title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: The British military presence in Egypt transformed the country into a virtual protectorate of the United Kingdom. Though it remained de jure a self-governing vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, true power now rested with the United Kingdom's representative in Cairo. In the following decade, the United Kingdom reformed and remodelled the Egyptian military on British lines, and British and Egyptian forces gradually defeated the Mahdist rebels, and restored the nominal authority of the Egyptian Khedive in Sudan. However, as in Egypt proper, this authority was compromised by the reality of effective British control.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: In 1899, the United Kingdom forced Abbas II, Tewfik's successor as Khedive, to transform Sudan from an integral part of Egypt into a condominium in which sovereignty would be shared between Egypt and the United Kingdom. Once established, the condominium witnessed ever-decreasing Egyptian control, and would for most of its existence be governed in practice by the United Kingdom through the Governor-General in Khartoum. For the remainder of his reign, this would be one of the flashpoints between the nationalist Khedive Abbas II and the United Kingdom, with Abbas seeking to arrest and reverse the process of increasing British control in Egypt and Sudan.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: Following the Ottoman Empire's entry in to the First World War as a member of the Central Powers in 1914, the United Kingdom deposed the anti-British Abbas II in favour of his pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamel. The legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty was terminated, and the Sultanate of Egypt, destroyed by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, was re-established with Hussein Kamal as Sultan. Despite the restoration of the nominal sultanate, British power in Egypt and Sudan was undiminished, as the United Kingdom declared Egypt to be a formal protectorate of the United Kingdom. Whilst Egypt was not annexed to the British Empire, with the British King never becoming sovereign of Egypt, Egypt's status as a protectorate precluded any actual independence for the sultanate. For all intents and purposes, the Sultanate of Egypt was as much controlled by the United Kingdom as the Khedivate of Egypt had been. Rising nationalist anger at British control led to the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, prompting the United Kingdom to recognise Egyptian independence in 1922 as the Kingdom of Egypt. Egyptian nationalists, and Sudanese favouring union with Egypt, demanded that Sudan be included within the bounds of the kingdom, with the term "Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan" entering the nationalist vernacular. However, in the terms of the legal instrument by which the United Kingdom recognised Egyptian independence, it specifically reserved the issue of the governance of Sudan as a question to be resolved in the future. Defying Egyptian and Sudanese demands, the United Kingdom gradually assumed more control of the condominium, edging out Egypt almost completely by 1924.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: In the decades that followed, Egyptian and Sudanese discontent and anger at continued British rule in Sudan increased. On 16 October 1951, the Egyptian government abrogated the agreements underpinning the condominium, and declared that Egypt and Sudan were legally united as the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan, with King Farouk as the King of Egypt and the Sudan. This was superseded by the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 eight months later, which overthrew King Farouk. The new revolutionary government under Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser made Sudanese independence a priority. Naguib himself was half-Sudanese, and had been born and raised in Khartoum. Under continued pressure, the United Kingdom conceded to Egypt's demands in 1953, with the governments of both Egypt and the United Kingdom agreeing to terminate the condominium, and grant Sudan independence in 1956. On 1 January 1956, Egyptian and British sovereignty over Sudan duly ended, and Sudan became independent.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: In 1820, the army of Egyptian wāli Muhammad Ali Pasha, commanded by his son Ismail Pasha, gained control of Sudan. The region had longstanding linguistic, cultural, religious, and economic ties to Egypt, and had been partially under the same government at intermittent periods since the times of the pharaohs. Muhammad Ali was aggressively pursuing a policy of expanding his power with a view to possibly supplanting the Ottoman Empire (to which he technically owed fealty), and saw Sudan as a valuable addition to his Egyptian dominion. During his reign and that of his successors, Egypt and Sudan came to be administered as one political entity, with all ruling members of the Muhammad Ali dynasty seeking to preserve and extend the "unity of the Nile Valley". This policy was expanded and intensified most notably by Muhammad Ali's grandson, Ismail Pasha, under whose reign most of the remainder of modern-day Sudan, and South Sudan was conquered.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt and Sudan's economic and strategic importance increased enormously, attracting the imperial attentions of the Great Powers, particularly the United Kingdom. Ten years later in 1879, the immense foreign debt of Ismail Pasha's government served as the pretext for the Great Powers to force his abdication and replacement by his son Tewfik Pasha. The manner of Tewfik's ascension at the hands of foreign powers greatly angered Egyptian and Sudanese nationalists who resented the ever-increasing influence of European governments and merchants in the affairs of the country. The situation was compounded by Tewfik's perceived corruption and mismanagement, ultimately culminating in the Orabi Revolt led by the nationalist head of the army, Ahmed Orabi. With the survival of his throne in dire jeopardy, Tewfik appealed for British assistance. In 1882, at Tewfik's invitation, the British bombarded Alexandria, Egypt's and Sudan's primary seaport, and subsequently invaded the country. British forces overthrew the Orabi government in Cairo, and proceeded to occupy the rest of Egypt and Sudan in 1882. Though officially the authority of Tewfik had been restored, in reality the British largely took control of Egyptian and Sudanese affairs.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: Tewfik's acquiescence to British occupation as the price for securing the monarchy was deeply detested by many throughout Egypt and Sudan. With the bulk of British forces stationed in northern Egypt, protecting Cairo, Alexandria, and the Suez Canal, opposition to Tewfik and his European protectors was stymied in Egypt. In contrast, the British military presence in Sudan was comparatively limited, and eventually revolt broke out. The rebellion in Sudan, led by the Sudanese religious leader Muhammad ibn Abdalla, the self-proclaimed Mahdi (Guided One), was both political and religious. Abdalla wished not only to expel the British, but to overthrow the monarchy, viewed as secular and Western-leaning, and replace it with what he viewed as a pure Islamic government. Whilst primarily a Sudanese figure, Abdalla even attracted the support of some Egyptian nationalists, and caught Tewfik and the British off-guard. The revolt culminated in the fall of Khartoum, and the death of the British General Charles George Gordon (Gordon of Khartoum) in 1885. Tewfik's Egyptian forces and those of the United Kingdom were forced to withdraw from almost all of Sudan, with Abdalla subsequently establishing a theocratic state.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: Abdalla's religious government imposed traditional Islamic laws upon Sudan, and stressed the need to continue the armed struggle until the British had been completely expelled from the country, and all of Egypt and Sudan had been Incorporated under his Mahdiya. Though he died six months after the fall of Khartoum, Abdalla's call was fully echoed by his successor, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, who invaded Ethiopia in 1887, and penetrated as far as Gondar, and the remainder of northern Sudan and Egypt in 1889. This invasion was halted by Tewfik's forces, and was followed later by withdrawal from Ethiopia. Abdullahi wrecked virtually all of the previous Egyptian, and Fung administrative systems, and gravely weakened Sudanese tribal unities. From 1885 to 1898, I the population of Sudan collapsed from eight to three million due to war, famine, disease and persecution.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: After a series of Mahdist defeats, Tewfik's son and successor, Abbas II, and the British decided to re-establish control over Sudan. Leading a joint Egyptian-British force, Kitchener led military campaigns from 1896 to 1898. Kitchener's campaigns culminated in the Battle of Atbara, Andy the Battle of Omdurman. Exercising the leverage which their military superiority provided, the British forced Abbas to accept British control in Sudan. Whereas British influence in Egypt was officially "advisory" (though in reality it was far more direct), the British insisted that their role in Sudan be formalised. Thus, an agreement was reached in 1899 establishing Anglo-Egyptian rule (a condominium), under which Sudan was to be administered by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent. In reality, much to the revulsion of Egyptian and Sudanese nationalists, Sudan was effectively administered as a British imperial possession. Pursuing a policy of divide and rule, the British were keen to reverse the process, started under Muhammad Ali, of uniting the Nile Valley under Egyptian leadership, and sought to frustrate all efforts to further unite the two countries. During World War I, the British invaded and incorporated Darfur into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1916.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: This policy was internalised within Sudan itself, with the British determined to exacerbate differences and frictions between Sudan's numerous different ethnic groups. From 1924 onwards, the British essentially divided Sudan into two separate territories–a predominantly Muslim Arabic-speaking north, and a predominantly Animist and Christian south, where the use of English was encouraged by Christian missionaries, whose main role was instructional.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: The continued British occupation of Sudan fuelled an increasingly strident nationalist backlash in Egypt, with Egyptian nationalist leaders determined to force Britain to recognise a single independent union of Egypt and Sudan. With the formal end in 1914 of the legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty, Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt and Sudan. Upon his death in 1917, his brother Fuad succeeded him as Sultan Fuad I. The insistence of a single Egyptian-Sudanese state persisted when the Sultanate was re-titled the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan, but the British continued to frustrate these efforts.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: The failure of the government in Cairo to end the British occupation led to separate efforts for independence in Sudan itself, the first of which was led by a group of Sudanese military officers known as the White Flag League in 1924. The group was led by first lieutenant Ali Abd al Latif and first lieutenant Abdul Fadil Almaz. The latter led an insurrection of the military training academy, which ended in their defeat and the death of Almaz after the British army blew up the military hospital where he was garrisoned. This defeat was (allegedly) partially the result of the Egyptian garrison in Khartoum North not supporting the insurrection with artillery as was previously promised.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: Even when the British ended their occupation of Egypt in 1936 (with the exception of the Suez Canal Zone), they maintained their forces in Sudan. Successive governments in Cairo, repeatedly declaring their abrogation of the condominium agreement, declared the British presence in Sudan to be illegitimate, and insisted on full British recognition of King Farouk as "King of Egypt "and" Sudan", a recognition which the British were loath to grant, not least because Farouk was secretly negotiating with Mussolini for an Italian invasion. The defeat of this damaging démarche of 1940 for Anglo-Egyptian relations helped to turn the tide of the Second World War.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: It was the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 which finally set a series of events in motion which would eventually end the British and Egyptian occupation of Sudan. Having abolished the monarchy in 1953, Egypt's new leaders, Muhammad Naguib, who was raised as the son of an Egyptian army officer in Sudan, and Gamal Abdel Nasser, believed the only way to end the British domination in Sudan was for Egypt itself to officially abandon its sovereignty over Sudan.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: Since the British claim to control in Sudan theoretically depended upon Egyptian sovereignty, the revolutionaries calculated that this tactic would leave the UK with no option but to withdraw. In addition, Nasser had known for some time that it would be problematic for Egypt to govern the impoverished Sudan.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: In 1943 a North Sudan Advisory Council was established bringing a level of self-governance to the northern provinces of Anglo Egyptian Sudan. At a conference held in Juba in 1947, it was decided to integrate the administration of the southern provinces with those of the north. Thirteen appointed representatives from the southern provinces took up seats in the Sudan Legislative Assembly in 1948.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: In February 1953 an agreement was reached between Egypt, the United Kingdom and Sudanese political representatives for a transition from condominium rule to self-government. Sudan was granted self-government in March 1953 and Ismail al-Azhari became Chief Minister in 1954. A constituent assembly was formed and a transitional constitution was drafted. Sudanese representatives would be able to participate in the Afro-Asian Conference planned for April 1955.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: In October 1954, the governments of Egypt and the UK signed a treaty that would grant Sudan independence on 1 January 1956. Sudan become an independent sovereign state, the Republic of the Sudan, 1 January 1956, bringing to an end its nearly 136-year union with Egypt and its 56-year occupation by the British.


title: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

text: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was divided into eight provinces, which were ambiguous when created but became well defined by the beginning of World War II. The eight provinces were: Blue Nile, Darfur, Equatoria, Kassala, Khartoum, Kurdufan, Northern, and Upper Nile. In 1948, Bahr al Ghazal split from Equatoria.


title: Jennifer Tisdale

text: Jennifer Kelly Tisdale (born September 18, 1981) is an American actress and singer who is known for her role as Chelsea in the comedy film "".


title: Jennifer Tisdale

text: Tisdale was born in Neptune City, New Jersey, the daughter of Lisa ("" Morris) and Mike Tisdale, a contractor. She is the older sister of singer and actress Ashley Tisdale. Her father is Christian, and her mother is Jewish; she, along with her sister, were raised with "a little bit of both" religions. Her maternal grandfather is Arnold Morris, and through her grandfather she is also related to businessman Ron Popeil. She was a cheerleader in high school and college. Tisdale went to Cal State Northridge and graduated with a Screenwriting degree.


title: Jennifer Tisdale

text: Tisdale's acting credits include main characters in the movies "The Hillside Strangler" and "Dark Ride". She played Chelsea in the movie "" and also recorded a track titled "Don't You Think I'm Hot", which can be heard in the film. She also had a role in the MTV series "Undressed". Guest star roles include "Clubhouse", "Raising Dad", "Boston Public" and others, Tisdale also appeared in her sister Ashley Tisdale's "He Said, She Said" music video in various scenes.


title: Jennifer Tisdale

text: She married Shane McChesnie, who manages a restaurant in Los Angeles, in a private ceremony on August 7, 2009 in New Jersey; Ashley Tisdale, her younger sister, was the maid of honor. Tisdale has a daughter, Mikayla Dawn Tisdale (McChesnie). The couple divorced in 2011 after being separated for some time.


title: Soca music

text: Soca music is a genre of music defined by Lord Shorty, its inventor, as the "Soul of Calypso", which has influences of African and East Indian rhythms. It was originally spelt "sokah" by its inventor but through an error in a local newspaper when reporting on the new music it was erroneously spelt "soca"; Lord Shorty confirmed the error but chose to leave it that way to avoid confusion. It is a genre of music that originated in Trinidad and Tobago in the early 1970s and developed into a range of styles during the 1980s and after. Soca was initially developed by Lord Shorty in an effort to revive traditional calypso, the popularity of which had been flagging amongst younger generations in Trinidad due to the rise in popularity of reggae from Jamaica and soul and funk from the United States. Soca is an offshoot of Calypso/Kaiso, with influences from East Indian rhythms and hooks.


title: Soca music

text: Soca has evolved since the 1980s primarily through musicians from various Anglophone Caribbean countries, so not only from its birthplace Trinidad and Tobago but also from Guyana, Antigua and Barbuda, Montserrat, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados, Grenada, Saint Lucia, the US and British Virgin Islands, Jamaica, the Bahamas, and Belize. There have also been significant productions from artists in Venezuela, Canada, Panama, the United States, the United Kingdom and Japan.


title: Soca music

text: Soca began its development in the early 1970s and grew in popularity throughout that decade. Soca's development as a musical genre included its fusion with Calypso, Chutney, Reggae, Zouk, Latin, Cadence and traditional West African rhythms.


title: Soca music

text: A sound project started in 1970 at KH Studios in Trinidad to find a way to record the complex Calypso rhythm in a new multi-track era.


title: Soca music

text: Musicians involved in the initiative were Robin Imamshah (guitar, project lead), Angus Nunez (bass), Errol Wise (drums), Vonrick Maynard (drums), Clarence James (percussion), Carl Henderson (keyboards) and David Boothman (strings). Some of the early songs recorded in 1972 at the KH Studios which benefited from this project were "Indrani" by Lord Shorty and "Calypso Zest" by Sensational Roots. Later came the Soca hits "Endless Vibrations" and "Sweet Music" by Lord Shorty, recorded in 1974 and 1975 respectively, and "Second Fiddle" by Ella Andall, recorded in 1975. In 1976, "Savage" by Maestro and "Trinidad Boogie" by Last Supper (composed by Robin Imamshah) also benefited from the improving multi-track recording technology at KH Studios.


title: Soca music

text: Soca continues to incorporate contemporary music styles and trends. Bollywood films, Bhangra, the new Punjabi pop and Disco music in the United States have also experimented with Soca.


title: Soca music

text: The "father" of Soca was a Trinidadian named Garfield Blackman, who rose to fame as Lord Shorty with his 1964 hit "Cloak and Dagger" and who adopted the name "Ras Shorty I" in the early 1980s. He started out writing songs and performing in the Calypso genre. A prolific musician, composer and innovator, Shorty experimented with fusing Calypso and elements of Indo-Caribbean music after 1965 before debuting "the Soul of Calypso", Soca music, in the early 1970s.


title: Soca music

text: Shorty was the first to define his music as "Soca" during 1975 when his hit song "Endless Vibrations" caused musical waves on radio stations and at parties and clubs - not just in his native Trinidad and Tobago, but also in cities like New York, Toronto and London. Soca was originally spelled Sokah, which stood for the "Soul of Calypso" with the "kah" part being taken from the first letter in the Sanskrit alphabet, representing the power of movement as well as the East Indian rhythmic influence that helped to inspire the new beat. Shorty stated in a number of interviews that the idea for the new Soca beat originated with the fusion of Calypso with East Indian rhythms that he used in his 1972 hit "Indrani". Soca solidified its position as the popular new beat adopted by most Trinidadian Calypso musicians by the time Shorty recorded his crossover hit "Endless Vibrations" in 1974.


title: Soca music

text: In 1975, Shorty recorded an album entitled "Love in the Caribbean" that contained a number of crossover Soca tracks. During the subsequent promotional tour, Shorty stopped at the isle of Dominica and saw the top band there, Exile One, perform at the Fort Young Hotel. Shorty was inspired to compose and record a Soca and Cadence-lypso fusion track titled "E Pete" or "Ou Petit", which was the first in that particular Soca style. Shorty consulted on the Creole lyrics he used in the chorus of his "E Pete" song with Dominica's 1969 Calypso King, Lord Tokyo, and two Creole lyricists, Chris Seraphine and Pat Aaron.


title: Soca music

text: The main source of Soca is Calypso developed in Trinidad in the 17th century from the West African Kaiso and canboulay music brought by enslaved Africans and Immigrants from the French Antilles to Trinidad to work on sugar plantations during the Cedula of Population of 1783 . The Africans brought to toil on sugar plantations, were stripped of all connections to their homeland and family and not allowed to talk to each other. They used calypso to mock the slave masters and to communicate with each other. Many early calypsos were sung in French Creole by an individual called a griot. As calypso developed, the role of the griot became known as a "chantuelle" and eventually, "calypsonian".


title: Soca music

text: Modern calypso, however, began in the 19th century, a fusion of disparate elements ranging from the masquerade song "lavway", French Creole "belair" and the calinda stick-fighting chantwell. Calypso's early rise was closely connected with the adoption of Carnival by Trinidadian slaves, including canboulay drumming and the music masquerade processions. The French brought Carnival to Trinidad, and calypso competitions at Carnival grew in popularity, especially after the abolition of slavery in 1834.


title: Soca music

text: Cadence-lypso is a fusion of cadence rampa from Haiti and calypso from Trinidad & Tobago that has also spread to other English speaking countries of the Caribbean. Originated in the 1970s by the Dominican band Exile One on the island of Guadeloupe, it spread and became popular in the dance clubs around the Creole world and Africa as well as the French Antilles.


title: Soca music

text: In the French Antilles, Cadence-lypso evolved into Zouk as popularized by Kassav in the 1980s. Kassav' was formed in 1979 by Pierre-Edouard Décimus (former musicians from the Les Vikings de Guadeloupe) and Paris studio musician Jacob Desvarieux. Together and under the influence of well-known Dominican, Haitian and Guadeloupean kadans or compas bands like Experience 7, Grammacks, Exile One, Les Aiglons, Tabou Combo, Les Freres Dejean, etc., they decided to make Guadeloupean carnival music recording it in a more fully orchestrated yet modern and polished style. This style of music had an impact on a certain style of Soca known as "Zouk Soca", mostly produced in St.Lucia.


title: Soca music

text: The nineties in Dominica have been dominated by a new musical form called bouyon music. The best-known band in the genre is Windward Caribbean Kulture (WCK), who originated the style in 1988 by experimenting with a fusion of Cadence-lypso and Jing ping. They began using native drum rhythms such as lapo kabwit and elements of the music of jing ping bands, as well as ragga-style vocals.


title: Soca music

text: Bouyon influenced a certain style of Soca known as Bouyon soca. Bouyon soca typically blends old bouyon music rhythms from the 90s' and soca music creating a unique style soca sound. The style of music was made more popular to the Caribbean region by the likes of the producer Dada and artists ASA from Dominica with collaborations from Trinidadian and St.Vincentian artists such as Skinny Fabulous, Bunji Garlin, Iwer George and Machel Montano. Hit songs featuring Bouyon flavored rhythms and sounds and familiar soca attributes include "Famalay" and "Conch Shell".


title: Soca music

text: Soca simply means the " (So)ul of (Ca)lypso", however the name has nothing to do with American soul music, as Soca is rhythmically a fusion of African/Calypso and East Indian rhythms. Soca's history is multi-faceted. Lord Shorty initially spelled his musical hybrid "sokah" and in a 1979 interview with "Carnival Magazine" stated that he "came up with the name soca. I invented soca. And I never spelt it s-o-c-a. It was s-o-k-a-h to reflect the East Indian influence." The s-o-c-a spelling quickly became the popular spelling after a journalist, Ivor Ferreira, interviewed Shorty for an article that was published during the 1976 Trinidad Carnival season. The article was titled "Shorty is Doing Soca" and so s-o-c-a quickly became the popular spelling for this new modern style of Calypso music.


title: Soca music

text: Soca music has evolved like most other music genres over the years, with calypsonians, soca artists, musicians and producers also experimenting with fusing Soca with other Caribbean rhythms. Examples include:


title: Soca music

text: Afrosoca is a fusion genre of afrobeats and soca music and some influences from dancehall. Afrosoca songs typically have a similar tempo to Groovy Soca (110 to 135 BPM), often with West African-influenced melodies. The genre was pioneered in Trinidad & Tobago by Nigerian and Trinidadian artists.


title: Soca music

text: Chutney soca is one of the original soca styles started by Lord Shorty that contains strong East Indian musical influences; It is a soca style that originates in Trinidad and Tobago; many of the songs have both English and "Hindi" lyrics. The term Chutney soca was coined by the Indo-Trini artist, Drupatee Ramgoonai in 1987 when she recorded a hit song called "Chatnee Soca". Soon after 1987 the spelling was changed to Chutney Soca. Before 1987 this fusion style was sometimes referred to as Indo Soca or Indian Soca. The term Chutney that is now being used to refer to Indo-Caribbean music did not come into popular use until after 1987 when many Indo-Trinis started to abbreviate the term "Chutney soca" to "Chutney" in reference to those Chutney soca songs that were sung only in the Hindi language.


title: Soca music

text: Ragga soca is a fusion of soca and the former artistic lyrical delivery of Jamaican artists known as "DJing or chanting". It is a fusion of dancehall and contemporary calypso/soca, which has an uptempo beat with moderate bass and electronic instruments. Bunji Garlin is one of the artists that has sung ragga soca in Trinidad and Tobago since the late 1990s and has been dubbed the King of Ragga Soca. "Dancehall soca" and "bashment soca" are other terms used to refer to "ragga soca" music and these other terms are sometimes used depending on the artists and Caribbean country they hail from, with "bashment soca" being used for the Barbadian contribution to the genre while the Jamaican artists usually refer to their contributions as "dancehall soca".


title: Soca music

text: Parang soca or soca parang is a fusion of calypso, soca, parang and Latin music. It originated in Trinidad & Tobago and is often sung in a mixture of English and Spanish. The first major parang soca hit was a track called "Parang Soca" by the Calypsonian called Crazy for the 1978 Christmas season that also gave this soca sub-genre its name. Crazy is viewed as the pioneer of the parang soca sub-genre and is also dubbed the Original Parang Soca King.


title: Soca music

text: Steelband soca or Pan soca also referred to in Trinidad & Tobago as Pan Kaiso is soca composed for or using steel pans which are types of music drums often used in soca and calypso music; it became so popular that it became its own musical genre. This soca style was mostly pioneered by the late Lord Kitchener whose songs have been played by steel bands at T&T's annual Panorama competitions more than the songs of any other composer. The steel pan originated in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago during the late 1930s. Steel pans are handmade, bowl-like metal drums crafted from oil drums so that different drum sections produce different notes when struck. Steelbands are groups of musicians who play songs entirely on steel drums. There are many types of steel pans, each with its own set of pitches.


title: Soca music

text: Though most of the early soca recordings of the 1970s were done at a groovy pace, Groovy soca was made popular as a trend and soca style starting with Robin Imamshah's composition "Frenchman" in 1990.


title: Soca music

text: The term groovy soca was coined in early 2005 by the ISM organizers as a re-branding of the slower tempo soca styles that had been popular in Trinidad and Tobago since the inception of soca music in early 1970s.


title: Soca music

text: Bouyon soca, sometimes referred to as "jump up soca", is a fusion genre that typically blends old bouyon rhythms from the '90s and soca music. Bouyon soca is a term coined by non-Dominican producers and musicians, mainly from St Lucia, who embrace both Soca from Trinidad and Bouyon music from Dominica and so find it natural to produce blends of both music genres. Bouyon is a music genre that originated in Dominica that is distinguishable from its older "colleague" Soca.


title: Soca music

text: In Dominica while there may have been the occasional fusions, bouyon has always maintained a very clear, recognizable and different style from soca. Outside of Dominica the Bouyon Soca fusion style is popular in islands like Antigua, Saint Lucia, Guadeloupe and Martinique and is a natural evolution from Zouk and Soca fusions that were popular there during the 1980s.


title: Soca music

text: Dennery segment is a style of Soca music developed in Saint Lucia in the early 2010s. It emerged from Kuduro, incorporating Zouk influence and Lucian drums alongside suggestive lyrics usually sung in Kwéyòl (Saint Lucian Creole). Originally known as Lucian kuduro, it was changed to Dennery segment to reference the town Dennery where the genre began.


title: Soca music

text: Originally just singing over existing kuduro beats, artists began to build their own rhythms from scratch and that's what created the foundation of the genre. Dennery segment beats have a simple build, aggressive drums, and are always above 140 BPM. The style is also different from other soca because it is less melodic and more repetitive, usually only having one lead instrument that carries the entire beat.


title: Soca music

text: In the late 2010s, Dennery segment artists such as Freezy, Mighty, and Motto incorporated more English into their lyrics and that led to a boom in popularity throughout the Caribbean and raised the genre's international profile. Artists in this first wave from Saint Lucia began collaborating with artists from off the island, and they played at festivals throughout the Caribbean.


title: Soca music

text: The term "power soca" was coined in early 2005 by the ISM organizers as a re-branding of the uptempo jump & wave soca style that took hold in Trinidad and Tobago during the early 1990s. This fast-paced version of Soca music tends to appeal more to the younger generation of party-goers and those who love working out in the gyms getting fit for the Carnival season and playing mas. Calypsonian and soca artist Superblue pioneered this style with his 1991 hit "Get Something & Wave". Power soca of today is known for its high bpm (ranging from 155–163) and its aggressive drums/percussion and dark synths. Today, it has transcended from its original sound of darkness into a more light and playful sound but has kept its foundation of fast-paced rhythms.


title: Soca music

text: Soca music is based on a strong rhythmic section that is often recorded using synthesized drum sounds and then sequenced using computers; however, for live shows, the live human drummer emulates the recorded version, often using electronic drums to trigger drum samples. The drum and percussion are often loud in this genre of music and are sometimes the only instruments to back up the vocal. Soca is indeed defined by its loud, fast percussive beats. Synthesizers are used often in modern soca and have replaced the once typical horn section at 'smaller' shows. Electric and bass guitars are typical components of a live soca bands. A horn section is found occasionally in live soca bands mostly for the 'bigger' shows. It usually consists of two trumpets and a trombone, with saxophones being part of the section from time to time. Other metal instruments may include cowbell or automobile brake drums.


title: Soca music

text: From the mid-1970s through the early 1990s, Brooklyn, NY, became a center for soca music production. The borough, home to a large and diverse West Indian population, boasted three important Caribbean immigrant-owned record companies: Straker’s Records (owned by Granville Straker), Charlie’s Records (owned by Rawlston Charles), and B’s Records (owned by Michael Gould). Nearly every important calypsonian/soca singer of the era recorded on one or more of these Brooklyn labels, resulting in a significant expansion of the music’s international reach. Taking advantage of New York’s advanced recording and mixing facilities, several top calypsonians turned soca singers, including the Mighty Sparrow, Calypso Rose, and the Mighty Duke, relocated to the city. Others, including Chalkdust, Lord Kitchener, Explainer, Swallow, and Shadow, cycled between the Caribbean and Brooklyn to record and perform.


title: Soca music

text: Soca music videos are played on several television channels including CaribVision, Centric, Synergy TV, and Tempo TV. The theme tune to the UK comedy show Desmond's was in a soca style.


title: Soca music

text: In 2014 the Apple's iTunes Store became the largest online store to recognize calypso and soca as two of its formal catalog genres.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Laura Catherine Schlessinger (born January 16, 1947) is an American talk radio host and author. "The Dr. Laura Program", heard weekdays for three hours on Sirius XM Radio, consists mainly of her responses to callers' requests for personal advice and often features her short monologues on social and political topics. Her website says that her show "preaches, teaches, and nags about morals, values, and ethics." She is an inductee to the National Radio Hall of Fame in Chicago.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger used to combine her local radio career in Los Angeles with a private practice as a marriage and family counselor, but after going into national radio syndication, she concentrated her efforts on "The Dr. Laura Program" heard each weekday, and on writing self-help books. The books "Ten Stupid Things Women Do to Mess Up Their Lives" and "The Proper Care and Feeding of Husbands" are among her bestselling works. A short-lived television talk show hosted by Schlessinger was launched in 2000. In August 2010, she announced that she would end her syndicated radio show in December 2010. Her show moved to the Sirius XM Stars satellite radio channel on January 3, 2011. Schlessinger announced a "multiyear" deal to be on satellite radio. On November 5, 2018, her radio program moved to the Sirius XM Triumph Channel 111.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger was born in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. She was raised in Brooklyn and later on Long Island. Her parents were Monroe "Monty" Schlessinger, a Jewish American civil engineer, and Yolanda (née Ceccovini) Schlessinger, a Catholic war bride from Italy. Schlessinger has said her father was charming and her mother beautiful as a young woman. She has a sister, Cindy, who is 11 years her junior. Schlessinger has described her childhood environment as unloving and unpleasant, and her family as dysfunctional. She has ascribed some of the difficulty to extended family rejection of her parents' mixed faith Jewish-Catholic marriage. Schlessinger said her father was "petty, insensitive, mean, thoughtless, demeaning, and downright unloving". She described her mother as a person with "pathological pride", who "was never grateful", who "would always find something to criticize," and who "constantly expressed disdain for men, sex, and love". She credited her father with giving her the drive to succeed.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger attended Westbury High School and Jericho High School, where she showed an interest in science. She received a bachelor's degree from Stony Brook University. Moving to Columbia University for graduate studies, she earned a master's and PhD in physiology in 1974. Her doctoral thesis was on insulin's effects on laboratory rats. After she began dispensing personal advice on the radio, she obtained training and certification in marriage and family counseling from the University of Southern California, where she worked in the biology department, and a therapist's license from the State of California. In addition, she opened up a part-time practice as a marriage and family therapist.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger's first appearance on radio was in 1975 when she called in to a KABC show hosted by Bill Ballance. Impressed by her quick wit and sense of humor, Ballance began featuring her in a weekly segment. Schlessinger's stint on Ballance's show led to her own shows on a series of small radio stations. By 1979, she was on the air Sunday evenings from 9:00 to midnight on KWIZ in Santa Ana, California. That year, the "Los Angeles Times" described her show as dealing with all types of emotional problems, "though sex therapy is the show's major focus".


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In the late 1980s, Schlessinger was filling in for Barbara De Angelis' noon-time, relationship-oriented talk show in Los Angeles on KFI, while working weekends at KGIL in San Fernando. Her big break came when Sally Jessy Raphael began working at ABC Radio, and Maurice Tunick, former vice president of talk programming for the ABC Radio Networks, needed a regular substitute for Raphael's evening personal-advice show. Tunick chose Schlessinger to fill in for Raphael.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger began broadcasting a daily show on KFI, which was nationally syndicated in 1994 by Synergy, a company owned by Schlessinger and her husband. In 1997, Synergy sold its rights to the show to Jacor Communications, Inc., for $71.5 million. Later, Jacor merged with Clear Channel Communications and a company co-owned by Schlessinger, Take on the Day, LLC, acquired the production rights. The show became a joint effort between Take on the Day, which produced it, Talk Radio Network, which syndicated and marketed it to radio stations, and Premiere Radio Networks, (a subsidiary of Clear Channel), which provided satellite facilities and handled advertising sales. As of September 2009, Schlessinger broadcast from her home in Santa Barbara, California, with KFWB as her flagship station. Podcasts and live streams of the show have been available on her website for a monthly fee, and the show was also on XM Satellite Radio.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: At its peak, "The Dr. Laura Program" was the second-highest-rated radio show after "The Rush Limbaugh Show", and was heard on more than 450 radio stations. Writing in 1998, Leslie Bennett described the popularity of the show:


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In May 2002, the show still had an audience of more than 10 million, but had lost several million listeners in the previous two years as it was dropped by WABC and other affiliates, and was moved from day to night in cities such as Seattle and Boston. These losses were attributed in part to Schlessinger's shift from giving relationship advice to lecturing on morality and conservative politics. Pressure from gay rights groups caused dozens of sponsors to drop the radio show, as well. In 2006, Schlessinger's show was being aired on about 200 stations. As of 2009, it was tied for third place along with "The Glenn Beck Program" and "The Savage Nation".


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger used "Hot Talkin' Big Shot", a song by country and blues singer and songwriter Nikki Hornsby, for several years as cue music for her radio program and for a national radio commercial advertising for the show. She also used "New Attitude" by Patti LaBelle.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: On August 17, 2010, during an appearance on "Larry King Live", Schlessinger announced the end of her radio show, saying that her motivation was to "regain her First Amendment rights", and that she wanted to be able to say what is on her mind without "some special interest group deciding this is a time to silence a voice of dissent." Several of her affiliates and major sponsors had dropped her show after her on-air use of a racial epithet on August 10 (see below). Specifically, she said, "[n-word n-word n-word] is what you hear [in rap]."


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: She currently offers a short podcast of the "Call of the Day" from her SiriusXM daily show, and it is ranked in the top 25 "Kids and Family" podcasts on iTunes


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 1999, Schlessinger signed a deal with Paramount Domestic Television to produce a syndicated talk show titled "Dr. Laura", which was carried in major markets by CBS's owned and operated stations and in 96% of the nation's markets overall for fall 2000. This was viewed as something of a coup by Paramount, as they felt that a popular personality such as Schlessinger could be the spark they needed to sell themselves as a daytime syndication powerhouse rivaling King World and Warner Bros. Television, which distributed the popular topical talk show "The Oprah Winfrey Show" and the variety talk show "The Rosie O'Donnell Show".


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Leading up to the September 11, 2000, premiere of "Dr. Laura", Schlessinger created a significant amount of controversy. In the months before the premiere of her TV show, Schlessinger called homosexuality a "biological error", said that homosexuality was acceptable as long as it was not public, and said that homosexuals should adopt older children. She also expressed her view that "a huge portion of the male homosexual populace is predatory on young boys." Schlessinger was frequently criticized in LGBT media for these views. Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation, an LGBT media watchdog group, began monitoring Schlessinger's on-air comments about LGBT people, posting transcripts of relevant shows on its website.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In March 2000, a group of gay activists launched StopDrLaura.com, an online campaign with the purpose of convincing Paramount to cancel "Dr. Laura" prior to its premiere. The group protested at Paramount studios, stating her views were offensively bigoted. StopDrLaura.com organized protests in 34 cities in the U.S. and Canada, and picked up on an advertiser boycott of the radio and the TV shows started by another grass-roots organization which called itself "Silence Of The Slams" operating its boycott through AOL Hometown.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: On Yom Kippur in 2000, Dr. Laura said she "deeply [regretted] the hurt this situation has caused the gay and lesbian community" and asked for forgiveness, while abstaining from offering a retraction of her words.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: "Dr. Laura" premiered to low ratings and unkind reviews. Critics and viewers complained that the format had been dumbed down and did not stand out from any other daytime talk show. The biting rhetoric that worked well on radio seemed overly harsh for face-to-face discourse, owing to the normal sympathetic nature of most other daytime hosts; the radical change in Schlessinger's demeanor from her radio persona left viewers cold. The television show failed to generate the energy and interest of Schlessinger's radio show.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: The credibility of Schlessinger's television program also suffered during its first month, when the "New York Post" reported that Schlessinger had used show staff to falsely pose as guests on the show. A September 25, 2000, episode named "Readin', Writin', and Cheatin'" featured a so-called college student who specialized in professional note-taking. On the next day's show, "Getting to the Altar," the same guest appeared in different hair and makeup and said she was a woman living with her boyfriend. In fact, the woman was San-D Duchas, a researcher for the show whose name appeared in the closing credits of the shows on which she posed as a guest.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: By November 2000, advertisers that had committed to Schlessinger's show had pulled their support due to plummeting ratings. CBS was displeased enough with the ratings that it began looking to either drop the series or move it to late-night slots on its stations within two months of its premiere. Other stations outside of CBS did the same thing, while others moved it to weaker sister stations. "Dr. Laura" aired its last first-run episode on March 30, 2001, on the stations that continued to air it, with reruns continuing until September 2001.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 2004, Schlessinger said that although the money and celebrity in television is greater, it is not as meaningful or intimate as radio, and for her, television was a "terrible experience".


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: For several years, Schlessinger wrote a weekly column syndicated by Universal Press Syndicate that was carried in many newspapers, and in "Jewish World Review". She discontinued the column in July 2000, citing lack of time due to her upcoming television show. She wrote a monthly column for "WorldNetDaily" between 2002 and 2004, with one entry in 2006. In 2006, Schlessinger joined the "Santa Barbara News-Press", writing biweekly columns dealing with Santa Barbara news, as well as general news and cultural issues discussed on her radio show. She suspended the column in mid-2007, resumed writing it later, then discontinued it in December 2008. She currently writes columns on her blog, on a variety of topics.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger has written 13 books for adults and four for children. Several follow the mold of her successful "Ten Stupid Things Women Do to Mess Up Their Lives", with similarly named books giving advice for men, couples, and parents, while others are more moral in orientation.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: For several years, Schlessinger published a monthly magazine, "Dr. Laura Perspective". She was the editor, her husband a contributing photographer, and her son the creative consultant. The magazine has ceased publication.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger was invited to the editorial board of Skeptic magazine in 1994 after taking a stand against recovered memory therapy, but resigned abruptly in 1998 after it published an issue on "The God Question," insisting to its publisher Michael Shermer that there can be no question about God's existence.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger has a website that contains hints for stay-at-home parents, her blog, a reading list, and streaming audio of her shows (by subscription only). When it was started, 310,000 people tried to access it simultaneously and it crashed. Certain aspects of feminism are often discussed on her website; she was a self-proclaimed feminist in the 1970s, but is now opposed to feminism.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger created the Laura Schlessinger Foundation to help abused and neglected children in 1998. Schlessinger regularly asked her on-air audience to donate items for "My Stuff" bags, which go to children in need. All other donations came from other people or groups, usually in the form of donated items for the bags. Per the foundation's reports, money not used for operations was directed toward pro-life organizations, such as crisis pregnancy centers. In September 2004, Schlessinger announced that she was closing down the foundation because it had become too difficult and costly for her husband and her to underwrite, and they wished to devote their "energies and resources to other pressing needs".


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 2007, Schlessinger began fundraising for Operation Family Fund, an organization that aids the families of fallen or seriously injured veterans of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. In 2008, she helped raise more than $1 million for the organization.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 2017, Dr. Laura began donating proceeds from the sale of jewelry and glass art she designs and hand makes to Children of Fallen Patriots Foundation, a charitable organization that provides college scholarships to military children who lost a parent in the line of duty.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: She was the first woman to win the Marconi Award for Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year (1997). In 1998 she received the American Women in Radio & Television's Genii Award. She was on the" Forbes" top 100 list of celebrities in 2000 with estimated earnings of $13 million. In September 2002, the industry magazine "Talkers" named Schlessinger as the seventh-greatest radio talk-show host of all time. In 2005 and 2008,


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger received a National Heritage award from the National Council of Young Israel in March 2001. She also received the National Religious Broadcasters Chairman's Award, and has lectured on the national conservative circuit. She was the commencement speaker at Hillsdale College in June 2002, and was awarded an honorary degree as a doctor of tradition and culture.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 2007, Schlessinger was given an Exceptional Public Service award by the Office of the U.S. Secretary of Defense. In 2008," Talkers" presented her with an award for outstanding community service by a radio talk-show host.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger most recently was named to the National Radio Hall of Fame, Class of 2018. Schlessinger and Nanci Donnelan (the Fabulous Sports Babe) are the first two women with their own national radio shows to be inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Born to a Jewish father and an Italian Catholic mother, Schlessinger was raised in Brooklyn in a home that was without religion.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger was not religious until she started to practice Conservative Judaism in 1996. In 1998, Schlessinger, Bishop, and their son converted to Orthodox Judaism. and began instruction under Rabbi Reuven P. Bulka of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. During this time, Schlessinger sometimes used Jewish law and examples to advise her callers about their moral dilemmas. She occasionally clarified ethical and moral issues with her local Orthodox Rabbi Moshe D. Bryski, before mentioning them on the air. She was embraced by many in the politically conservative segment of Orthodox Judaism for bringing more awareness of Orthodoxy to her radio show. Some of her expressed views were explicitly religious and are referenced her 1999 book "The Ten Commandments: The Significance of God's Laws in Everyday Life".


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In July 2003, Schlessinger announced on her show that she was no longer an Orthodox Jew, but that she was still Jewish.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger met and married Michael F. Rudolph, a dentist, in 1972 while she was attending Columbia University. The couple had a Unitarian ceremony. Separating from Rudolph, Schlessinger moved to Encino, California in 1975, when she obtained a job in the science department at the University of Southern California. Their divorce was finalized in 1977.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 1975, while working in the labs at USC, she met Lewis G. Bishop, a professor of neurophysiology, who was married and the father of three children. Bishop separated from his wife and began living with Schlessinger the same year. Schlessinger has vociferously proclaimed her disapproval of unwed couples "shacking up" and having children out of wedlock. According to her friend Shelly Herman, "Laura lived with Lew for about nine years before she was married to him." His divorce was final in 1979. Bishop and Schlessinger married in 1985. Herman says that Schlessinger told her she was pregnant at the time, which Herman recalls as "particularly joyful because of the happy news." Schlessinger's only child, a son named Deryk, was born in November 1985. Schlessinger's husband died November 2, 2015, after being ill for 1.5 years.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In the late 1980s, when her son was almost 4, Schlessinger began training in Hapkido under Sayed Qubadi, and had earned a black belt in that art by 1993.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger was estranged from her sister for years, and many thought she was an only child. She had not spoken to her mother for 18 to 20 years before her mother's death in 2002 from heart disease. Her mother's remains were found in her Beverly Hills condo about two months after she died, and lay unclaimed for some time in the Los Angeles morgue before Schlessinger had them picked up for burial. Concerning the day that she heard about her mother's death, she said: "Apparently she had no friends and none of her neighbors were close, so nobody even noticed! How sad." In 2006, Schlessinger wrote that she had been attacked in a "vulgar, inhumane manner by media types" because of the circumstances surrounding her mother's death, and that false allegations had been made that she was unfit to dispense advice based on family values. She said that she had not mourned the deaths of either of her parents because she had no emotional bond to them.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 1998, Schlessinger was in a Costa Mesa surf shop with her son when she began perusing the skateboarding magazine "Big Brother". On her radio program, Schlessinger declared the magazine to be "stealth pornography". When the owner of the store publicly denied that she found pornography in his store, Schlessinger sued him for lying, claiming that his denial had hurt her reputation. When the case went to court, the judge dismissed her suit, but the shop owner's $4 million defamation countersuit lodged for hurting the reputation of his store was allowed to stand. The suit has since been settled, but the terms of the settlement have not been revealed.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 1998, Schlessinger's early radio mentor, Bill Ballance, sold nude photos of Schlessinger to a company specializing in internet porn. The photos were taken in the mid-1970s, while Schlessinger was involved in a brief affair with the then-married Ballance. Schlessinger sued after the photos were posted on the internet, claiming invasion of privacy and copyright violation. The court ruled that Schlessinger did not own the rights to the photos. She did not appeal the ruling. She told her radio audience that she was embarrassed, but that the photos were taken when she was going through a divorce and had "no moral authority."


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Over the years, Schlessinger expressed opposition to homosexuality based on biblical scripture, at one point referring to homosexual behavior as "products of a biological disorder". Her rhetoric eventually prompted an open letter penned in the year 2000 responding to her position that used text of Bible decrees.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: On August 10, 2010, Nita Hanson, a black woman married to a white man, called Schlessinger's show to ask for advice on how to deal with a husband who did not care when she was the subject of racist comments by acquaintances. Schlessinger first replied that "some people are hypersensitive" and asked for some examples from the caller. Hanson informed Schlessinger that her acquaintances had stated, "How you black people do this? You black people like doing that." Schlessinger responded that her examples were not racist and that "a lot of blacks only voted for Obama simply because he was half black. Didn't matter what he was going to do in office; it was a black thing. You gotta know that. That's not a surprise." Schlessinger continued by telling the caller that she had a "chip on [her] shoulder," was "sensitive," and also, "Don't NAACP me," and, "a lot of what I hear from black-think ... it's really distressing and disturbing."


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: When the caller noted that she was referred to as the "n-word" by the individuals in question, Schlessinger complained that blacks are fine with cordially using the slur among themselves, but that it was wrong when whites used it to slur them. In doing so, she uttered "nigger" 11 times, albeit not directed at the caller. She discussed the word and its use by blacks and in black media. When Hanson asked, "Is it ever OK to say that word?" Schlessinger responded, "It depends how it's said. Black guys talking to each other seem to think it's OK." After the call Schlessinger said, "If you're that hypersensitive about color and don't have a sense of humor, don't marry out of your race." Early that evening, she wrote an apology to Los Angeles Radio People online journalist Don Barrett. A day later, as soon as she was back on the air, Schlessinger apologized. Hanson questioned the motivation and sincerity of Schlessinger's apology, believing it to be result of being "caught." Hanson also said that Schlessinger did not apologize for her comments on interracial marriage.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: Schlessinger announced that, while not retiring from radio, she would end her radio show at the end of 2010:


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 2011, she began broadcasting on satellite radio with Sirius XM. Her program is also available as a podcast at iTunes and from her own website.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 1999, Schlessinger was parodied as Dr. Nora on the sitcom "Frasier". The character was portrayed as having dogmatic and fundamentalist social views that promoted social conservatism. The character was also shown to have a degree that belies her therapeutic advice and was estranged from her mother.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: A fictional, non-speaking depiction of Schlessinger is briefly seen in "The Simpsons" eleventh season episode "Treehouse of Horror X", as one of the useless people put on a rocketship headed for the Sun.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 2000, in the episode "The Midterms" on "The West Wing", the fictional "Dr. Jenna Jacobs" is scolded by President Bartlet, who criticizes her views on homosexuality, and points out she is not a doctor in any field related to morality, ethics, medicine or theology. He quotes from the Bible to point out the inconsistency of condemning certain sins but not others. Show creator Aaron Sorkin admitted to modeling Bartlet's diatribe on an anonymous "Letter to Dr. Laura," which was a popular viral email at the time.


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: A fictionalised version of Schlessinger is featured as an antagonist in the 2000 animated series "Queer Duck".


title: Laura Schlessinger

text: In 2001, Schlessinger was portrayed on the claymation show Celebrity Deathmatch on the episode, A Night of Vomit. She was in a fight with Ellen DeGeneres; she lost.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Marianne Christine Stang Ihlen (; 18 May 1935 – 28 July 2016) was a Norwegian woman who was the first wife of author Axel Jensen and later the muse and girlfriend of Leonard Cohen for several years in the 1960s. She was the subject of Cohen's 1967 song "So Long, Marianne".


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Ihlen was born on 18 May 1935 in Larkollen, Norway, the elder of the two children of Ingeborg Louise (nee Kloed, 29 April 1909 – 5 September 2003) and Nils Ihlen (27 October 1906 – 16 November 1959). Known as “Mosse”, her mother was the daughter of opera singer Wilhelm Cappelle Kloed and had had a privileged childhood, including having been sent to Paris to learn French. Ihlen was raised in Oslo where her father was a lawyer. During the Second World War Ihlen's father contracted tuberculosis which required a long period of treatment at the Mesnali sanatorium near Lillehammer. Her younger brother Nils when he was two suffered from tuberculosis for more than a year during which while her mother nursed her son and husband Ihlen spent time with her maternal grandmother in Larkollen.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: As the 1950s progressed the family’s financial situation became strained as Ihlen’s father lacked the lung capacity as a result of his tuberculosis treatment to work for an entire day in court. This put pressure on the couple’s relationship and forced her mother to take a job in the licence office of the national broadcasting company.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: While her father had hoped that she would become a doctor or lawyer, Ihlen did not know what she wanted to do, so opted to take business studies at the Oslo Municipal Trade School. Graduating at the age of 19 Ihlen took a number of jobs, including as secretary at an attorney’s office in Oslo, Kristiania Shoe Store, the Norsk Bygdekino cinema, and in 1956 at the Save the Children charitable organization. She also briefly worked as an au pair in Newcastle, in England.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: In 1954, while travelling in a car with one of her girlfriends along Majorstua Street, they were approached by budding 22 year old Norwegian avant-garde writer Axel Jensen, who invited her to a party. Once at the party Ihlen thought he was fascinating and was spellbound by everything he said. Jensen subsequently telephoned her and they met up in Dovrehallen, a student pub at which they committed to a relationship. Jensen took whatever work he could find to support himself as he wrote short stories for newspapers and magazines. He introduced Ihlen to works by Nietzsche, Carl Jung and Ouspensky in an effort to expand her horizons. In 1955 Jensen self-published his first book "Dyretemmerens kors". Ihlen clashed with her father over Jensen, curfews, and housework, and when she was twenty he refused her permission to spend Easter with Jensen and their friends in a mountain cabin. Her father thought that Jensen, who came from a broken home, lacked a good education, a job and a place of his own to live, unlike the children of his middle class friends and acquaintances.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: When she was 22, Ihlen was inspired while reading Henrik Ibsen’s "The Wild Duck" with her mother’s cousin who was an actress, to also become an actress. She then studied to take the entrance examination to the National Academy of Theatre in Oslo, but lost her nerve partly due to her parents' objections and did not take the examination. In 1957 Jensen’s novel "Ikaros – ung mann i Sahara" (Icarus – A Young Man in Sahara) was published by Henrik Groth of Cappelen, and was highly praised. Ihlen thought they had a committed relationship with long held plans to travel to Greece, but later that same year, one evening, Jensen out of the blue introduced her to another young woman at the Theatre Café, and informed Ihlen that there would be no trip to Greece as he was leaving tomorrow with the other woman for Egypt. Ihlen stormed out and made her way in a state of shock back to where she was staying, only to be awakened at 4 o’clock by Jensen at the doorstep saying, “We’re going to Greece! It’s you I want to travel with!”


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: In mid-November, over her parents’ objections, the reunited couple departed by train for Greece, with plans to be away for a year, with Jensen intending to spend the time writing. Disembarking from the train in Hamburg, they purchased a second-hand Volkswagen Beetle. Driving south they visited Venice and Rome before passing through Yugoslavia into Greece. On the way south from Thessaloniki, Ihlen was forced to have an emergency operation for appendicitis in the village of Lamia. Ihlen remained in hospital for a week recovering, and it was not until December that they reached Athens, where they stayed with their friends Per and Else Berit who had moved there the year before. Jensen had originally intended that they rent an apartment in Athens, but their friends suggested they could live more cheaply on the island of Hydra, which was three hours away by ferry. After visiting Delphi the couple drove down to Erminoni in the Peloponnese, where their landlady at the place they stayed allowed them to park their car in her garden. It was from there that they took a ferry to Hydra.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: After initially renting, Jensen used part of an advance of 40,000 kroner that he had received from Groth for his next book to purchase a house on Kala Pigadia Street on Hydra for approximately US$2,500. After making repairs to the house, the couple were left with just over US$2,000 on which to live on until Jensen’s next book was published, with the house offered as security for one year’s line of credit at a local grocery store. The house was simple with an outside toilet and electricity for only one hour in the evening and one hour in the morning. Otherwise, they used paraffin lamps. The couple soon became a component part of the foreign community on the island, and friends with Charmian Clift and her husband, novelist George Johnston. Some months later the Swedish writer Göran Tunström arrived on the island and rented a house close by, becoming a friend. Ihlen remained on Hydra when it was necessary for Jensen to travel back several times to Norway to capitalise on the success of his novel "Ikaros – ung mann i Sahara".


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: On one of these trips Jensen met a woman called Sonja, who he became besotted with after five days of acquaintance. Upon his return to Hydra in late 1958, he informed Ihlen that the woman was coming to the island and that his relationship with her was over. In response Ihlen packed a bag and left to stay in Athens for a few days, with the idea of getting a job there. She was approached by Eileen Barclay who was married to Sam Barclay, an heir to Barclays Bank. They had a schooner, the "Stromie Seas", which they chartered out to wealthy individuals over the summer. Eileen was eager to have a break from her position as cook and hostess on the yacht and spend time with her new lover. She suggested that Ihlen replace her on the schooner where she could also be a nanny for the couple’s seven-year-old son. The next day she reported to Barclay at Piraeus, and spent the next six weeks working on the schooner as it sailed among various Greek islands, including Santorini. Thrown together, Barclay and Ihlen had a romantic relationship during this period. At the end of the charter Ihlen returned to stay with Per and Else Berit in Athens, who observed that the experience had transformed her into a serene and more-confident person, who, while she still loved Jensen, was prepared to live without him. Meanwhile Jensen had been on a six week long drinking binge as he had purchased a ticket for Sonja to travel to join him in Greece, only to find that she had sold the ticket and had kept the money.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: By chance, while Jensen was in Athens he met the "new" Marianne, falling in love with her again. He immediately asked her to marry him and she accepted. They married on 22 October 1958 in the Anglican Church in Athens, against her parents' wishes. They then returned to their house on Hydra. While Jensen had by now delivered the first draft of his novel to Cappelen, to bring in extra money both Ihlen and Jensen worked over the spring of 1959 on Sam Barclay’s schooner as it carried a group of English students around the Greek islands.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: With his new novel "Line", printed and approaching its publishing date, both Ihlen (who was by now pregnant) and Jensen travelled to Oslo, where both were able to catch up with family and friends. Once the novel was published to great acclaim, Jensen used the incoming money to travel in October with Ihlen, Per and Else Brent to Stockholm, where via friends they purchased a Karmann Ghia. Due to Jensen being unable to drive due to a drunk driving conviction, Ihlen drove the car back to Oslo. It was while they were back in Oslo that Ihlen’s father died of kidney failure in November 1959. Ihlen’s son Axel Joachim was born on 21 January 1960 in Oslo. Ihlen temporarily moved in with her mother, as a week after his son’s birth Jensen travelled back to Hydra in order to avoid paying Norwegian taxes. Four months later Ihlen and Axel Joachim followed.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: While Ihlen had been in Norway, Leonard Cohen had moved to Hydra, renting a house for US$14 a month. While he had noticed her following her return, they had never been introduced. Ihlen described their meeting in Katsikas’ store in early 1960:


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: After finishing her shopping Ihlen joined Cohen and three or four other foreigners at a table outside for a period before returning home. By now Ihlen was aware that her husband had a new lover, the American painter Patricia Amlin, who he was openly carrying on with.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: With their relationship deteriorating, Jensen decided to leave on his sailboat, a BBII that he had had transported by ship to Piraeus. A friend, while visiting Athens, reported back to Ihlen that he had seen Jensen and Amlin together, which finally convinced her that her marriage was finished. Jensen later confirmed in a May 1960 letter to her that he had left Hydra by himself rather than openly with Amlin, in order to spare Ihlen the public humiliation. Rather than return to Norway, Ihlen decided to stay on Hydra with her baby son, partly due to her deepening friendship with Cohen.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Soon after Ihlen’s and Jensen’s separation, Amlin was badly injured when she crashed Jensen’s Karmann Ghia near Athens and was flung out of the car, breaking many bones and developing gangrene, which required amputation of a thumb. Jensen struggled with the situation and three days later telegrammed Ihlen asking for her help. At Cohen’s urging, Ihlen left her son with him and travelled to Athens, where she maintained a vigil by Amlin’s bed allowing Jensen to rest. After three days she returned to Hydra. After Jensen left her, Ihlen received small financial payments from Jensen’s publisher, Cappelen. Jensen allowed her to live in the house and following their formal divorce a year later transferred ownership to her and their son. After taking Amlin back to America and travelling around Mexico with John Starr Cooke, Jensen returned to Hydra in the summer of 1960 and rented a house in which to write. Jensen remained friendly with both Ihlen and Cohen. Eventually Jensen was expelled from Hydra in 1962 following a drunken altercation with a policeman, after which Ihlen never saw him again, though they continued to correspond.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: The Karmann Ghia had survived Amlin’s crash practically undamaged. It had been registered in Ihlen’s name, but there was a need for it to be returned to Norway in order to avoid having to pay import duties, which Ihlen would struggle to pay. She was reluctant to make the long journey with her son. As Cohen’s money was running out and he needed to return to Canada to make some more, he offered to accompany her, before continuing across the Atlantic. Plans changed when by chance Ihlen came across some SAS Norwegian aircrew while they were relaxing in Hydra. Believing them to be trustworthy, she impulsively asked if they would take her six month son back to his grandmother in Oslo, rather than him having to endure a long drive across Europe. They agreed and in August a few days later Ihlen and Cohen delivered the baby to the aircrew at Athens airport.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: After receiving a telegram from her mother that her son had arrived safely, Ihlen and Cohen returned to Hydra where in September of that year, having received an inheritance from his grandmother, Cohen purchased a whitewashed L-shaped house for US$1,500. Ihlen divided her time between her house and Cohen’s, though they took small breaks to explore the mainland together. In November 1960 Ihlen and Cohen drove to Norway, exploring Europe as they went. Cohen then travelled on from Oslo to Canada.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Ihlen signed her legal separation papers in February 1961, though her divorce would not be finalised for another year. To support herself she took a job as production assistant and substitute script girl on the film "Tonny" released in 1962. Cohen eventually scraped together sufficient funds and sent Ihlen a telegram in the autumn of 1961:


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: She and her by now 18-month-old son joined him in Montreal, where Cohen increasingly became a surrogate father to Axel Joachim. The three lived in Montreal for one year before returning to Hydra in 1963. While she had been away Ihlen had rented out the house on Kala Pigadia Street, which she returned to live in before soon moving in with Cohen. They engaged an elderly neighbour Kyria Sophia to help around the house while Cohen wrote, and Ihlen looked after her son and Cohen. Ihlen and Cohen grew their own marijuana with Ihlen occasionally mixing it into meatballs.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: After two years of work, Cohen completed his novel "The Favourite Game", which was published in October 1963. Leaving her son with his grandmother before he joined her, Ihlen spent a couple of months in Paris where she tried to obtain work before travelling on to Oslo to attend the funeral of her paternal grandmother. Meanwhile Cohen had been in London and Canada, returning to Hydra where once again he created a family unit with Ihlen and her son. Cohen attempted to gain a living through his writing while his muse was a housewife and lover. Ihlen occasionally modelled for Hydra based artists, among them Anthony Kingsmill and Marcelle Maltais, whose painting of her resides in the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Cohen returned to Montreal for a short period before he obtained passage on a cargo ship and re-joined Ihlen, who was then visiting Oslo. Cohen wrote to his friend Irving Layton that Ihlen:


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Once the couple were back on Hydra Cohen commenced work in 1964 on his second novel "Beautiful Losers". During this writing period he would often leave Ihlen on Hydra while he returned to Canada for short periods to work and replenish his funds, as well as provide readings of his poetry. The only time they travelled as a family was a short trip to London in the spring of 1965.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: By the time "Beautiful Losers" was published in 1966 to disappointing sales and initially unsympathetic reviews, Cohen had come to the realisation that he would not be able to make a living as a writer. At the same time his relationship with Ihlen had become strained, due to the time he had spent away from her in Hydra. To improve their relationship, the couple moved to Montreal together with Ihlen’s son where they took up residence in an apartment at 3657 Aylmer Street. Ihlen was able to obtain a job in a woman’s clothing boutique on Sainte Catherine Street. By this time folk music was becoming popular, especially in New York. On visits to the city, Cohen had heard both Bob Dylan and Joan Baez perform.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: After some time back in Montreal, Cohen decided to head south in search of work as a studio musician in Nashville. While passing through New York he was introduced to singer Judy Collins, who after hearing some of his songs encouraged him to continue. By now having run out of money, he returned to Ihlen in Montreal, instead of continuing on to Nashville. It was back in Montreal that Cohen wrote "Suzanne", which was taken up by Collins and became his first successful song. Deciding in the winter of 1966 that she needed a break from Cohen, Ihlen took Axel Joachim along on a visit to her friend John Starr Cooke near Oaxaca in Mexico. It was here that for the only time in her life Ihlen tried a few LSD trips, in an attempt to provide some insight into her dilemmas.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Believed that its unstructured regime would be beneficial, Ihlen sent seven year old Axel Joachim to board at experimental Summerhill School in England. There were children of a number of other Hydra expats there. However Axel Joachim was unmoored by the experience, and became desperate for his mother. He spent a year or two there. He then had no further real schooling until at the age of 12 he was sent to a strict Swiss boarding school.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: In 1968, while living alone on Hydra, Ihlen met 20-year-old Nick Broomfield, with whom she had a nearly year-long relationship, during which she was instrumental in encouraging him to become a documentary maker and to make his first film, "Who Cares?" in 1971.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Axel Joachim returned to his mother and was nine years old when the pair moved to New York where Cohen was then based, with Ihlen hoping to re-establish their relationship. Cohen would not allow her to stay. He claimed that he considered her too pure, and wished to shield her and her son from his current debauched, bohemian lifestyle. Consequently, Ihlen established a separate residence with her friend Carol Zemel who had recently moved to the city on Clinton Street on the Lower East Side. Ihlen and her old friend Jean Marc Appert earned money as street vendors of toy cats, made on the spot out of steel wire and wool yarn.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Cohen and Ihlen remained close, with him paying her rent and her son's boarding schools in England and Switzerland as well as his airfare. He took her for visits to the Chelsea Hotel, and to concerts, and introduced her to Andy Warhol, Joni Mitchell and Buffy Sainte-Marie. As Cohen’s fame increased, other women would ring Ihlen’s apartment in an attempt to get to him. While they drifted apart as lovers, Cohen would continue to support Ihlen and provide whatever help he could. Their relationship finally ended in 1972 after the birth of Cohen's son Adam, who was born from his relationship with Suzanne Elrod.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: While in the city Ihlen undertook a body-oriented psychotherapy with psychotherapist Alexander Lowen. After a year in New York, Ihlen and her son left to divide their time between her family’s home in Larkollen and Hydra. While living in Cohen’s house in Hydra in 1972 with her by now 12-year-old Axel Joachim, she was confronted by Suzanne Elrod with her son Adam Cohen. Elrod wanted the house for herself, so Ihlen was forced to move out.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: In 1973 Ihlen returned with her son to live a permanent, more structured life in Oslo, though she and Cohen stayed in touch periodically for the rest of her life. Whenever he performed in Scandinavia, she visited him backstage. When either of them spoke of their love affair, it was always in the fondest terms.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Ihlen took a position with Norwegian Contractors, who specialized in the construction of offshore oil platforms, where she worked in the personnel and foreign departments. She remained employed in the oil industry for the rest of her working life.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Axel Joachim was taken on a trip to India at the age of 15 by his father, Jensen, and given LSD. As he grew older, he developed psychiatric problems and after 1979 spent a large part of his life institutionalized in Norway. The 2020 documentary "Little Axel" explored his life.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: While employed at Norwegian Contractors Ihlen met engineer Jan Kielland Stang, who had three daughters from a previous marriage and whom she knew from her youth. They married in 1979. Following their marriage they continued to live in Oslo.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Ihlen continued to regularly visit Hydra for holidays. Late in her working life, Ihlen assisted actress Juni Dahr by making travel arrangements for her when she toured her solo shows "Joan of Arc - Vision through Fire" and then "Ibsen Women - Put an Eagle in a Cage" in Europe, Japan and the United States in the late 1980s and early 1990s. She developed an interest in Tibetan Buddhism via the Centre for Growth in Denmark and spent time painting.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: She was diagnosed with leukemia in late July 2016. Her close friend Jan Christian Mollestad contacted Cohen to tell him Ihlen was dying. Leonard Cohen penned a poignant final letter to her, which is often misquoted by the media and others. However, the widely circulated version of the letter was based on an inaccurate verbal recollection by Mollestad which was then transcribed in a radio interview. The actual letter (actually an email) obtained through the Leonard Cohen estate reads:


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Cohen dedicated his third volume of poetry, "Flowers for Hitler", to Ihlen with the poems "For Marianne" and "Waiting for Marianne", deal specifically with her. Cohen’s 1972 volume of poetry "The Energy of Slaves" also refers to Ihlen in "Welcome Home".


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: She also directly inspired many of his songs, in particular "Bird on the Wire", "Hey, That's No Way to Say Goodbye" and "So Long, Marianne" on his first two albums, "Songs of Leonard Cohen" (1967) and "Songs from a Room" (1969). The back sleeve of "Songs from a Room" features a famous photograph of her at Cohen's typewriter, draped in a white towel in their house on Hydra.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: From a window in that home, Ihlen once saw a bird perched on a newly installed telephone wire and remarked to Cohen that they looked like musical notes; she suggested he write a song about it. "Bird on the Wire" was the result, one of his most successful songs, with the opening lines:


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Initially, the title line read “Come on, Marianne” and was meant as an invitation to allow changes in their lives. Even before the separation from Ihlen, Cohen replaced the encouraging “come on” with the farewell greeting “so long”.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: The song "Moving On" from Cohen's posthumous 2019 album "Thanks for the Dance" is also a tribute to Ihlen.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Norwegian journalist Kari Hesthamar won the 2006 Prix Europa for her 2005 radio documentary about Ihlen. In 2008, Hesthamar published her biography of Ihlen, "So Long, Marianne. Ei Kjærleikshistorie"; ECW Press published the English translation "" in 2014.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: In 2014, in a review of Lana Del Rey's third album, "Ultraviolence", Alexandra Molotkow compared Del Rey's persona of surrender to Ihlen's account of her search for independence. Molotkow described Del Rey as an artist, fully in control of her career, who, paradoxically, had chosen a performing persona as a weak and helpless female, who sought to surrender to powerful men. According to Molotkow, who had just read Hesthamar's recently translated biography of Ihlen, even though Ihlen had the reality of the fantasy Del Rey shows in her videos, of the woman socially and economically reliant on a man, Ihlen has described how she became fully independent. According to Molotkow, Hesthamar's book is "the story of a remarkable woman who was a muse – who has, until now, appeared in history as a man’s idea – and how she found herself. Often, the book reads as a caution against giving up your power."


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: In June 2019 a collection of more than 50 love letters written by Leonard Cohen to Ihlen were sold at auction by Christie’s for $876,000 with many selling for more than five times their pre-sale estimates. One letter sold for $56,250.


title: Marianne Ihlen

text: Ihlen was a character in Polly Samson’s 2020 novel "A Theatre for Dreamers" about the bohemian circle on Hydra in the 1960s.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford (November 143121/26 December 1495), was the uncle of King Henry VII of England and a leading architect of his nephew's successful accession to the throne in 1485. He was from the noble Tudor family of Penmynydd in North Wales.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Jasper Tudor's coat of arms, granted to him by his maternal half-brother, King Henry VI, quarters the three lilies of France with the three lions of England, with the addition of a "bordure azure with martlets or" (that is, a blue border featuring golden martlets).


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Jasper was the second son of Sir Owen Tudor and the former queen Catherine of Valois, the widow of King Henry V of England. He was thus half-brother to Henry VI. Through his father, Jasper was a descendant of Ednyfed Fychan, Llywelyn the Great's renowned chancellor. This connection added greatly to his status in Wales. His mother was a daughter of King Charles VI of France.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Jasper was born at the bishop of Ely's manor at Hatfield, Hertfordshire, in 1431, his parents' second child. After the death of Jasper's mother in 1437, Owen Tudor was arrested and sent to Newgate prison. Jasper, his brother Edmund, and possibly a sister were put into the care of Katherine de la Pole, a nun at Barking Abbey, in Essex, from July 1437 to March 1442. She was the sister of William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, a great favourite of Henry VI, and was able to provide Jasper and his siblings with food, clothing, and lodging. They were also permitted servants to wait upon them as the King's half-siblings.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: In 1442, their half-brother the King began to take an interest in their upbringing. Sometime after March 1442, Jasper and his brother were brought to live at court. Henry arranged for the best priest to educate them intellectually and morally. The brothers also received military training; when they grew up they were given military positions. Jasper was recognised as Henry VI's uterine half-brother when, on 23 November 1452, he was created Earl of Pembroke.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Sir Owen Tudor was released from prison, most likely thanks to his stepson Henry VI who, after providing for his stepfather, also provided for his two half-brothers. It is not clear whether Henry VI had known of the existence of his half-brothers until his mother told him while she was dying in Bermondsey Abbey. It was after her death that Henry would begin to care for them and eventually raise them to the peerage by giving both brothers earldoms. Jasper became Earl of Pembroke on 23 November 1452, the seventh creation. In turn, Edmund and Jasper swore unwavering loyalty to Henry and fought and promoted him and his Lancastrian family's interests persistently throughout their lives.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Owen and Catherine's marriage was not recognised by the authorities, in large part due to the secrecy under which it was accomplished, and so the legitimacy of Jasper and his two (or three) siblings was questionable. However, Jasper enjoyed all the privileges appropriate to his birth, including being invested as a Knight of the Garter. After 1485, he would describe himself as the "high and mighty Prince Jasper, brother and uncle of Kings, Duke of Bedford and Earl of Pembroke". During his time at court, Jasper constantly tried to work with the Duke of York and other nobles in order to try to stop the infighting between the two houses. It was after the death of his elder brother, Edmund, that Jasper took over the responsibility of maintaining the Lancastrian ties within Wales. Along with this, he took into his care his sister-in-law and infant nephew.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: On the accession of the Yorkist King Edward IV in 1461, he was subject to an attainder for supporting his Lancastrian half-brother, the deposed King Henry, to whom Jasper was loyal. He strove to place his half-nephew Prince Edward of Lancaster on the throne and provided absolute loyalty to his royal half-brother and Margaret of Anjou, his half-brother's wife. Jasper would also help his other sister-in-law Lady Margaret Beaufort assist her son Henry Tudor to win the throne in 1485 as King Henry VII, father of King Henry VIII.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: In 1485, Jasper financed the rebuilding of the north-west tower of Llandaff Cathedral, near Cardiff. It now holds the Cathedral bells, and is named the Jasper Tower in his honour.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Jasper Tudor was an adventurer whose military expertise, some of it gained in the early stages of the Wars of the Roses, was considerable. Nevertheless, the only major battle he had taken part in before the Battle of Bosworth was the Battle of Mortimer's Cross in February 1461, where he lost the battle to the future king, Edward IV of England. His father, Owen Tudor, was then captured and beheaded at Hereford, where his head was placed on the market cross. Jasper occupied the castles of Carmarthen and Aberystwyth in 1456 until he lost them to William Herbert of Raglan. Subsequently, he remained in touch with his sister-in-law, Margaret of Anjou, wife of his half-brother Henry VI and he held Denbigh Castle for the House of Lancaster in 1460.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Jasper Tudor also brought up his nephew, Henry Tudor, whose father, Edmund Tudor had died before his birth. After being welcomed by King Louis XI of France in 1462, Jasper stayed in France for 6 years before returning to North Wales in 1468. On his return, Jasper lost Pembroke Castle to William Herbert, when Herbert was given the title of Earl of Pembroke by King Edward IV.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Jasper Tudor briefly regained the earldom of Pembroke a couple of years later when his half-brother, King Henry VI, was restored to the throne, but following the return of King Edward IV from temporary exile in 1471, Jasper fled again to the continent. During his time on the continent, he travelled and attempted to gather support for the Lancastrian cause. While escaping from Tenby with his nephew Henry, storms in the English Channel forced them to land at Le Conquet in Brittany, where they sought refuge with Francis II, Duke of Brittany. Francis housed Jasper, his nephew, and the core of their group of exiled Lancastrians at the Château de Suscinio in Sarzeau and although King Edward IV placed diplomatic pressure on him, the uncle and nephew remained safe from the clutches of the Yorkist king, who died later in April 1483. For 11 years, the Château de Suscinio became an armed camp, alert against any attempt to kidnap Jasper and Henry and return them to England, where they were under attainder and would have been promptly executed as threats to the Yorkist rule.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: In October 1483, the Tudors launched an invasion of England from Brittany. However, the invasion failed and Jasper Tudor and his nephew Henry returned to Brittany. In mid-1484, when the Duke of Brittany was incapacitated with illness, his treasurer, Pierre Landais, who took over the reins of government, reached an agreement with the new Yorkist king, Richard III of England, to send Jasper and his nephew back to England in exchange for a pledge of 3,000 English archers to defend Brittany against a threatened French attack. John Morton, the Bishop of Ely who was then in exile in Flanders, learned of the scheme and warned the Tudors in time. Jasper and Henry then managed to escape separately, hours ahead of Landais' soldiers, across the nearby border into France. They were received at the court of King Charles VIII of France who allowed them to stay and provided them with resources. Shortly afterwards, when Duke Francis II had recovered, he offered the 400 remaining Lancastrians, still at and around the Château de Suscinio, safe-conduct into France and even paid for their expenses.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: On Henry Tudor's subsequent accession to the throne in 1485, Jasper Tudor had all previous attainders annulled, and was thus restored to all his former titles, including Knight of the Garter, and was created Duke of Bedford. In 1488, he took possession of Cardiff Castle.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Jasper was married on 7 November 1485 to Catherine Woodville (c. 1458–1509). She was the daughter of Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers and Jacquetta of Luxembourg, and was sister to King Edward IV's queen Elizabeth Woodville and to Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers and Richard Woodville, 3rd Earl Rivers. She was the widow of Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, who had been executed for treason in 1483. There were no children of her marriage with Jasper Tudor.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Jasper Tudor acknowledged paternity of no illegitimate children during his lifetime and none are recognised in his will.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: The earliest formal source for any illegitimate child of Jasper Tudor appears to be the Heraldic Visitation of the northern counties in 1530 by Thomas Tonge, Norroy King of Arms (d. 1534). The records of Tonge's Heraldic Visitation were first published in 1836, by the Surtees Society. They contain a claim by Prior Gardener, of Tynmouth Monastery in Northumberland, to be the son of Ellen/Helen, a bastard daughter of Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford, and her husband William Gardener. The heraldic arms claimed by Prior Gardener include a shield impaling the arms of Jasper Tudor, 'debruised by a bend sinister'.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Thomas Gardyner was appointed prior of Tynmouth in 1528. He was then a monk of Westminster Abbey, and 'familiar to followers of the Tudor household as a grandson of the King's great-uncle, Jasper'. His appointment as prior was actively supported by Mary Boleyn, and it is most likely that Thomas Wolsey also approved, as the priory was a dependency of St Alban's Abbey, where Wolsey was abbot.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: The next source dates from the late 17th century, nearly two hundred years after Jasper Tudor's death. William Dugdale's "Baronage of England" (1675–6) states that Jasper Tudor "departed this Life ... leaving no other Issue than one Illegitimate Daughter, called Ellen/Helen, who became the Wife of William Gardner, Citizen of London". Dugdale (1605–1686), an eminent antiquarian and scholar, was Norroy King of Arms (1660–1679) and Garter King of Arms (1679–1686). The records of Tonge's 1530 Visitation held by the College of Arms would have been available to Dugdale.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: In the 19th century the account was embroidered, to make Ellen (or Helen) the mother of Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor. The account that Gardiner was a descendant of Jasper Tudor is now discredited: it appears that this assertion arose from confusing Stephen Gardiner, the Bishop, with Thomas Gardiner, Prior of Tynmouth.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Subsequent accounts added the identity of the mother of the supposed illegitimate daughter, Ellen or Helen – as Myfanwy verch Dafydd (1436–1485). Also added was a second illegitimate daughter by Myfanwy verch Dafydd: Joan, (b. Snowdon, Wales c. 1453, d. 1469), wife of William ap Yevan, and mother of twins Sir John Williams and Morgan Williams (born Llanishen, Glamorganshire, Wales, 1469). It was further claimed that Jasper Tudor, through Joan and her son Morgan, was an ancestor of Oliver Cromwell. No reliable sources appear to support these assertions.


title: Jasper Tudor

text: Jasper Tudor died at Thornbury Castle on 21 December 1495, and was buried at Keynsham Abbey in Somerset, which Lady Agnes Cheyne, the incumbent of Chenies Manor House, bequeathed to him in 1494.


title: Rationality

text: Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reasons. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an ability, as in rational animal, to a psychological process, like reasoning, to mental states, such as beliefs and intentions, or to persons who possess these other forms of rationality. A thing that lacks rationality is either "arational", if it is outside the domain of rational evaluation, or "irrational", if it belongs to this domain but does not fulfill its standards.


title: Rationality

text: There are many discussions about the essential features shared by all forms of rationality. According to reason-responsiveness accounts, to be rational is to be responsive to reasons. For example, dark clouds are a reason for taking an umbrella, which is why it is rational for an agent to do so in response. An important rival to this approach are coherence-based accounts, which define rationality as internal coherence among the agent's mental states. Many rules of coherence have been suggested in this regard, for example, that one should not hold contradictory beliefs or that one should intend to do something if one believes that one should do it. Goal-based accounts characterize rationality in relation to goals, such as acquiring truth in the case of theoretical rationality. Internalists believe that rationality depends only on the person's mind. Externalists contend that external factors may also be relevant. Debates about the normativity of rationality concern the question of whether one should always be rational. A further discussion is whether rationality requires that all beliefs are reviewed from scratch rather than trusting pre-existing beliefs.


title: Rationality

text: Various types of rationality are discussed in the academic literature. The most influential distinction is between theoretical and practical rationality. Theoretical rationality concerns the rationality of beliefs. Rational beliefs are based on evidence that supports them. Practical rationality pertains primarily to actions. This includes certain mental states and events preceding actions, like intentions and decisions. In some cases, the two can conflict, as when practical rationality requires that one adopts an irrational belief. Another distinction is between ideal rationality, which demands that rational agents obey all the laws and implications of logic, and bounded rationality, which takes into account that this is not always possible since the computational power of the human mind is too limited. Most academic discussions focus on the rationality of individuals. This contrasts with social or collective rationality, which pertains to collectives and their group beliefs and decisions.