his Bachelor's of Science degree from G.G.M. Science College. Furthermore, he also received a Master's in Zoology degree from the University of Kashmir, Srinagar in 1972.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: Azad started his career soon after working as the secretary for the Block Congress Committee in Bhalessa in 1973. Two years later, he was nominated as the President of the Jammu and Kashmir Pradesh Youth Congress. In 1980, he was appointed as the President of the All-India Youth Congress.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: After being elected to the Seventh Lok Sabha from Maharashtra's Washim (Lok Sabha constituency) in 1980, Azad entered into the Central government as Deputy Minister in charge of Law, Justice and Company Affairs Ministry in 1982.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: Subsequently, he was elected to the Eighth Lok Sabha in 1984 and was a member (1990 - 1996) from Maharashtra in Rajya Sabha. During Rao's government, Azad took charge of Parliamentary Affairs and Civil Aviation ministries. He was subsequently elected to Rajya Sabha from Jammu and Kashmir during the term of 30 November 1996 to 29 November 2002 and 30 November 2002 to 29 November 2008, but resigned on 29 April 2006 as he became Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir on 2 November 2005.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: The People's Democratic Party, a coalition partner of the Indian National Congress in Jammu and Kashmir, withdrew its support for Azad's government, and rather than attempt to sustain his government by requesting a vote of confidence, Azad resigned on 7 July 2008, and later left office on 11 July 2008.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: In the second United Progressive Alliance Government, led by Dr. Manmohan Singh, Mr. Azad, was sworn in as the Health Minister of India. He was elected to Rajya Sabha for fourth term and third term from Jammu and Kashmir during the term of 30 November 1996 to 29 November 2002. He vowed to expand the National Rural Health Mission, which has mobilized half a million health workers, all across India, and later his ministry also launched a National Urban Health Mission, to serve the slum dwelling urban poor.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: He has suggested a late marriage age of between 25 and 30 for population control, and has said that lack of electricity & thereby absence of TV entertainment in rural areas will cause people to produce more children.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: In June 2014, after the National Democratic Alliance won a majority in the Lok Sabha and formed the Union government, Azad was appointed as the leader of opposition in the Rajya Sabha, where Congress still held the majority.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: In 2015, Azad got re-elected to the Rajya Sabha from Jammu and Kashmir, despite the PDP-BJP alliance holding a majority of seats in the Legislative Assembly.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: In August 2022, Azad resigned from the post of chairman of the Jammu and Kashmir Congress campaign committee hours after his appointment. Sonia Gandhi accepted the resignation from Azad. On 26th August 2022, he resigned from all positions including primary membership of the party. In his resignation letter, he cited destruction of consultative process by Rahul Gandhi as a reason.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: On 4 September 2022, Azad announced the formation of a new political party after resigning from Congress. He said the people of Jammu and Kashmir will decide the name and the flag for the new party.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: On 26 September 2022, Azad announced the name of his new party as Democratic Azad Party. The flag of the Democratic Azad Party has three colours: mustard, white, and blue.


title: Ghulam Nabi Azad

text: Azad married Shameem Dev Azad, a well known Kashmiri singer, in 1980, and they have a son Saddam Nabi Azad and a daughter Sofiya Nabi Azad.


title: Avicii Arena

text: Avicii Arena, originally known as Stockholm Globe Arena and previously as Ericsson Globe, but commonly referred to in Swedish simply as Globen (; "the Globe"), is an indoor arena located in Stockholm Globe City, Johanneshov district of Stockholm, Sweden.


title: Avicii Arena

text: The arena represents the Sun in the Sweden Solar System, the world's largest scale model of the Solar System.


title: Avicii Arena

text: Avicii Arena is the largest spherical building on Earth and took two and a half years to build. It has a diameter of and an inner height of . The volume of the building is and it has a seating capacity of 16,000 spectators for shows and concerts, and 13,850 for ice hockey. In the upper area there are 40 VIP boxes and a restaurant.


title: Avicii Arena

text: The steel, concrete and glass construction designed by the architects Berg Arkitektkontor AB is supported by a MERO space structure. It represents the Sun in the Sweden Solar System, the world's largest scale model of the Solar System.


title: Avicii Arena

text: The first major events were Melodifestivalen, the Ice Hockey World Championships and the Men's European Volleyball Chamiponships.


title: Avicii Arena

text: In 2009, the naming rights to the Stockholm Globe Arena were officially acquired by Swedish telecommunications company Ericsson, and it became known as the Ericsson Globe.


title: Avicii Arena

text: In 2021, it was announced that the arena would be renamed the Avicii Arena in honour of the late Swedish DJ Avicii, who died in 2018. To commemorate the new name, the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra recorded a performance of the Avicii song "For a Better Day", with vocals provided by fourteen-year-old Swedish singer Ella Tiritiello.


title: Avicii Arena

text: The Globe is primarily used for ice hockey, and is the former home arena of AIK, Djurgårdens IF, and Hammarby IF. It is also used for musical performances as well as other sports than ice hockey, for example futsal (indoor football). The third team to play a home game in their league was Huddinge IK (three home games there, all in 1993), followed by Hammarby IF (20 home games in The Globen to this day) and AC Camelen (one game in 1998, in the sixth level league, with 92 spectators).


title: Avicii Arena

text: The first international game played in Globen was between Hammarby IF (Sweden) and Jokerit (Finland) a couple of weeks before the grand opening, although the players were only 12 years old at the time (born 1977) and it was a friendly game.


title: Avicii Arena

text: The arena has been the home of the finals of Sveriges Television's yearly music competition "Melodifestivalen" until 2012. The show returns to the arena for the first three heats of the 2022 competition. Ericsson Globe hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in 2000 and 2016.


title: Avicii Arena

text: In March 2021, it hosted the World Figure Skating Championships despite the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. In November 2021, it hosted the tournament Major Stockholm 2021.


title: Avicii Arena

text: A small cottage in aluminum with a base was placed upon the Globe on 26 May 2009. The artist, Mikael Genberg, intended it to illustrate two important symbols for Sweden: the high-technology Globe building and the traditional, simple small countryside cottage in Falu red with house corners painted in white. The house was positioned some distance from the exact top position of the Globe. Genberg also hoped to eventually place a similar cottage on the Moon. The cottage remained on the Globe until October 2009.


title: Avicii Arena

text: Skyview is an exterior inclined elevator which transports visitors to the top of the arena for a virtually unobstructed view of Stockholm.


title: Avicii Arena

text: It has two spherical gondolas, each able to accommodate up to 12 passengers, which travel along parallel tracks on the exterior of the south side of the globe.


title: K. Raghavendra Rao

text: Kovelamudi Raghavendra Rao (born 23 May 1942) is an Indian film director, screenwriter, and producer known for his works predominantly in Telugu cinema besides having directed a few Hindi films. He has garnered four state Nandi Awards and five Filmfare Awards South. In a film career spanning more than four decades, Rao has directed more than a hundred feature films across multiple genres such as romantic comedy, fantasy, melodrama, action thriller, biographical and romance films.


title: K. Raghavendra Rao

text: Rao received the state Nandi Award for Best Director for his works such as "Bobbili Brahmanna" (1984), and "Pelli Sandadi" (1996). He garnered the Filmfare Award for Best Director – Telugu for the drama film "Prema Lekhalu" (1977), the fantasy film "Jagadeka Veerudu Athiloka Sundari" (1990), and the romance film "Allari Priyudu" (1993). Rao is known for his works in hagiographical films such as "Annamayya" (1997), which won two National Film Awards, and was also showcased at the 1998 International Film Festival of India in the mainstream section. Rao also received the Nandi Award for Best Direction, the Filmfare Award for Best Direction for his work in the film. His other hagiographic works such as "Sri Manjunatha" (2001), "Sri Ramadasu" (2006), "Shirdi Sai" (2012) and "Om Namo Venkatesaya" (2017), received several state honours.


title: K. Raghavendra Rao

text: His mainstream works such as the 1987 social problem film "Agni Putrudu", and the 1988 action thriller "Aakhari Poratam", were screened at the 11th and 12th International Film Festival of India respectively in the mainstream section. In 1992, he directed the melodrama "Gharana Mogudu" which premiered at the 1993 International Film Festival of India in the mainstream section. It became the first Telugu film to gross over at the box office. Next, he directed the instant hit "Allari Priyudu" (1993), which also premiered at the 1994 International Film Festival of India in the mainstream section.


title: K. Raghavendra Rao

text: Raghavendra Rao was born on 23 May 1942 to veteran director K. S. Prakash Rao and Koteswaramma. He is also the father of actor turned filmmaker Prakash Kovelamudi. Raghavendra Rao was an executive member in the Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams Board from 2015 to 2019.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Roberto Bolaño Ávalos (; 28 April 1953 – 15 July 2003) was a Chilean novelist, short-story writer, poet and essayist. In 1999, Bolaño won the Rómulo Gallegos Prize for his novel "Los detectives salvajes" ("The Savage Detectives"), and in 2008 he was posthumously awarded the National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction for his novel "2666", which was described by board member Marcela Valdes as a "work so rich and dazzling that it will surely draw readers and scholars for ages". "The New York Times" described him as "the most significant Latin American literary voice of his generation".


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: In addition, the author enjoys excellent reviews from both writers and contemporary literary critics and is considered one of the great Latin American authors of the 20th century, along with other writers of the stature of Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortázar, with whom he is usually compared.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Bolaño was born in 1953 in Santiago, the son of a truck driver (who was also a boxer) and a teacher. He and his sister spent their early years in southern and coastal Chile. By his own account, he was skinny, nearsighted, and bookish: an unpromising child. He was dyslexic and was often bullied at school, where he felt like an outsider. He came from a lower-middle-class family, and while his mother was a fan of best-sellers, they were not an intellectual family. He had one younger sister. He was ten when he started his first job, selling bus tickets on the Quilpué-Valparaiso route. He spent the greater part of his childhood living in Los Ángeles, Bío Bío.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: In 1968 he moved with his family to Mexico City, dropped out of school, worked as a journalist, and became active in left-wing political causes.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: A key episode in Bolaño's life, mentioned in different forms in several of his works, occurred in 1973, when he left Mexico for Chile to "help build the revolution" by supporting the democratic socialist government of Salvador Allende. After Augusto Pinochet's right-wing military coup against Allende, Bolaño was arrested on suspicion of being a "terrorist" and spent eight days in custody. He was rescued by two former classmates who had become prison guards. Bolaño describes this experience in the story "Dance Card." According to the version of events he provides in this story, he was not tortured as he had expected, but "in the small hours I could hear them torturing others; I couldn't sleep and there was nothing to read except a magazine in English that someone had left behind. The only interesting article in it was about a house that had once belonged to Dylan Thomas... I got out of that hole thanks to a pair of detectives who had been at high school with me." The episode is also recounted, from the point of view of Bolaño's former classmates, in the story "Detectives." Nevertheless, since 2009 Bolaño's Mexican friends from that era have cast doubts on whether he was even in Chile in 1973 at all.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Bolaño had conflicted feelings about his native country. He was notorious in Chile for his fierce attacks on Isabel Allende and other members of the literary establishment. "He didn't fit into Chile, and the rejection that he experienced left him free to say whatever he wanted, which can be a good thing for a writer," commented Chilean-Argentinian novelist and playwright Ariel Dorfman.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: On his overland return from Chile to Mexico in 1974, Bolaño allegedly passed an interlude in El Salvador, spent in the company of the poet Roque Dalton and the guerrillas of the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, though the veracity of this episode has been cast into doubt.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: In the 1960s, Bolaño, an atheist since his youth, became a Trotskyist and in 1975 a founding member of Infrarrealismo (Infrarealism), a minor poetic movement. He affectionately parodied aspects of the movement in "The Savage Detectives".


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: On his return to Mexico he lived as a literary "enfant terrible" and bohemian poet, "a professional provocateur feared at all the publishing houses even though he was a nobody, bursting into literary presentations and readings", as recalled by his editor Jorge Herralde.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Bolaño moved to Europe in 1977, and finally made his way to Spain, where he married and settled on the Mediterranean coast near Barcelona, on the Costa Brava, working as a dishwasher, campground custodian, bellhop, and garbage collector. He used his spare time to write. From the 80's to his death, he lived in the small Catalan beach town of Blanes.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: He continued with poetry, before shifting to fiction in his early forties. In an interview Bolaño said that he began writing fiction because he felt responsible for the future financial well-being of his family, which he knew he could never secure from the earnings of a poet. This was confirmed by Jorge Herralde, who explained that Bolaño "abandoned his parsimonious beatnik existence" because the birth of his son in 1990 made him "decide that he was responsible for his family's future and that it would be easier to earn a living by writing fiction." However, he continued to think of himself primarily as a poet, and a collection of his verse, spanning 20 years, was published in 2000 under the title "Los perros románticos" ("The Romantic Dogs").


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Bolaño's death in 2003 came after a long period of declining health. He experienced liver failure and had been on a liver transplant waiting list while working on "2666"; he was third on the list at the time of his death.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Six weeks before he died, Bolaño's fellow Latin American novelists hailed him as the most important figure of his generation at an international conference he attended in Seville. Among his closest friends were the novelists Rodrigo Fresán and Enrique Vila-Matas; Fresán's tribute included the statement that "Roberto emerged as a writer at a time when Latin America no longer believed in utopias, when paradise had become hell, and that sense of monstrousness and waking nightmares and constant flight from something horrid permeates "2666" and all his work." "His books are political," Fresán also observed, "but in a way that is more personal than militant or demagogic, that is closer to the mystique of the beatniks than the "Boom"." In Fresán's view, he "was one of a kind, a writer who worked without a net, who went all out, with no brakes, and in doing so, created a new way to be a great Latin American writer." Larry Rohter of the "New York Times" wrote, "Bolaño joked about the 'posthumous', saying the word 'sounds like the name of a Roman gladiator, one who is undefeated,' and he would no doubt be amused to see how his stock has risen now that he is dead." On 1 July 2003, he was hospitalized with liver failure in the Vall d'Hebron University Hospital in Barcelona, where he died on 15 July.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Bolaño was survived by his Spanish wife and their two children, whom he once called "my only motherland". In his last interview, published by the Mexican edition of "Playboy" magazine, Bolaño said he regarded himself as a Latin American, adding that "my only country is my two children and wife and perhaps, though in second place, some moments, streets, faces or books that are in me, and which one day I will forget..."


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Although known for his novels and short stories, Bolaño was a prolific poet of free verse and prose poems. Bolaño, who saw himself primarily as a poet, said, "Poetry is more than enough for me," a character says in "The Savage Detectives", "although sooner or later I'm bound to commit the vulgarity of writing stories."


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: In rapid succession, he published a series of critically acclaimed works, the most important of which are the novel "Los detectives salvajes" ("The Savage Detectives"), the novella "Nocturno de Chile" ("By Night in Chile"), and, posthumously, the novel "2666". His two collections of short stories "Llamadas telefónicas" and "Putas asesinas" were awarded literary prizes. In 2009 a number of unpublished novels were discovered among the author's papers.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "The Skating Rink" ("La pista de hielo" in Spanish) is set in the seaside town of Z, on the Costa Brava, north of Barcelona and is told by three male narrators while revolving around a beautiful figure-skating champion, Nuria Martí. When she is suddenly dropped from the Olympic team, a pompous but besotted civil servant secretly builds a skating rink in a local ruin of a mansion, using public funds. But Nuria has affairs, provokes jealousy, and the skating rink becomes a crime scene.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "Nazi Literature in the Americas" ("La literatura Nazi en América" in Spanish) is an entirely fictitious, ironic encyclopedia of fascist Latin American and American writers and critics, blinded to their own mediocrity and sparse readership by passionate self-mythification. While this is a risk that literature generally runs in Bolaño's works, these characters stand out by force of the heinousness of their political philosophy. Published in 1996, the events of the book take place from the late 19th century up to 2029. The last portrait was expanded into a novel in "Distant Star".


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "Distant Star" ("Estrella distante" in Spanish) is a novella nested in the politics of the Pinochet regime, concerned with murder, photography and even poetry blazed across the sky by the smoke of air force planes. This dark satirical work deals with the history of Chilean politics in a morbid and sometimes humorous fashion.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "The Savage Detectives" ("Los detectives salvajes" in Spanish) has been compared by Jorge Edwards to Julio Cortázar's "Rayuela" and José Lezama Lima's "Paradiso".


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: In a review in "El País", the Spanish critic and former literary editor of said newspaper Ignacio Echevarría declared it "the novel that Borges would have written." (An avid reader, Bolaño often expressed his love for Borges and Cortázar's work, and once concluded an overview of contemporary Argentinian literature by saying that "one should read Borges more.") "Bolaño's genius is not just the extraordinary quality of his writing, but also that he does not conform to the paradigm of the Latin American writer", said Echeverria. "His writing is neither magical realism, nor baroque nor localist, but an imaginary, extraterritorial mirror of Latin America, more as a kind of state of mind than a specific place."


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: The central section of "The Savage Detectives" presents a long, fragmentary series of reports about the trips and adventures of Arturo Belano, an alliteratively named alter-ego, who also appears in other stories & novels, and Ulises Lima, between 1976 and 1996. These trips and adventures, narrated by 52 characters, take them from Mexico DF to Israel, Paris, Barcelona, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Vienna and finally to Liberia during its civil war in the mid-nineties. The reports are sandwiched at the beginning and end of the novel by the story of their quest to find Cesárea Tinajero, the founder of "real visceralismo", a Mexican avant-garde literary movement of the twenties, set in late 1975 and early 1976, and narrated by the aspiring 17-year-old poet García Madero, who tells us first about the poetic and social scene around the new "visceral realists" and later closes the novel with his account of their escape from Mexico City to the state of Sonora. Bolaño called "The Savage Detectives" "a love letter to my generation."


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "Amulet" ("Amuleto" in Spanish) focuses on the Uruguayan poet Auxilio Lacouture, who also appears in "The Savage Detectives" as a minor character trapped in a bathroom at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) in Mexico City for two weeks while the army storms the school. In this short novel, she runs across a host of Latin American artists and writers, among them Arturo Belano, Bolaño's alter ego. Unlike "The Savage Detectives", "Amulet" stays in Auxilio's first-person voice, while still allowing for the frenetic scattering of personalities Bolaño is so famous for.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "By Night in Chile" ("Nocturno de Chile" in Spanish), is a narrative constructed as the loose, uneditorialised deathbed rantings of a Chilean Opus Dei priest and failed poet, Sebastian Urrutia Lacroix. At a crucial point in his career, Father Urrutia is approached by two agents of Opus Dei, who inform him that he has been chosen to visit Europe to study the preservation of old churches – the perfect job for a cleric with artistic sensitivities.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: On his arrival, he is told that the major threat to European cathedrals is pigeon droppings, and that his Old World counterparts have devised a clever solution to the problem. They have become falconers, and in town after town he watches as the priests' hawks viciously dispatch flocks of harmless birds. Chillingly, the Jesuit's failure to protest against this bloody means of architectural preservation signals to his employers that he will serve as a passive accomplice to the predatory and brutal methods of the Pinochet regime. This is the beginning of Bolano's indictment of "l'homme intellectuel" who retreats into art, using aestheticism as a cloak and shield while the world lies around him, nauseatingly unchanged, perennially unjust and cruel. This book represents Bolaño's views upon returning to Chile and finding a haven for the consolidation of power structures and human rights violations. It is important to note that this book was originally going to be called "Tormenta de Mierda" ("Shit Storm" in English) but was convinced by Jorge Herralde and Juan Villoro to change the name.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "Antwerp" is considered by his literary executor Ignacio Echevarría to be the big bang of the Bolaño universe, the loose prose-poem novel was written in 1980 when Bolaño was 27. The book remained unpublished until 2002, when it was published in Spanish as "Amberes", a year before the author's death. It contains a loose narrative structured less around a story arc and more around motifs, reappearing characters and anecdotes, many of which went on to become common material for Bolaño: crimes and campgrounds, drifters and poetry, sex and love, corrupt cops and misfits. The back of the first New Directions edition of the book contains a quote from Bolaño about "Antwerp": "The only novel that doesn't embarrass me is Antwerp."


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "2666" was published in 2004, reportedly as a first draft submitted to his publisher after his death. The text of "2666" was the major preoccupation of the last five years of his life when he was facing death from liver problems. At more than 1,100 pages (898 pages in the English-language edition), the novel is divided into five "parts". Focused on the mostly unsolved and still ongoing serial murders of the fictional Santa Teresa (based on Ciudad Juárez), "2666" depicts the horror of the 20th century through a wide cast of characters, including police officers, journalists, criminals, and four academics on a quest to find the secretive, Pynchonesque German writer Benno von Archimboldi—who also resembles Bolaño himself. In 2008, the book won the National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction. The award was accepted by Natasha Wimmer, the book's translator. In March 2009, "The Guardian" newspaper reported that an additional Part 6 of "2666" was among papers found by researchers going through Bolaño's literary estate.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "The Third Reich" ("El Tercer Reich" in Spanish) was written in 1989 but only discovered among Bolaño's papers after he died. It was published in Spanish in 2010 and in English in 2011. The protagonist is Udo Berger, a German war-game champion. With his girlfriend Ingeborg he goes back to the small town on the Costa Brava where he spent his childhood summers. He plays a game of "Rise and Decline of the Third Reich" with a stranger.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "Woes of the True Policeman" ("Los sinsabores del verdadero policía" in Spanish) was first published in Spanish in 2011 and in English in 2012. The novel has been described as offering readers plot lines and characters that supplement or propose variations on Bolaño's novel "2666". It was begun in the 1980s but remained a work-in-progress until his death.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "The Spirit of Science Fiction" ("El espíritu de la ciencia-ficción" in Spanish) was completed by Bolaño in approximately 1984. It was published posthumously in Spanish in 2016 and in English in 2019. The novel is seen by many as an ur-text to "The Savage Detectives", "populated with precursory character sketches and situations" and centering on the activities of young poets and writers living in Mexico City.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "Last Evenings on Earth" ("Llamadas Telefónicas" in Spanish) is a collection of fourteen short stories narrated by a host of different voices primarily in the first person. A number are narrated by an author, "B.", who is – in a move typical of the author – a stand-in for the author himself.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "The Return" is a collection of twelve short stories, first published in English in 2010, and translated by Chris Andrews.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "The Insufferable Gaucho" ("El Gaucho Insufrible" in Spanish) collects a disparate variety of work. It contains five short stories and two essays, with the title story inspired by Argentinian author Jorge Luis Borges's short story The South, said story being mentioned in Bolaño's work.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "The Secret of Evil" ("El Secreto del Mal" in Spanish) is a collection of short stories and recollections or essays. The Spanish version was published in 2007 and contains 21 pieces, 19 of which appear in the English edition, published in 2010. Several of the stories in the collection feature characters that have appeared in previous works by Bolaño, including his alter ego Arturo Belano and characters that first appeared in "Nazi Literature in the Americas".


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: "The Romantic Dogs" ("Los perros románticos" in Spanish), published in 2006, is his first collection of poetry to be translated into English, appearing in a bilingual edition in 2008 under New Directions and translated by Laura Healy. Bolaño has stated that he considered himself first and foremost a poet and took up fiction writing primarily later in life in order to support his children.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: A deluxe edition of Bolaño's complete poetry, "The Unknown University", was translated from the Spanish by Laura Healy (Chile, New Directions, 2013). It was shortlisted for the 2014 Best Translated Book Award.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: In the final decade of his life Bolaño produced a significant body of work, consisting of short stories and novels. In his fiction the characters are often novelists or poets, some of them aspiring and others famous, and writers appear ubiquitous in Bolaño's world, variously cast as heroes, villains, detectives and iconoclasts.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Other significant themes of his work include quests, "the myth of poetry", the "interrelationship of poetry and crime", the inescapable violence of modern life in Latin America, and the essential human business of youth, love and death.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: In one of his stories, "Dentist", Bolaño appears to set out his basic aesthetic principles. The narrator pays a visit to an old friend, a dentist. The friend introduces him to a poor Indian boy who turns out to be a literary genius. At one point during a long evening of inebriated conversation, the dentist expresses what he believes to be the essence of art:


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: That's what art is, he said, the story of a life in all its particularity. It's the only thing that really is particular and personal. It's the expression and, at the same time, the fabric of the particular. And what do you mean by the fabric of the particular? I asked, supposing he would answer: Art. I was also thinking, indulgently, that we were pretty drunk already and that it was time to go home. But my friend said: What I mean is the secret story... The secret story is the one we'll never know, although we're living it from day to day, thinking we're alive, thinking we've got it all under control and the stuff we overlook doesn't matter. But every damn thing matters! It's just that we don't realize. We tell ourselves that art runs on one track and life, our lives, on another, we don't even realize that's a lie.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Like large parts of Bolaño's work, this conception of fiction manages to be at once elusive and powerfully suggestive. As Jonathan Lethem has commented, "Reading Roberto Bolaño is like hearing the secret story, being shown the fabric of the particular, watching the tracks of art and life merge at the horizon and linger there like a dream from which we awake inspired to look more attentively at the world."


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: When discussing the nature of literature, including his own, Bolaño emphasized its inherent political qualities. He wrote, "All literature, in a certain sense, is political. I mean, first, it's a reflection on politics, and second, it's also a political program. The former alludes to reality—to the nightmare or benevolent dream that we call reality—which ends, in both cases, with death and the obliteration not only of literature, but of time. The latter refers to the small bits and pieces that survive, that persist; and to reason."


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Bolaño's writings repeatedly manifest a concern with the nature and purpose of literature and its relationship to life. One recent assessment of his works discusses his idea of literary culture as a "whore":


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Among the many acid pleasures of the work of Roberto Bolaño, who died at 50 in 2003, is his idea that culture, in particular literary culture, is a whore. In the face of political repression, upheaval and danger, writers continue to swoon over the written word, and this, for Bolaño, is the source both of nobility and of pitch-black humor. In his novel "The Savage Detectives," two avid young Latino poets never lose faith in their rarefied art no matter the vicissitudes of life, age and politics. If they are sometimes ridiculous, they are always heroic. But what can it mean, he asks us and himself, in his dark, extraordinary, stinging novella "By Night in Chile," that the intellectual elite can write poetry, paint and discuss the finer points of avant-garde theater as the junta tortures people in basements? The word has no national loyalty, no fundamental political bent; it's a genie that can be summoned by any would-be master. Part of Bolaño's genius is to ask, via ironies so sharp you can cut your hands on his pages, if we perhaps find a too-easy comfort in art, if we use it as anesthetic, excuse and hide-out in a world that is very busy doing very real things to very real human beings. Is it courageous to read Plato during a military coup or is it something else?


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: Bolaño's first American publisher, Barbara Epler of New Directions, read a galley proof of "By Night in Chile" and decided to acquire it, along with "Distant Star" and "Last Evenings on Earth", all translated by Chris Andrews. "By Night in Chile" came out in 2003 and received an endorsement by Susan Sontag; at the same time Bolaño's work also began appearing in various magazines, which gained him broader recognition among English readers. "The New Yorker" first published a Bolaño short story, "Gómez Palacio", in its 8 August 2005 issue.


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: By 2006 Bolaño's rights were represented by Carmen Balcells, who decided to place his two bigger books at a larger publishing house; both were eventually published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux ("The Savage Detectives" in 2007 and "2666" in 2008) in a translation by Natasha Wimmer. At the same time New Directions took on the publication of the rest of Bolaño's work (to the extent that it was known at the time) for a total of 13 books, translated by Laura Healy (two poetry collections), Natasha Wimmer ("Antwerp" and "Between Parentheses") and Chris Andrews (6 novels and 3 short story collections).


title: Roberto Bolaño

text: The posthumous discovery of additional works by Bolaño has thus far led to the publication of the novel "The Third Reich" ("El Tercer Reich" in Spanish), (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011, translated by Wimmer) and "The Secret of Evil" ("El Secreto del Mal"), (New Directions, 2012, translated by Wimmer and Andrews), a collection of short stories. A translation of the novel "Woes of the True Policeman" ("Los sinsabores del verdadero policía" in Spanish), (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, translated by Wimmer) was released on 13 November 2012. A collection of three novellas, "Cowboy Graves" ("Sepulcros de vaqueros" in Spanish), (Penguin Press, translated by Wimmer), was released on 16 February 2021.


title: Killing Machine

text: Killing Machine is the fifth studio album by English heavy metal band Judas Priest, released on 9 October 1978 by Columbia Records. The album pushed the band towards a more commercial style while still featuring the dark lyrical themes of their previous albums. At about the same time, the band members adopted their now-famous "leather-and-studs" fashion image, inspired by Rob Halford's interest in


title: Killing Machine

text: leather culture. It is the band's last studio album to feature drummer Les Binks. In the United States, it was released with a different title as Hell Bent for Leather due to controversy over the Cleveland Elementary School shooting.


title: Killing Machine

text: The album was retitled "Hell Bent for Leather" for its US release in early 1979, because the US branch of Columbia did not like the "murderous implications" of the title. Both album titles are drawn from the titles of songs on the album with "The Green Manalishi (With the Two Prong Crown)", an early Fleetwood Mac cover, being added to the US release.


title: Killing Machine

text: With "Killing Machine", Judas Priest began moving to a more accessible, commercial format that abandoned the complex, fantasy-themed songs of their previous three albums. While this album still had dark undertones, it was more grounded in realism. This was reflected in their change of stage costumes from flowing Gothic robes to leather, but was also a reaction to the rising punk and new wave movements. K. K. Downing had expressed doubts about the new wave of British heavy metal stating "everybody was totally dedicated to having their own show, their own images". Priest were part of the influence on the NWOBHM, but not part of it. The band's new, simpler sound was the result of several factors, including a desire to compete with punk rock, produce songs that were easier to perform live, and also appeal more to American audiences. Tracks such as "Burnin' Up" and "Evil Fantasies" are replete with S&M themes while "Running Wild" is about late-night partying and "Before the Dawn" a depressing ballad. "Hell Bent for Leather" reflected their newly adopted leather costumes as well as Rob Halford's soon-to-be-trademark entrances on stage in a Harley-Davidson motorcycle.


title: Killing Machine

text: The single "Take on the World" was an attempt at producing a stadium shoutalong tune in the mould of Queen's "We Will Rock You", and was also covered by new wave band The Human League on their 1980 tour. The lyrics were simplified a bit from the band's previous albums and adapted more into mainstream arena rock, but the instruments retained their characteristic aggressiveness with heavier guitar riffing and elements of blues influence returned on some songs. The album is certified gold by the RIAA.


title: Killing Machine

text: "Hell Bent For Leather", and "The Green Manalishi" were the two songs from "Killing Machine" which became standard parts of the band's live setlist, with the other songs being performed rarely ("Evil Fantasies", "Running Wild", "Rock Forever and "Take On the World") or not at all. "Running Wild" and "Delivering The Goods" became regulars on the Firepower tour setlists in 2018 after not being played since 1980, and the title track returned to the band's setlists at a show in Paris in January 2019 after being absent for 40 years.


title: Killing Machine

text: The album was remastered in 2001, with two bonus tracks added (three in the UK). The bonus track "Fight for Your Life" was the "original" version of Judas Priest's "Rock Hard Ride Free" from their "Defenders of the Faith" album. "The Green Manalishi (With the Two-Pronged Crown)" is considered a bonus track on the UK remaster, but a regular track on the U.S. version.


title: Killing Machine

text: In 2010, audiophile label Audio Fidelity released a limited-edition 24-karat gold CD of "Hell Bent for Leather". Mastering was done by Steve Hoffman. This does not contain the bonus tracks from the 2001 edition.


title: Killing Machine

text: This is the first Judas Priest album where Glenn Tipton incorporated the guitar technique of tapping into his soloing style, which had been popularized by Eddie Van Halen earlier that year with the release of Van Halen's popular debut album. This can be heard in the solos of "Hell Bent for Leather" and "Killing Machine".


title: Killing Machine

text: This is also the final studio album for drummer Les Binks who had joined the band in early 1977 in time for the Sin After Sin tour; he is credited with helping develop the traditional Priest percussive sound. Binks was dropped and replaced by drummer Dave Holland after the 1979 tour because of a financial disagreement where the band's manager Mike Dolan wanted Binks to "waive his fees" for performing on the platinum selling 1979 Unleashed in the East live album.


title: Killing Machine

text: In 2005, "Killing Machine" was ranked number 321 in "Rock Hard" magazine's book "The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time". This album, as well as subsequent albums by the band, have somewhat divided fans, with some preferring the complexity and darkness of the early albums, while others prefer the more mainstream and polished later albums.


title: Killing Machine

text: The song "Hell Bent for Leather" is featured in Ari Gold's 2008 film "Adventures of Power", the 2004 episode of the sitcom "That '70s Show" entitled "Surprise, Surprise" and also featured in 2009 game "".


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: Graf Helmuth Johannes Ludwig von Moltke (; 25 May 1848 – 18 June 1916), also known as Moltke the Younger, was a German general and Chief of the Great German General Staff. He was also the nephew of "Generalfeldmarschall" "Graf" Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke, who is commonly called "Moltke the Elder" to differentiate the two.


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: Upon becoming the head of the General Staff, Moltke led the German Army from 1 January 1906 to 14 September 1914 during the opening months of World War I. His legacy remains a matter of controversy due to his involvement in Germany's decision to go to war and the execution of the invasion of France and Belgium culminating in the First Battle of the Marne.


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: Helmuth von Moltke was born in Biendorf, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and was named after his uncle, Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke, future "Generalfeldmarschall" (Field Marshal) and hero of the Unification of Germany. During the Franco-Prussian War, Moltke served with the 7th Grenadier Regiment and was cited for bravery. He attended the War Academy between 1875 and 1878 and joined the General Staff in 1880. In 1882 he became personal adjutant to his uncle, who was then Chief of the General Staff. In 1891, on the death of his uncle, Moltke became aide-de-camp to Emperor William II, thus becoming part of the Emperor's inner circle. In 1898 he became commander of the 1st Guards Infantry Brigade and in 1902, being promoted to Lieutenant General, received command of the 1st Guards Infantry Division.


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: In 1904 Moltke was made Quartermaster-General; in effect, Deputy Chief of the General Staff. In 1906, he became chief on the retirement of Alfred von Schlieffen. His appointment was controversial then and remains so today. The other likely candidates for the position were Hans Hartwig von Beseler, Karl von Bülow and Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz. Critics charge that Moltke gained the position on the strength of his name and his friendship with the Emperor (who liked to call him "Julius"), with whom he was certainly far closer than were the other candidates. Historians argue that Beseler was too close to Schlieffen to have succeeded him, while Bülow and Goltz were too independent for William II to have accepted them. Moltke's friendship with the Emperor permitted him a latitude that others could not have enjoyed. Goltz, at least, saw nothing wrong with Moltke's performance as Chief. In December 1911, Moltke lectured the General Staff: "All are preparing themselves for the great war, which all sooner or later expect."


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: Shortly before the outbreak of the First World War and the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Moltke was called to the Kaiser who had been told by Karl Max, prince Lichnowsky, that the British Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, had offered French neutrality under guarantee of Great Britain. According to the historian John Keegan however, the Kaiser believed that Britain would remain neutral if Germany did not attack France. Whichever is true, the Kaiser, seeing that a two-front war could be avoided, told Moltke to divert forces from the western to the eastern front against Russia. Moltke refused, arguing that such a drastic alteration of a long-planned major mobilization could not be done without throwing the forces into organizational chaos and the original plan now in motion must be followed through. Years later, General Hermann von Staabs, head of the German railway division, would disagree in a book detailing a contingency plan that the German army had for such a situation. Grey's offer turned out to be a wishful misinterpretation by Lichnowsky and the Kaiser told Moltke to proceed as originally planned. Moltke's health, already stressed from this argument with his ruler, broke down as a consequence of German defeat at the first battle of the Marne, and on 14 September 1914, he was succeeded by Erich von Falkenhayn.


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: It is a matter of debate whether the "failure" of the Marne Campaign can be placed at Moltke's feet. Some critics contend that Moltke's weakening of the Schlieffen Plan led to German defeat. The records show that Moltke, who was concerned about Russia, moved 180,000 men east before the war. Many thousands more men were transported from the crucial right wing to the left wing facing France in Alsace and Lorraine. Most controversially, on 28 August, Moltke sent two corps and a cavalry division to reinforce Ludendorff and Hindenburg, just before the epic victory at the Battle of Tannenberg. The series of moves has been viewed by some historians as responsible for much of the strategic failure of the Schlieffen Plan as enacted in 1914. A number of historians, notably Zuber and S. L. A. Marshall, contend that the failure of Alexander von Kluck's 1st Army to keep position with Karl von Bülow's 2nd Army, thus creating a gap near Paris that was exploited by the French, is a more direct cause than any planning foibles on Moltke's part. The Schlieffen School disagrees and argues that Moltke lost control of the invading armies during the month of August and thus was unable to react when the First Battle of the Marne developed in September. While Moltke had lost touch with his field commanders, German operational doctrine had always stressed (personal initiative) on the part of subordinate officers, more so than in other armies. Other historians argue that the multitude of strategic options Moltke faced and the danger of the Russian invasion of East Prussia clouded Moltke's judgement.


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: Although earlier in the campaign, German generals and the press had been proclaiming the campaign as good as won, on 4 September, Moltke was found despondent that the lack of prisoners meant that the Germans had not yet really won a decisive victory. Moltke may well have been overly preoccupied with the unsuccessful German offensive in Lorraine, and he issued no orders to the First, Second and Third Armies between 2 and 5 September whilst the Battle of the Marne was in progress.


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: Following the German retreat from the Marne, Moltke allegedly reported to the Kaiser, "Your Majesty, we have lost the war."


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: After Moltke handed over authority to Falkenhayn in September 1914, he was entrusted in Berlin with the office of Chief of the Home Substitute for the General Staff, which had the task of organising and forwarding the reserves together with controlling the territorial army corps while corresponding to those at the front. Moltke's health continued to deteriorate, and he died in Berlin on 18 June 1916 (aged 68) during the state memorial ceremony for "Generalfeldmarschall" Colmar "Freiherr" von der Goltz. He left a pamphlet entitled "Die 'Schuld' am Kriege" ("The Blame for the War"), which his widow Eliza intended to publish in 1919. She was dissuaded from doing so because of the problems it might cause. The pamphlet was designed to show the "chaotic" nature of events leading up to the war, to counter Allied accusations of warmongering by Germany. Army chiefs and the German Foreign Ministry were disturbed by its contents. General Wilhelm von Dommes was sent to advise "Gräfin" Eliza von Moltke against its publication. Having read the pamphlet, he confided to his diary that it "contains nasty stuff". Instead, Eliza published the more bland "Erinnerungen, Briefe, Dokumente", a collection of her husband's letters and documents. Other material was archived. Some was later destroyed during the Second World War and the original pamphlet has not been accessible since.


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: At sixty-six, "Graf" von Moltke was one of the older commanders of 1914 and in poor health, having suffered a stroke shortly before the outbreak of the war. These factors negatively affected his determination when he was under stress. His personal interests included music, painting and literature. While often assertive in manner, his character was assessed by the historian Barbara W. Tuchman as being essentially that of a self-doubting introvert.


title: Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

text: Moltke was a follower of theosophy, which taught that humanity was an endless, unchanging cycle of civilizations rising and falling. Historian Margaret MacMillan connected his personal beliefs with his resigned approach to the possibility of a general war in the lead-up to the First World War. Like many of his colleagues on the German General Staff, he was heavily influenced by Social Darwinism. His view of international relations as merely a struggle for survival led him to believe that the longer the start of the war was delayed the worse things would be for Germany.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach (; "Laguna", Spanish for "Lagoon") is a seaside resort city located in southern Orange County, California, in the United States. It is known for its mild year-round climate, scenic coves, environmental preservation efforts, and artist community. The population in the 2020 census was 23,032.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Historically settled by Paleoindians, the Tongva people, and then Mexico, the location became part of the United States following the Mexican–American War. Laguna Beach was settled in the 1870s, officially founded in 1887, and in 1927 its current government was incorporated as a city. The city adopted the council–manager form of government in 1944. The city has remained relatively isolated from urban encroachment by its surrounding hills, limited highway access, and dedicated greenbelt. The Laguna Beach coastline is protected by of state marine reserve and an additional of state conservation area.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Tourism is the primary industry with an estimated six million people visiting the community annually. Large annual events include the Pageant of the Masters, Festival of Arts, Sawdust Art Festival, Art-A-Fair, Bluewater Music Festival, and Kelpfest.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach was the site of a prehistoric paleoindian civilization. In 1933, the first fossilized skull of a paleoindian found in California was uncovered during construction on St. Ann's Drive. Known as "Laguna Woman", the skull originally was radiocarbon dated to more than 17,000 BP, but revised measurements suggest it originated during the Holocene era, 11,700 years BP. Subsequent research has found several prehistoric encampment sites in the area.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The indigenous people of the Laguna Beach area were the Tongva. Aliso Creek served as a territorial boundary between Gabrieleno and Acjachemen groups, or Juanenos, named by Spanish missionaries who first encountered them in the 1500s. The area of Laguna Canyon was named on an 1841 Mexican land grant map as (English: Glen of the Lagoons). After the Mexican–American War ended in 1848, the area of Alta California was ceded to the United States. The treaty provided that Mexican land grants be honored and Rancho San Joaquin, which included north Laguna Beach, was granted to José Antonio Andres Sepúlveda. Following a drought in 1864, Sepúlveda sold the property to James Irvine. The majority of Laguna Beach was one of the few parcels of coastal land in Southern California that never was included in any Mexican land grant.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Settlers arrived after the American Civil War. They were encouraged by the Homestead Act and Timber Culture Act, which granted up to of land to a homesteader who would plant at least of trees. In Laguna Beach, settlers planted groves of eucalyptus trees. In 1871, the first permanent homestead in the area was occupied by the George and Sarah Thurston family of Utah on of Aliso Creek Canyon. In 1876, the brothers William and Lorenzo Nathan "Nate" Brooks purchased tracts of land in Bluebird Canyon at present-day Diamond Street. They subdivided their land, built homes and initiated the small community of Arch Beach. In his book, "History of Orange County, California" (1921), Samuel Armor cited the permanent homestead of Nate Brooks as the beginning of the modern day town and described Brooks as the "Father of Laguna Beach".


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The community in Laguna Canyon and around the main beach expanded during the 1880s. The city officially founded a post office in 1887 under the name Lagona, but the postmaster in 1904, Nicholas Isch, successfully petitioned for a name correction to Laguna Beach. By then Laguna Beach already had developed into a tourist destination. Hubbard Goff built a large hotel at Arch Beach in 1886, which later was moved and added to Joseph Yoch's Laguna Beach Hotel built in 1888 on the main beach. Visitors from local cities pitched tents on the beaches for vacation during the warm summers.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The scenic beauty of the isolated coastline and hills attracted plein-air painters in the early 1900s. William Wendt, Frank Cuprien, and Edgar Payne among others settled there and formed the Laguna Beach Art Association. The first art gallery opened in 1918 and later became the Laguna Beach Art Museum. Precursors to The Festival of Arts and the Pageant of the Masters began in 1921, and eventually were established in their present-day form by Roy Ropp in 1936. Due to its proximity to Hollywood, Laguna also became a favorite filming location. Starting in 1913, dozens of silent films were made at local coves with Harold Lloyd, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and others. Actors and film crews stayed during long production shoots at the Arch Beach Tavern on the hillside above Moss Street.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The arrival of painters, photographers, filmmakers, and writers established Laguna Beach as a noted artist community. Although there only were approximately 300 residents in 1920, a large proportion of them worked in creative fields. The small town remained isolated until 1926 because the long, winding Laguna Canyon road served as the only access. With the completion of the Pacific Coast Highway in 1926, a population boom was expected. To protect the small-town atmosphere of the art colony, residents who called themselves "Lagunatics" pushed for incorporation. The municipal government for Laguna Beach incorporated as a city on June 29, 1927. The city has experienced steady population growth since that time, rising from 1,900 residents in 1927 to more than 10,000 in 1962, and becoming four times larger in area.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Many creative, bohemian, and wealthy people have made Laguna Beach their home. They have added to the local culture by providing a theme for the small town. Adventurer Richard Halliburton built his Hangover House on the slopes of South Laguna. Hildegarde Hawthorne, granddaughter of the novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne, described Laguna "as a child of that deathless search, particularly by persons who devote their lives to painting or writing, or for some place where beauty and cheapness and a trifle of remoteness hobnob together in a delightful companionship."


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach was the Southern California epicenter of the 'alternative' hippie culture in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In early 1967, John Griggs and other founding members of the Brotherhood of Eternal Love relocated from Modjeska Canyon to the Woodland Drive neighborhood of Laguna Beach, which they later renamed "Dodge City". Timothy Leary lived in a beach house on Gaviota Drive. The Utsava Rajneesh Meditation Center was located on Laguna Canyon Road and was the last remaining commune in the United States for followers of the spiritual teacher and guru Osho, Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The city was deemed a smoke-free place by Laguna Beach Council on May 23, 2017. Ordinance 1624 was imposed by the Beach Council to prohibit smoking in all public places in the city.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: In October 1993, a fire in Laguna Beach destroyed or damaged 441 homes and burned more than . The National Fire Protection Association listed it as the seventh-largest loss wildland fire in the United States. To avoid a recurrence of the damage to animals that occurred during the fire, a wildlife corridor is being created between Laguna Beach and the Cleveland National Forest in order to ensure that animals can retreat fire safely if needed.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city of Laguna Beach has a total area of , of which are land and are covered by water. Its coastline is long and includes 27 beaches and coves. It is bordered by the Pacific Ocean on the southwest, Crystal Cove State Park and the city of Newport Beach on the northwest, Laguna Woods on the northeast, Aliso Viejo and Laguna Niguel on the east, and Dana Point on the southeast.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The land in and around Laguna Beach rises quickly from the shoreline into the hills and canyons of the San Joaquin Hills. The town's highest point, at an elevation of , is Temple Hill in the Top of the World neighborhood. Because of its hilly topography and surrounding parklands, few roads run into or out of town; only the Coast Highway connecting to Newport Beach to the northwest and to Dana Point to the south, and State Route 133 crossing the hills in a northeastern direction through Laguna Canyon. Parts of Laguna Beach border the Aliso/Wood Canyons Regional Park.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The natural landscape of beaches, rocky bluffs, and craggy canyons have been noted as sources of inspiration for plein air painters and landscape photographers who have settled in the Laguna Beach since the early 1900s. The hills also are known internationally for mountain biking. Laguna Coast Wilderness Park is a wilderness area in the hills surrounding Laguna Beach. This park features coastal canyons, ridgeline views, and the only natural lakes in Orange County. Wildlife that can be found on Laguna Beach includes the Lined Shore Crab, Black Oystercatchers, Barred Sand Bass, Spiny Lobsters and the Great White Egret.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach has a mild Mediterranean climate with abundant sunshine all year. The average daily high temperature ranges from in January to in August. Mean annual precipitation is relatively low, at . The average ocean water temperatures range from about in February to in August, with early to mid-September water temperatures often peaking at about . However, the ocean surface temperatures along the beaches of Laguna Beach may vary by several degrees from the average, dependent upon offshore winds, air temperature, and sunshine.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that 22,723 people, 10,821 households, and 5,791 families resided in the city. The population density was . The 12,923 housing units averaged 1,315.9 per square mile (508.1/km). The racial makeup of Laguna Beach was 90.9% White (85.7% non-Hispanic White), 0.8% African American, 0.3% Native American, 3.6% Asian, 1.51% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. About 7.3% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The census reported that 99.6% of the population lived in households, and 0.4% lived in noninstitutionalized group quarters. Of the 10,821 households, 20.1% had children under the age of 18 living in them, 43.6% were opposite-sex married couples living together, 6.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 3.6% had a male householder with no wife present. 5.2% of households were unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 2.8% were same-sex married couples or partnerships. About 35.2% of households were made up of individuals, and 10.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.09. The average family size was 2.72.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The population was distributed as 16.1% under the age of 18, 4.8% aged 18 to 24, 23.4% aged 25 to 44, 37.4% aged 45 to 64, and 18.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 50.6. For every 100 females, there were 100.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.8 males.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Of 12,923 housing units, 60.0% were owner-occupied and 40.0% were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.7%; the rental vacancy rate was 7.7%, and 64.6% of the population lived in owner-occupied housing units and 35.0% lived in rental housing units.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: During 2009–2013, Laguna Beach had a median household income of $94,325, with 6.3% of the population living below the federal poverty line.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 23,727 people, 11,511 households, and 5,778 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 12,965 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 91.99% White, 0.80% African American, 0.36% Native American, 2.08% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 2.21% from other races, and 2.47% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.62% of the population.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: There were 11,511 households, out of which 18.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.9% were married couples living together, 6.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 49.8% were non-families. 36.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.05 and the average family size was 2.69.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 15.8% under the age of 18, 4.2% from 18 to 24, 32.9% from 25 to 44, 33.9% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.0 males.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $90,017, and the median income for a family was $146,562. Males had a median income of $66,221 versus $46,138 for females. The per capita income for the city was $58,732. About 2.8% of families and 5.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.7% of those under age 18 and 4.3% of those age 65 or over.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: According to an analysis by NeighborhoodScout.com, Laguna Beach has a higher crime rate than the national average of communities of all population sizes in the United States. The chance of becoming a victim of a violent crime is 1 in 200 and of a property crime is 1 in 36.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The Laguna Art Museum is rooted in the development of Laguna Beach as an art community with the creation of the Laguna Beach Art Association in 1918. Located beside the main beach, the museum focuses on the art of California. The Pageant of the Masters, founded in 1933, is held annually during the summer months. The unique show presents recreations of famous artworks using real people as models. Community organizations also host several long-running art festivals during the summer season.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The Festival of Arts Fine Art Show, which underwent a major renovation in 2017, originated in the 1930s. It showcases juried works by 140 Orange County artists, and its stage provides a venue for daily musical performances in July and August of each year. The Sawdust Art Festival was founded in 1965 as a counterculture alternative to the Festival of Arts. It exhibits non-juried crafts and arts on a dedicated site. The Art-A-Fair began in 1966, built an exhibition site in 1977 and exhibits juried works of 125 artists from outside the area.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The Laguna Playhouse, founded in 1920, is noted as the "oldest continuously running theatre on the west coast". The playhouse provides professional stage productions in its 420-seat Moulton Theater, as well as performances by the Laguna Playhouse Youth Theatre program. The Irvine Bowl is a 2600-seat amphitheater used for the Pageant of the Masters program and for occasional concerts.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The Laguna Beach Plein Air Painting Invitational is held annually in October. Some of North America's plein air landscape painters are invited to participate in the week-long events including public paint outs, artist meet and greets, and educational activities.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The Laguna Beach Arts Commission sponsors a weekly Summer Concert in the Park series at Bluebird Park and Heisler Park. The Laguna Beach Chamber Music Society holds an annual chamber music festival during the winter season. Laguna is also home to the annual Bluewater Music Festival, and Kelpfest held on Earth Day, to raise awareness of the importance that kelp plays in ocean habitat.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach has a surfing history centered on a five-block stretch of rocky reefs between Brooks and St. Ann's Streets. The Brooks Street Surfing Classic, begun in 1955, is a "contender for the world's longest running surf competition," according to the Encyclopedia of Surfing. The competition is held only when peak swell conditions occur during a four-month-long window in the summer and has been held 52 times from 1955 to 2015. Participation is open only to Laguna Beach residents. Notable participants have included Hobie Alter, Mickey Munoz, and Tom Morey.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Started in 1976, the 'Vic' Skimboarding World Championship is held at Aliso Beach in Laguna Beach and is the longest running skim boarding contest on the pro circuit.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The Laguna Open Volleyball Tournament began in 1955 and, according to tournament directors, it is the second oldest volleyball tournament in the United States. Participants have included several Olympic gold medalists, including Chris Marlowe, Dusty Dvorak, Scott Fortune, Dain Blanton and Gene Selznick, who won the first seven competitions.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna's foothill trails are known internationally for mountain biking. Mountain bike hall of fame legend Hans Rey makes his home in Laguna Beach, as do the Rads, pioneers of mountain biking going back to the 1970s.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach was first settled in the 1870s, but was founded officially in 1887 and, in 1927 it incorporated as a city. Beginning in 1944, a council-manager form of government was adopted. Residents of Laguna Beach elect five non-partisan council members who serve four-year staggered terms, with elections occurring every two years. The position of mayor is non-elected and chosen annually among the members of the city council. The council serves to pass ordinances, approve a budget, and hire the city manager and city attorney. The city manager oversees administrative operations and the appointment of department heads. In 2011, John Pietig was hired as city manager following the retirement of his boss, Ken Frank who, after 31 years, was one of the longest-serving city managers in Orange County history.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach is located in the Fifth District of the Orange County Board of Supervisors and is currently represented by Republican Lisa Bartlett.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: According to the California Secretary of State, as of February 10, 2019, Laguna Beach has 17,064 registered voters. Of those, 6,509 (38.12%) are registered Democrats, 5,042 (29.55%) are registered Republicans, and 4,620 (27.07%) have declined to state a political party/are independents.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach is a Democratic stronghold in presidential elections due to its cultural liberalism and LGBTQ+ community, as no Republican has won the city since George H. W. Bush in 1988. In 2008, Laguna Beach was one of only four incorporated cities in Orange County (along with Aliso Viejo, Costa Mesa, and Irvine) to reject Proposition 8, the ballot initiative that revoked marriage rights for same-sex couples in California. That same year during the Democratic presidential preference primary, Laguna Beach was one of three cities in Orange County where Democrats favored Barack Obama over Hillary Rodham Clinton.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The Laguna Beach Unified School District manages public education for city residents. The district includes one high school (Laguna Beach High School), one middle school (Thurston Middle School), and two elementary schools (El Morro Elementary School and Top of the World Elementary School). One private elementary school, St. Catherine of Siena Parish School, is overseen by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Orange.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The Laguna College of Art & Design (LCAD) is a small private college located in Laguna Canyon. It was founded in 1961 by the Festival of Arts and Laguna Art Museum as the Laguna Beach School of Art. LCAD offers bachelor of arts degrees in drawing and painting, illustration, animation, graphic design, and game art, and master of fine arts degrees in painting and drawing. In 2013, enrollment was approximately 450 students.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach has its own FM community radio station, KXRN-LP. The community is served by an online newspaper, "Stu News Laguna", and one weekly print newspaper, the "Laguna Beach Independent".


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Fire protection in Laguna Beach is provided by the Laguna Beach Fire Department, and law enforcement by the Laguna Beach Police Department. Marine safety services are provided jointly by Laguna Beach City Lifeguards in north Laguna Beach and by Orange County Lifeguards in south Laguna Beach.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach has used goats for its fuel reduction and vegetation management program since the early 1990s.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach is the only Orange County city protected by a dedicated greenbelt inland and bluebelt seaward. In 1968, local conservationists founded Laguna Greenbelt and began a drive to conserve a horseshoe of hills and canyons surrounding Laguna Beach. As of 2011, more than of contiguous wildlands constituted The Laguna Coast Wilderness Park, Jim Dilley Preserve, Crystal Cove State Park, and the Aliso-Wood Canyons Wilderness Park.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The creation of the Laguna Coast Wilderness Park as a protected area began in the late 1980s and early 1990s when local artists, activists and politicians rallied to preserve Laguna Canyon. With the environmentally focused Laguna Canyon Project and its photographic mural, "The Tell," as backdrop and stimulus, Laguna citizens forged a partnership to prevent construction of a housing project in the canyon. An exhibition on the Laguna Canyon Project, titled "The Canyon Project: Artivism," was held at Laguna Art Museum in 2015–16. Today the Wilderness Park and Laguna Canyon within it are designated as open space in perpetuity.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The Laguna Beach State Marine Reserve (LBSMR), which extends from Irvine Cove to Treasure Island Beach, was established in 2012, to make most of the coastal area a no-take zone. Docents of the Laguna Ocean Foundation provide monitoring and education at tidepools within the LBSMR. In addition, the Crystal Cove State Park abuts the northern border of Laguna Beach.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: As a result of Laguna’s Marine Protected Area "no-take zones" the local waters teem with fish, including sheepshead and large calico bass.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: American Craftsman Bungalows from the early 1900s dot the downtown and South Laguna areas. Between 1980 and 1981, the city conducted the Laguna Beach Historic Survey, a citywide block-by-block study which noted the location of pre-1940 buildings and determined which had historic significance. 706 homes and structures in Laguna Beach were classified as historically significant.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: Laguna Beach is the tenth official Transition Town in the U.S. In February 2007, Laguna's city council unanimously voted to join the U.S. Mayors Climate Initiative, and in April 2013 became the first Orange County city to make a formal request that the San Onofre Nuclear Reactor not be restarted after its January 2012 shutdown. The Aliso Creek Water Reclamation Facility went into operation in 2014. The facility removes polluted runoff in Aliso Creek, improves ocean water quality, and creates locally recycled water. With a grant from Cal Trans, the city is undertaking a transition plan to implement Complete Streets for all users. A north–south bicycle route with signs and sharrows was completed through town in 2014. Laguna Beach passed a citywide "Idaho stop" ordinance for cyclists, a no-plastic-bag ordinance and a no-plastic-bottle purchasing policy for its government.


title: Laguna Beach, California

text: The 1972 instrumental by Black Sabbath "Laguna Sunrise" was inspired by a sunrise guitarist Tony Iommi witnessed after a night of partying.


title: Blues and Royals

text: The Blues and Royals (Royal Horse Guards and 1st Dragoons) (RHG/D) is a cavalry regiment of the British Army, part of the Household Cavalry Regiment. The Colonel of the Regiment is Anne, Princess Royal. It is the second-most senior regiment in the British Army.


title: Blues and Royals

text: The regiment was formed in 1969 from the merger of the Royal Horse Guards, which was known as "the Blues" or "the Oxford Blues", and the Royal Dragoons, which was known as "the Royals". Of these, the Blues were founded as a unit of the New Model Army, having been raised in 1650 by Sir Arthur Haselrig on orders from Oliver Cromwell; it was incorporated into the Restoration army in 1660 and gained the title "Royal" in the 18th century. The Royal Dragoons were formed shortly after the Restoration, in 1661, composed of cavalry veterans of the New Model Army.


title: Blues and Royals

text: Since formation in 1969, the new regiment has served in Northern Ireland, Germany, and Cyprus. During the Falklands War of 1982, the regiment provided the two armoured reconnaissance troops. The regiment also had a squadron on operational duty with the United Nations in Bosnia in 1994–95. Most recently, the regiment saw action in the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan.


title: Blues and Royals

text: Both Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex, joined the regiment as cornets in 2006.


title: Blues and Royals

text: As a result of the Options for Change Review in 1991, the Blues and Royals formed a union for operational purposes with the Life Guards as the Household Cavalry Regiment. However, they each maintain their regimental identity, with distinct uniforms and traditions, and their own colonel. The Blues and Royals currently has two reconnaissance squadrons in Windsor, which are part of the Household Cavalry Regiment, and a mounted squadron in London as part of the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment.


title: Blues and Royals

text: Instead of being known as the Royal Horse Guards and 1st Dragoons, the regiment is known as the Blues and Royals and is therefore the only regiment in the British Army to be officially known by its nickname as opposed to its full name.


title: Blues and Royals

text: Newly commissioned officers in the Blues and Royals have the rank of cornet, rather than second lieutenant as is the standard in the rest of the British Army. There is no sergeant rank in the Household Cavalry; the equivalent of a sergeant in another unit is Corporal of Horse; the equivalent of Regimental Sergeant Major is Regimental Corporal Major, etc. King Edward VII established that the rank of private should be replaced by the rank of trooper in the cavalry.


title: Blues and Royals

text: The Blues and Royals is the only regiment in the British Army that allows troopers and non-commissioned officers, when not wearing headdress, to salute an officer. The custom started after the Battle of Warburg in 1760 by the Marquess of Granby, who commanded both the Royal Horse Guards and the Royal Dragoons, which were separate units at the time. During the battle, the Marquess had driven the French forces from the field, losing both his hat and his wig during the charge. When reporting to his commander, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, in the heat of the moment he is said to have saluted without wearing his headdress, having lost it earlier. When the Marquess of Granby became the Colonel of the Blues, the regiment adopted this tradition.


title: Blues and Royals

text: When the Household Cavalry mounts an escort to the Sovereign on State occasions, a ceremonial axe with a spike is carried by a Farrier Corporal of Horse. The historical reason behind this is that when a horse was wounded or injured so seriously that it could not be treated, its suffering was ended by killing it with the spike. The axe is also a reminder of the days when the Sovereign's escorts accompanied royal coaches and when English roads were very bad. Horses often fell, becoming entangled in their harnesses and had to be freed with the cut of an axe. It is also said that in those times, if a horse had to be killed, its rider had to bring back a hoof, cut off with the axe, to prove to the Quartermaster that the animal was dead and hence preventing fraudulent replacement. Today, the axe remains as a symbol of the Farrier's duties.


title: Blues and Royals

text: The Blues and Royals wear their chin strap under their chin, as opposed to the Life Guards, who wear it below their lower lip. On service dress, the Blues and Royals wear a blue lanyard on the left shoulder, as well as a Sam Browne belt containing a whistle. In most dress orders, the Waterloo Eagle is worn on the left arm as part of dress traditions. The Blues and Royals, as part of the Household Division, does not use the Order of the Bath Star for its officer rank "pips", but rather the Order of the Garter Star.


title: Blues and Royals

text: Prince Harry wore the uniform at the wedding of his brother, Prince William, to Catherine Middleton. Both Prince Harry and Prince William also received permission from the Queen to wear the frock coat version of the uniform to Prince Harry's wedding to Meghan Markle.


title: Blues and Royals

text: The modern mess dress worn by officers of the regiment reflects the traditions of the Royal Dragoons and includes a scarlet jacket with dark blue facings.


title: Blues and Royals

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Awarded jointly with the Life Guards for services of the Household Cavalry Regiment


title: 1940s

text: The 1940s (pronounced "nineteen-forties" and commonly abbreviated as "the '40s" or "the Forties") was a decade that began on January 1, 1940, and ended on December 31, 1949.