title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: In Bavaria, King Ludwig I lost prestige because of his open relationship with his favourite mistress Lola Montez, a dancer and actress unacceptable to the aristocracy or the Church. She tried to launch liberal reforms through a Protestant prime minister, which outraged the state's Catholic conservatives. On February 9, conservatives came out onto the streets in protest. This February 9, 1848, demonstration was the first in that revolutionary year. It was an exception among the wave of liberal protests. The conservatives wanted to be rid of Lola Montez, and had no other political agenda. Liberal students took advantage of the Lola Montez affair to stress their demands for political change. All over Bavaria, students started demonstrating for constitutional reform, just as students were doing in other cities.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Ludwig tried to institute a few minor reforms but they proved insufficient to quell the storm of protests. On March 16, 1848, Ludwig I abdicated in favor of his eldest son Maximilian II. Ludwig complained that "I could not rule any longer, and I did not want to give up my powers. In order to not become a slave, I became a lord." Although some popular reforms were introduced, the government regained full control.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: While technically neither Greater Poland nor Ponerelia were German states, the respective roughly corresponding territories of the Grand Duchy of Posen and West Prussia had been under Prussian control since the First and Second Partition of Poland in the late 18th century. The Greater Poland Uprising of 1848, also known as the Poznań () Uprising, was an unsuccessful military insurrection of Polish troops under Ludwik Mierosławski against the Prussian forces. It began on March 20, 1848, and resulted in Prussia demoting the Grand Duchy to an ordinary Province of Posen. Nevertheless, both Prussian-held Polish-speaking territories of Province of Posen and West Prussia were formally integrated into Germany only 17 years later, upon foundation of the North German Confederation in 1866.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: In Heidelberg, in the state of Baden (southwest Germany), on March 6, 1848, a group of German liberals began to make plans for an election to a German national assembly. This prototype Parliament met on March 31, in Frankfurt's St. Paul's Church. Its members called for free elections to an assembly for all of Germany – and the German states agreed.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Finally, on May 18, 1848, the National Assembly opened its session in St. Paul's Church. Of the 586 delegates of the first freely elected German parliament, so many were professors (94), teachers (30) or had a university education (233) that it was called a "professors' parliament" ("Professorenparlament").


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: There were few practical politicians. Some 400 delegates can be identified in terms of political factions – usually named after their meeting places:


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Under the chairmanship of the liberal politician Heinrich von Gagern, the assembly started on its ambitious plan to create a modern constitution as the foundation for a unified Germany.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: From the beginning the main problems were regionalism, support of local issues over pan-German issues, and Austro-Prussian conflicts. Archduke Johann of Austria was chosen as a temporary head of state (""Reichsverweser""). This was an attempt to create a provisional executive power, but it did not get very far since most states failed to fully recognize the new government. The National Assembly lost reputation in the eyes of the German public when Prussia carried through its own political intentions in the Schleswig-Holstein Question without the prior consent of Parliament. A similar discrediting occurred when Austria suppressed a popular uprising in Vienna by military force.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Nonetheless, discussions on the future constitution had started. The main questions to be decided were:


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Soon events began to overtake discussions. Delegate Robert Blum had been sent to Vienna by his left-wing political colleagues on a fact-finding mission to see how Austria's government was rolling back liberal achievements by military force. Blum participated in the street fighting, was arrested and executed on November 9, despite his claim to immunity from prosecution as a member of the National Assembly.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Although the achievements of the March Revolution were rolled back in many German states, the discussions in Frankfurt continued, increasingly losing touch with society.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: In December 1848 the "Basic Rights for the German People" proclaimed equal rights for all citizens before the law. On March 28, 1849, the draft of the Paulskirchenverfassung constitution was finally passed. The new Germany was to be a constitutional monarchy, and the office of head of state ("Emperor of the Germans") was to be hereditary and held by the respective King of Prussia. The latter proposal was carried by a mere 290 votes in favour, with 248 abstentions. The constitution was recognized by 29 smaller states but not by Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Hanover and Saxony.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: By late 1848, the Prussian aristocrats and generals had regained power in Berlin. They had not been defeated permanently during the incidents of March, but had only retreated temporarily. General von Wrangel led the troops who recaptured Berlin for the old powers, and King Frederick William IV of Prussia immediately rejoined the old forces. In November, the king dissolved the new Prussian parliament and put forth a constitution of his own which was based upon the work of the assembly, yet maintaining the ultimate authority of the king. Elaborated in the following years, the constitution came to provide for an upper house (Herrenhaus), and a lower house (Landtag), chosen by universal suffrage but under a three-class system of voting ("Dreiklassenwahlrecht"): representation was proportional to taxes paid, so that more than 80% of the electorate controlled only one-third of the seats.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: On April 2, 1849, a delegation of the National Assembly met with King Frederick William IV in Berlin and offered him the crown of the Emperor under this new constitution.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Frederick William told the delegation that he felt honoured but could only accept the crown with the consent of his peers, the other sovereign monarchs and free cities. But later, in a letter to a relative in England, he wrote that he felt deeply insulted by being offered a crown "from the gutter", "disgraced by the stink of revolution, defiled with dirt and mud".


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Austria and Prussia withdrew their delegates from the Assembly, which was little more than a debating club. The radical members were forced to go to Stuttgart, where they sat from June 6–18 as a rump parliament until it too was dispersed by Württemberg troops. Armed uprisings in support of the constitution, especially in Saxony, the Palatinate and Baden were short-lived, as the local military, aided by Prussian troops, crushed them quickly. Leaders and participants, if caught, were executed or sentenced to long prison terms.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: The achievements of the revolutionaries of March 1848 were reversed in all of the German states and by 1851, the Basic Rights had also been abolished nearly everywhere. In the end, the revolution fizzled because of the divisions between the various factions in Frankfurt, the calculating caution of the liberals, the failure of the left to marshal popular support and the overwhelming superiority of the monarchist forces.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Many disappointed German patriots went to the United States, among them most notably Carl Schurz, Franz Sigel and Friedrich Hecker. Such emigrants became known as the Forty-Eighters.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: The Revolution of 1848 failed in its attempt to unify the German-speaking states because the Frankfurt Assembly reflected the many different interests of the German ruling classes. Its members were unable to form coalitions and push for specific goals. The first conflict arose over the goals of the assembly. The moderate liberals wanted to draft a constitution to present to the monarchs, whereas the smaller group of radical members wanted the assembly to declare itself as a law-giving parliament. They were unable to overcome this fundamental division, and did not take any definitive action toward unification or the introduction of democratic rules. The assembly declined into debate. While the French revolution drew on an existing nation state, the democratic and liberal forces in Germany of 1848 were confronted with the need to build a nation state and a constitution at the same time, which overtaxed them.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: When the Frankfurt Assembly opened on May 18, 1848, the deputies elected Heinrich von Gagern as the first President of the Assembly. He had strong support from the Center-Right Unionist party and some influence with moderates of the left, such that he could control perhaps 250 of the deputies of the Frankfurt Assembly. Gagern strongly supported unification of the German states. He insisted, however, that the Assembly needed to gain agreement of the monarchs, who were highly reactionary. In addition, only the Kingdom of Prussia had the military force necessary to effect this unification. Many in the Assembly, including Gagern, distrusted the intentions of the Prussian state and its absolutist government. Fearful of losing their positions as servants of the monarchs, the moderate liberals quickly concluded that only negotiations would lead to political progress. The Prussian army ignored the demands for reforms and chased the rump assembly out of Frankfurt in 1849.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: The Frankfurt Assembly had no powers to raise taxes and relied completely on the goodwill of the monarchs. As many of the members held influential provincial positions, their reluctance to call for radical reforms or annoy their employers meant that they could not raise funds for armed forces, nor enforce laws they might pass. The hundred or so radicals, who believed that an armed uprising was necessary, lost interest and left the assembly to try to raise forces at a local level to bring about a 'real' revolution. Without a bureaucracy, they could not raise any money.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: The Assembly members were highly motivated for reform, but the major divides among them became obvious and inhibited progress; for instance, advocates of Grossdeutschland versus advocates of Kleindeutschland, Catholics versus Protestants, supporters of Austria versus supporters of Prussia. The major conflict that caused the collapse of the Assembly was the stand-off between demands of the moderates to write a democratic constitution and liberals' reliance on negotiation with reactionary monarchs to produce reforms. The various interest groups began to gather outside the Assembly to decide on their tactics.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Meanwhile, the rulers of the German states gradually realised that their positions were no longer under threat. The King of Bavaria had stepped down, but that was only partly the result of pressure from below. As the threat of an armed uprising receded, the monarchs realized unification would not be realized. They were unwilling to give up any power in its pursuit. As princes quelled rebellions in their territories, they followed the example of Prussia, recalling their elected deputies from the Assembly. Only Prussia, with its overwhelming military might, was able to protect the Frankfurt Assembly from military attack by the princes. But Prussia had its own interests in mind.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: The Frankfurt National Assembly did agree to found the Reichsflotte, the German Navy, on June 14, 1848, which was significant to Germany's future power and reach.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: The powerlessness of the Frankfurt Assembly, however, was reflected in the debate over the Danish Conflict of 1848. Like many other events of 1848, the Danish conflict was sparked by a street demonstration. On March 21, 1848, the people of Copenhagen protested in the streets to demand a liberal Constitution. The majority in the Duchy of Holstein and in the southern part of the Duchy of Schleswig were German-speaking. However, the Duke of both duchies was King Frederick VII of Denmark, the last absolute monarch of Denmark. The citizens of Kiel and Holstein were unsure of what was occurring in Copenhagen. They revolted to found a separate and autonomous province with closer relations with the German states. On March 24, 1848, they set up a new provisional, autonomous government in Holstein and raised a Schleswig-Holstein army of 7,000 soldiers. Unification opinion in the German states supported annexing the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Prussia sent an army to support this independence movement, and ignored the Frankfurt National Assembly when Great Britain and Russia applied international pressure to end the war. The Prussians signed a peace at Malmö, requiring them to remove all Prussian troops from the two duchies and agree to all other Danish demands. The Armistice of Malmö was greeted with great consternation in Germany, and debated in the Assembly, but it was powerless to control Prussia. On September 16, 1848, the Frankfurt National Assembly approved of the Malmö Treaty by a majority vote. Public support for the National Assembly declined sharply following this vote, and the Radical Republicans publicly stated their opposition to the Assembly.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: After many diversions, the Frankfurt National Assembly took up the issue of a German constitution. In October 1848, King Frederick William IV of Prussia unilaterally issued a monarchist constitution. Under this new monarchist constitution, a Prussian Assembly was established. The Assembly was a bicameral legislature, consisting of a "Herrenhaus" (House of Lords) or upper house, whose members were selected by the provincial governments, and a "Landtag" (Country Diet), whose members were elected by male suffrage but were seated only through a complicated system of electoral committees. Otto von Bismarck was elected to this first Landtag. The Landtag was founded to undercut the authority of the Frankfurt National Assembly. In an attempt to regain some authority, in April 1849, the Frankfurt Assembly offered King Frederick William IV the crown as German emperor. He turned it down, saying he would accept a crown only by the grace of God, not "from the gutter".


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: The Frankfurt National Assembly had been founded partly following the revolutionary events in Vienna, Austria, which resulted in the fall of Prince Metternich. Its strongest support came from the southern provinces, where there was a tradition of opposition to the local tyrants. After Austria crushed the Italian revolts of 1848/1849, the Habsburgs were ready to deal with the German states. Unable to muster an army and lacking broader support, the Assembly could not resist Austrian power. The Frankfurt National Assembly was dissolved on May 31, 1849.


title: German revolutions of 1848–1849

text: Nationalism did not become the usual way of founding and legitimising states across Europe until after World War I. In the mid-19th century, over 90% of the population in the Austrian Empire and the German Confederation were peasants. Most of them suffered the indignity of serfdom or some lingering elements of the system of forced labor. Peasant revolts in 1848–1849 involved more participants than the national revolutions of the period. Most importantly, they were successful bringing the final abolition of serfdom or its remnants across the German Confederation, the Austrian Empire and Prussia. The leader of the anti-serfdom peasant movement was Hans Kudlich, subsequently revered as "Bauernbefreier" ('liberator of peasants').


title: Light My Fire

text: "Light My Fire" is a song by the American rock band the Doors. It was recorded in August 1966 and released in January 1967 on their eponymous debut album. Released as an edited single on April 24, 1967, it spent three weeks at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart (in July 29, August 5 and August 12, 1967), and one week on the "Cash Box" Top 100, nearly a year after its recording.


title: Light My Fire

text: A year later, it re-entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 in 1968 following the success of José Feliciano's cover version of the song (which peaked at number three on the "Billboard" chart), peaking at number 87. The song was principally written by the band's guitarist, Robby Krieger, but was credited to the entire band.


title: Light My Fire

text: "Light My Fire" originated in early 1966 as a composition by Robby Krieger, who said that he was inspired by the melody of "Hey Joe" and the lyrics of the Rolling Stones' "Play with Fire". On taking his initial composition to the band, John Densmore suggested that it should have more of a Latin rhythm, Jim Morrison wrote the second verse and part of the chorus ("Try to set the night on fire"), while Ray Manzarek added the Bach-influenced introductory organ motif; Densmore also suggested that it should open with a single snare drum hit.


title: Light My Fire

text: The band started playing the song in performances in April 1966, and extended it with a jazzy improvisation. When the Doors performed the song at live concerts, Manzarek played the song's bass line with his left hand on a Fender Rhodes Piano Bass, while performing the main keyboard lines on a Vox Continental using his right hand. When they came to record the song later in the year, producer Paul A. Rothchild brought in session musician Larry Knechtel to overdub a Fender Precision Bass guitar to double the keyboard bass line. Rothchild also suggested that the recording repeat the introductory motif at the end of the track.


title: Light My Fire

text: Although the album version was just over seven minutes long, it was widely requested for radio play, notably by Los Angeles DJ Dave Diamond, and Elektra Records owner Jac Holzman asked that a shorter version be released as a single. Despite the band's reluctance, Rothchild edited a single version, cut down to under three minutes with nearly all the instrumental break removed for airplay on AM radio.


title: Light My Fire

text: The band appeared on various TV shows, such as "American Bandstand", miming to a playback of the single. "Light My Fire" was also performed live by the Doors on "The Ed Sullivan Show" broadcast on September 17, 1967. The Doors were asked by producer Bob Precht, Ed Sullivan's son-in-law, to change the line "girl, we couldn't get much higher", as the sponsors were uncomfortable with the possible reference to drugs. However, the meaning of the line was confirmed to be literal, as in "high in the sky". The band agreed to do so, and did a rehearsal using the amended lyrics, "girl, we couldn't get much "better"". However, during the live performance, lead singer Jim Morrison sang the original, unaltered lyrics. Sullivan did not shake Morrison's hand as he left the stage. The band had been negotiating a multi-episode deal with the producers; however, after violating the agreement not to perform the offending line, they were informed they would never perform on the show again. Morrison's response was "Hey man. We just "did" the Sullivan show."


title: Light My Fire

text: This performance was portrayed in Oliver Stone's 1991 biopic film, but with Morrison singing "higher" more emphatically and without his subsequent retort to Sullivan and the show's producer.


title: Light My Fire

text: Drummer John Densmore recalled that Buick offered $75,000 in October 1968 to adapt the song for use in a Buick TV commercial ("Come on, Buick, light my fire"). Morrison, however, was still in London after a European tour had just ended on September 20, and could not be contacted by the other band members, who agreed to the deal in his absence. As the band had agreed in 1965 to both equal splits and everyone having veto power in decisions, Morrison consequently called Buick and threatened to personally smash a Buick with a sledgehammer on television, should the commercial be aired.


title: Light My Fire

text: "Light My Fire" is notated in the key of A Minor. Ray Manzarek's keyboard playing descends from G to D Major, then goes to F and B-flat major; continuing onto the pitches of E-flat and A-flat major, before returning to the initial key of A Major. This alternation was based on Johann Bach's "Two and Three Part Inventions", but author Philip Clark has suggested that it may have been inspired by Dave Brubeck's compositions. The extended solo arrangement is performed throughout the keys of A Minor and B Minor, the same chord progression used by John Coltrane on his cover version of "My Favorite Things". According to Manzarek, the instrumental sections were an homage to John Coltrane whom the band admired. Parts of the solos also contain polyrhythm vogue.


title: Light My Fire

text: The 40th Anniversary mix of the debut album presents a stereo version of "Light My Fire" in speed-corrected form for the first time. The speed discrepancy (being about 3.5% slow) was brought to Bruce Botnick's attention by Brigham Young University professor Michael Hicks, who noted that all video and audio live performances of the Doors performing the song, the sheet music, and statements of band members show the song in a key almost a half step higher (key of A) than the stereo LP release (key of A♭/G♯). Until the 2006 remasters, only the original 45 RPM singles ("Light My Fire" and "Break On Through") were produced at the correct speed.


title: Light My Fire

text: A live version was released in 1983 on their live album "Alive, She Cried", the first of several live albums released in subsequent decades to include the song. "Light My Fire" achieved modest success in Australia, where it peaked at number 22 on the ARIA chart. The single originally reached number 49 in the UK in 1967, but experienced belated success in that country in 1991, when a reissue peaked at number seven. This reissue was more successful in Ireland, peaking atop the IRMA chart for two weeks in June. The reissue occurred due to revived interest in the band following Oliver Stone's film biopic "The Doors".


title: Light My Fire

text: The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in September 1967 for exceeding one million units shipped. As of December 1971, it was the band's best-selling single with over 927,000 copies sold.


title: Light My Fire

text: It was also certified Platinum by the RIAA in September 2018 for reaching 1,000,000 digital units. "Billboard" described the single as a "top discotheque offering" with an "infectious beat" that "really grooves from start to finish." "Cash Box" called the single a "potent, pounding foot-stomper with unlimited potential."


title: Light My Fire

text: "Light My Fire" has been widely considered the Doors' finest song, and a quintessential work of the psychedelic rock genre. In 2004 and 2010, the song was ranked at number 35 on "Rolling Stone"'s 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, then it was re-ranked at number 310 on the 2021 list. It was included in RIAA's Songs of the Century list, at number 52. In 2014 "NME" ranked the song 199th in its 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list. Feliciano's cover won the 1969 Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance, the same year he also won the Grammy for Best New Artist. In 1998, the track was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame under the category Rock (single).


title: Light My Fire

text: Puerto Rican vocalist and guitarist José Feliciano enjoyed significant international success when he released his version of "Light My Fire" in 1968 as a single on the RCA Victor label. It is perhaps the best known cover of this song, reaching number 3 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 charts, only a year after the original had been a number-one hit on the same chart. His version became the bigger hit in Australia and also in Canada, where it reached number one.


title: Light My Fire

text: Feliciano's remake blended Latin influences, including a mixture of classic Spanish guitar, and soul, with American pop. It contains "proto-Latin rock" stylings, and a slower tempo than the Doors original version. In a 1969 interview, Feliciano said that he liked the song when he first heard it, but felt that he should wait a year before releasing the song. He also said that "California Dreamin'" was the original A-side of the single.


title: Light My Fire

text: The single helped to spur the worldwide success of its album, "Feliciano!", which was nominated for multiple Grammy Awards in 1969. Feliciano's arrangement of "Light My Fire" has influenced several subsequent versions, including that by Will Young. Songwriter Robby Krieger said in an interview about the cover: "It's really a great feeling to have written a classic. I think I owe a big debt to Jose Feliciano because he is actually the one, when he did it, everybody started doing it. He did a whole different arrangement on it."


title: Light My Fire

text: In 1979, Amii Stewart released a disco version of "Light My Fire", together with a medley titled "137 Disco Heaven". It was a big hit in the UK, where it reached No. 5, and a mild hit in West Germany, peaking at No. 26. In the U.S., the song peaked at No. 69 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and No. 36 on the "Billboard" Hot Soul Singles chart.


title: Light My Fire

text: It reached the top 10 in the UK a second time in 1985, in remixed form together with "Knock on Wood/Ash 48". This release peaked at No. 7.


title: Light My Fire

text: "Pop Idol" series 1 winner Will Young covered "Light My Fire" in 2002. He originally performed a piano version of the song in the final 50 of "Pop Idol", and again, with a backing track, in the final 10. It was later released as his second single. It went straight to the number one spot in the UK Singles Chart, selling 177,000 copies in its first week of release. The single stayed at number one for two weeks. The cover version was recorded in the style of José Feliciano's version.


title: Choi Myung-bin

text: Choi Myung-bin (Korean: 최명빈; born on 15 April 2008) is a South Korean child actress. She made her acting debut in 2016, since then, she has appeared in number of films and television series. She is best known for her roles in historical drama "The King's Affection" (2021) and weekend drama "Young Lady and Gentleman" (2021-2022) for which she won the Best Young Actress Award at 2021 KBS Drama Awards. She has acted in films also such as: "The Vanished" (2018) and "Waiting for Rain" (2021) among others.


title: Choi Myung-bin

text: In 2021 Choi played young female protagonist in KBS historical romance drama "The King's Affection" and was praised for her dual performance as Crown Prince Lee Hwi and court maid Dam-yi. The same year, she was cast in KBS2 weekend drama "Young Lady and Gentleman" as Lee Jae-ni - eldest daughter of male lead. Her performance in both dramas earned her Best Young Actress award at 2021 KBS Drama Awards.


title: Choi Myung-bin

text: In 2022 she appeared in tvN coming-of-age romantic drama "Twenty-Five Twenty-One" as Kim Min-chae, the daughter of protagonist.


title: Informal fallacy

text: Informal fallacies are a type of incorrect argument in natural language. The source of the error is not just due to the "form" of the argument, as is the case for formal fallacies, but can also be due to their "content" and "context". Fallacies, despite being incorrect, usually "appear" to be correct and thereby can seduce people into accepting and using them. These misleading appearances are often connected to various aspects of natural language, such as ambiguous or vague expressions, or the assumption of implicit premises instead of making them explicit.


title: Informal fallacy

text: Traditionally, a great number of informal fallacies have been identified, including the fallacy of equivocation, the fallacy of amphiboly, the fallacies of composition and division, the false dilemma, the fallacy of begging the question, the ad hominem fallacy and the appeal to ignorance. There is no general agreement as to how the various fallacies are to be grouped into categories. One approach sometimes found in the literature is to distinguish between fallacies of ambiguity, which have their root in ambiguous or vague language, fallacies of presumption, which involve false or unjustified premises, and fallacies of relevance, in which the premises are not relevant to the conclusion despite appearances otherwise.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The traditional approach to fallacies has received a lot of criticism in contemporary philosophy. This criticism is often based on the argument that the alleged fallacies are not fallacious at all, or at least not in all cases. To overcome this problem, alternative approaches for conceiving arguments and fallacies have been proposed. These include the "dialogical approach", which conceives arguments as moves in a dialogue-game aimed at rationally persuading the other person. This game is governed by various rules. Fallacies are defined as violations of the dialogue rules impeding the progress of the dialogue. The "epistemic approach" constitutes another framework. Its core idea is that arguments play an epistemic role: they aim to expand our knowledge by providing a bridge from already justified beliefs to not yet justified beliefs. Fallacies are arguments that fall short of this goal by breaking a rule of epistemic justification. In the "Bayesian approach", the epistemic norms are given by the laws of probability, which our degrees of belief should track.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The study of fallacies aims at providing an account for evaluating and criticizing arguments. This involves both a descriptive account of what constitutes an argument and a normative account of which arguments are good or bad. In philosophy, fallacies are usually seen as a form of bad argument and are discussed as such in this article. Another conception, more common in non-scholarly discourse, sees fallacies not as arguments but rather as false yet popular beliefs.


title: Informal fallacy

text: Informal fallacies are a form of incorrect argument in natural language. An argument is a series of propositions, called the premises, together with one more proposition, called the conclusion. The premises in correct arguments offer either deductive or defeasible support for the conclusion. The source of the error in incorrect arguments can be in the argument's "form", "content" or "context". If the error is only due to the "form", it is considered a formal fallacy. Informal fallacies may also include formal errors but they primarily involve errors on the level of "content" and "context". Informal fallacies are expressed in natural language. This brings with it various difficulties not faced when studying formal fallacies, like ambiguous terms, vague expressions or the premises being assumed implicitly rather than stated explicitly. Traditionally, a great number of informal fallacies have been listed, including the fallacy of equivocation, the fallacy of amphiboly, the fallacies of composition and division, the false dilemma, the fallacy of begging the question, the ad hominem fallacy or the appeal to ignorance. The "traditional approach" tries to account for these fallacies using the concepts and theses discussed in this section.


title: Informal fallacy

text: Only arguments can constitute a fallacy. Various erroneous expressions do not count as fallacies because no argument was made, e.g. because no reasons were cited or no assertion was made. The core idea of arguments is that the premises support the conclusion or that the conclusion follows from the premises. Deductively valid arguments offer the strongest form of support: for them, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false if all the premises are true. The premises in non-deductive arguments offer a certain degree of support for their conclusion but they are defeasible: it is possible for all the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false. Defeasible arguments may still be rationally compelling despite being fallible. So they do not automatically constitute fallacies. The premises of an argument may be seen as the foundation on which the conclusion is built. According to this analogy, two things can go wrong and turn an argument into a fallacy. It could be that the foundation is shaky. But even a solid foundation is not helpful if it does not provide support for the conclusion in question.


title: Informal fallacy

text: Traditionally, fallacies have been defined by three necessary conditions: "a fallacy (i) is an argument, (ii) that is invalid, and (iii) appears to be valid." This definition covers only formal fallacy since it has deductive invalidity as a necessary condition. But it can easily be modified to include informal fallacy by replacing this condition with a more general term, like logical weakness or incorrect reasoning. The last clause includes a psychological element in referring to how the argument appears to the arguer. This clause is used to distinguish genuine fallacies from mere mistakes in reasoning, for example, due to carelessness. The idea is that fallacies have an alluring element that goes beyond mere carelessness by seducing us into committing the mistake, thereby explaining why they are committed in the first place. Some philosophers reject this appeal to appearances because the reference to psychology would complicate the investigation in various ways. One issue is that appearances are different for different people. This problem would also involve social sciences in order to determine which reference group of people to consult for defining fallacies. It has been suggested that, at its core, the study of fallacies is about normative aspects of arguments and not about their persuasive force, which is studied by empirical psychology instead.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The source of the error in incorrect arguments can lie in the argument's "form", "content" or "context". The "form" or structure of an argument is also called "rule of inference". The most well-known rule of inference is modus ponens, which states that given a premise of the form "If "p" then "q"" and another in the form ""p"", then the conclusion is ""q"". Rules of inferences are formal because it depends only on the structure or the syntax of the premises and not on their content. So an argument based on modus ponens is valid no matter what propositional contents are used for ""p"" and ""q"".


title: Informal fallacy

text: The "content" of an argument is found on the level of its propositions: it is what is expressed in them. The source of many informal fallacies is found in a false premise. For example, a false dilemma is a fallacy based on a false disjunctive claim that oversimplifies reality by excluding viable alternatives.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The "context" of an argument refers to the situation in which it is used. Based on its context it may be intended to play different roles. One way for an argument to be fallacious is if it fails to perform the role it was supposed to play. The strawman fallacy, for example, involves inaccurately attributing a weak position to one's opponent and then refuting this position. The argument itself may be valid in that the refutation of the opposed position really is successful. The error is found on the level of the context since the opponent does not hold this position. This dependence on a context means that the same argument may be successful in another context: against an opponent who actually holds the strawman position.


title: Informal fallacy

text: "Formal fallacies" are deductively invalid arguments. They are of special interest to the field of formal logic but they can only account for a small number of the known fallacies, for example, for affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent. Many other fallacies used in "natural language", e.g. in advertising or in politics, involve informal fallacies. For example, false dilemmas or begging the question are fallacies despite being deductively valid. They are studied by informal logic. Part of the difficulty in analyzing informal fallacies is due to the fact that their structure is not always clearly expressed in natural language. Sometimes certain keywords like "because", "therefore", "since" or "consequently" indicate which parts of the expression constitute the premises and which part the conclusion. But other times this distinction remains implicit and it is not always obvious which parts should be identified as the premises and the conclusions. Many informal arguments include enthymematic premises: premises that are not explicitly stated but tacitly presumed. In some domestic quarrels and political debates, it is not clear from the outset what the two parties are arguing about and which theses they intend to defend. Sometimes the function of the debate is more to clarify these preliminary points than to advance actual arguments.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The distinction between formal and informal fallacies is opposed by "deductivists", who hold that deductive invalidity is the reason for all fallacies. One way to explain that some fallacies do not seem to be deductively invalid is to hold that they contain various hidden assumptions, as is common for natural language arguments. The idea is that apparent informal fallacies can be turned into formal fallacies by making all these assumptions explicit and thereby revealing the deductive invalidity. The claim that this is possible for all fallacies is not generally accepted. One requirement for a formal treatment is translating the arguments in question into the language of formal logic, a process known as "formalization". Often many of the subtleties of natural language have to be ignored in this process. Some bodies of knowledge can be formalized without much residue but others resist formalization. This is also true for many informal fallacies.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The traditional approach to fallacies has received a lot of criticism in contemporary philosophy. This criticism is often based on the argument that some of the alleged fallacies are not fallacious at all, or at least not in all cases. Various "alternative approaches" to how arguments and fallacies are to be conceived have been proposed. These alternatives often aim to show that, given their perspective, it is possible to evaluate if an alleged fallacy is actually fallacious in a given case. The dialogical approach uses a game-theoretic framework to define arguments and sees fallacies as violations of the rules of the game. According to the epistemic approach, it is the goal of arguments to expand our knowledge by providing a bridge from already justified beliefs to not yet justified beliefs. Fallacies are arguments that fall short of this goal by breaking a rule of epistemic justification. It has been suggested that there may not be one single framework for evaluating all fallacies but only a manifold of ideals according to which a given argument may be good or bad.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The "dialogical approach" sees arguments not simply as a series of premises together with a conclusion but as a speech act within a dialogue that aims to rationally persuade the other person of one's own position. A prominent version of this approach is defended by Douglas N. Walton. On his game-theoretic conception, a dialogue is a game between two players. At the outset, each player is committed to a set of propositions and has a conclusion they intend to prove. A player has won if they are able to persuade the opponent of their own conclusion. In this sense, dialogues can be characterized as "games of persuasion". The players can perform various moves that affect what they are committed to. In this framework, arguments are moves that take the opponent's commitments as premises and lead to the conclusion one is trying to prove. Since this is often not possible directly, various intermediary steps are taken, in which each argument takes a few steps towards one's intended conclusion by proposing an intermediary conclusion for the opponent to accept. This game is governed by various rules determining, among other things, which moves are allowed and when. The dialogical approach makes it possible to distinguish between positive arguments, which support one's own conclusion, and negative arguments, which deny the opponent's conclusion.


title: Informal fallacy

text: From this perspective, fallacies are defined as violations of the dialogue rules. They are "deceptively bad argument[s] that impede the progress of the dialogue". The strawman fallacy, for example, involves inaccurately attributing a weak position to one's opponent and then proving this position to lead to one's own conclusion. This mistake is not logical in the strict sense but dialogical: the conclusion may as well follow from these premises but the opponent does not hold these commitments. In some cases, it varies from game to game whether a certain move counts as a fallacy or not. For example, there are cases where the tu quoque "fallacy" is no fallacy at all. This argument, also known as "appeal to hypocrisy", tries to discredit the opponent's argument by claiming that the opponent's behavior is inconsistent with the argument's conclusion. This move does not necessarily break the rules of the dialogue. Instead, it can reveal a weakness in the opponent's position by deflecting their criticism onto themself. This move shifts the burden of proof back to the opponent, thereby strengthening one's own position. But it still constitutes a fallacy if it is only used to evade an argument.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The core idea behind the "epistemic approach" is that arguments play an epistemic role: they aim to expand our knowledge by providing a bridge from already justified beliefs to not yet justified beliefs. Fallacies are arguments that fall short of this goal by breaking a rule of epistemic justification. This explains, for example, why arguments that are accidentally valid are still somehow flawed: because the arguer himself lacks a good reason to believe the conclusion.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The fallacy of begging the question, on this perspective, is a fallacy because it fails to expand our knowledge by providing independent justification for its conclusion. Instead, the conclusion is already assumed in one of its premises. A purely logical approach, on the other hand, fails to explain the fallacious nature of "begging the question" since the argument is deductively valid.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The Bayesian approach constitutes a special form of the epistemic approach. Bayesianism interprets degrees of belief as subjective probabilities, i.e. as the degree of certainty of the believer that the believed proposition is true. On this view, reasoning based on an argument can be interpreted as a process of changing one's degrees of belief, usually in response to new incoming information. Fallacies are probabilistically weak arguments, i.e. they have a low probability on the Bayesian model. Whether an argument constitutes a fallacy or not depends on the credences of the person evaluating the argument. This means that what constitutes a fallacy for one arguer may be a sound argument for another. This explains why, when trying to persuade someone, one should take the audience's beliefs into account. But it can also make sense of arguments independent of an audience, unlike the dialogical approach.


title: Informal fallacy

text: This perspective is well suited for explaining why some slippery slope arguments constitute fallacies but others not. Slippery slope arguments argue against a certain proposal based on the fact that this proposal would bring with it a causal chain of events eventually leading to a bad outcome. But even if every step in this chain is relatively probable, probabilistic calculus may still reveal that the likelihood of all steps occurring together is quite small. In this case, the argument would constitute a fallacy. But slippery slope arguments are rationally justified if the associated probabilities are sufficiently high.


title: Informal fallacy

text: A great variety of informal fallacies have been discussed in academic literature. There is controversy both concerning whether a given argument really constitutes a fallacy in all of its instances and concerning how the different fallacies should be grouped together into categories. The categorization here follows proposals commonly found in the academic literature in these or similar terms. It distinguishes between fallacies of ambiguity, which have their root in ambiguous or vague language, fallacies of presumption, which involve false or unjustified premises, and fallacies of relevance, in which the premises are not relevant to the conclusion despite appearances otherwise. Other categorizations have been proposed and some fallacies within this categorization could also be grouped in another category.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The source of the error for "fallacies of ambiguity" lies in the usage of language. This is due to the fact that many terms in natural language have ambiguous or vague meanings. Ambiguous terms have several meanings while vague terms have an unclear meaning. Fallacies of ambiguity often result in merely verbal disputes: the arguing parties have different topics in mind and thereby talk past each other without being aware of this. One way to avoid or solve these fallacies is to clarify language, e.g. by committing to definitions and by introducing new distinctions. Such reformulations may include a condensation of the original argument in order to make it easier to spot the erroneous step.


title: Informal fallacy

text: Fallacies of ambiguity are perhaps best exemplified by the fallacy of equivocation, in which the same term appears with two different meanings in the premises, for example:


title: Informal fallacy

text: Equivocations are especially difficult to detect in cases where the two meanings are very closely related to each other.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The fallacy of amphiboly also involves ambiguity in meaning, but this ambiguity arises not on the level of individual terms but on the level of the sentence as a whole due to syntactic ambiguity, for example:


title: Informal fallacy

text: On one interpretation, the police are not allowed to drink alcohol. On another, it is now the job of the police to stop other people from drinking. The argument seems plausible on the former reading but fallacious on the latter reading.


title: Informal fallacy

text: The fallacies of division and composition are due to ambiguity of the term "all" and similar expressions. This term has both a "collective" and a "distributive" meaning. For example, the sentence "all the citizens are strong enough to resist a tyrant" may mean either that all together are strong enough (collective) or that each one individually is strong enough (distributive). The "fallacy of division" is committed if one infers from the sentence in the collective sense that one specific individual is strong enough. The "fallacy of composition" is committed if one infers from the fact that each member of a group has a property that the group as a whole has this property. For example, "[e]very member of the investigative team was an excellent researcher", therefore "[i]t was an excellent investigative team". Any form of fallaciously transferring a property from the whole to its parts or the other way round belongs to the category of "fallacies of division and composition", even when linguistic ambiguity is not the cause.


title: Informal fallacy

text: "Fallacies of presumption" involve a false or unjustified premise but are often valid otherwise. This problematic premise can take different forms and the belief in it can be caused in different ways, corresponding to the various sub-categories in this field. These fallacies include the naturalistic fallacy, the moralistic fallacy and the intentional fallacy.


title: Informal fallacy

text: A false dilemma is a fallacy of presumption based on a false disjunctive claim that oversimplifies reality by excluding viable alternatives. For example, a false dilemma is committed when it is claimed that "Stacey spoke out against capitalism, therefore she must be a communist". One of the options excluded is that Stacey may be neither communist nor capitalist. Our liability to commit false dilemmas may be due to the tendency to simplify reality by ordering it through either-or-statements.


title: Informal fallacy

text: For fallacies of generalization, the false premise is due to an erroneous generalization. In the case of the fallacy of sweeping generalization, a general rule is applied incorrectly to an exceptional case. For example, "[e]veryone has a right to his or her property. Therefore, even though Jones had been declared insane, you had no right to take his weapon away." The generalization, in this case, ignores that insanity is an exceptional case to which the general rights of property do not unrestrictedly apply. Hasty generalization, on the other hand, involves the converse mistake of drawing a universal conclusion based on a small number of instances. For example, "I’ve met two people in Nicaragua so far, and they were both nice to me. So, all people I will meet in Nicaragua will be nice to me".


title: Informal fallacy

text: Begging the question is a form of circular reasoning in which the conclusion is already assumed in the premises. Because of this, the premises are unable to provide independent support for the conclusion. For example, the statement "Green is the best color because it is the greenest of all colors", offers no independent reason besides the initial assumption for its conclusion. Detecting this fallacy can be difficult when a complex argument with many sub-arguments is involved, resulting in a large circle.


title: Informal fallacy

text: "Fallacies of relevance" involve premises that are not relevant to the conclusion despite appearances otherwise. They may succeed in persuading the audience nonetheless due to being emotionally loaded, for example, by playing on prejudice, pity or fear.


title: Informal fallacy

text: Ad hominem arguments constitute an important class among the fallacies of relevance. In them, the arguer tries to attack a thesis by attacking the person pronouncing this thesis instead of attacking the thesis itself. Rejecting a theory in physics because its author is Jewish, which was common in the German physics community in the early 1930s, is an example of the ad hominem fallacy. But not all ad hominem arguments constitute fallacies. It is a common and reasonable practice in court, for example, to defend oneself against an accusation by casting doubt on the reliability of the witnesses. The difference between fallacious and justified ad hominem arguments depends on the relevancy of the character of the attacked person to the thesis in question. The author's cultural heritage seems to have very little relevance in most cases for theories in physics but the reliability of a witness in court is highly relevant for whether one is justified in believing their testimony. Whataboutism is a special form of the ad hominem fallacy that attempts to discredit an opponent's position by charging them with hypocrisy without directly refuting or disproving their argument. It is particularly associated with Soviet and Russian propaganda.


title: Informal fallacy

text: Appeal to ignorance is another fallacy due to irrelevance. It is based on the premise that there is no proof for a certain claim. From this premise, the conclusion is drawn that this claim must therefore be false. For example, "Nobody has ever proved to me there’s a God, so I know there is no God". Another version of the "appeal to ignorance" concludes from the absence of proof against a claim that this claim must be true.


title: Informal fallacy

text: Arguments from analogy are also susceptible to "fallacies of relevance". An analogy is a comparison between two objects based on similarity. "Arguments from analogy" involve inferences from information about a known object ("the source") to the features of an unknown object ("the target") based on the similarity between the two objects. Arguments from analogy have the following form: "a" is similar to "b" and "a" has feature "F", therefore "b" probably also has feature "F". The soundness of such arguments depends on the relevance of this similarity to the inferred feature. Without this relevance, the argument constitutes a faulty or false analogy, for example: "If a child gets a new toy he or she will want to play with it; So, if a nation gets new weapons, it will want to use them".


title: France national rugby union team

text: The France national rugby union team () represents France in men's international rugby union and it is administered by the French Rugby Federation. They traditionally play in blue shirts emblazoned with the national emblem of a golden rooster on a red shield, with white shorts and red socks; thus they are commonly referred to as ' or '. The team's home matches are mostly played at the Stade de France in the Paris suburb of Saint-Denis.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Rugby was introduced to France in 1872 by the British, and on New Years Day 1906, the national side played its first test match – against New Zealand in Paris. France played sporadically against the Home Nations until they joined them to form the Five Nations Championship (now the Six Nations) in 1910. France also competed in the rugby competitions at early Summer Olympics, winning the gold medal in 1900 and two silver medals in the 1920s. The national team came of age during the 1950s and 1960s, winning their first Five Nations title outright in 1959. They won their first Grand Slam in 1968. Since then they have won the title outright 18 times, including ten grand slams, and shared it eight times.


title: France national rugby union team

text: France has competed in every Rugby World Cup since it began in 1987, and qualified for the knock-out stage each time. They have reached the final three times, losing to the All Blacks in 1987 and 2011, and to Australia in 1999. France hosted the 2007 Rugby World Cup, where, as in 2003, they were beaten in the semi-finals by England, and will once again host the tournament in 2023.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Rugby was introduced to France in 1872 by English merchants and students. On 26 February 1890, a French rugby team recruited from the Janson Desailly Lyceum defeated an international team at the Bois de Boulogne.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Although France were represented at the 1900 Summer Olympics, their first official test match did not take place until New Year's Day 1906, against the New Zealand All Blacks in Paris. France then played intermittently against the Home Nations until they joined them to form the Five Nations tournament in 1910. In 1913 France faced South Africa's Springboks for the first time; losing 38–5. France also competed at the 1920 and 1924 Summer Olympics, and on both occasions lost to the United States in the gold medal match.


title: France national rugby union team

text: France were ejected from the Five Nations in 1932 after being accused of professionalism in the French leagues at a time when rugby union was strictly amateur. Forced to play against weaker opposition, France went on a winning streak; winning ten games in a row during the years from 1931 to 1936. France was invited to rejoin the Five Nations in 1939 but did not compete until 1947 as international rugby was suspended during World War II.


title: France national rugby union team

text: French rugby came of age during the 1950s and 1960s: they won their first Five Nations championship and completed a successful tour of South Africa. Their first championship was won in 1954 when they shared the title with England and Wales. France won their first outright Five Nations championship in 1959; they won with two wins, a draw (against England) and a defeat (against Ireland).


title: France national rugby union team

text: France first toured South Africa winning the test series in 1958. The Springboks also visited Paris in 1961, the test was not completed due to onfield fighting amongst the players. France also toured New Zealand and Australia in 1961 losing both tests against the All Blacks but defeating Australia's Wallabies. They won their first Five Nations Grand Slam in 1968 by beating all four other competing teams, and won numerous titles in the following years.


title: France national rugby union team

text: In 1977, France won their second Grand Slam, fielding an unchanged side throughout the tournament and conceding no tries. They also defeated the All Blacks in Toulouse that year, but lost the return match in Paris. On Bastille Day, 1979 they defeated the All Blacks in New Zealand for the first time, at Eden Park in Auckland.


title: France national rugby union team

text: In 1981 the French clinched their third Grand Slam; at Twickenham against England. They again completed a Grand Slam in 1987 on the eve of the first Rugby World Cup hosted by Australia and New Zealand. In that tournament they came from behind numerous times to defeat the Wallabies in their semi-final, and faced the All Blacks in final at Eden Park, Auckland; France lost 29–9. They shared the Five Nations with Wales the next year, and also won it in 1989.


title: France national rugby union team

text: France hosted some of the tests during the 1991 World Cup, but were knocked out by England at the Parc des Princes (Paris) in the quarter-finals. France won the Five Nations championship in 1993. In 1994 France won a test series 2–0 in New Zealand. They were knocked out of the 1995 World Cup semi-finals by eventual champions the Springboks, but did win their third place play-off match against England. In November 1995, France played the All Blacks in two tests, winning the first 22–15 at Toulouse and losing the second 37–12 at Paris. France won back-to-back Grand Slams in 1997 and 1998. At the 1999 World Cup they defeated tournament favourites the All Blacks in the semi-finals, but lost to the Wallabies in the final.


title: France national rugby union team

text: The Five Nations Championship was expanded in 2000 to include Italy. In the now Six Nations Championship France won a Grand Slam in 2002. At the 2003 World Cup in Australia they qualified for the semi-finals where they were defeated by eventual champions England. In 2004, they won a second Six Nations Grand Slam, which was followed by a Championship win in 2006 and a successful defence in 2007.


title: France national rugby union team

text: During the opener of the World Cup 2007, Argentina defeated France 17–12. However, after defeating Ireland 25–3, France qualified for the quarter-finals. After defeating the New Zealand All Blacks 20–18, they lost to England 14–9 in the semi-final. France then lost for a second time to Argentina 34–10 in the third-place match. In 2010, France won its ninth Grand Slam.


title: France national rugby union team

text: During the 2011 Rugby World Cup, France defeated Wales 9–8 in the semi-final at Eden Park in Auckland, New Zealand, on 15 October 2011 and in the following week they lost 8–7 to the All Blacks in the final to make it three final defeats.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Until 1912, the strip (uniform) of the French team was white with two rings (the symbol of USFSA, the body that ruled the sport in France by then). After the first game won by France against Scotland in 1911, France's captain Marcel Communeau asked that the team adopt the (Gallic rooster), historical emblem of France, as its symbol. The Gallic rooster was probably chosen partly because it is considered as a proud and combative animal that can be sometimes aggressive, although it had been used previously as a symbol by French teams – a former association football player, Jean Rigal, wore a uniform with this emblem as early as May 1910. The badge was initially white and red, but was altered to a multicoloured, embroidered image after 1945, and has been golden since 1970.


title: France national rugby union team

text: The symbol used by the French rugby team was a great success, and was later adopted by the French delegation at the Olympic Games of 1920 where the rooster was perched on five Olympic rings. The rooster has since become a well-known symbol of French teams. French players are sometimes called "les coqs" and some French supporters have been known to release roosters on the playing field before games.


title: France national rugby union team

text: The French team traditionally played in blue shirts, white shorts, and red socks, the colors of the national flag, and as such were nicknamed . Due to the mostly blue strip the French team currently wears, the team is now often referred to as (the Blues), like many other French sporting teams. When this strip clashes with that of their opponents, such as in games against Scotland and Italy, French players wear white. New strips were developed for the 2007 World Cup, one of which is a darker blue. In June 2011 they relaunched another kit which they wear blue shirt, blue shorts and blue socks for their home kit and they wear white shirt, white shorts and white socks for their away kit.


title: France national rugby union team

text: In 2011 the French Rugby Federation (FFR) announced that Adidas would be their new partner for a period of six years, with them taking over production of the France national rugby shirt from 1 July 2012 to 30 June 2018.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Led by newly elected president Bernard Laporte, the federation intended on selling the jersey to a sponsor. The FFR announced on 24 January 2017 that they had started the commercialisation of the jersey. In February, it was decided that the jersey would first be used to support France's bid for the 2023 Rugby World Cup by showing "#France2023" on the front of the kit. In March 2017, the Groupe Altrad showed its support for France's bid for the World Cup and the company's logo accompanied "#France2023" on the jersey. The group became the first private company in history that appeared on the France national team kits. As of 2017 and France's successful bid to host the World Cup, Groupe Altrad signed a contract with the FFR, appearing solely on the jerseys.


title: France national rugby union team

text: In 2017 the FFR announced that Le Coq Sportif would once again be their partner for a period of six years, with them taking over production of the France national rugby shirt from 1 July 2018 to 30 June 2024.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Historically, France played internationals at venues such as Parc des Princes and the Stade Olympique de Colombes, both in Paris. The Stade Olympique de Colombes was the main venue for the 1924 Summer Olympics, where rugby was a sport.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Ever since moving out of Parc des Princes at the end of 1997, France's main home venue has been the Stade de France in Saint-Denis, where their home Six Nations matches are played. It has a capacity of 80,000. Since 2005, France has also played home internationals at the following venues around the country: Stade Chaban-Delmas, Grand Stade Lille Métropole (now known as Stade Pierre-Mauroy), Stade Gerland, Stade Vélodrome, Stade de la Mosson, Stade de la Beaujoire, Stade Bonal, Stadium Municipal (Toulouse) and U Arena.


title: France national rugby union team

text: In June 2012, the FFR announced that plans were under way for a new rugby-dedicated stadium to be constructed in Évry, south of Paris. The stadium was projected to cost €600M and have a seating capacity of 82,000. It was originally scheduled for completion by 2017, but later delayed to 2021 or 2022. In December 2016, FFR officially abandoned the stadium project.


title: France national rugby union team

text: During the 1991 World Cup, Pool D (which included France) matches were played throughout France including Béziers, Bayonne, Grenoble, Toulouse, Brive and Agen. Parc des Princes and Stadium Lille-Metropole also hosted a quarter-final each. Pool C fixtures at the 1999 World Cup were played throughout France in Béziers, Bordeaux and Toulouse. A second round match was held at Stade Félix Bollaert, and one quarter final was held at the Stade de France, both 2007 venues.


title: France national rugby union team

text: For the 2007 World Cup, France was the primary host, and there were ten venues used for matches throughout the country (Cardiff in Wales and Edinburgh in Scotland also hosted some games). The French cities that hosted matches were Bordeaux (Stade Chaban-Delmas), Lens (Stade Félix Bollaert), Lyon (Stade Gerland), Marseille (Stade Vélodrome), Montpellier (Stade de la Mosson), Nantes (Stade de la Beaujoire), Paris (Stade de France, Saint-Denis and Parc des Princes), Saint-Étienne (Stade Geoffroy-Guichard), and Toulouse (Stadium de Toulouse). The final was played at Stade de France. They will host it again in 2023.


title: France national rugby union team

text: France competes annually in the Six Nations Championship, which is played against five other European nations: England, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales. France first contested the tournament in 1910 when the Home Nations became the Five Nations. France were expelled from the tournament due to rumours of professionalism in the then-amateur sport in 1932, but rejoined in 1947. They first won the competition in 1954, sharing the championship with both England and Wales. France shared with Wales again the following season, and won it outright for the first time in 1959. France's longest wait for a championship spanned 37 tournaments (1910–1954). The Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy is also contested between France and Italy during the Six Nations. Over the whole history of the Tournament, they are the third most-winning nation, eleven wins behind England. However, it should be taken into account that France have been present in 34 fewer tournaments than the Home Nations. France has won almost exactly the same proportion of Six Nations Tournaments in which it has competed as England, and is the most successful nation in the post-World War II era (1945–present).


title: France national rugby union team

text: The French have competed at every World Cup since the inaugural tournament in 1987. Although they have yet to win a World Cup, they have participated in the play-off stage of every tournament, and have reached the final three times.


title: France national rugby union team

text: In 1987 France took on pre-tournament favourites Australia at Concord Oval for a place in the final. In one of the greatest World Cup matches, the Australians appeared to be in control, leading 9–0, 15–12 and 24–21 at various stages of the match, only for the French to keep coming back. With the scores locked at 24–24 and the prospect of extra time looming, the French scored one of the most memorable tries in rugby history. Starting an attack from inside their own half, the French passed the ball through 11 pairs of hands before fullback Serge Blanco beat Wallabies hooker Tom Lawton to score a try in the corner. France won 30–24, and would face co-hosts New Zealand in the final at Eden Park. The French had not fully recovered from their magnificent effort in the semi-final, and New Zealand won the anti-climactic decider 29–9.


title: France national rugby union team

text: In 1991 France met eternal arch-rivals England in the quarterfinal at Parc des Princes. Earlier in the year at Twickenham the two sides had played off for the Five Nations Grand Slam. The French scored three magnificent tries but were denied by the fearsome English forward pack. In a very tense and brutally physical match, the scores were tied at 10-all when the French were awarded a scrum five metres out from the tryline. French number eight Marc Cecillon looked set to score the try that would have won the game for the French. Suddenly he was hit and driven back in a tackle from opponent Mick Skinner, a tackle which changed the momentum of the match. England went on to win 19–10 and eventually reached the Final. At the end of the match, France coach Daniel Dubroca angrily assaulted New Zealand referee Dave Bishop in the players tunnel. He resigned soon afterwards.


title: France national rugby union team

text: In 1995 France finished third overall, defeating England 19–9 in the third-place play-off after their defeat to South Africa in the semi-finals. After coming from behind to defeat the All Blacks in their 1999 semi-final, France lost to Australia 35–12 in the final. In 2003 they finished fourth, losing the third/fourth place game to the All Blacks. At the World Cup 2007, after defeating New Zealand 20–18 in the quarter-final, France lost out to England in the semi-finals losing 14–9 after finishing the break 5–6 ahead. France lost to Argentina in the bronze final to finish the tournament fourth.


title: France national rugby union team

text: France's 2011 campaign was marked by turmoil within the camp; reports before the tournament indicated as many as 25 of the 30-member squad had turned against head coach Marc Lièvremont. In pool play, France had unimpressive wins over Japan and Canada, an expected loss to New Zealand, and a shock loss to Tonga. During this stage, Lièvremont heavily criticized the team in the media, further angering many of his players, with veteran back-rower Imanol Harinordoquy publicly critical of Lièvremont. Despite the losses, they qualified for the knockout stage. At this time, the players effectively rebelled against Lièvremont; after the tournament, Harinordoquy would tell the French rugby publication "Midi Olympique", "We had to free ourselves from his supervision." The team responded by defeating England 19–12 in the quarter final and controversially beating Wales 9–8 in the semi-final after Welsh captain Sam Warburton was sent off. The French proved admirable opponents in the final, however, losing out to New Zealand 8–7 to finish second for the third time in a Rugby World Cup.


title: France national rugby union team

text: France are the third-highest World Cup points scorers of all time, with 1585 points. They are also the third-highest try scorers, and the second-highest penalty scorers. France's Thierry Lacroix was the top points scorer at the 1995 tournament with 112 points, and Jean-Baptiste Lafond was the joint top try scorer in 1991 with six tries (equal with David Campese). Vincent Clerc is top try scorer in 2011 with six tries as Jean-Baptiste Lafond 20 years earlier.


title: France national rugby union team

text: France were named World Rugby Team of the Year in 2002. When the World Rankings were introduced by World Rugby (then the International Rugby Board) in 2003, France were ranked fifth. During November 2003 France briefly occupied third place before falling to fourth by December that year. After falling to fifth during November 2004, France rose again to fourth by April 2005. During early 2006, France rose again, peaking at second in July that year. France were ranked number two in the world until falling to third in June 2007 after two successive defeats to the All Blacks. They then fell to fifth after losing to Argentina in the opening match of the 2007 World Cup.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Below is a table of the representative rugby matches played by a France national XV at test level up until 17 July 2021.


title: France national rugby union team

text: On 17 October 2022, Galthié named a 42-man squad for the 2022 end-of-year rugby union internationals against Australia, South Africa and Japan.


title: France national rugby union team

text: On 30 October, Cyril Baille, Florent Vanverberghe, Jordan Joseph, Dimitri Delibes and Émilien Gailleton were called-up to the squad, while Thomas Laclayat, Jérôme Rey, Thomas Jolmès, Bastien Vergnes-Taillefer and Pablo Uberti were released.


title: France national rugby union team

text: On 7 November, Reda Wardi, Bastien Chalureau, Thomas Lavault, Rémi Picquette, Pierre Boudehent and Samuel Ezeala were called-up to the squad.


title: France national rugby union team

text: On 14 November, Florian Verhaeghe and Nolann Le Garrec were called-up while Clément Castets and Florent Vanverberghe made their return. Cyril Baille, Thibaud Flament, Rémi Picquette and Antoine Dupont were released.


title: France national rugby union team

text: In December 2016, when World Rugby was considering a change in the eligibility rules for international selection, FFR president Bernard Laporte announced that the body would require that all France national team members hold French passports. This requirement is in addition to then-current WR rules mandating three years' residency for international selection, a period which WR increased to five years effective from 31 December 2020. Players who represented France prior to Laporte's announcement remain eligible for selection even if they do not hold French passports. Thus, since 2016 France have had the lowest number of foreign-born players in their Six Nations's squads.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Ten former France national team players have been inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame. Its direct predecessor is the IRB Hall of Fame, founded in 2006 by the sport's international governing body, World Rugby, when it was known as the International Rugby Board. In late 2014, the IRB Hall merged with the separate International Rugby Hall of Fame, with all International Hall inductees becoming members of the World Rugby Hall of Fame.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Marcel Communeau (1885–1971), a back-rower for Stade Français at club level, played in France's first official international match against New Zealand's Original All Blacks in 1906. He went on to earn 21 caps for France, serving as captain for the country's first Five Nations appearance in 1910 and leading France to its first-ever win in that competition in 1911 against Scotland. Communeau is also credited with suggesting that France adopt the rooster as its team emblem. He entered the World Rugby Hall in 2015.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Jean Prat (1923–2005) earned 51 caps playing for France from 1945 to 1955, and captained France to their first wins over Wales and the All Blacks. He was also France's captain in 1954 when they won their first ever Five Nations (shared with Wales and England). Prat was inducted to the International Hall of Fame in 2001 and the IRB Hall of Fame in 2011.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Lucien Mias (born 1930), nicknamed "Docteur Pack", was credited with inventing the concept of the advantage line in forward play. When inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame in 2011, he was called "one of the most influential captains of his country". He was most noted for captaining France to a Test series win over South Africa in 1958, the first such feat in the 20th century for a touring team.


title: France national rugby union team

text: André Boniface (born 1934) also played in France's win over the All Blacks in 1954; it was only his second test for France. Boniface went on to play 48 tests for France before retiring in 1966. He was inducted to the International Hall in 2005 and the IRB Hall in 2011.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Guy Boniface (1937–1968) emerged on the international scene shortly after his older brother André, although the two did not play together in the same France side until 1961. According to the IRB, the Boniface brothers "redefined the concept of back play through their unique blend of skill and creativity." Guy won 35 caps for France before his death in an auto accident in 1968. He was inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame alongside his brother in 2011.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Jo Maso (born 1944) first played for France between 1966 and 1973; mainly at centre. He played in France's first ever Five Nations Grand Slam in 1968, and that year toured New Zealand and Australia. He represented France in 25 tests and also played for the Barbarians and the World XV that beat England in 1971. Maso entered the International Hall in 2003 and became a member of the World Rugby Hall with the merger of the two halls of fame. He is now the manager of the France national team.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Jean-Pierre Rives (born 1952), a 1997 inductee of the International Hall who entered the World Rugby Hall with the merger, played 59 tests for France between 1975 and 1984; including 34 as captain. He played in Five Nations Grand Slams in 1977 and 1981, and captained France to their first ever win over the All Blacks in New Zealand. Rives is now a sculptor, and designed the Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy (Italian: Trofeo Garibaldi; French: Trophée Garibaldi), which is competed for every year by France and Italy in the 6 Nations championship.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Serge Blanco (born 1958) played in 93 tests for France between 1980 and 1991. Playing at fullback Blanco won Five Nations Grand Slams with France in 1981 and 1987, and scored the match-winning try in France's semi-final against Australia in the 1987 World Cup. He is past president both of his longtime club, Biarritz Olympique, and France's national professional league, Ligue Nationale de Rugby. Blanco was inducted to the International Hall in 1997 and the IRB Hall in 2011.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Centre Philippe Sella (born 1962), who was also in the 1987 team, played 111 times for France between 1982 and 1995, setting an appearances record that stood until Fabien Pelous, who himself would be indicted into the World Rugby Hall in 2017, broke it during the 2007 Rugby World Cup. In 1986, he achieved the rare feat of scoring a try in each of France's Five Nations matches. Sella entered the International Hall in 1999 and the IRB Hall in 2005.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Lock Fabien Pelous (born 1973) was inducted into the World Rugby Hall in 2017 at a ceremony at the Hall's physical location in Rugby. He appeared 118 times for France from 1995 to 2007, surpassing Sella as France's most-capped player. According to World Rugby, "Pelous' spirit and robustness in the heat of battle made him perfect captaincy material", and he would captain "Les Bleus" 42 times, with only Thierry Dusautoir serving as captain on more occasions. In his 18-season club career, 12 of which were with his hometown club Toulouse, he helped Toulouse to two European and three French titles.


title: France national rugby union team

text: The record for points scored for France is 422, held by Frédéric Michalak, who surpassed previous record holder Christophe Lamaison on 22 August 2015. Lamaison continues to hold the record for conversions with 59. The record for penalties scored is 89 by Thierry Lacroix, and the drop goal record of 15 is held by Jean-Patrick Lescarboura. The record for French appearances is held by Fabien Pelous with 118. The record for tries scored for France is with 38 held by Serge Blanco.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Historically the role of French rugby coach (or "trainer") has varied considerably. Due to the status of rugby union as an amateur sport for most of its history, the job of deciding tactics and running team trainings has often been that of the captain or senior players. Therefore, a comprehensive list of national coaches is impossible.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Although coached by Jean Desclaux between 1973 and 1980, the French team's main influence during the late 1970 was captain Jacques Fouroux. Fouroux played scrum-half and captained France to their 1977 Five Nations Grand Slam, during which France played a very forward-oriented style of rugby. Although the style of "Fouroux's Gang" was successful, it was criticised because it contrasted with the traditional open attacking style of French rugby. Fouroux was given the nickname "the little Corporal" – the same as Napoleon Bonaparte. Fouroux was named as Desclaux's successor in 1981 at the age of just 33. He continued to promote a forward-oriented style of play, and France won six Five Nations titles – including two Grand Slams – while he was coach. After nearly ten years in the role he resigned in 1990 after a defeat to Romania.


title: France national rugby union team

text: Fouroux was succeeded by Daniel Dubroca, who coached the team to the 1991 Rugby World Cup. Dubroca's tenure as coach did not last long, however, as he resigned after violently confronting referee Dave Bishop following France's World Cup quarter-final against England. Dubroca was replaced by Pierre Berbizier, who coached the team until after the 1995 Rugby World Cup. Berbizier's replacement, Jean-Claude Skrela, coached France to Five Nations Grand Slams in 1997 and 1998 before they came last in the tournament in 1999. He officially resigned following France's loss to Australia in the 1999 Rugby World Cup final. Bernard Laporte was appointed as Skrela's successor in November. Laporte guided France through the 2003 and 2007 Rugby World Cups before stepping down to become Secretary of State for Sport. After Philippe Saint-André turned down the offer to replace Laporte, French Rugby Federation president Bernard Lapasset appointed Marc Lièvremont to guide France to the 2011 World Cup. Lièvremont's tenure as coach was marked by inconsistent and puzzling squad selection choices, and player discontent. There were some bright moments, notably wins against New Zealand in Dunedin and South Africa in Toulouse, and the 2010 Six Nations Grand Slam. But there was also a 59–16 loss to Australia in Paris, a 22–21 loss to Italy in the 2011 Six Nations, and a 19–14 loss to Tonga during the 2011 World Cup. In August 2011, before the World Cup, it was announced that Philippe Saint-André would replace Lièvremont and guide France to the 2015 World Cup. This came as no surprise to Lièvremont, as he had announced as early as May 2010 that he would not continue as the coach of France after the World Cup.


title: France national rugby union team

text: France did not impress under Saint-André, finishing no higher than fourth in the Six Nations during his tenure and even claiming the wooden spoon in 2013. Following the 2015 Six Nations, he announced his resignation effective after that year's World Cup and was replaced by Guy Novès. France was even less impressive under Novès, with "Les Bleus" winning fewer than one-third of their matches during his tenure, capped off by a run of seven winless matches. Novès was dismissed in December 2017, becoming the first France head coach ever to be fired before the end of his contract, and was replaced by former Italy head coach Jacques Brunel, who arrived from the same position with Bordeaux Bègles. Novès' assistants were dismissed as well.


title: France national rugby union team

text: France's autumn internationals and Six Nations Championship are currently televised by the public national broadcaster France Télévisions (especially by the main channel France 2) which lasts until 2015. The summer tour matches are televised by the encrypted channel Canal plus and the World Cup matches by TF1.


title: France national rugby union team

text: French sport specialist newspapers are "L'Équipe" (specializing in sport) and "Midi Olympique" (specializing in rugby).


title: Gratuity

text: A gratuity (often called a tip) is a sum of money customarily given by a customer to certain service sector workers such as hospitality for the service they have performed, in addition to the basic price of the service.


title: Gratuity

text: Tips and their amount are a matter of social custom and etiquette, and the custom varies between countries and between settings. In some countries, it is customary to tip servers in bars and restaurants, taxi drivers, hair stylists and so on. However, in some places tipping is not expected and may be discouraged or considered insulting. The customary amount of a tip can be a specific range or a certain percentage of the bill based on the perceived quality of the service given.


title: Gratuity

text: It is illegal to offer tips to some groups of workers, such as U.S. government workers and more widely police officers; the tips may be regarded as bribery. A fixed percentage service charge is sometimes added to bills in restaurants and similar establishments. Tipping may not be expected when a fee is explicitly charged for the service.


title: Gratuity

text: Giving a tip is typically irreversible, differentiating it from the reward mechanism of a placed order, which can be refunded. From a theoretical economic point of view, gratuities may solve the principal–agent problem (the situation in which an agent, such as a server, is working for a principal, such as a restaurant owner or manager) and many managers believe that tips provide incentive for greater worker effort. However, studies of the practice in America suggest that tipping is often discriminatory or arbitrary: workers receive different levels of gratuity based on factors such as age, sex, race, hair color and even breast size, and the size of the gratuity is found to be only tenuously related to the quality of service.


title: Gratuity

text: According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the word "tip" originated as a slang term and its etymology is unclear. According to the "Online Etymology Dictionary", the meaning "give a small present of money" began around 1600, and the meaning "give a gratuity to" is first attested in 1706. The noun in this sense is from 1755. The term in the sense of "to give a gratuity" first appeared in the 18th century. It derived from an earlier sense of "tip", meaning "to give; to hand, pass", which originated in the thieves' cant in the 17th century. This sense may have derived from the 16th-century "tip" meaning "to strike or hit smartly but lightly" (which may have derived from the Low German "tippen", "to tap"), but this derivation is "very uncertain". The word "tip" was first used as a verb in 1707 in George Farquhar's play "The Beaux' Stratagem". Farquhar used the term after it had been "used in criminal circles as a word meant to imply the unnecessary and gratuitous gifting of something somewhat taboo, like a joke, or a sure bet, or illicit money exchanges."


title: Gratuity

text: The etymology for the synonym for tipping, "gratuity", dates back either to the 1520s, from "graciousness", from the French "gratuité" (14th century) or directly from Medieval Latin "gratuitas", "free gift", probably from earlier Latin "gratuitus", "free, freely given". The meaning "money given for favor or services" is first attested in the 1530s. In some languages, the term translates to "drink money" or similar: for example "pourboire" in French, "Trinkgeld" in German, "drikkepenge" in Danish, "drinksilver" in Middle Scots, and "napiwek" in Polish. This comes from a custom of inviting a servant to drink a glass in honour of the guest, and paying for it, in order for the guests to show generosity among each other. The term "bibalia" in Latin was recorded in 1372.


title: Gratuity

text: The practice of tipping began in Tudor England. In medieval times, tipping was a master-serf custom wherein a servant would receive extra money for having performed superbly well. By the 17th century, it was expected that overnight guests to private homes would provide sums of money, known as vails, to the host's servants. Soon afterwards, customers began tipping in London coffeehouses and other commercial establishments".


title: Gratuity

text: The practice was imported from Europe to America in the 1850s and 1860s by Americans who wanted to seem aristocratic. However, until the early 20th century, Americans viewed tipping as inconsistent with the values of an egalitarian, democratic society, as the origins of tipping were premised upon noblesse oblige, which promoted tipping as a means to establish social status to inferiors. Six American states passed laws that made tipping illegal. Enforcement of anti-tipping laws was problematic. The earliest of these laws was passed in 1909 (Washington), and the last of these laws was repealed in 1926 (Mississippi). Some have argued that "The original workers that were not paid anything by their employers were newly freed slaves" and that "This whole concept of not paying them anything and letting them live on tips carried over from slavery." The anti-tipping movement spread to Europe with the support of the labour movement, which led to the eventual abolition of customary tipping in most European countries.


title: Gratuity

text: Also, proprietors regarded tips as equivalent to bribing an employee to do something that was otherwise forbidden, such as tipping a waiter to get an extra large portion of food. However, the introduction of Prohibition in the US in 1919 had an enormous impact on hotels and restaurants, who lost the revenue of selling alcoholic beverages. The resulting financial pressure caused proprietors to welcome tips, as a way of supplementing employee wages. Contrary to popular belief, tipping did not arise because of servers' low wages, because the occupation of waiter (server) was fairly well paid in the era when tipping became institutionalized.


title: Gratuity

text: A 2009 academic paper by Steven Holland calls tipping "an effective mechanism for risk sharing and welfare improvement" which reduces the risk faced by a service customer, because the customer can decide whether or not to tip. Tipping is sometimes given as an example of the principal–agent problem in economics. One example is a restaurant owner who engages servers to act as agents on his behalf. In some cases, "[c]ompensation agreements [can] increase worker effort [...] if compensation is [...] tied to the firm's success" and one example of such a compensation agreement is waiters and waitresses who are paid tips. Studies show however that, in the real world, the size of the tip is only weakly correlated with the quality of the service and other effects dominate.


title: Gratuity

text: A tronc is an arrangement for the pooling and distribution to employees of tips, gratuities and/or service charges in the hotel and catering trade. The person who distributes monies from the tronc is known as the troncmaster. Where a tronc exists in the UK, responsibility for deducting pay-as-you-earn taxes from the distribution may lie with the troncmaster rather than the employer. The word "tronc" has its origins in the French for collecting box. In June 2008, the Employment Appeals Tribunal ruled in a UK test case (Revenue and Customs Commissioners v Annabel’s (Berkeley Square) Ltd) that income from a tronc cannot be counted when assessing whether a wage or salary meets the national minimum wage.


title: Gratuity

text: Tipping may not be expected when a fee is explicitly charged for the service. A service charge is sometimes added to bills in restaurants and similar establishments. Attempts to hide service charge by obscuring the line on the receipt have been reported. A service charge, or fee assessed, is determined by and paid directly to the company. The charges may be for services rendered, administrative fees, or processing cost.


title: Gratuity

text: In the United States, criminal charges were dropped in two separate cases over non-payment of mandatory gratuities. Courts ruled that automatic does not mean mandatory. Some cruise lines charge their patrons US$10 per day in mandatory tipping; this does not include extra gratuities for alcoholic beverages.


title: Gratuity

text: In Nigeria tipping is common at upscale hotels and restaurants but a service charge is usually included in the bill, though the employees rarely get this as part of their wages.


title: Gratuity

text: In Morocco tipping (تْدْوِيرَة | Romanized : Tedwira) isn't mandatory, but rounding up the bill and leaving tips at restaurants and cafes, or to the service providers is a standard practice and appreciated.


title: Gratuity

text: In China, traditionally there is no tipping. However, hotels that routinely serve foreign tourists allow tipping, as do tour guides and associated drivers.


title: Gratuity

text: In cities bordering Hong Kong like Shenzhen, some restaurants and hotels also started to charge gratuity since the 1980s.


title: Gratuity

text: In Hong Kong, tipping is not typically expected at hotels or restaurant establishments, where a "service charge" of 10% is added to a bill instead of expecting a gratuity. Taxi drivers in Hong Kong may also charge the difference between a fare and a round sum as a "courtesy fee" to avoid making change for larger bills.


title: Gratuity

text: As a service charge is typically included as part of bills at hotels and restaurants, tipping is generally not practiced in Japan. In addition, Japan has a set of traditions and customs regarding giving money as a gift, so tipping may cause confusion or be considered rude if the money is given without being placed in a special gift envelope first. Like many other countries in East Asia, Japanese people see tipping as insulting.


title: Gratuity

text: In India tipping is not normal in hotels and restaurants, but may be appreciated. If eating a casual meal—breakfast or snack—with a bill total less than ₹1000, then a 10% tip is expected and appreciated. If small bills are handy, tips can be in multiples of ₹10 notes.


title: Gratuity

text: In Malaysia, tipping is not the norm and is not expected for any service. Instead restaurants can add a service charge of 10% to the bill. In Malaysia the people are familiar with tipping, so if a person does leave a tip then it is accepted and appreciated. Tips, when given, usually take the form of rounding up the bill.


title: Gratuity

text: Tipping is not an obligation, and it is not considered rude not to tip, though workers will be pleased if tipped. Normally in low to medium-end restaurants, the bill is rounded up to the nearest Rs.100 or 1000 and the change is given as tip either directly to the waiter or left on the table.


title: Gratuity

text: In more formal settings, hotels and restaurants add a 10% service charge to the bill, which is paid along with the bill itself.


title: Gratuity

text: In upscale restaurants, if a service charge is added, tipping is not needed nor expected. Among smaller side street restaurants, service charge is usually not included and tip amount may vary from loose changes to not at all (most do not give tips). The customer in this case can give any amount he/she wishes.


title: Gratuity

text: Fastfood areas (McDonald's, Jollibee, Popeyes, etc.) are not tipping locations and staffs are reluctant to accept money.


title: Gratuity

text: Hotels bellboys are generally provided tips but amount is not fixed and may depend on the customer. Taxis are not provided tips but customer may pay extra to avoid loose change (usual range of 10 to 30 pesos). App based vehicles (Grab etc.) are usually paid tips via app and therefore under the discretion of the customer.


title: Gratuity

text: Tipping is not customary in Korean culture, and tipping is not expected in the general service industry. Some people even regard tipping as an inappropriate behavior. High-end hotels and restaurants often include a service charge of between 10% to 15%, but it is always included in the bill and customers are not expected to leave an additional gratuity for servers.


title: Gratuity

text: In Singapore, bars and restaurants typically add a 10% service charge, which is subject to the 7% Goods & Services Tax. Excess tipping is not practiced and is rarely expected in most instances. Tips may be regarded as an insult or mistaken for illegal bribery. Taxi drivers given a tip will mistake it for overpayment, and return the exact change.


title: Gratuity

text: In Taiwan, tipping is not customary, but all mid and high end restaurants include a mandatory "10% service charge", which is not given to the service staff, but rather considered by Taiwanese law as general revenue, as reported by the "Taipei Times" in "False Gratuity" on July 9, 2013.


title: Gratuity

text: In Nepal, tipping is not compulsory but people working on tourism sectors and hotel area always look for a tip. Mostly the guide and porters who walk many days with clients to make their adventure successful. All the trekking company in Nepal also advice clients to tip guide and porters. Some company advice to tip high some advice to tip low cost.


title: Gratuity

text: Tipping ("bakshish") in Albania is very much expected almost everywhere. In recent times it has become more common, as many foreigners and Albanians living abroad visit Albania. Leaving a tip of around 10% of the bill is customary in restaurants; even porters, guides and chauffeurs expect tips. Duty-free alcohol is often used as a type of tip for porters, bellhops and the like, though some people (such as Muslims) can find it offensive.


title: Gratuity

text: Tipping is not required but often expected, particularly in restaurants where roughly 5% to 10% is common. This depends on the service one received and the restaurant level (low, medium, high prices). In standard restaurants it is OK to round up to the next euro. Another common setting where tipping is customary is taxis, where bills may be rounded up to the next euro.