title: Spaghettification

text: In the previous case, objects would actually be destroyed and people killed by the heat, not the tidal forces - but near a black hole (assuming that there is no nearby matter), objects would actually be destroyed and people killed by the tidal forces because there is no radiation. Moreover, a black hole has no surface to stop a fall. Thus, the infalling object is stretched into a thin strip of matter.


title: Spaghettification

text: The point at which tidal forces destroy an object or kill a person will depend on the black hole's size. For a supermassive black hole, such as those found at a galaxy's center, this point lies within the event horizon, so an astronaut may cross the event horizon without noticing any squashing and pulling, although it remains only a matter of time, as once inside an event horizon, falling towards the center is inevitable. For small black holes whose Schwarzschild radius is much closer to the singularity, the tidal forces would kill even before the astronaut reaches the event horizon. For example, for a black hole of 10 Sun masses the above-mentioned rod breaks at a distance of 320 km, well outside the Schwarzschild radius of 30 km. For a supermassive black hole of 10,000 Sun masses, it will break at a distance of 3,200 km, well inside the Schwarzschild radius of 30,000 km.


title: Network socket

text: A network socket is a software structure within a network node of a computer network that serves as an endpoint for sending and receiving data across the network. The structure and properties of a socket are defined by an application programming interface (API) for the networking architecture. Sockets are created only during the lifetime of a process of an application running in the node.


title: Network socket

text: Because of the standardization of the TCP/IP protocols in the development of the Internet, the term "network socket" is most commonly used in the context of the Internet protocol suite, and is therefore often also referred to as Internet socket. In this context, a socket is externally identified to other hosts by its socket address, which is the triad of transport protocol, IP address, and port number.


title: Network socket

text: The term "socket" is also used for the software endpoint of node-internal inter-process communication (IPC), which often uses the same API as a network socket.


title: Network socket

text: The use of the term "socket" in software is analogous to the function of an electrical female connector, a device in hardware for communication between nodes interconnected with an electrical cable. Similarly, the term "port" is used for external physical endpoints at a node or device.


title: Network socket

text: The application programming interface (API) for the network protocol stack creates a handle for each socket created by an application, commonly referred to as a "socket descriptor". In Unix-like operating systems, this descriptor is a type of file descriptor. It is stored by the application process for use with every read and write operation on the communication channel.


title: Network socket

text: At the time of creation with the API, a network socket is bound to the combination of a type of network protocol to be used for transmissions, a network address of the host, and a port number. Ports are numbered resources that represent another type of software structure of the node. They are used as service types, and, once created by a process, serve as an externally (from the network) addressable location component, so that other hosts may establish connections.


title: Network socket

text: Network sockets may be dedicated for persistent connections for communication between two nodes, or they may participate in connectionless and multicast communications.


title: Network socket

text: In practice, due to the proliferation of the TCP/IP protocols in use on the Internet, the term "network socket" usually refers to use with the Internet Protocol (IP). It is therefore often also called Internet socket.


title: Network socket

text: An application can communicate with a remote process by exchanging data with TCP/IP by knowing the combination of protocol type, IP address, and port number. This combination is often known as a "socket address". It is the network-facing access handle to the network socket. The remote process establishes a network socket in its own instance of the protocol stack, and uses the networking API to connect to the application, presenting its own socket address for use by the application.


title: Network socket

text: A protocol stack, usually provided by the operating system (rather than as a separate library, for instance), is a set of services that allow processes to communicate over a network using the protocols that the stack implements. The operating system forwards the payload of incoming IP packets to the corresponding application by extracting the socket address information from the IP and transport protocol headers and stripping the headers from the application data.


title: Network socket

text: The application programming interface (API) that programs use to communicate with the protocol stack, using network sockets, is called a socket API. Development of application programs that utilize this API is called "socket programming" or "network programming". Internet socket APIs are usually based on the Berkeley sockets standard. In the Berkeley sockets standard, sockets are a form of file descriptor, due to the Unix philosophy that "everything is a file", and the analogies between sockets and files. Both have functions to read, write, open, and close. In practice the differences strain the analogy, and different interfaces (send and receive) are used on a socket. In inter-process communication, each end generally has its own socket.


title: Network socket

text: In the standard Internet protocols TCP and UDP, a socket address is the combination of an IP address and a port number, much like one end of a telephone connection is the combination of a phone number and a particular extension. Sockets need not have a source address, for example, for only sending data, but if a program "binds" a socket to a source address, the socket can be used to receive data sent to that address. Based on this address, Internet sockets deliver incoming data packets to the appropriate application process.


title: Network socket

text: "Socket" often refers specifically to an internet socket or TCP socket. An internet socket is minimally characterized by the following:


title: Network socket

text: The distinctions between a socket (internal representation), socket descriptor (abstract identifier), and socket address (public address) are subtle, and these are not always distinguished in everyday usage. Further, specific definitions of a "socket" differ between authors. In IETF Request for Comments, Internet Standards, in many textbooks, as well as in this article, the term "socket" refers to an entity that is uniquely identified by the socket number. In other textbooks, the term "socket" refers to a local socket address, i.e. a "combination of an IP address and a port number". In the original definition of "socket" given in RFC 147, as it was related to the ARPA network in 1971, ""the socket is specified as a 32 bit number with even sockets identifying receiving sockets and odd sockets identifying sending sockets."" Today, however, socket communications are bidirectional.


title: Network socket

text: Within the operating system and the application that created a socket, a socket is referred to by a unique integer value called a "socket descriptor".


title: Network socket

text: On Unix-like operating systems and Microsoft Windows, the command-line tools netstat or ss" are used to list established sockets and related information.


title: Network socket

text: This example, modeled according to the Berkeley socket interface, sends the string "Hello, world!" via TCP to port 80 of the host with address 1.2.3.4. It illustrates the creation of a socket (getSocket), connecting it to the remote host, sending the string, and finally closing the socket:


title: Network socket

text: Other socket types are implemented over other transport protocols, such as Systems Network Architecture and Unix domain sockets for internal inter-process communication.


title: Network socket

text: Computer processes that provide application services are referred to as servers, and create sockets on startup that are in the "listening state". These sockets are waiting for initiatives from client programs.


title: Network socket

text: A TCP server may serve several clients concurrently by creating a unique dedicated socket for each client connection in a new child process or processing thread for each client. These are in the "established state" when a socket-to-socket virtual connection or virtual circuit (VC), also known as a TCP session, is established with the remote socket, providing a duplex byte stream.


title: Network socket

text: A server may create several concurrently established TCP sockets with the same local port number and local IP address, each mapped to its own server-child process, serving its own client process. They are treated as different sockets by the operating system since the remote socket address (the client IP address or port number) is different; i.e. since they have different socket pair tuples.


title: Network socket

text: UDP sockets do not have an "established state", because the protocol is connectionless. A UDP server process handles incoming datagrams from all remote clients sequentially through the same socket. UDP sockets are not identified by the remote address, but only by the local address, although each message has an associated remote address that can be retrieved from each datagram with the networking application programming interface (API).


title: Network socket

text: Communicating local and remote sockets are called socket pairs. Each socket pair is described by a unique 4-tuple consisting of source and destination IP addresses and port numbers, i.e. of local and remote socket addresses. As discussed above, in the TCP case, a socket pair is associated on each end of the connection with a unique 4-tuple.


title: Network socket

text: The term "socket" dates to the publication of RFC 147 in 1971, when it was used in the ARPANET. Most modern implementations of sockets are based on Berkeley sockets (1983), and other stacks such as Winsock (1991). The Berkeley sockets API in the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD), originated with the 4.2BSD Unix operating system as an API. Only in 1989, however, could UC Berkeley release versions of its operating system and networking library free from the licensing constraints of AT&T's copyright-protected Unix.


title: Network socket

text: In c. 1987, AT&T introduced the STREAMS-based Transport Layer Interface (TLI) in UNIX System V Release 3 (SVR3). and continued into Release 4 (SVR4).


title: Network socket

text: The socket is primarily a concept used in the transport layer of the Internet protocol suite or session layer of the OSI model. Networking equipment such as routers, which operate at the internet layer, and switches, which operate at the link layer, do not require implementations of the transport layer. However, stateful network firewalls, network address translators, and proxy servers keep track of active socket pairs. In multilayer switches and quality of service (QoS) support in routers, packet flows may be identified by extracting information about the socket pairs.


title: Network socket

text: Raw sockets are typically available in network equipment and are used for routing protocols such as IGRP and OSPF, and for Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).


title: Hungama (2003 film)

text: Hungama () is a 2003 Indian Hindi-language comedy film directed by Priyadarshan and produced by Venus Records & Tapes. The film stars Akshaye Khanna, Paresh Rawal, Aftab Shivdasani and Rimi Sen, while Shakti Kapoor, Rajpal Yadav, Tiku Talsania and Shoma Anand play supporting roles. It is a remake of Priyadarshan's own 1984 Malayalam film "Poochakkoru Mookkuthi" which itself was based on the 1980 Telugu movie "Gopal Rao Gari Ammayi". It was also reported to have been inspired by the plot elements of Charles Dickens's play "The Strange Gentleman".


title: Hungama (2003 film)

text: Anjali Patekar arrives in Mumbai looking for a job. She finds cheap lodging by feigning marriage to a stranger, Nandu Apte, an aspiring musician. Jitendra "Jeetu" Sahai has just started his own electronics business. His friend Anil Singh pretends to be millionaire businessman Radhe Shyam Tiwari's son and conspires with his servant Pandu to trick Kachra Seth into a quick engagement with his daughter Madhuri. At the same time, Radhe Shyam Tiwari, who lives in a village with his wife Anjali Tiwari moves to the city. With news of Radhe's arrival, Pandu asks Anil to abscond.


title: Hungama (2003 film)

text: Anjali goes to Radhe's villa hoping for a job. At this point, Jeetu shows up at the villa to fix a stereo he sold to Radhe. Seeing Anjali at the door, he mistakes her for Radhe's daughter. Unable to land a job at the Radhe's, Anjali later bumps into Jeetu when she responds to a vacancy at his store. Already trying to woo Anjali for assuming her to be Radhe's daughter, Jeetu hires her readily. Afraid of losing the job, Anjali continues the pretense. Every day after work, Jeetu drops Anjali off at Radhe's villa believing she lives there with Anjali exiting the villa after Jeetu leaves. With Jeetu often showing up at Tiwari's villa asking for Anjali and Mrs. Tiwari spotting the real Anjali frequently outside the villa, the Tiwari(s) become convinced that each is having an affair with the younger counterparts.


title: Hungama (2003 film)

text: Nandu has begun to fall in love with his room-mate Anjali. Also, Nandu's landlord's wife has fallen for him, and is after him about eloping with her. In a misunderstanding over the phone, Jeetu assumes Anjali loves him. Meanwhile, her village landlord's son Raja arrives the city to marry Anjali but Nandu scares Raja away. Raja hides in the same lodge as Anil. Agitated by Anil absconding, Kachra Seth visits Radhe for Madhuri's wedding to Anil.


title: Hungama (2003 film)

text: All the major characters start chasing after each other and end up in a warehouse, where a big melee follows. Ending the Ruckus ("Hungama"), Jeetu and Nandu confront Anjali and profess their love for her, forcing her to choose between them. The film ends with Anjali choosing Nandu and Jeetu wishing them the best.


title: Hungama (2003 film)

text: In November 2019, Priyadarshan announced "Hungama 2" with Paresh Rawal, Shilpa Shetty, Meezaan Jafri and Pranitha Subhash in lead roles. The filming started on 6 January 2020 in Mumbai. The film was scheduled to be released on 14 August 2020 but delayed due to COVID-19 pandemic. The film is now released directly to the OTT platform Disney+ Hotstar Multiplex on 23 July 2021 owing to closure of cinemas due to COVID-19 Pandemic.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: In "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", players select a team of three characters to engage in combat and attempt to knock out their opponents. As an update, the game utilizes largely identical gameplay mechanics to the original. However, both the aerial combat and X-Factor systems, introduced in "Fate of Two Worlds", have received adjustments. In addition to gameplay modifications and new playable characters, the game features several aesthetic changes.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: After the events of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami disrupted the development schedule for downloadable content for "Fate of Two Worlds", the additional content was created into a standalone title, "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", for a discounted retail price. The game received generally positive reviews upon release; critics praised the expanded character roster and improved online experience, but criticized the lack of new features and game modes. A sequel, titled "", was released in September 2017.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" is an updated version of "", an arcade-style fighting game, and changes little from the basic gameplay of the original. Players select teams of three different characters to engage in one-on-one combat. The game utilizes the same tag team-based fighting mechanics as its predecessors; players may choose to swap between their characters at any point during a match. Players must use the various attacks in their arsenal, such as character assists, special moves, and hyper combos, to exhaust their opponent's life gauge and defeat the entire enemy team, or have the most cumulative health when time runs out. While the core mechanics remain the same, a number of aesthetic changes have been made in "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", with a stronger emphasis on the comic book motif. The HUD, character selection, and stage selection screens have been redesigned. In addition, many returning characters receive balancing changes, which include new moves and animation tweaks.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" uses the same simplified, three-button control scheme of undefined light, medium, and heavy attacks introduced in "Fate of Two Worlds". The "exchange button", used to launch opponents into the air and switch between characters while performing air combos, returns. The aerial exchange feature has been altered in "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3"; players can either remove meter from their opponent's Hyper Combo gauge, add meter to their own gauge, or simply deal more damage. The "X-Factor" mechanic, which grants increased damage output, speed, and health regeneration for a limited time, also reappears from "Fate of Two Worlds". In "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", the attack and speed boosts for each character while using X-Factor have been adjusted. X-Factor can now be used while in the air, as opposed to the previous game, in which activation was restricted to characters on the ground.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" includes several game modes from the original, including Arcade Mode, where the player fights against AI-controlled opponents to reach the final boss character, Galactus; Versus Mode, where two players engage in combat; Mission Mode, which includes a series of trials for each playable character; and Training Mode. "Heroes and Heralds" is a free downloadable single-player and multiplayer team-based mode where players earn new abilities with upgrade cards, customize their characters with new powers, and compete in factions as either the heroes defending Earth or as one of Galactus' Heralds. The "ability cards", which feature various characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes, unlock special power-ups, such as invisibility and projectile invincibility, for use during mode-specific combat. Up to three different cards may be equipped at once, with more than 100 cards available to collect. A new offline mode, called "Galactus Mode", allows players to fight as Galactus against AI-controlled opponents.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: An optimized netcode is present in the game, providing smoother online play compared to "Fate of Two Worlds". A new spectator mode allows up to six players to watch online matches between other players. Rematch features and leaderboard functionality have also been improved to enhance the game's online experience.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" features the original 36 characters from "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds" and introduces 12 new playable fighters. Jill Valentine and Shuma-Gorath, the two characters released as downloadable content (DLC) for the previous game, remained available for download, up until all DLC content for the game was removed from online stores in December 2013, but they are included with PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and PC re-releases. Characters added to "Ultimate" are marked in bold.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: On July 20, 2011, at the San Diego Comic-Con International, Capcom announced that an updated version of "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds" was under development. The update, titled "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", would add new characters, stages, modes, and other enhancements to improve the game's balance and online functionality. According to Capcom, many new features and refinements, such as the addition of a spectator mode and tweaks to X-Factor, were the results of fan feedback. At the 2011 Tokyo Game Show, Capcom video game producer, Yoshinori Ono, would later announce that the game would also be released as a launch title for the PlayStation Vita. The handheld edition promised to contain the same content as the console versions, in addition to touchscreen control support.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: After the release of "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds", the game's development team had plans to release more downloadable content. However, after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, in addition to staff health issues, delayed the development schedule, producer Ryota Niitsuma and his team decided to release the proposed DLC, along with rebalanced gameplay and other additions, as a separate installment. As a result, the makeup of "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" is split "about half and half" between DLC meant for "Fate of Two Worlds" and brand new content.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: Character selection was a collaborative process between Capcom and Marvel. According to Seth Killian, a former community manager for Capcom, Marvel presented a list of their own characters that they were interested in seeing in "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3". Capcom then provided input regarding moveset possibilities in order to reach a consensus. Each company also had their own set of interests and priorities. Marvel characters, such as Rocket Raccoon and Nova, were chosen to cross-promote upcoming products. On the other hand, Capcom sought to bring more diversity into the cast. For example, Capcom wanted a monster-like character that could fight while in the air, leading to the inclusion of Firebrand.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on November 15, 2011, in North America, November 17 in Japan, and November 18 in Europe. The PlayStation Vita version was released on December 17, 2011, in Japan, and February 22, 2012, in North America and Europe. People who ordered the PlayStation Vita "First Edition" bundle in North America were able to receive an early copy of "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" on February 15, 2012, one week ahead of the console's official launch date.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: To promote "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", special retailer-exclusive costume packs were available as pre-order bonuses. If the game was pre-ordered from GameStop, the players received the Femme Fatale Pack (Chun-Li, Morrigan, Storm, X-23). Amazon offered the New Age of Heroes Costume Pack (Akuma, Doctor Doom, Sentinel, Strider Hiryu), while Best Buy gave access to the Villains Costume Pack (C. Viper, M.O.D.O.K., Super-Skrull, Wesker). After the game's launch, several other costume packs became available for purchase on specific dates through the Xbox Live Marketplace and PlayStation Network. The Ancient Warriors Costume Pack, consisting of Arthur, Firebrand, Hulk, and Magneto, was originally planned to be released on December 20, 2011, but, on December 19, Capcom announced that the pack would be delayed until March 6 following year, due to existing controversy with Magneto's alternate costume. The costume in question, which was based on Magneto's appearance in Marvel's "House of M" series, bore similarities to the attire of the King of Spain, Juan Carlos I, and was later removed from the pack.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: Prior to the release of "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", both Capcom and Marvel announced that the game would include reversible packaging. The front cover art featured the work of Capcom illustrator Shinkiro, while the reverse side featured the art of Marvel Comics' Mark Brooks. Brook's alternate cover featured all twelve of the game's new characters in his own comic book style. Both pieces of art were printed on a single reversible cover for the entire first run of "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" in North America.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: On December 13, 2013, Capcom announced that digital versions of "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" and its DLC would be removed from online platforms towards the end of the month, following the apparent expiration of Capcom's licensing contracts with Marvel Comics. The game was pulled from the PlayStation Network on December 17 and 19 in North America and Europe, respectively, and from the Xbox Live Arcade on December 26.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: Later, on December 3, 2016, "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" was re-released digitally for the PlayStation 4, coinciding with the announcement of ""; digital re-releases for Windows and Xbox One were released on March 7, 2017. These versions included all previously released downloadable content, including Jill Valentine and Shuma-Gorath, a new gallery mode containing artwork from "Marvel vs. Capcom: Official Complete Works", and an improved 1080p resolution at 60 frames per second. Physical copies of the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions were made available for a limited time through GameStop and EB Games. The physical editions included updated cover art and a 10-page comic book featuring the artwork of Marvel Comics' Sean Chen and Gerardo Sandoval.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" was released to generally favorable reviews, garnering scores of 80/100 and 79/100 from Metacritic for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions, respectively. The PlayStation Vita version received a score of 80/100 from Metacritic.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: The game received praise for addressing several gameplay issues prevalent in "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds" and refining the online experience. Daniel Maniago of G4 praised the game for its "simple, yet deep gameplay", character roster, and improved online features. 1UP.com's Neidel Crisan cited the game as a major improvement over the original. GameSpot's Maxwell McGee stated that "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" was unquestionably the superior version, highlighting the series' "unique blend of structured insanity".


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: A common criticism amongst reviewers for "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" was the lack of additional on-disc content beyond the expanded character roster and gameplay tweaks. While IGN's Steven Hopper praised the inclusion of new characters, he criticized the lack of new features and modes. As a result, he stated that the game's price tag was "a little hard to swallow". Tim Turi of "Game Informer" stated that while hardcore fans would appreciate Capcom's balancing tweaks, casual fans who already played "Fate of Two Worlds" and were only interested in new characters would "likely be left wanting".


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: Reviewers praised the PlayStation Vita version for its technical performance, despite hardware constraints, and for providing the full console version experience on a portable system. Hopper complimented the graphics, stating that the Vita port matched the visual fidelity of the console versions. Martin Robinson of Eurogamer claimed "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" was one of the Vita's "finer-looking launch games", praising its detail and faithfulness to the original. However, he criticized the addition of touchscreen controls, stating its implementation fell short of the mark laid down by "".


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" reached number 19 in the United Kingdom PlayStation 3 sales chart and number 24 for the Xbox 360. The game sold approximately 600,000 units worldwide for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 during the first two months of its release. By March 2015, the game had sold 1.2 million units for the PS3 and Xbox 360. , it has sold units across the PS3, Xbox 360, PS4 and Xbox One.


title: Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3

text: Following the release of "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" for the PlayStation Vita in 2012, Marvel's new parent company, The Walt Disney Company, which acquired Marvel in 2009, chose not to renew Capcom's license with the Marvel characters, instead opting to put them in its own self-published "Disney Infinity" series. As a result, Capcom had to pull both "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" and "" off Xbox Live Arcade and the PlayStation Network in 2013. However, in 2016, Disney decided to cancel its "Disney Infinity" series, discontinue self-publishing efforts, and switch to a licensing-only model, allowing them to license their characters to third-party game developers, including Capcom. On December 3 that year "" was officially unveiled during Sony's PlayStation Experience event. The game was released on September 19, 2017, for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One.


title: Pumping Iron

text: Pumping Iron is a 1977 American docudrama about the world of professional bodybuilding, with a focus on the 1975 IFBB Mr. Universe and 1975 Mr. Olympia competitions. Directed by George Butler and Robert Fiore and edited by Geof Bartz and Larry Silk, it is inspired by a book of the same name by Butler and Charles Gaines, and nominally centers on the competition between Arnold Schwarzenegger and one of his primary competitors for the title of Mr. Olympia, Lou Ferrigno. The film also features segments on bodybuilders Franco Columbu and Mike Katz, in addition to appearances by Ken Waller, Ed Corney, Serge Nubret, and other famous bodybuilders of the era.


title: Pumping Iron

text: Shot during the 100 days leading up to the Mr. Universe and Mr. Olympia competitions and during the competitions themselves, the filmmakers ran out of funds to finish production and it stalled for two years. Ultimately, Schwarzenegger and other bodybuilders featured in the film helped raise funds to complete production, and it was released in 1977. The film became a box office success, making Schwarzenegger a household name. The film also served to popularize the culture of bodybuilding, which was somewhat niche at the time, and helped inspire the fitness craze of the 1980s; following the film's release, there was a marked increase in the number of commercial gyms in the U.S.


title: Pumping Iron

text: The film was released on CED and VHS, and then re-released on DVD in 2003 for the 25th anniversary of the theatrical debut. The film inspired three sequels: George Butler's "" (1985), a documentary about the world of female bodybuilding; David and Scott McVeigh's "Raw Iron" (2002), a documentary about the making of "Pumping Iron" and how the film affected the lives of those who appeared in it; and Vlad Yudin's "Generation Iron" (2013), a documentary on which "Pumping Iron" producer Jerome Gary served as executive producer.


title: Pumping Iron

text: In 1975, bodybuilders are preparing for the upcoming Mr. Universe amateur competition and Mr. Olympia professional competition in Pretoria, South Africa. The first part of the film documents the life of Mike Katz, a hopeful for the title of Mr. Universe. Katz was bullied in his youth for being Jewish and wearing glasses, which spurred him to become a pro football player; when his career with the New York Jets was ended by a leg injury, he became a bodybuilder. His psychological balance is thrown off by a prank by fellow contender Ken Waller, who steals Katz's lucky shirt before the competition. Waller wins Mr. Universe and Katz comes in fourth. Fighting back tears, Katz cheerfully appraises the situation before calling home to check on his wife and children. He then congratulates Waller.


title: Pumping Iron

text: The film then switches focus to the rivalry between Arnold Schwarzenegger and Lou Ferrigno, professional bodybuilders competing for the title of Mr. Olympia. Schwarzenegger, at this point a ten-year veteran of bodybuilding, has won Mr. Olympia for five consecutive years and intends to retire after a final competition. Ferrigno, who at a height of 6 ft 5 in (1.96 m) and 275 lb (125 kg) is the largest bodybuilder to date, is determined to be the man to finally dethrone Schwarzenegger. The film contrasts each man's personality, home environment, and training style: Schwarzenegger is extroverted, aggressive, and works out with other bodybuilders at Gold's Gym and Muscle Beach, whereas the quiet, reserved Ferrigno—who went partially deaf after a childhood ear infection—trains with his father in a dimly lit, private, basement gym. While Ferrigno surrounds himself with his family, Schwarzenegger is accompanied wherever he goes by other bodybuilders, reporters, and beautiful women.


title: Pumping Iron

text: In between interviews and workout demonstrations with Ferrigno and Schwarzenegger, the latter explains the basic concepts behind bodybuilding. Although he emphasizes the importance of physique in bodybuilding, Schwarzenegger also stresses the psychological aspects of competition, crediting his use of psychological warfare for his numerous victories. The film briefly looks at Schwarzenegger's training partner, Franco Columbu, a favorite to win the under-200 lb division at Mr. Olympia. A former boxer from the tiny village of Ollolai, Sardinia, Columbu returns home to celebrate a traditional dinner with his family, who still adhere to old world values and are skeptical of the overt aggression of boxing and bodybuilding. Nevertheless, Columbu impresses his family with a display of strength by lifting up the back end of a car and angling it so it can escape a tight parking spot.


title: Pumping Iron

text: In South Africa, Schwarzenegger wages his psychological warfare on Ferrigno, befriending Ferrigno and then subtly insulting him over breakfast with Ferrigno's family. Schwarzenegger later attends the judging for the under-200 lb class to scope out who his competition will be for the overall Mr. Olympia title, jokingly disparaging Columbu. The appearance of Ed Corney stuns Schwarzenegger, who praises another bodybuilder for the only time in the film, openly admiring Corney's physique and posing prowess. Columbu places first and he moves on to compete against the winner of the over-200 lb category.


title: Pumping Iron

text: Schwarzenegger, Ferrigno, and Serge Nubret prepare to go onstage and compete for the over-200 lb category. In the locker room, Schwarzenegger engages in some last-minute intimidation of Ferrigno, who is visibly shaken onstage and subsequently ends up placing third behind Nubret and Schwarzenegger, who is declared the winner. Schwarzenegger and Columbu engage in a posedown for the title of Mr. Olympia. Schwarzenegger uses his stage presence and intimidating looks to unnerve Columbu, and is declared Mr. Olympia. In a post-victory speech, he announces his official retirement from professional bodybuilding. Later, at an after-party for the competitors, Schwarzenegger celebrates his victory by smoking marijuana and eating fried chicken. With the competition over, he wishes Ferrigno happy birthday and leads the other competitors in singing "Happy Birthday to You" as a cake is revealed. The film ends with Schwarzenegger, Ferrigno, and Ferrigno's parents riding together to the airport, with Schwarzenegger saying he is returning back home to Austria to celebrate with his family.


title: Pumping Iron

text: The film began as a look at bodybuilding from the perspective of a newcomer to the sport; to this end, the production had hired slim actor Bud Cort, with the intention of following Cort's development from a physically slight man to a muscular, strong bodybuilder. Cort trained at Gold's Gym for a brief period, taking lessons from Schwarzenegger, but ultimately felt that he was wrong for the project; Cort and the producers amicably parted ways, and the documentary team began to focus more intently on the established bodybuilders at Gold's.


title: Pumping Iron

text: In order to compensate for the loss of Cort's narrative arc, Butler decided to capitalize on Schwarzenegger and Ferrigno's contrasting personalities and cast the film as the story of a heroic but "sinister" underdog (Ferrigno) against a charismatic, powerful "villain" (Schwarzenegger). To this end, Butler intentionally avoided filming Ferrigno's training sequences with bright lighting and emphasized the open-air atmosphere of Gold's Gym and the sunlight at Muscle Beach for Schwarzenegger's training sequences. Schwarzenegger claims to have helped Butler in casting himself as a villain, citing his story about not returning home for his father's funeral as having been told to him by a French bodybuilder; however, following the film's release, claims surfaced that Schwarzenegger had in fact refused to attend the funeral. Butler additionally cast the relationship between Mike Katz and Ken Waller as a sinister rivalry, filming the "football scene" where Waller decides to steal Katz's shirt after the fact in order to fill in a narrative gap. Waller and Katz were in fact close friends, and Waller's theft of the shirt was simply a spur-of-the-moment prank not intended to upset Katz to the extent that it did. Waller was later regretful of the football sequence, claiming that audiences at bodybuilding competitions continued to boo him for years after the film's release.


title: Pumping Iron

text: Following the Mr. Olympia contest, the production ran out of money and ended up in development hell for nearly two years. In an effort to raise funds, Butler arranged an exhibit with the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City: Bodybuilders would become "living sculptures," posing on rotating platforms while art critics analyzed the aesthetics of the bodybuilding physique and compared and contrasted the men to Greek sculpture. To increase interest in the event, Butler arranged for Candice Bergen to be a celebrity commentator; Schwarzenegger also agreed to appear as one of the "living sculptures", having received modest attention for his Golden Globe-winning appearance in the film "Stay Hungry". The event proved to be a great success, generating more money than Butler had anticipated and allowing him to complete production on the film.


title: Pumping Iron

text: Upon its release, "Pumping Iron" became a commercial and critical success. Schwarzenegger's popularity grew beyond that afforded him by "Stay Hungry". Ferrigno was shortly thereafter cast as "The Incredible Hulk", a role he would continue to play in a variety of mediums into the 2010s. Although bodybuilding had been a subculture regarded by many as being on par with early 20th century freak shows prior to the film's release, the film normalized the idea to the point that interest in bodybuilding began spreading into mainstream American culture. In the years following the film's release, hundreds of commercial gyms began appearing across the United States as demand rose for access to weightlifting equipment.


title: Pumping Iron

text: The film received positive reviews from critics. As of September 2022, Rotten Tomatoes reported 34 out 37 reviews were positive, giving the film an approval rating of 92%. The website summarized the critics consensus by saying, "In addition to offering an enlightening early look into the world of future star/politician Arnold Schwarzenegger, "Pumping Iron" provides a witty and insightful overview of competitive bodybuilding." On Metacritic the film has a score of 72% based on reviews from 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Pumping Iron

text: Richard Eder of "The New York Times" called the film "an interesting, rather slick and excessively long documentary about the small but intensely competitive world of bodybuilding." "Variety" wrote, "Technical credits are generally excellent with Fiore's camerawork a major asset. Commercial aspects will depend on the interest in local markets in the sport itself. Certainly, after the first quarter hour of flexing muscles, they all begin to look alike to the non-athletic viewer." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four and wrote, "The film allows us to get to know two bodybuilders very well, and, as a result, 'Pumping Iron' is much more a story of human beings than it is a freak show. I actually ended up caring who won the contest." He ranked it #9 in his year-end list of the best films of 1977.


title: Pumping Iron

text: Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "Directed by Butler and Robert Fiore, who is also the film's very adroit cinematographer, the witty and entertaining 'Pumping Iron' confronts what has been generally considered as a rather exotic subculture with the utmost sophistication. Butler and Fiore regard the bodybuilders with neither compassion nor ridicule but rather a steadfast, cool detachment—even when they themselves are being nakedly manipulative—which makes for a slick, shrewdly calculated, highly amusing and thoroughly enjoyable experience." Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" called it "an amusing, buoyant documentary about competitive body building," and observed that "Schwarzenegger is the first personality since Bruce Lee who might become a unique and credible "physical" star, idolized in particular by kids but enjoyed and admired by a vast cross-section of the public." Louise Sweet of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote that Schwarzenegger "inspires envy rather than disgust at ostentatious musculature, and lures even the reluctant viewer into his unusual world. Almost all the body-builders here are likable, but Schwarzenegger's articulateness and humour make the film cohere and convince."


title: Pumping Iron

text: For the film's 25th anniversary, filmmakers David and Scott McVeigh tracked down the participants in "Pumping Iron" to follow up on their lives and see how the film's success had affected them personally and professionally. The resultant film, "Raw Iron", also served to document the making of "Pumping Iron", exploring the difficulties that Butler had in producing the film and the narrative choices he made. "Raw Iron" also debunked a lot of the dramatics that played out in "Pumping Iron", such as a cold comment by Schwarzenegger about why he did not return to Austria for his father's funeral. It exposes the drama but reassures the genuineness of the hard work these men put into bodybuilding. The film originally aired on Starz, and was later featured as an extra on the DVD of "Pumping Iron".


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: Marathon Petroleum Corporation is an American petroleum refining, marketing, and transportation company headquartered in Findlay, Ohio. The company was a wholly owned subsidiary of Marathon Oil until a corporate spin-off in 2011.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: Following its acquisition of Andeavor on October 1, 2018, Marathon Petroleum became the largest petroleum refinery operator in the United States, with 16 refineries and over 3 million barrels per day of refining capacity. Marathon Petroleum ranked No. 41 on the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. In the 2020 Forbes Global 2000, Marathon Petroleum was ranked as the 197th-largest public company in the world.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: Marathon Petroleum's marketing system includes branded locations across the United States, including Marathon branded outlets. MPC also owns the general partner and majority limited partner interest in MPLX LP, a midstream company which owns and operates gathering, processing, and fractionation assets, as well as crude oil and light product transportation and logistics infrastructure.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: The predecessor company of Marathon Petroleum Corporation, Marathon Petroleum Company LLC, formerly known as Marathon Ashland Petroleum LLC, was formed by the merger of the refining operations of Marathon Oil and Ashland Inc. in 1998. The merger brought together several descendents of the Standard Oil trust, as Ashland had acquired several smaller Standard spinoffs while Marathon itself was directly owned by Standard Oil. It also brought Marathon's Speedway and Ashland's SuperAmerica convenience store chains together and were subsequently merged as "Speedway SuperAmerica".


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: As longtime Marathon rivals Standard Oil of Ohio and Amoco were acquired by British company BP, Marathon Ashland adopted the marketing slogan "An American Company Serving America", with the slogan being adjourned to Marathon gas pumps. In 2006, it adopted its current slogan, "Fueling the American Spirit".


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: In 2005, the company became a 100% owned subsidiary of Marathon Oil, after Ashland sold off its downstream assets and exited the retail business. In 2006, Marathon began using STP-branded additives in its gasoline.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: In 2009, the company completed a $3.9 billion expansion of its refinery in Garyville, Louisiana, that increased the plant's capacity by 180,000 barrels per day.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: In 2010, the company sold its 74,000 barrel-per-day refinery in St. Paul Park, Minnesota, along with associated terminals, pipelines, and inventory as well as 166 SuperAmerica convenience stores to Northern Tier Energy for $900 million.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: On June 30, 2011, Marathon Oil distributed all of its shares in the company to its shareholders via a corporate spin-off.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: In June 2012, Wheeling, West Virginia-based Tri-State Petroleum signed a contract to switch 50 stations in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia to the Marathon brand. Most of Tri-State's stations before the deal were ExxonMobil-branded stations, the majority Exxon as well as a few scattered Mobil stations in the immediate Wheeling area. Included in the deal were 18 Exxon stations in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area, significantly boosting Marathon's presence in the Pittsburgh market, where former parent company U.S. Steel is based. (Exxon would offset its Pittsburgh losses by taking over the retail contracts of several Shell stations in the area, leaving Shell with a significantly reduced presence, while the Mobil brand was withdrawn from the Northern Panhandle of West Virginia altogether.) Before the deal, Marathon had a much smaller presence in Western Pennsylvania, while having a somewhat larger presence in West Virginia and an almost ubiquitous presence in Southern Ohio.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: In 2013, Marathon purchased numerous assets from BP including a 451,000 barrel per day refinery in Texas City, Texas, four light product distribution terminals, and retail marketing contracts for 1,200 retail stations throughout the southeastern United States.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: In 2014, Speedway LLC, a now-former subsidiary of the company, purchased the retail operations of Hess Corporation for $2.82 billion. The deal also introduced the Marathon brand name at stations for the first time in the Northeastern United States east of the Appalachian Mountains and north of Pennsylvania. Prior to the deal, Marathon's traditional marketing territory for decades had been the Midwestern and Southeastern United States, never going further east than the Pittsburgh metropolitan area.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: In 2016, a fire at the Galveston Bay refinery in Texas City, Texas, injured three contract workers, resulting in a lawsuit seeking $1 million in damages. Multiple lawsuits were filed resulting in Marathon paying $86 million to settle.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: On April 30, 2018, Marathon agreed to buy Andeavor, an independent refinery and oil company based in the Western United States, for $23 billion. Marathon will acquire all of Andeavor's outstanding shares. On October 1, 2018, the merger was completed. This merger brings the SuperAmerica convenience stores back to Speedway. On October 31, 2019, Marathon announced plans to spin off their Speedway convenience stores. Gary Heminger will also retire from his role as Marathon chairman and CEO. The deal also had the effect of introducing the Marathon brand name at stations in the Western United States for the first time and making Marathon a national brand name for the first time, as well as giving Marathon ownership of the ARCO brand.


title: Marathon Petroleum

text: On August 2, 2020, Marathon announced that Seven & i Holdings would be acquiring Speedway for $21 billion. The deal was anticipated to close in early 2021 pending regulatory approval. The deal closed on May 14, 2021.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: The policy of Irish neutrality during World War II was adopted by the Oireachtas at the instigation of the Taoiseach Éamon de Valera upon the outbreak of World War II in Europe. It was maintained throughout the conflict, in spite of several German air raids by aircraft that missed their intended British targets, and attacks on Ireland's shipping fleet by Allies and Axis alike. While the possibilities of not only a German but also a British invasion were discussed in the Dáil, and either eventuality was prepared for, the most detailed preparations were done with the Allies under Plan W. De Valera's ruling party, Fianna Fáil, supported his neutral policy for the duration of the war.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: This period is known in the Republic of Ireland as "The Emergency", owing to the wording of the constitutional article employed to suspend normal government of the country.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Pursuing a policy of neutrality required maintaining a balance between the strict observance of non-alignment and the taking of practical steps to repel or discourage an invasion from either of the two warring parties.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Despite the official position of neutrality, there were many unpublicised contraventions of this, such as permitting the use of the Donegal Corridor by Allied military aircraft, and extensive co-operation between Allied and Irish intelligence. The Irish supplied the Allies with detailed weather reports for the Atlantic Ocean, including a report from Blacksod Bay, County Mayo, which prompted the decision to go ahead with the Normandy landings.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Ireland was in 1939 nominally a Dominion of the British Empire and a member of the Commonwealth. The nation had gained "de facto" independence from Britain after the Irish War of Independence, and the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 declared Ireland to be a 'sovereign, independent, democratic state'. A new constitution was adopted by a plebiscite in 1937. The Statute of Westminster 1931 meant that unlike in World War I, Britain's entry into the war no longer automatically included its dominions. Relations between Ireland and Britain had been strained for many years; until 1938, for example, the two states had engaged in the Anglo-Irish Trade War.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Nevertheless, Ireland did not sever its vestigial connection with the Crown and it was not until the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 that the final nominal link was severed. No representatives of the new state attended Commonwealth conferences or participated in its affairs, but Ireland remained a legal member until the British Ireland Act 1949, which accepted the declaration of a Republic and formally terminated its membership in the Commonwealth.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Alongside George VI's few remaining powers, the 1937 Constitution had provided that the holder of the new office of President of Ireland was in "Supreme Command" of the Defence Forces".


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Irish neutrality was supported by the population of Ireland. Irish citizens could serve in the British armed forces, as at least 50,000 in the British Army did, as well as in the Merchant Navy and Royal Air Force, with some rising up the ranks rapidly, such as the youngest wing commander fighter ace in the RAF's history, Brendan Finucane.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: A total of 4,983 members of the Defence Forces deserted to fight with the British and Allied armed forces. After the war they faced discrimination, lost their rights to pensions, and were barred from holding government jobs. They were finally formally pardoned by the Irish Government in 2013.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Travel passes and identity cards were also issued to 245,000 people to enable them to travel to Britain to work. Elements of the Irish Republican movement sided with the Third Reich at the onset of the war with the United Kingdom in 1939, believing that a German victory might bring about a United Ireland.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: In response to accusations that the state had failed to take up the moral fight against Nazism, the Secretary of the Department of External Affairs, Joe Walshe, said in 1941 that:


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: On 1 September 1939, in response to the German invasion of Poland, a hastily convened Dáil declared an immediate state of emergency. The Emergency Powers Act that the day's debate culminated in came into effect one day later, on 3 September. It was modelled extensively on the British draft worked out during the Sudeten crisis a year before. In some respects, the Irish act was regarded as more drastic. The key provisions were as follows:


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: With such sweeping executive powers, de Valera's cabinet set out to tackle any problems that might arise and curb any inconsistencies with the nation's policy of neutrality. Censorship of radio newscasts meant newsreaders were confined to reading, without comment, the dispatches of each side, while weather forecasts were halted to preclude the inadvertent assistance of planes or ships involved in the war. Public expressions of opinion appearing to favour one side or the other were usually repressed. The word "war" itself was avoided, with the Government referring to the situation in Europe from 1939 to 1945 as "The Emergency".


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: However, on the British declaration of war, the teenaged George Cole watched as an effigy of Neville Chamberlain was publicly burnt in Dublin without any interference by the police. Cole sensed that there was:


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Social and economic conditions in the state at this time were harsh. Wages stagnated, but prices rose. There were serious shortages of fuel and some foodstuffs. Meanwhile, cross-border smuggling and the black market underwent something of a boom.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: President Douglas Hyde was a member of the Church of Ireland, most of whose members were ex-unionists and pro-British. When he was invited to a 1943 wedding to be attended by many of the former Protestant Ascendancy, his secretary received assurances from the bride that there would be no "pro-belligerent demonstration either by toasting the King of England and/or the singing of the British National Anthem".


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: The Irish government had good reason to be concerned, lest the war in Europe re-open the wounds of the Civil War. There were pro- and anti-fascist movements in Ireland, and the IRA continued to pursue its own agenda.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Former Old IRA commander and founder of the Fine Gael Party General Eoin O'Duffy became a leader of the paramilitary Army Comrades Association organisation in 1932–33. In recognition of his consistent support for Ireland's Jews, Éamon de Valera, Ireland's Taoiseach during the war, has a forest in Israel named in his honour. In this context, it is relevant to note that "two" Irish contingents fought in the 1937 Spanish Civil Warbut on opposing sides. O'Duffy's Irish Brigade fought with the (Fascist) Nationalists and the Irish contingent of the International Brigades fought with the Republicans, though neither had government support.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: In the six months prior to the onset of war, there had been an escalation of Irish Republican Army violence and a bombing campaign in Britain under the new leadership of Seán Russell. De Valera, who had tolerated the IRA as recently as 1936, responded with the Offences against the State Act, 1939. Upon the outbreak of the main conflict in September, subversive activity was regarded as endangering the security of the state. There were fears that the United Kingdom, eager to secure Irish ports for their air and naval forces, might use the attacks as a pretext for an invasion of Ireland and a forcible seizure of the assets in question. Furthermore, the possibility that the IRA (in line with the Irish republican tradition of courting allies in Europe) might link up with German agents, thereby compromising Irish non-involvement, was considered.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: This threat was real: Russell, in May 1940, travelled to Berlin in an effort to obtain arms and support for the IRA. He received training in German ordnance, but died on a submarine while returning to Ireland as part of Operation Dove. A small number of inadequately prepared German agents were sent to Ireland, but those who did arrive were quickly picked up by the Directorate of Military Intelligence (G2). Active republicans were interned at the Curragh or given prison sentences: six men were hanged under newly legislated acts of treason and three more died on hunger strike. The Germans also later came to realise they had overestimated the abilities of the IRA. By 1943, the IRA had all but ceased to exist. In Ireland, neutrality was popular, despite rationing and economic pressure.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: At the outbreak of the war, Ireland was isolated as never before. Shipping had been neglected since independence. Foreign ships, on which Ireland had hitherto depended, were less available. Neutral American ships would not enter the "war zone". There were a mere 56 Irish ships when the war started; 15 more were purchased or leased during the conflict; 20 were lost. In his Saint Patrick's Day address in 1940, Taoiseach Éamon de Valera, lamented:


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: The diminutive Irish Mercantile Marine continued essential overseas trading. This period was referred to as "The Long Watch" by Irish mariners. They sailed unarmed and usually alone, flying the Irish tricolour. They identified themselves as neutrals with bright lights and by painting the tricolour and EIRE in large letters on their sides and decks, yet twenty percent of seamen perished in a war in which they were non-participants. Allied convoys often could not stop to pick up survivors. Irish ships always answered SOS calls; they always stopped to rescue. Irish mariners rescued seafarers from both sides, but they were attacked by both, predominantly by the Axis powers. Vital imports arrived. Exports, mainly food supplies for Great Britain, were delivered. 521 lives were saved.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Despite being frequently encountered as rumours, no U-boats ever used Ireland as a refuelling base. The origins of this claim likely originates with the 1939 dumping of 28 rescued Greek sailors by onto the Irish coast, after the U-boat commander Werner Lott sank their Greek cargo freighter, which was bound for Britain with metal ore. This U-boat incident was featured on the cover of the popular U.S. "Life" magazine, on 16 October 1939. As in the days preceding, news of the dumping was widely published, the magazine and the locals who spotted the unloading of the captured Greeks noted that the U-boat had conducted the action and re-submerged before coastal defence aircraft could be directed onto the trespassing vessel.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: For de Valera the emphasis of Irish neutrality was on preservation of Irish sovereignty, so committing to the policy accomplished both rational and ideological goals. While the revolutionaries of the Irish War of Independence were ready to enter into alliances with the enemies of Britain to secure Irish independence, they realised that continuing such a policy after achieving independence would be dangerously provocative, a point de Valera made as early as February 1920:


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: This statement reflected a point de Valera had made as early as 1918 (when writing to President of the United States Woodrow Wilson, seeking that the United States formally recognise the Irish Republic as an independent state):


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Months before the outbreak of war, de Valera gave a statement to the Associated Press which appeared in newspapers on 20 February 1939:


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: At a series of meetings in 17–26 June 1940, during and after the Battle of France, British envoy Malcolm MacDonald brought a proposal to end the partition of Ireland and offered a solemn undertaking to accept "the principle of a United Ireland" if the independent Irish state would abandon its neutrality and immediately join the war against Germany and Italy. However, the reality of unity would have to be agreed by the "representatives of the government of Éire and the government of Northern Ireland", each of which distrusted the other intensely. De Valera therefore rejected the amended proposals on 4 July, worried that there was "no guarantee that in the end we would have a united Ireland" and that it "would commit us definitely to an immediate abandonment of our neutrality". De Valera had campaigned against partition and the 1937 Constitution drafted by him had an irredentist clause describing the State as the "whole island of Ireland". After the war he again called repeatedly for the ending of partition. The offer and his rejection remained secret until a biography was published in 1970.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: In April 1941, the question of Ireland's entry into the war was again raised when the Australian Prime Minister Menzies paid a visit to Belfast and Dublin for private discussions with De Valera and John M. Andrews, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland. Subsequently, Menzies reported to Churchill that the complexity of the questions of Irish unity and sovereignty meant that there was little possibility of Ireland's abandoning its policy of neutrality.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Without the Irish treaty ports (which the United Kingdom had released a year prior to the war), an independent Ireland posed a serious disadvantage to the military capability and safety of British fighting and trade, risking the possibility of invasion if that disadvantage ever proved too great. If Irish sovereignty was to be maintained, then neutrality would have to be steered consciously to the benefit of British interests, as these were its own: at once to aid the British war effort but also to forestall invasion by Britain to regain the treaty ports. Ireland, like other neutrals was '...neutral for the power that potentially threatened them most.' During the war, and accusing de Valera as a 'Nazi sympathiser', the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, Lord Craigavon, urged Churchill to use Scottish and Welsh troops to overrun 'southern Ireland' before installing a Governor-General for the whole island at Dublin, but this proposal was rejected by London. Nevertheless, Churchill directed Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery to prepare plans to seize Cork and Queenstown (Cobh) so their harbours could be used as naval bases. Better submarine-detecting technology, as well as military bases in Iceland, meant that the Irish ports were no longer as vital for the Allies as they had been during World War I.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: In this regard Viscount Cranborne acknowledged at the war's end that the Irish Government had '...been willing to accord us any facilities which would not be regarded as overtly prejudicing their attitude to neutrality', collaborating with the British war cabinet. (See below for complete text.) The pattern of co-operation between British and Irish agencies began upon the onset of war when de Valera permitted the use of specified Irish airspace mainly for patrolling coastal points. The use of the "Donegal Corridor", the narrow strip of Irish territory between County Fermanagh and the sea, was significant. By the autumn of 1941 use of the corridor was a daily routine. While de Valera rejected British appeals to use Irish ports and harbour facilities directly, de Valera was, according to M.E. Collins, 'more friendly than strict neutrality should have allowed.' The co-operation that emerged allowed for meetings to take place to consider events after German troops had overrun neutral Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands Luxembourg and Belgium. Three days after the fall of France, Irish and British defence officials met to discuss how British troops could, strictly at de Valera's invitation, occupy Ireland upon the event of a German landing there to expel foreign troops attempting to use her as a back door to later invade Britain (Plan "W"). The meetings continued, as Cranborne described, throughout the war, facilitating further dialogue.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Before the war began, de Valera had held a meeting with career diplomat Dr. Eduard Hempel, the German Minister in Ireland since 1938. The meetings discussed Ireland's close trade links with the United Kingdom and the ease with which Britain could invade her if its interests were threatened. He, in turn, communicated to Berlin that such was the case that it 'rendered it inevitable for the Irish government to show a certain consideration for Britain' and urged war officials to avoid any action that would legitimise a British invasion of Ireland. In mid-June 1940, Secretary of External Affairs Joe Walshe expressed his 'great admiration for the German achievements.' Hempel, for his part, wrote to Germany of 'the great and decisive importance, even to Ireland, of the changed situation in world affairs and of the obvious weakness of the democracies.' Hempel might well have known better of Irish intentions, having earlier described a native custom 'to say agreeable things without meaning everything that is said.'


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Other examples of Irish attitudes towards Nazi Germany found expression in mid-1940 in de Valera's Chargé d'Affaires in Berlin, William Warnock, 'whose "unquestionable" hostility to Britain could easily be interpreted as sympathetic for National Socialism.' Academic J.J. Lee questioned just how much of Warnock's zeal towards Hitler's Reichstag speech on 19 July was genuine enthusiasm for the 'international justice' that could be expected after Germany's victory, as opposed to an adherence to the instructions of Dublin to please oneself to the potential victors. Three years later, by 1944, the orientation of the war and of Irish relations to Germany had turned about-face, with the likelihood of a German victory now remote. In that climate, the Irish Government, once so ready to 'say agreeable things', Hempel remarked, had become 'unhelpful and evasive'.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: The United States Ambassador to Ireland, David Gray, stated that he once asked de Valera what he would do if German paratroopers "liberated Derry". According to Gray, de Valera was silent for a time and then replied "I don't know".


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Ireland maintained a public stance of neutrality to the end, by refusing to close the German and Japanese Legations, and the Taoiseach Éamon de Valera signed the book of condolence on Adolf Hitler's death on 2 May 1945, and personally visited Ambassador Hempel, following the usual protocol on the death of a Head of State of a state with a legation in Ireland. President Hyde visited Hempel separately on 3 May. Irish envoys in other nations did likewise, but no other Western European democracies followed Ireland's example. The visits caused a storm of protest in the United States.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: De Valera denounced reports of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp as "anti-national propaganda"; according to Paul Bew, this was not out of disbelief but rather because the Holocaust undermined the assumptions underlying Irish neutrality: moral equivalence between the Allies and the Axis, and the idea that the Irish were the most persecuted people in Europe.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Ireland's position on Jewish refugees fleeing Europe was sceptical. Irish authorities during the war generally gave two justifications for turning away prospective immigrants: that they would overcrowd the nation and take Irish jobs, and that the presence of a large Jewish population would inflame anti-Semitic sentiments amongst the Irish. There was some domestic anti-Jewish sentiment during World War II, most notably expressed in a notorious speech to the Dáil in 1943, when newly elected independent TD Oliver J. Flanagan advocated "routing the Jews out of the country".


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: There was some official indifference from the political establishment to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust during and after the war. This indifference would later be described by Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform Michael McDowell as being "antipathetic, hostile and unfeeling". Dr. Mervyn O'Driscoll of University College Cork reported on the unofficial and official barriers that prevented Jews from finding refuge in Ireland, although the barriers have been down ever since:


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: In his book "Wings over Ireland – History of the Irish Air Corps", Donal McCarron gives extensive details on the otherwise secret Rathduff aerodrome. He states that as early as the summer of 1940 both governments were worried about the "Doomsday scenario" of a successful invasion of Britain. The RAF would need at least one aerodrome to continue the fight in Ireland and both the Irish and British armies secretly scouted for a site in the south of Ireland. The other airfields of Rineanna near Limerick and Dublin Airport and Baldonnel near Dublin would cover other parts of Ireland, so the RAF was keen on a site near the southeast coast.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: The Irish Army disagreed, fearing a German invasion would overrun it quickly, so both finally agreed on a site in the south of County Tipperary, in the valley of the river Suir, east of the Galtee Mountains. This also suited the Irish Army as they had built a secret command headquarters near a convent school seven miles away to be used in case of invasion. The name "Rathduff" was chosen as a cover because such a name is to be found all over Munster. Both sites were completely out of bounds for all normal military operations.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: With Hitler turning towards the USSR in 1941 the chances of an invasion of Britain waned and the Irish Army decided to hold a major exercise to test the planning and training it had been undertaking for four years, in autumn 1942. As part of this, "Rathduff's" secret was partially released, with it serving as the airfield for Ireland's 2nd Division during the exercise. After the exercises "Rathduff" slipped into obscurity, its fields returning to use as the thoroughbred stud farm they had been before.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Irish neutrality was used by German propaganda to film an anti-British themed movie in 1941 named "My Life for Ireland", which tells the story of an Irish nationalist family in their struggle against the British.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: In his speech celebrating the Allied victory in Europe (13 May 1945) Winston Churchill remarked that he had demonstrated restraint towards Ireland because


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: 'we never laid a violent hand upon them, which at times would have been quite easy and quite natural.'


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Britain had occupied neutral Iceland in May 1940. In a response a few days later, de Valera acknowledged that Churchill did not add 'another horrid chapter to the already bloodstained record' of British-Irish relations, but asked:


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: The implications on Victory in Europe Day and after, of having not been involved in the war and having suffered the devastation that defined the course of Europe afterwards, is the subject of historical debate. The devastation shared by most of Europe, and Ireland's avoidance of it, was described by F. S. L. Lyons as:


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: In response to that, R. Fanning wrote: 'One might question [...] the liberating value of war for a people who has so recently emerged from revolution followed by a civil war and in whose midst the IRA still propounded the creed of violence ...'


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: Viscount Cranborne, the British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs, wrote a letter on 21 February 1945 to the British War Cabinet regarding Irish-British collaboration during 1939–1945:


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: The neutrality policy led to a considerable delay in Ireland's membership of the United Nations (UN). Ireland's applications for membership were vetoed by the Soviet Union, a permanent member of the Security Council, from 1946 to December 1955.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: The original use of the term "United Nations" in 1942–45 always referred to the Allies of World War II. Ireland had applied to join the UN in 1946, following the demise of the League of Nations, whose final Secretary-General was Irish diplomat Seán Lester.


title: Irish neutrality during World War II

text: By March 1955, the Minister for External Affairs, Liam Cosgrave, announced that: “Ireland's application for membership of the U.N.O. still stands although it remains blocked by an objection in the Security Council.” For reasons of diplomacy the government would not state the reason for the objection, nor which country had made it. Seán MacBride considered that the UN boycott of Ireland was originally agreed at the 1945 Yalta Conference by Churchill and Stalin. Ireland's acceptance into the UN was announced by John A. Costello on 15 December 1955.


title: Biblical judges

text: The biblical judges are described in the Hebrew Bible, and mostly in the Book of Judges, as people who served roles as military leaders in times of crisis, in the period before an Israelite monarchy was established.


title: Biblical judges

text: A cyclical pattern is regularly recounted in the Book of Judges to show the need for the various judges: apostasy of the Israelite people, hardship brought on as punishment from God, crying out to the Lord for rescue.


title: Biblical judges

text: The story of the judges seems to describe successive individuals, each from a different tribe of Israel, described as chosen by God to rescue the people from their enemies and establish justice.


title: Biblical judges

text: While "judge" is a literalistic translation of the Hebrew term used in the Masoretic text, the position as described is more one of unelected non-hereditary leadership than that of legal pronouncement. However, Cyrus H. Gordon argued that they may have come from among the hereditary leaders of the fighting, landed and ruling aristocracy, like the kings ("basileis") in Homer. Coogan says that they were most likely tribal or local leaders, contrary to the Deuteronomistic historian's portrayal of them as leaders of all of Israel, but Malamat pointed out that in the text, their authority is described as being recognized by local groups or tribes beyond their own.


title: Biblical judges

text: The biblical scholar Kenneth Kitchen argues that, from the conquest of Canaan by Joshua until the formation of the first Kingdom of Israel and Judah (), the Israelite tribes may have formed a loose confederation. In this conception, no central government would have existed but in times of crisis, the people would have been led by "ad hoc" chieftains, known as judges ("shoftim"). However, some scholars are uncertain whether such a role existed in ancient Israel.


title: Biblical judges

text: Working with the chronology in "Judges", Payne points out that although the timescale of Judges is indicated by Jephthah's statement (Judges 11:26) that Israel had occupied the land for around 300 years, some of the judges overlapped one another. Claiming that Deborah's victory has been confirmed as taking place in 1216 from archaeology undertaken at Hazor, he suggests that the period may have lasted from to .


title: Biblical judges

text: In the Hebrew Bible, Moses is described as a "shofet" over the Israelites and appoints others to whom cases were delegated in accordance with the advice of Jethro, his Midianite father-in-law. The Book of Judges mentions twelve leaders who are said to "judge" Israel: Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Deborah, Gideon, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, and Samson. Ehud, described in the text between Othniel and Shamgar, is usually included as a judge because the history of his leadership follows a set pattern characteristic of five of the others. The First Book of Samuel mentions Eli and Samuel, as well as Joel and Abiah (two sons of Samuel). The First Book of Chronicles mentions Kenaniah and his sons. The Second Book of Chronicles mentions Amariah and Zebadiah (son of Ishmael).


title: Biblical judges

text: The Book of Judges also recounts the story of Abimelech, an illegitimate son of Gideon, who was appointed as a judge-like leader by the citizens of the city of Shechem. He was later overthrown during a local conflict, and the classification of Abimelech as a judge is questionable.


title: Biblical judges

text: The biblical text does not generally describe these leaders as "a judge", but says that they "judged Israel", using the verb שָׁפַט ("š-f-t"). Thus, Othniel "judged Israel" (Judges 3:10), Tola "judged Israel twenty-three years" (Judges 10:2), and Jair judged Israel twenty-two years (Judges 10:3).


title: Biblical judges

text: According to the Book of Judges, Deborah (, "Dəḇōrā", "bee") was a prophetess of the God of the Israelites, the fourth Judge of pre-monarchic Israel and the only female judge mentioned in the Bible.


title: Zippo

text: A Zippo lighter is a reusable metal lighter produced by Zippo Manufacturing Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania, United States. Thousands of different styles and designs have been made in the nine decades since their introduction, including military versions for specific regiments. Zippo lighters have been sold around the world and have been described as "a legendary and distinct symbol of America." In 2012, the company produced the 500-millionth unit. Since the company's inception, Zippo lighters have been primarily manufactured in the United States, although the company ran an operation from 1949 until 2002 in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada.


title: Zippo

text: American inventor George G. Blaisdell founded Zippo Manufacturing Company in 1932 and produced the first Zippo lighter in early 1933, being inspired by an Austrian cigarette lighter of similar design made by IMCO. It got its name because Blaisdell liked the sound of the word "zipper," and "zippo" sounded more modern. On March 3, 1936, the U.S. Patent Office granted a patent for the Zippo lighter.


title: Zippo

text: Zippo lighters became popular in the United States military, especially during World War II—when, as the company's web site says, Zippo "ceased production of lighters for consumer markets and dedicated all manufacturing to the US military". Period Zippos were made of brass, but Zippo used a black crackle finished steel during the war years because of metal shortages. While the Zippo Manufacturing Company never had an official contract with the military, individual armed forces personnel requested that base exchange (BX) and post exchange (PX) stores carry this sought-after lighter. While it had previously been common to have Zippos with authorized badges, unit crests, and division insignias, it became popular among the American soldiers of the Vietnam War to get their Zippos engraved with personal mottos. These lighters are now sought-after collector's items and popular souvenirs for visitors to Vietnam.


title: Zippo

text: After World War II, the Zippo lighter became increasingly used in advertising by companies large and small through the 1960s. Much of the early Zippo lighter advertising are works of art painted by hand, and as technology has evolved, so has the design and finish of the Zippo lighter. The basic mechanism of the Zippo lighter has remained unchanged, but they developed into a popular fashion accessory, with a huge variety of artistic designs produced.


title: Zippo

text: In 2002, Zippo expanded its product line to include a variety of utility-style multi-purpose lighters, known as Zippo MPLs. This was followed in 2005 with the Outdoor Utility Lighter, known as the OUL. These lighters are fueled with butane. In August 2007, Zippo released a new butane lighter called the Zippo BLU. It discontinued the line January 1, 2016.


title: Zippo

text: A museum called "Zippo/Case visitors center" is located in Bradford, Pennsylvania, at 1932 Zippo Drive. This building contains rare and custom made Zippo lighters, and also sells the entire Zippo line. The museum was featured on the NPR program "Weekend Edition" on Sunday, January 25, 2009. The museum also contains an enormous collection of Case knives. Since the Zippo company's 60th anniversary in 1992, annual editions have been produced for Zippo collectors.


title: Zippo

text: In 2009, Zippo announced plans to purchase Ronson Consumer Products Corporation, a long-time competitor in the lighter market. On February 3, 2010, the deal was finalized.


title: Zippo

text: In March 2011, due to significant decrease of sales from 18 million lighters a year in the mid-1990s to about 12 million lighters a year recently, combined with increasing pressure on people not to smoke, Zippo Manufacturing Co. tried offering a wider variety of products using the Zippo name, such as watches, leisure clothing and eau de cologne. This strategy is similar to the success Victorinox Swiss Army Brands Inc. has had selling watches, luggage, clothing, and fragrance.


title: Zippo

text: On June 5, 2012, the company manufactured its 500,000,000th lighter and celebrated its 80th anniversary. In 2018, Zippo announced the sound trademark of its windproof lighter, making the Zippo lighter's click officially one of the most recognised sounds in the world.


title: Zippo

text: Zippo lighters, which have gained popularity as “windproof” lighters, are able to stay lit in harsh weather, due to the design of the windscreen and adequate rate of fuel delivery.


title: Zippo

text: A consequence of the windproofing is that it is hard to extinguish a Zippo by blowing out the flame. However, if the flame is blown from the top down, it will be easily extinguished. The proper way to extinguish the lighter is to close the top half, which starves the flame of oxygen, but unlike other lighters, this does not cut off the fuel supply. One of the recognizable features of Zippo is the fact that it burns with a wick. Opening the top lid produces an easily recognizable "clink" sound for which Zippo lighters are known, and a different but similarly recognizable "clunk" when the lighter is closed. This noise is produced by the spring-loaded toggling cam, a little lever that keeps the lid closed or opened securely.


title: Zippo

text: Unlike disposable lighters, newly purchased Zippo lighters do not contain fuel. Instructions for safely fueling the Zippo are included in its packaging. Zippo also offers for sale a name brand lighter fluid.


title: Zippo

text: Morley Safer, in his August 5, 1965 "CBS News" report of the Cam Ne incident and Private First Class Reginald "Malik" Edwards, the rifleman with the 9th Regiment, US Marine Corps Danang (June 1965 – March 1966) whose profile comprises chapter one of Wallace Terry's book, "Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans" (1984), describe the use of Zippo lighters in search and destroy missions during the Vietnam War. Edwards stated: "when you say level a village, you don't use torches. It's not like in the 1800s. You used a Zippo. Now you would use a Bic. That's just the way we did it. You went in there with your Zippos. Everybody. That's why people bought Zippos. Everybody had a Zippo. It was for burnin' shit down."


title: Zippo

text: "Zippo squad" became a phrase of American military jargon for being assigned to burn a village. The M132 Armored Flamethrower was referred to as a "Zippo".


title: Zippo

text: As of March of 2022, Zippos carry a suggested retail price between US$17.95 and US$25,000 (for the Armor 18k solid gold model). In 2001, according to the fall 2003 issue of "IUP Magazine", a 1933 model was purchased for $18,000 at a swap meet in Tokyo, and in 2002 the company bought one valued at $12,000 for its own collection. During the 75th anniversary celebrations in 2007, Zippo sold a near mint 1933 model for $37,000.


title: Zippo

text: All Zippo windproof lighters carry an unlimited lifetime guarantee, promoted using the trademarked phrase "It works or we fix it for free." The corporate web site boasts: "in almost 75 years, no one has ever spent a cent on the mechanical repair of a Zippo lighter regardless of the lighter's age or condition."


title: Zippo

text: In mid-1955, Zippo started year coding its lighters by the use of dots. From 1966 until 1973, the year code was denoted by combinations of vertical lines. From 1974 until 1981 the coding comprised combinations of forward slashes. In 1979, the company inadvertently introduced an error into fabrication, with some lighters reading / on the left and // on the right instead of // on the left and / on the right, but corrected the problem within the year. From 1982 until June 1986 the coding was by backslash.


title: Zippo

text: After July 1986, Zippo began including a date code on all lighters showing the month and year of production. On the left of the underside was stamped a letter A–L, denoting the month (A = January, B = February, C = March, etc.). On the right was a Roman numeral which denoted the year, beginning with II in 1986. However, in 2001, Zippo altered this system, changing the Roman numerals to Arabic numerals. Thus a Zippo made in August 2004 was stamped H 04.


title: Zippo

text: The cases of Zippo lighters are typically made of brass and are rectangular with a hinged top. On most models, the top of the case is slightly convex.


title: Zippo

text: Inside the case are the works of the lighter. The insert contains the spring-toggle lever that keeps the top closed, the wick, windscreen chimney, flintwheel, and flint, all of which are mounted on an open-bottom metal box that is slightly smaller than the bottom of the outer case, and into which it slips snugly.


title: Zippo

text: The hollow part of the interior box encloses five rayon balls (similar to cotton balls) which are in contact with the wick. The bottom of this is covered by a piece of felt approximately 1/4 of an inch thick. Printed on the bottom of the felt (in modern Zippos, not on older models prior to late 1992) are the words, "LIFT TO FILL," to indicate one must lift the felt away from the "cotton" in order to refuel it. The fuel, light petroleum distillate or synthetic isoparaffinic hydrocarbon (commonly referred to as lighter fluid or naphtha), is poured into the rayon balls (sometimes called the "cotton," or the "batting"), which absorbs it. It also contains a tube that holds a short, cylindrical flint. The tube has an interior spring and exterior cap-screw that keeps the flint in constant contact with the exterior flint-wheel. Spinning this rough-surfaced wheel against flint results in a spark that ignites the fluid in the wick.


title: Zippo

text: Zippo released the Zippo BLU in 2007 (although there are many 2005 pre-release models). These are butane torch lighters, which Zippo has gone to great lengths to make sure are still "identifiable as a Zippo". Specifically, the lid and cam were "tuned" so that the lighter still makes the distinctive "Zippo click", and also it is one of the few butane torch lighters to use a flint and striker wheel. The company also marketed the BLU2, which features a squarer frame and eliminates the fuel gauge on the side of the original Zippo BLU.


title: Zippo

text: As of January 1, 2016, Zippo discontinued production of the BLU line of lighters and sold the BLU trademark to Lorillard. Zippo stated that it would continue to service all previously sold BLU lighters.


title: Zippo

text: In addition to its 2010 purchase of the Ronson brand in the US and Canada, Zippo also owns W. R. Case & Sons Cutlery Co. of Bradford, Pennsylvania, Zippo UK, Ltd. of London, England, and Zippo Fashion Italia of Vicenza, Italy.


title: Zippo

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Zippo refused to join the international community and withdraw from the Russian market. Research from Yale University updated on April 28, 2022 identifying how companies were reacting to Russia's invasion identified Zippo in the worst category of "Digging In", meaning defying demands for exit: companies defying demands for exit/reduction of activities.


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: A lapsed Catholic is a Catholic who is non-practicing. Such a person may still identify as a Catholic, and remains one according to canon law, unless they commit an act of notorious defection from the faith.


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: The Merriam-Webster Dictionary definition of "lapsed" in relation to "lapsed Catholic" is "no longer believing or following the teachings of a religion". The Oxford American Writer's Thesaurus associates the term "lapsed Catholic" as one who is backsliding. Lapsing is thus not necessarily connected with a lack of belief. However, author Daniel Ford links being a lapsed Catholic with rejection of Catholic teaching, either totally or by being an "à la carte Catholic". Other sources associate the term with abandonment of practice of the Catholic religion rather than with rejection of its doctrine. Thus the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines "lapsed", again in relation to "lapsed Catholic", as "no longer involved in an activity or organization", and the Oxford Dictionary speaks only of "no longer following the rules and practices of a religion or doctrine". Richard John Neuhaus distinguished between Catholic and Protestant ideas of what it means to be "lapsed" by quoting G.K. Chesterton, who remarked that a Protestant typically says he is a good Protestant, while a Catholic typically says he is a bad Catholic. For many, being a lapsed Catholic is just another way of being a Catholic.


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: According to Catholic belief, baptism "seals the Christian with the indelible spiritual mark of belonging to Christ. No sin can erase this mark, even if sin prevents baptism from bearing the fruits of salvation."


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: Even the form of censure known as excommunication does not erase the sacramental character of their baptism; but excommunicated persons are "cut off from the Church", barred from receiving the Eucharist and all other Sacraments, and from taking an active part in the liturgy (reading, serving at the altar, etc.). They are urged to retain a relationship with the Church nonetheless, as its goal is to encourage them to repent and return to active participation in its life.


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: In the time of the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, many Christians, including clergy and even some bishops, were referred to as the "lapsi" (those who had slipped and fell) as opposed to the "stantes" (those who stood firm). Different attitudes developed within the Church towards the lapsed: some held they should never be readmitted to the Church before death, others were for demanding serious penance of them before readmitting them, while others again were still more lenient. The First Council of Nicaea insisted that any clergy who had lapsed were not to be readmitted to clerical rank.


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: From 1983 a "formal act of defection from the Catholic Church" was recognised in the Code of Canon Law, making defectors ineligible for the privileges of membership of the Church, such as marrying in church. This form of defection was removed from the Code in 2009, and it was no longer possible to defect formally from the Catholic Church.


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: In the religion question on the Republic of Ireland census, "lapsed (Roman) Catholic" (a write-in option rather than a pre-printed checkbox option) was collated separately for the first time in 2011, when 1,268 were recorded (0.033% of the "Roman Catholic" total); the 2016 census recorded 8,094 (0.21%).


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: Today, a Catholic who lapses to the extent of becoming an apostate, a heretic or a schismatic is automatically excommunicated, and, until the excommunication is lifted, is forbidden to have any ministerial part in the celebration of Mass or other worship ceremonies, to celebrate or receive the sacraments or to exercise any Church functions. This is an obligation that binds the excommunicated person. Unless the excommunication has been publicly declared by the Church and not merely incurred automatically, the excommunicated person cannot on that ground alone be publicly refused the sacraments, even by a priest who knows of it. However, to assist at the marriage of someone who has "notoriously" (i.e. widely known to have done so) rejected the Catholic faith, a priest needs the permission of the ordinary and the same promises required by spouses in mixed marriages are also required. The Code of Canon Law lays down no particular penalty for a lapsing that consists only in the failure to fulfill the obligations to attend Sunday Mass and to receive Communion during Eastertide other than a recommendation toward penance and reconciliation.


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: Some lapsed Catholics attend Mass on special occasions like Christmas and Easter. Such lapsed Catholics are colloquially and sometimes derogatorily called "Cultural Catholics", "Convenient Catholics", "Submarine Catholics", "Two-Timers" (for attending Mass twice a year), "Chreasters" (a blend word combining "Christmas" and "Easter"), "C&E Catholics", "Poinsettia & Lily Catholics", "CEO"s ("Christmas and Easter Only"), "APEC", "CAPE" or "PACE Catholics" (Palm [Sunday], Ash [Wednesday], Christmas, Easter), "CASE Catholics" ("Christmas and Sometimes Easter"), "CME"s (Christmas, Mother's Day and Easter), or "A&P Catholics" (for Ash Wednesday and Palm Sunday). In Portugal and Brazil, the common term for a Lapsed Catholic is "Católico Não-Praticante" (non-practicing Catholic). A common self-designation of lapsed Catholics in Poland is "wierzący, nie praktykujący" (believing, non-practitioning).


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: "Cultural Catholic" is also used to refer to a non-religious member of a historically Catholic ethnic group, such as Austrian, Belgian, Bavarian, Cape Verdean, Croatian, East Timorese, French, French Canadian, Filipino, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Latin American, Lithuanian, Macanese, Maltese, Monegasque, Polish, Portuguese, Sammarinese, Seychellois, Spanish, Slovene and Slovak.


title: Lapsed Catholic

text: "I wouldn't be a very spiritual man, right? I don't believe in God, right? Still Catholic. Because there's nothing you can do when you're Catholic. Once you've started Catholic, frankly, there's no real way to stop being Catholic. Even not believing in God isn't regarded as sufficient reason to get out of the Catholic Church. You'd think it'd be fairly fundamental to the whole thing, but no. Catholicism: the stickiest, most adhesive religion in the world."


title: Stereoisomerism

text: In stereochemistry, stereoisomerism, or spatial isomerism, is a form of isomerism in which molecules have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms (constitution), but differ in the three-dimensional orientations of their atoms in space. This contrasts with structural isomers, which share the same molecular formula, but the bond connections or their order differs. By definition, molecules that are stereoisomers of each other represent the same structural isomer.


title: Stereoisomerism

text: Enantiomers, also known as optical isomers, are two stereoisomers that are related to each other by a reflection: they are mirror images of each other that are non-superposable. Human hands are a macroscopic analog of this. Every stereogenic center in one has the opposite configuration in the other. Two compounds that are enantiomers of each other have the same physical properties, except for the direction in which they rotate polarized light and how they interact with different optical isomers of other compounds. As a result, different enantiomers of a compound may have substantially different biological effects. Pure enantiomers also exhibit the phenomenon of optical activity and can be separated only with the use of a chiral agent. In nature, only one enantiomer of most chiral biological compounds, such as amino acids (except glycine, which is achiral), is present. An optically active compound shows two forms: -(+) form and -(−) form.


title: Stereoisomerism

text: Diastereomers are stereoisomers not related through a reflection operation. They are not mirror images of each other. These include meso compounds, "cis"–"trans" isomers, E-Z isomers, and non-enantiomeric optical isomers. Diastereomers seldom have the same physical properties. In the example shown below, the meso form of tartaric acid forms a diastereomeric pair with both levo- and dextro-tartaric acids, which form an enantiomeric pair.