title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Critical comments on these speculations appeared early on. But as psychiatric historian Jan Armbruster (University of Greifswald) judged, they were not sufficiently convincing, such as in the case of journalist Ottmar Katz, author of a biography of Hitler's personal physician, Theodor Morell (1982). Katz suggested that Karl Kroner might have had personal reasons to report some untruths: living as a Jewish refugee in Reykjavik and forced to earn his life as a blue-collar worker, Kroner possibly hoped that the U.S. authorities would not only acknowledge him as a key witness but also help him to reestablish his medical practice. A comprehensive plausibility test was finally performed by the Berlin psychiatrist and psychotherapist Peter Theiss-Abendroth in 2008. In 2009, Armbruster carried this analysis forward, dismantled the hypotheses of Hitler's hysteria diagnosis and hypnotherapy completely, and showed in detail how the story of Hitler's alleged treatment by Forster became progressively elaborate and detailed between 1943 and 2006, not due to the evaluation of historical documents, but to continuous addition of narrative embellishments. Furthermore, Armbruster's work offers the to date most comprehensive critique of the methodological weaknesses of many Hitler pathographies.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: One of the few authors that stated Hitler showed signs of hysteria without using the Pasewalk episode and Hitler's alleged treatment by Forster as main evidence, was the American psychoanalyst Walter C. Langer. Langer secretly wrote his study in 1943 on behalf of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). He and his team conducted interviews with many people who were available to the American intelligence services and who knew Hitler personally. They came to the final judgment that Hitler was "a hysterical at the edge of schizophrenia". The study was for a long time held under lock and key and published in 1972 under the title "The Mind of Adolf Hitler".


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Already in his lifetime, many elements in Hitler's personal beliefs and conduct were classified by psychiatrists as signs of schizophrenia, for example, his faith that he was chosen by fate to liberate the German people from their supposed most dangerous threat, the Jews.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: One of the first who credited Hitler with the classic symptoms of schizophrenia was the Canadian psychiatrist W.H.D. Vernon. In 1942, he argued in an essay that Hitler was experiencing hallucinations, hearing voices, paranoia and megalomania. Vernon wrote that Hitler's personality structure – although overall within the range of normal – should be described as leaning towards the paranoid type.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: One year later, Henry Murray, a psychologist at Harvard University, developed these views even further. Like Walter C. Langer, Murray wrote his report, "Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler", on behalf of the OSS. He came to the conclusion that Hitler, next to hysterical signs, showed all the classic symptoms of schizophrenia: hypersensitivity, panic attacks, irrational jealousy, paranoia, omnipotence fantasies, delusions of grandeur, belief in a messianic mission, and extreme paranoia. He considered him as perched between hysteria and schizophrenia, but stressed that Hitler possessed considerable control over his pathological tendencies and that he deliberately used them in order to stir up nationalist sentiments among the Germans and their hatred of alleged persecutors. Like Langer, Murray thought it likely that Hitler eventually would lose faith in himself and in his "destiny", and then commit suicide.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: The attempt to prove that Hitler had a fully developed psychosis in a clinical sense has only occasionally been made. An example is the book "Hitler, Steiner, Schreber" (1966) by the Freiburg psychiatrist Wolfgang Treher. Treher explains that both Rudolf Steiner (whose anthroposophy he attributes to mental illness) and Hitler had schizophrenia. He writes that both managed to stay in touch with reality because they had the opportunity to create their own organizations (Steiner: the Anthroposophical Society; Hitler: the NSDAP and its many subdivisions) that they could influence according to their delusions – and therefore avoid the, normally expected, "schizophrenic withdrawal". Treher finds that Hitler's megalomania and paranoia are quite striking.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In 1992, German-American clinical psychologist Edleff H. Schwaab published his psychobiography "Hitler's Mind" in which he states that Hitler's imagination – particularly his obsession with the supposed threat posed by the Jews – must be described as the outcome of a paranoia. The cause for this disorder Schwaab suspects to be rooted in a traumatic childhood that was dominated by a depressive mother and a tyrannical father.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: The book "Hitler – Karriere eines Wahns" (2000) is the result from a joint effort of the psychiatrist Paul Matussek, the media theorist Peter Matussek, and the sociologist Jan Marbach, to overcome the tradition of one-dimensional psychiatric pathography and to seek an interdisciplinary approach instead, taking into account socio-historical dimensions. The investigation is focused not so much on Hitler's personal psychopathology, but rather on a description of the "interaction" between individual and collective factors that accounted for the overall dynamics of the Hitler madness. The book specifies the interplay between Hitler's leader role (which was charged with psychotic symptoms) on the one hand, and the fascination that this role invoked in his followers on the other hand. The authors conclude that the Nazi crimes had indeed been an expression of madness, but of a madness which was so strongly accepted by the public that the psychotic Hitler and his followers were factually stabilizing each other in their "mad" worldview.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In terms of methodology, the most elaborate psychological assessment of Hitler was undertaken in 2007 by a research team at the University of Colorado. This study differed from all earlier works by its open, exploratory approach. The team tested systematically which mental disorders Hitler's behavior may or may not have been indicating. It was the first Hitler pathography that was consistently empirical. The psychologists and historians reviewed passed down reports by people who knew Hitler, and evaluated these accounts in accordance with a self-developed diagnostic tool that allowed for a wide range of personality, clinical, and neuropsychological disturbances to be measured. According to this study, Hitler showed obvious traits of paranoia, but also of anti-social, sadistic, and narcissistic personality disorders, and distinct traits of posttraumatic stress disorder.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler's alleged psychotic symptoms have repeatedly been attributed to possible organic causes. The psychiatrist Günter Hermann Hesse, for example, was convinced that Hitler experienced long-term consequences of gas poisoning during World War I.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In the late 1980s, Ellen Gibbels (University of Cologne) attributed the limb trembling in Hitler's later years to Parkinson's disease, a widely held consensus in the research community. However, some researchers interpreted Hitler's tremor as a symptom of advanced syphilis, most recently the American historian Deborah Hayden. Hayden links the general paresis from which Hitler—in her opinion—had had since 1942, to the mental decline in the last years of his life, especially to his "paranoid temper tantrums". The physician Frederick Redlich however reported that there is no evidence that suggests that Hitler had syphilis.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: The possibility that Hitler had Parkinson's disease was first investigated by Ernst-Günther Schenck and later by Ellen Gibbels. In 1994, Gibbels published a paper that pursued the question if Hitler's nerve disease could also have impaired him mentally.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Given the inhumanity of his crimes, Hitler was early on linked with "psychopathy", a severe personality disorder whose main symptoms are a great or complete lack of empathy, social responsibility and conscience. The biologically determined concept still plays a role in the psychiatric forensic science, but it is no longer found in the modern medical classification systems (DSM-IV and ICD-10). Today, corresponding clinical pictures are mostly classified as signs of an antisocial personality disorder. However, the symptomatology is rare, and unlike in popular discourse, where the classification of Hitler as a "psychopath" is commonplace, psychiatrists have only occasionally endeavored to associate him with psychopathy or antisocial personality disorder.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Early on, some Hitler pathographies took not only psychological, but also historical and sociological aspects into account. This interdisciplinary approach had been developed by the psychiatrist Wilhelm Lange-Eichbaum back in 1928. The earliest socio-psychological pathography of Hitler appeared in 1948 in Gustav Bychowski anthology "Dictators and Disciples". In this volume, Bychowski, a Polish-American psychiatrist, compared several historical figures who have successfully carried out a coup d'etat: Julius Caesar, Oliver Cromwell, Maximilien Robespierre, Hitler and Josef Stalin. He came to the conclusion that all of these men had an abundance of traits that must by classified as "psychopathic" such as the tendency to act out impulses or to project their own hostile impulses onto other people or groups.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In 1993, the interdisciplinary team Desmond Henry, Dick Geary and Peter Tyrer published an essay in which they expressed their common view that Hitler had antisocial personality disorder as defined in ICD-10. Tyrer, a psychiatrist, was convinced that Hitler furthermore showed signs of paranoia and of histrionic personality disorder.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: While psychiatrically oriented authors, when dealing with Hitler, were primarily endeavoring to diagnose him with a specific clinical disorder, some of their colleagues who follow a depth psychological doctrine as the psychoanalytic school of Sigmund Freud, were first and foremost interested in "explaining" his monstrously destructive behavior. In accordance to these doctrines, they assumed that Hitler's behavior and the development of his character were propelled by unconscious processes that were rooted in his earliest years. Pathographies that are inspired by depth psychology, typically attempt to reconstruct the scenario of Hitler's childhood and youth. Occasionally, authors such as Gerhard Vinnai started out with a depth psychological analysis, but then advanced far beyond the initial approach.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Among the most famous Hitler pathographies is Erich Fromm's 1973 published book "Anatomy of Human Destructiveness". Fromm's goal was to determine the causes of human violence. He took his knowledge of the person of Hitler from several sources such as the memoir of Hitler's boyhood friend August Kubizek (1953), Werner Maser's Hitler-biography (1971), and, most important, a paper by Bradley F. Smith about Hitler's childhood and youth (1967).


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Fromm's pathography follows largely Sigmund Freud's concept of psychoanalysis and states that Hitler was an immature, self-centered dreamer who did not overcome his childish narcissism; as a result of his lack of adaptation to reality he was exposed to humiliations which he tried to overcome by means of lust-ridden destructiveness ("necrophilia"). The evidence of this desire to destroy – including the so-called Nero Decree – was so outrageous that one must assume that Hitler had not only acted destructively, but was driven by a "destructive character".


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In 1975, the German psychoanalyst and family therapist Helm Stierlin published his book "Adolf Hitler. Familienperspektiven", in which he raised the question of the psychological and motivational bases for Hitler's aggression and passion for destruction, similarly to Fromm. His study focuses heavily on Hitler's relationship to his mother, Klara. Stierlin felt that Hitler's mother had frustrated hopes for herself that she strongly delegated to her son, even though for him, too, they were impossible to satisfy.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: The Swiss childhood researcher Alice Miller gave Hitler a section in her 1980 published book "For Your Own Good". Miller owed her knowledge about Hitler to biographic and pathographic works such as those by Rudolf Olden (1935), Konrad Heiden (1936/37), Franz Jetzinger (1958), Joachim Fest (1973), Helm Stierlin (1975), and John Toland (1976). She wrote that the family setting in which Hitler grew up was not only dominated by an authoritarian and often brutal father, Alois Hitler, but could be characterized as "prototype of a totalitarian regime". She wrote that Hitler's hate-ridden and destructive personality, that later made millions of people suffer, emerged under the humiliating and degrading treatment and the beating that he received from his father as a child. Miller believes that the mother, whose first three children died at an early age, was barely capable of fostering a warm relationship to her son. She posits that Hitler early on identified with his tyrannical father, and later transferred the trauma of his parental home onto Germany; his contemporaries followed him willingly because they had experienced a childhood that was very similar.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Miller also pointed out that Johanna Pölzl, the querulent sister of Klara Hitler who lived with the family throughout Hitler's entire childhood, possibly had a mental disorder. According to witnesses, Pölzl, who died in 1911, was either schizophrenic or mentally handicapped.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Another Hitler pathography was submitted in 1983 by the New York psychoanalyst Norbert Bromberg (Albert Einstein College of Medicine) and the writer Verna Volz Small. In this book, "Hitler's Psychopathology", Bromberg and Small argue that many of Hitler's personal self-manifestations and actions were to be regarded as an expression of a serious personality disorder. On examination of his family background, his childhood and youth and of his behavior as an adult, as a politician and ruler, they found many clues that Hitler was in line both with the symptoms of a narcissistic personality disorder and of a borderline personality disorder (see also below). Bromberg and Small's work has been criticized for the unreliable sources that it is based on, and for its speculative treatment of Hitler's presumed homosexuality. (See also: Sexuality of Adolf Hitler, "The Pink Swastika".)


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: The opinion that Hitler had narcissistic personality disorder was not new; Alfred Sleigh had already represented it in 1966.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: The French psychoanalyst Béla Grunberger and Pierre Dessuant have included a section about Hitler into their 1997 book "Narcissisme, christianisme, antisémitisme". Like Fromm, Bromberg and Small, they were particularly interested in Hitler's narcissism, which they tried to trace by a detailed interpretation of Hitler's alleged sexual practices and constipation problems.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: The psychotherapist George Victor had special interest in Hitler's antisemitism. In his 1999 book "Hitler: The Pathology of Evil", he assumed that Hitler was not only obsessed with hatred of Jews, but with self-hatred, too, and that he had a serious (borderline) personality disorder. Victor found that all these problems had their origin in the abuse that he experienced as a child by his father – who, as he believed, was of Jewish descent. (See also Alois Hitler#Biological father.)


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Although it is generally undisputed that Hitler had formative experiences as a frontline soldier in World War I, only in the early 2000s did psychologists come up with the consideration that at least some of his psychopathology may be attributed to war trauma.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In 2003, Theodore Dorpat, a resident psychiatrist in Seattle, published his book "Wounded Monster" in which he credited Hitler with complex post-traumatic stress disorder. He assumed that Hitler not only experienced war trauma, but – due to physical and mental abuse by Hitler's father and the parental failure of his depressed mother – chronic childhood trauma, as well. Dorpat is convinced that Hitler showed signs of this disturbance at the age of 11. According to Dorpat, many of Hitler's personality traits – such as his volatility, his malice, the sadomasochistic nature of his relationships, his human indifference and his avoidance of shame – can be traced back to trauma.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In the same year, the above-mentioned German psychologist Manfred Koch-Hillebrecht had come forward with the assumption that Hitler had posttraumatic stress disorder from his war experiences.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In the subsequent year, the social psychologist Gerhard Vinnai (University of Bremen), came to similar conclusions. When writing his work "Hitler – Scheitern und Vernichtungswut" (2004; "Hitler – Failing and rage of destruction"), Vinnai had a psychoanalytic point of depart; he first subjected Hitler's book "Mein Kampf" a depth psychological interpretation and tried to reconstruct how Hitler had processed his experiences in World War I against the background of his childhood and youth. But similar to Dorpat, Vinnai explains the destructive potential in Hitler's psyche not so much as a result of early childhood experiences, but rather due to trauma that Hitler had experienced as a soldier in World War I. Not only Hitler, but a substantial part of the German population was affected by such war trauma. Vinnai then leaves the psychoanalytical discourse and comments on social psychological questions, such as how Hitler's political world view could have emerged from his trauma and how this could appeal to large numbers of people.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In 2007, the above mentioned authors Coolidge, Davis, and Segal, too, assumed that Hitler had had posttraumatic stress disorder.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler regularly consumed methamphetamine, barbiturates, amphetamine, opiates and cocaine. In 2015, Norman Ohler published a work "Der totale Rausch" ("The Total Rush", translated in 2016 as "Blitzed: Drugs in Nazi Germany") in which he claims that all of Hitler's irrational behavior can be attributed to his excessive drug use. Helena Barop, who reviewed the book in "Die Zeit", wrote that Ohler's account is not based on solid research.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Hypotheses like the ones that Hitler's personality and behavior pointed to a personality disorder, to a posttraumatic stress disorder or to schizophrenia have not been undisputed, but they have repeatedly found endorsement from fellow psychiatrists. This does not apply to the following Hitler-pathographies whose authors are largely left alone with their diagnoses.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In a 1976 published essay, the psychiatrists Colin Martindale, Nancy Hasenfus, and Dwight Hines (University of Maine) suggested that Hitler had had a sub-function of the left hemisphere of the brain. They referred to the tremor of his left limbs, his tendency for leftward eye movements and the alleged missing of the left testicle. They believed that Hitler's behavior was dominated by his right cerebral hemisphere, a situation that resulted in symptoms such as a tendency to the irrational, auditory hallucinations, and uncontrolled outbursts. Martindale, Hasenfus and Hines even suspected that the dominance of the right hemisphere contributed to the two basic elements of Hitler's political ideology: antisemitism and Lebensraum ideology.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Robert G. L. Waite, a psychohistorian at Williams College, worked towards an interdisciplinary exploration of Nazism from 1949, combining historiographical and psychoanalytic methods. In 1977, he published his study "The Psychopathic God" in which he took the view that Hitler's career can not be understood without considering his pathological personality. Waite assumed that Hitler had schizotypal personality disorder, a condition that at that time was contained in the definition of "borderline personality disorder". The term received its present meaning only at the end of the 1970s; until then, "borderline personality disorder" referred to a broader set of disorders in the border area of neurosis and schizophrenia, for which Gregory Zilboorg had also coined the term "ambulatory schizophrenia". As cues that Hitler had this condition, Waite specified Hitler's Oedipus complex, his infantile phantasy, his volatile inconsistency and his alleged coprophilia and urolagnia. Waite's view partially corresponds with that of the Vienna psychiatrist and Buchenwald survivor Ernest A. Rappaport, who already in 1975 had called Hitler an "ambulatory schizophrenic".


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: The personality psychologist John D. Mayer (University of New Hampshire) published an essay in 1993 in which he suggested an independent psychiatric category for destructive personalities like Hitler: A "dangerous leader disorder" (DLD). Mayer identified three groups of symptomatic behavioral singularities: 1. indifference (becoming manifest for example in murder of opponents, family members or citizens, or in genocide); 2. intolerance (practicing press censorship, running a secret police or condoning torture); 3. self-aggrandizement (self-assessment as a "unifier" of a people, overestimation of own military power, identification with religion or nationalism or proclamation of a "grand plan"). Mayer compared Hitler to Stalin and Saddam Hussein; the stated aim of this proposition of a psychiatric categorization was to provide the international community with a diagnostic instrument which would make it easier to recognize dangerous leader personalities in mutual consensus and to take action against them. (See also Toxic leader.)


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: In 1994, the writer Jablow Hershman and the psychiatrist Julian Lieb published their joint book "A Brotherhood of Tyrants". Based on known Hitler biographies, they developed the hypothesis that Hitler – just like Napoleon Bonaparte and Stalin – had bipolar disorder, which drove him to enter politics and become a dictator.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Michael Fitzgerald, a professor of child and adolescent psychiatry, published a cornucopia of pathographies of outstanding historical personalities, mostly stating that they had Asperger syndrome, which is on the autism spectrum. In his 2004 published anthology "Autism and creativity", he classified Hitler as an "autistic psychopath". Autistic psychopathy is a term that the Austrian physician Hans Asperger had coined in 1944 in order to label the clinical picture that was later named after him: Asperger syndrome, which has nothing to do with "psychopathy" in the sense of an antisocial personality disorder. Fitzgerald appraised many of Hitler's publicly known traits as autistic, particularly his various obsessions, his lifeless gaze, his social awkwardness, his lack of personal friendships, and his tendency toward monologue-like speeches, which, according to Fitzgerald, resulted from an inability to have real conversations.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Pathographies are " by definition " works on personalities which the author believes to be mentally disturbed. Psychiatrists deal with mental illness and usually write no specialist publications on those they consider to be mentally healthy. Exceptions occur at most within professional discourses in which individual authors confront the positions of colleagues, who, in the opinion of the former, are at fault to classify a certain personality as mentally ill. As a result, works that advance the view that a particular personality was mentally healthy, are naturally underrepresented in the overall corpus of pathographic literature. This applies to the psychopathography of Adolf Hitler, too.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Some authors have described Hitler as a cynical manipulator or a fanatic, but denied that he was seriously mentally disturbed; among them are the British historians Ian Kershaw, Hugh Trevor-Roper, Alan Bullock, and A. J. P. Taylor, and, more recently, the German psychiatrist Manfred Lütz. Ian Kershaw has concluded that Hitler had no major psychotic disorders and was not clinically insane. The American psychologist Glenn D. Walters wrote in 2000: "Much of the debate about Hitler's long-term mental health is probably questionable, because even if he had suffered from significant psychiatric problems, he attained the supreme power in Germany rather in spite of these difficulties than through them."


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: The psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist Erik Erikson included a chapter about Adolf Hitler in his 1950 book, "Childhood and Society". Erikson referred to Hitler as an "histrionic and hysterical adventurer" and believed there was evidence of an undissolved Oedipus complex in his self-portrayals. Nonetheless, he believed that Hitler was such an actor that his self-expression could not be measured with conventional diagnostic tools. Although Hitler had possibly been showing certain psychopathology, he dealt with this in an extremely controlled fashion and utilized it purposefully.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: Terry Brink, a student of Alfred Adler, published an essay "The case of Hitler" (1975) in which he, similar to the above-mentioned authors, concluded that after a conscientious evaluation of all records there is not sufficient evidence that Hitler had a mental disorder. Many of Hitler's behaviors must be understood as attempts to overcome a difficult childhood. However, many of the documents and statements that have been quoted in order to prove a mental illness were to be considered untrustworthy. Too strong consideration has been given, for example, to Allied propaganda and to fabrications of people who have tried to distance themselves from Hitler for personal reasons.


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: One of the most comprehensive Hitler pathographies comes from the neurologist and psychiatrist Frederick Redlich. Redlich, who emigrated from Austria in 1938 to the United States, is considered one of the founders of American social psychiatry. In his 1998 published work "Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet", on which he worked for 13 years, Redlich came to believe that Hitler had indeed shown enough paranoia and defense mechanisms in order to "fill a psychiatric textbook with it", but that he was probably not mentally disturbed. Hitler's paranoid delusions "could be seen as symptoms of a mental disorder, but the largest part of the personality worked normal." Hitler "knew what he was doing and he did it with pride and enthusiasm."


title: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

text: After two years of study – of the diaries of Theodor Morell among others –, the physician Hans-Joachim Neumann and the historian Henrik Eberle published in 2009 their joint book "War Hitler krank?" ("Was Hitler sick?"), in which they concluded: "For a medically objectified mental illness of Hitler there is no evidence".


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a measure of the dissolved combined content of all inorganic and organic substances present in a liquid in molecular, ionized, or micro-granular (colloidal sol) suspended form. TDS concentrations are often reported in parts per million (ppm). Water TDS concentrations can be determined using a digital meter.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Generally, the operational definition is that the solids must be small enough to survive filtration through a filter with 2-micrometer (nominal size, or smaller) pores. Total dissolved solids are normally discussed only for freshwater systems, as salinity includes some of the ions constituting the definition of TDS. The principal application of TDS is in the study of water quality for streams, rivers, and lakes. Although TDS is not generally considered a primary pollutant (e.g. it is not deemed to be associated with health effects), it is used as an indication of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water and as an aggregate indicator of the presence of a broad array of chemical contaminants.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Primary sources for TDS in receiving waters are agricultural runoff and residential (urban) runoff, clay-rich mountain waters, leaching of soil contamination, and point source water pollution discharge from industrial or sewage treatment plants. The most common chemical constituents are calcium, phosphates, nitrates, sodium, potassium, and chloride, which are found in nutrient runoff, general stormwater runoff and runoff from snowy climates where road de-icing salts are applied. The chemicals may be cations, anions, molecules or agglomerations on the order of one thousand or fewer molecules, so long as a soluble micro-granule is formed. More exotic and harmful elements of TDS are pesticides arising from surface runoff. Certain naturally occurring total dissolved solids arise from the weathering and dissolution of rocks and soils. The United States has established a secondary water quality standard of 500 mg/L to provide for palatability of drinking water.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Total dissolved solids are differentiated from total suspended solids (TSS), in that the latter cannot pass through a sieve of 2 micrometers and yet are indefinitely suspended in solution. The term "settleable solids" refers to material of any size that will not remain suspended or dissolved in a holding tank not subject to motion, and excludes both TDS and TSS. Settleable solids may include larger particulate matter or insoluble molecules.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Total dissolved solids include both volatile and non-volatile solids. Volatile solids are ones that can easily go from a solid to a liquid state. Non-volatile solids must be heated to a high temperature, typically 550 °C, in order to achieve this state change. Examples of non-volatile substances include salts and sugars.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: The two principal methods of measuring total dissolved solids are gravimetric analysis and conductivity. Gravimetric methods are the most accurate and involve evaporating the liquid solvent and measuring the mass of residues left. This method is generally the best, although it is time-consuming. If inorganic salts comprise the great majority of TDS, conductivity-based methods are appropriate.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Electrical, or specific, conductivity of water is directly related to the concentration of dissolved ionized solids in the water. Ions from the dissolved solids in water create the ability for that water to conduct an electric current, which can be measured using a conventional conductivity meter or TDS meter. When correlated with laboratory TDS measurements, conductivity provides an approximate value for the TDS concentration, usually to within ten-percent accuracy.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: The relationship of TDS and specific conductance of groundwater can be approximated by the following equation:


title: Total dissolved solids

text: where TDS is expressed in mg/L and EC is the electrical conductivity in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 °C. The conversion factor "k" varies between 0.55 and 0.8.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Some TDS meters will use this electrical conductivity measurement to then infer the number of parts per million (ppm) using the above formula; 1 ppm indicates 1 mg of dissolved solids per kg of water.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Hydrologic transport models are used to mathematically analyze movement of TDS within river systems. The most common models address surface runoff, allowing variation in land use type, topography, soil type, vegetative cover, precipitation, and land management practice (e.g. the application rate of a fertilizer). Runoff models have evolved to a good degree of accuracy and permit the evaluation of alternative land management practices upon impacts to stream water quality.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Basin models are used to more comprehensively evaluate total dissolved solids within a catchment basin and dynamically along various stream reaches. The DSSAM model was developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This hydrology transport model is actually based upon the pollutant-loading metric called "Total Maximum Daily Load" (TMDL), which addresses TDS and other specific chemical pollutants. The success of this model contributed to the Agency's broadened commitment to the use of the underlying TMDL protocol in its national policy for management of many river systems in the United States.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: When measuring water treated with water softeners, high levels of total dissolved solids do not correlate to hard water, as water softeners do not reduce TDS; rather, they replace magnesium and calcium ions, which cause hard water, with an equal charge of sodium or potassium ions, e.g. Ca ⇌ 2 Na, leaving overall TDS unchanged or even increased. Hard water can cause scale buildup in pipes, valves, and filters, reducing performance and adding to system maintenance costs. These effects can be seen in aquariums, spas, swimming pools, and reverse osmosis water treatment systems. Typically, in these applications, total dissolved solids are tested frequently, and filtration membranes are checked in order to prevent adverse effects.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: In the case of hydroponics and aquaculture, TDS is often monitored in order to create a water quality environment favorable for organism productivity. For freshwater oysters, trouts, and other high value seafood, highest productivity and economic returns are achieved by mimicking the TDS and pH levels of each species' native environment. For hydroponic uses, total dissolved solids is considered one of the best indices of nutrient availability for the aquatic plants being grown.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Because the threshold of acceptable aesthetic criteria for human drinking water is 500 mg/L, there is no general concern for odor, taste, and color at a level much lower than is required for harm. A number of studies have been conducted and indicate various species' reactions range from intolerance to outright toxicity due to elevated TDS. The numerical results must be interpreted cautiously, as true toxicity outcomes will relate to specific chemical constituents. Nevertheless, some numerical information is a useful guide to the nature of risks in exposing aquatic organisms or terrestrial animals to high TDS levels. Most aquatic ecosystems involving mixed fish fauna can tolerate TDS levels of 1000 mg/L.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: The fathead minnow ("Pimephales promelas"), for example, realizes an concentration of 5600 ppm based upon a 96-hour exposure. LD50 is the concentration required to produce a lethal effect on 50 percent of the exposed population. "Daphnia magna", a good example of a primary member of the food chain, is a small planktonic crustacean, about 0.5 mm in length, having an LD50 of about 10,000 ppm TDS for a 96-hour exposure.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Spawning fishes and juveniles appear to be more sensitive to high TDS levels. For example, it was found that concentrations of 350 mg/L TDS reduced spawning of Striped bass ("Morone saxatilis") in the San Francisco Bay-Delta region, and that concentrations below 200 mg/L promoted even healthier spawning conditions. In the Truckee River, EPA found that juvenile Lahontan cutthroat trout were subject to higher mortality when exposed to thermal pollution stress combined with high total dissolved solids concentrations.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: For terrestrial animals, poultry typically possess a safe upper limit of TDS exposure of approximately 2900 mg/L, whereas dairy cattle are measured to have a safe upper limit of about 7100 mg/L. Research has shown that exposure to TDS is compounded in toxicity when other stressors are present, such as abnormal pH, high turbidity, or reduced dissolved oxygen with the latter stressor acting only in the case of Animalia.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: In countries with often-unsafe/unclean tap water supplies, the TDS of drinking water is often checked by technicians to gauge how effectively their RO/Water Filtration devices are working. While TDS readings will not give an answer as to the amount of microorganisms present in a sample of water, they can get a good idea as to the efficiency of the filter by how much TDS is present.


title: Total dissolved solids

text: Drinking water generally has a TDS below 500 ppm. Higher TDS Fresh Water is drinkable but taste may be objectionable.


title: Roseola

text: Roseola, also known as sixth disease, is an infectious disease caused by certain types of human herpes viruses. Most infections occur before the age of three. Symptoms vary from absent to the classic presentation of a fever of rapid onset followed by a rash. The fever generally lasts for three to five days, while the rash is generally pink and lasts for less than three days. Complications may include febrile seizures, with serious complications being rare.


title: Roseola

text: It is caused by "human herpesvirus 6" (HHV-6A, HHV-6B) or "human herpesvirus 7" (HHV-7). Spread is usually through the saliva of those who are otherwise healthy. However, it may also spread from the mother to baby during pregnancy. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms and does not need to be confirmed with blood tests (PCR or antigen). Low numbers of white blood cells may also be present.


title: Roseola

text: Treatment includes sufficient fluids and medications to treat the fever. Nearly all people are infected at some point in time. Males and females are affected equally often. The disease may reactivate in those with a weakened immune system and may result in significant health problems.


title: Roseola

text: The disease was first described in 1910 while the causal virus was determined in 1988. The name "sixth disease" comes from its place on the standard list of rash-causing childhood diseases, which also includes measles (first), scarlet fever (second), rubella (third), Dukes' disease (fourth, but is no longer widely accepted as distinct from scarlet fever), and erythema infectiosum (fifth).


title: Roseola

text: Symptoms begin with a three to six day febrile illness. During this time, temperatures can peak above 40 °C and children can experience increased irritability with general malaise. However, many children in the febrile phase feel well, engaged, and alert. For these patients, fever is usually diagnosed incidentally.


title: Roseola

text: The most common complication (10-15% of children between 6 and 18 months) and most common cause of hospitalization in children with primary infection of HHV-6B is febrile seizures which can precipitate status epilepticus due to the sudden rise in body temperature.


title: Roseola

text: Once the febrile phase subsides, a rash develops. In some cases, the rash can present after one or two days after the fever resolves. The rash is classically described as an erythematous morbilliform exanthem and presents as a distribution of soft pink, discrete, and slightly raised lesions each with a 2-5mm diameter. It classically begins on the trunk (torso) and spreads outward to the neck, extremities, and face. This pattern is referred to as a centrifugal spread. Usually, peeling and itching are not characteristic of this rash. This phase can last anywhere from several hours to 2 days.


title: Roseola

text: A small percentage of children acquire HHV-6 with few signs or symptoms of the disease. Children with HHV-6 infection can also present with myringitis (inflammation of the tympanic membranes), upper respiratory symptoms, diarrhea, and a bulging fontanelle. In addition, children can experience pharyngitis with lymphoid hyperplasia seen on the soft palate and swelling of the eyelids. These symptoms usually present during the febrile phase of roseola. Cervical and postocciptal lymphadenopathy can also be seen, but this generally presents 2–4 days after the onset of the febrile phase.


title: Roseola

text: In rare cases, HHV-6 can become active in an adult previously infected during childhood and can show signs of mononucleosis.


title: Roseola

text: There are nine known human herpesviruses. Of these, roseola has been linked to two: "human herpesvirus 6" (HHV-6) and "human herpesvirus 7" (HHV-7), which are sometimes referred to collectively as Roseolovirus. These viruses are of the Herpesviridae family and the "Betaherpesvirinae" subfamily, underwhich Cytomegalovirus is also classified. HHV-6 has been further classified into HHV-6A and HHV-6B, two "distinct" viruses which share 88% of the same DNA makeup, with HHV-6B the most common cause of roseola.


title: Roseola

text: After infection, these viruses enter a latent phase. Roseola caused by HHV-7 has been linked to the ability of HHV-7 infection to reactivate latent HHV-6.


title: Roseola

text: After exposure to roseola, the causative virus becomes latent in its host but is still present in saliva, skin, and lungs. HHV-6 is thought to be transmitted from previously exposed or infected adults to young children by the shedding of virus through saliva. Even so, most cases of roseola are transmitted without known exposure.


title: Roseola

text: The diagnosis of roseola is made clinically based on the presence of the two phases: fever and rash. Laboratory testing is seldom used as the results do not alter management of the disease. An exception is in people who are immunocompromised in who serologic tests with viral identification can be used to confirm the diagnosis.


title: Roseola

text: Roseola should be differentiated from other similar-appearing illnesses, such as rubella, measles, fifth disease, scarlet fever, and drug reactions. This differentiation may be determined based on symptoms.


title: Roseola

text: Many viruses can cause Roseola and are shed by carriers without symptoms. Because of this and the fact that most children with the disease are not seriously ill, there is no particular method of prevention. Proper hygienic measures, like regular handwashing, can be implemented as a routine method of prevention. Those who have been exposed or infected have been shown to shed the virus for the rest of their lives. Because of this, there are no current guidelines regarding children staying home or away from child-care when infected.


title: Roseola

text: Most cases of HHV-6 infection improve on their own. Because of this, supportive care is the mainstay treatment. The febrile phase can be managed using acetaminophen to control fever and prevent spikes in temperature which can lead to febrile seizures. In the case of febrile seizures, medical advice should be sought, and treatment aggressively pursued. Antiepileptic drugs are not recommended for patients who develop seizures from Roseola. Once children have entered the rash phase, reassurance is important as this indicates resolution of the infection.


title: Roseola

text: If encephalitis occurs in immunocompromised children, ganciclovir or foscarnet have inconsistently shown usefulness in treatment. Treatment of children who are immunocompromised centers around decreasing their levels of immunosuppression as much as possible.


title: Roseola

text: Children infected with roseola generally have a good prognosis. Most recover without intervention and without long-term effects.


title: Roseola

text: Between the two types of human herpesvirus 6, HHV-6B has been detected much more frequently in hosts. HHV-6B has been shown to affect about 90% of children before the age of 3. Out of these, 20% develop symptoms of roseola, also known as exanthem subitum.


title: Roseola

text: Roseola affects girls and boys equally worldwide year-round. Roseola typically affects children between six months and two years of age, with peak prevalence in children between 7 and 13 months old. This correlates with the decrease in maternal antibodies, thus virus protection, that occurs at the age of 6 months. Out of all emergency department visits for children between the ages of 6 months and 12 months who have fever, twenty percent of these are due to HHV-6.


title: Roseola

text: Many children who have been exposed and infected can present without symptoms, which makes determining the incidence within the population difficult.


title: Roseola

text: John Zahorsky MD wrote extensively on this disease in the early 20th century, his first formal presentation was to the St Louis Pediatric society in 1909 where he described 15 young children with the illness. In a JAMA article published on Oct 18, 1913 he noted that "the name 'Roseola infantilis' had an important place in the medical terminology of writers on skin diseases" but that descriptions of the disease by previous writers tended to confuse it with many other diseases that produce febrile rashes. In this JAMA article Zahorsky reports on 29 more children with Roseola and notes that the only condition that should seriously be considered in the differential diagnosis is German Measles (rubella) but notes that the fever of rubella only lasts a few hours whereas the prodromal fever of Roseola lasts three to five days and disappears with the formation of a morbilliform rash.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: The Land Rover Defender is a four-wheel-drive off-road SUV from British automotive company Jaguar Land Rover. The car was launched on 10 September 2019 at the Frankfurt Motor Show. It is significant for being the first all-new version of the Defender, breaking the engineering lineage with its predecessor, a descendant of the original Series Land Rovers of 1948. The unibody-based Defender is aimed at a more upmarket segment than its predecessor.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: The Defender replaces the original Land Rover Defender (1983-2016). The cars are built in Slovakia at Jaguar Land Rover's Nitra plant, a manufacturing facility which opened on 25 October 2018. The plant covers an area of about 300,000 square metres.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: The car, which shares no components or technology with its predecessor Defender model, features permanent all-wheel drive, locking differentials in the centre and rear, and a two-speed transfer case. Unlike the previous Defender models, the new model will feature an aluminium unibody instead of a body-on-frame construction. All Defender 110 variants come with air suspension as standard whilst the 90 can be optioned with coil springs or air suspension. Deliveries to customers of the 5-door Defender 110 began in early 2020, to be followed by the 3-door Defender 90 in late 2020.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: The Defender has been well received by the motoring press, all reviews underlining that it is significantly different from its chassis-based predecessor: "It’s all very Defender – but not as we know it" declared the Evening Standard; "Born-again off-roader follows a new path and is all the better for it" declared the "Motoring" website. "Combine (its) seemingly impossible blend of qualities with a fantastic looking package inside and out and you have a vehicle that is literally like no other". A "TFL Car" review was critical of the quality of the cars, with readers giving accounts of problems within the first few weeks of ownerships and with only up to a few hundred miles of driving. Poor reliability has been a recurring theme with many Land Rover models.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: In 2019, Lego announced a 2,573-piece "LEGO Land Rover Defender" set based on the vehicle, released in October 2019. It is one of the largest sets ever made by Lego.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: The Defender 110 is long including the spare wheel on the rear door, or without it, and has a wheelbase of . The Defender 90 is long including the spare wheel and without, with a weight from with a 4-cylinder diesel engine.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: Defender 90 models with coil spring suspension have a ground clearance of whilst the 110 and the 90 with air suspension have a maximum ground clearance of .


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: For the 2021 model year (announced September 2020), the following JLR Ingenium in-line 6-cylinder diesel engines with mild hybrid technology are available: D200, D250, D300.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: All variants are fitted with a ZF 8-speed automatic transmission coupled with a 2-speed transfer case. The optional steel wheels are only available on Defenders with the smaller, less powerful four-cylinder engines as the six-cylinder engine requires larger disk brakes to be fitted.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: In the US and Canada, the 90 model is only offered in a limited edition First Edition and the 3.0 6 cylinder engine while the 110 is offered in both the limited edition First Edition with 3.0 engine as well as the regular models with both 3.0 or 2.0 engines.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: The Defender is available in Standard, S, SE, XS, HSE, X, V8 and V8 Carpathian Edition trim lines. Land Rover also offers four accessory packs, called Explorer, Adventure, Urban and Country, which include various accessories such as a raised air intake, extended mud flaps, a side-mounted storage box, and more.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: The entry-level 110 models will come equipped with air suspension, 18-inch steel wheels, LED headlights, and a 10.0-inch touchscreen infotainment system. The Defender 90 comes with coil springs, a standard front jump seat that adds a third seating position to the front row. Models with front bucket seats can be equipped with a wide centre console. The car debuts Jaguar Land Rover's Pivi Pro infotainment system, accessed through a 10-inch touch screen.


title: Land Rover Defender (L663)

text: Land Rover announced that a commercial edition of the vehicle, without rear seats or rear side windows, was to go on sale in 2020. It won't be imported to the United States, due to the 25% chicken tax that directly curtails the importation of commercial vehicles from Europe.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Bacary Sagna (born 14 February 1983) is a French former professional footballer who played as a right back and is mostly known for his time at Arsenal. He also played for the France national football team.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Sagna's former manager at Arsenal, Arsène Wenger, once described him as the best right-back in the Premier League. In addition to him regularly featuring as a wing-back, he played as a centre-back for Arsenal on several occasions.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Sagna began his career at Auxerre, before transferring to Arsenal for £7 million in 2007. In 2014, shortly after winning the FA Cup, his first trophy at the club, he made a move to Manchester City.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: A full international from 2007 to 2016, he was selected by France for two FIFA World Cup tournaments and one UEFA European Championship.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: In 1998, he moved to AJ Auxerre's youth team. Eventually, he was promoted to the first team and he made 87 Ligue 1 appearances for them. He was part of the squad that won the Coupe de France in 2005. He also played in the UEFA Cup in each of his three seasons with the club's first team, making a total of 17 appearances in the competition. He was also voted into the Ligue 1 team of the season for his outstanding displays at the right back position. He played in the same Auxerre team as Abou Diaby, a future Arsenal teammate, and Watford centre-back Younès Kaboul. Sagna established himself as one of the best full backs of the French top tier and thus became dubbed "Mr. Reliable" by the club's fans. He also won Auxerre's Player of the Year award for the 2006–07 season.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: On 12 July 2007, Sagna completed a move to Arsenal from Auxerre for an undisclosed fee, thought to have been an initial €9 million that could have risen to €11 million. He was given the number 3 shirt, previously worn by former defender Ashley Cole.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Sagna made his debut for Arsenal on 19 July 2007 as a starter in the squad that beat Turkish club Gençlerbirliği 3–0 in a friendly at Austria's Bad Waltersdorf Stadion.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: On 13 February 2008, exactly one week before Arsenal were set to play the second leg of their round of 16 encounter against Milan in the Champions League, Sagna's older brother, Omar Sagna, died at the age of 28, one day before his birthday. He, however, did play the match after he was advised to by his father. Arsenal went on to win the second leg 0–2 with the same scoreline on aggregate.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: On 23 March, Sagna tallied his first Premier League goal off a low header from a corner kick to give Arsenal a 1–0 lead against London rivals Chelsea at Stamford Bridge, but later went off injured before Chelsea came back to win the game 2–1. At the end of the season, he was named in the PFA Team of the Year.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Sagna signed a new deal with Arsenal before the start of the 2008–09 season. Arsenal signed him for a further two years, taking his contract up to 2014. Sagna stated, "I love Arsenal, it's a great club," and further added, "The manager is also very good and next season we will be fighting for all the trophies." He stunningly saved Arsenal in a 2–2 draw against Aston Villa when he jumped and kicked the ball away so that Arsenal would go into half time with the lead.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Sagna struggled to replicate his form from the previous two seasons as injuries also prevented him from contributing to the team in the same way. He provided many assists though, his most important contribution arguably being the cross to striker Nicklas Bendtner, who gave Arsenal the 1–0 lead in the 94th minute against Wolverhampton Wanderers. Despite this, however, Sagna was linked away from the club with various teams, including Serie A's Internazionale, seemingly interested in taking the defender away from London.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Sagna scored his first goal at the Emirates Stadium for Arsenal against Celtic, a game in which Arsenal went on to win 3–2 and win the Emirates Cup for the second consecutive year. He made his 100th league start for Arsenal on 3 October 2010, a 2–0 defeat against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge. On 14 November, he scored only his second ever official goal for Arsenal in a 2–1 away victory against Everton at Goodison Park, with a powerful shot from the near post. On 8 December 2010, Sagna picked up his first red card in his Arsenal career in a 3–1 home victory against Serbian club Partizan in Arsenal's final Champions League group game of the season.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: On 1 January 2011, in a match with Birmingham City, he was involved in an incident where Lee Bowyer stamped on him after Sagna had gone in for a tackle. Bowyer was banned by the FA for three games for the stamp. On 5 January, Sagna picked up his second red card of the season after he and Manchester City fullback Pablo Zabaleta headbutted each other in the final moments of Arsenal's 0–0 draw with City at Emirates Stadium. On 19 January, Sagna scored his second goal of the season with Arsenal's second goal in their 3–1 victory over Leeds United at Elland Road in a third round replay. This was Sagna's career best for goal-scoring, his previous best coming in the 2007–08 season where scored only once. Sagna was included in the PFA Team of the Year for his performance in the 2010–11 season.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: On 13 August 2011, Sagna started and played the full 90 minutes against Newcastle United at St James' Park in a 0–0 draw on the opening day of the 2011–12 Premier League season. On Saturday 20 August, he started at left-back and played the full 90 minutes in a 2–0 defeat at the hands of a Liverpool side that picked up its first win over the Gunners away from home in 11 years. On 28 August, Sagna missed Arsenal's game against Manchester United at Old Trafford due to illness.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Sagna sustained a leg break during a match against North London rivals Tottenham Hotspur after a challenge by Benoît Assou-Ekotto forced him to land awkwardly. On 29 January 2012, Sagna came off the bench against Aston Villa as an 89th-minute substitute to mark his comeback. On 26 February 2012, he started in the North London derby against Spurs, scoring a header from a Mikel Arteta cross and inspiring Arsenal to come back from being 2–0 down to go on and win 5–2. He unfortunately sustained another leg break of the same leg in the final home match of the season against Norwich City, which ruled him out of UEFA Euro 2012 in June 2012.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: In October 2012, Sagna marked his return to the first team by starting in Arsenal's 1–0 victory over Queens Park Rangers. On 3 November, he started and played the full 90 minutes at right-back against Manchester United at Old Trafford, a 2–1 league defeat. In his absence with a broken leg, Carl Jenkinson started for Arsenal and earned rave reviews, but Sagna continued to be Arsenal's first-choice right back upon his return. On 9 February 2013, due to an injury to centre-back Laurent Koscielny during warm-ups, Sagna was forced to fill in as a central defender against Sunderland. He helped a ten-man Arsenal win 1–0. On 28 April 2013, Sagna committed a mistimed tackle inside the penalty box on Robin van Persie in a 1–1 home draw against Manchester United, conceding a penalty to bring the score level after a second-minute Arsenal goal from Theo Walcott.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Sagna remained Arsenal's first choice right-back at the start of the season, fighting off competition from Carl Jenkinson. He scored his first goal of the season, his fifth in Arsenal colours, against Stoke City on 22 September, heading in Mesut Özil's free-kick, securing a 3–1 win for the Gunners. On 17 May, Sagna started in the 2014 FA Cup Final as Arsenal beat Hull City 3–2 at Wembley Stadium, his first trophy at the club.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: It was announced on 27 May that Sagna would not extend his contract with the Gunners, which was set to expire at the end of the season. Although Arsenal offered him a two-year extension, Sagna was believed to be "90 per cent certain" of leaving the Emirates, thus rejecting the contract extension. Additional sources understand that Manchester City and a number of top clubs in Europe had expressed an interest in signing him. Sagna said he did not sign a new deal with Arsenal because "the discussions did not go in the direction that he wanted".


title: Bacary Sagna

text: It was announced on 13 June 2014 that Sagna had agreed to a deal with Manchester City to join the reigning Premier League champions after his contract with Arsenal was set to expire on 30 June. He was City's first signing of the summer and signed a three-year deal, taking the number 3 shirt. He left the club at the end of his contract in June 2017.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: On 3 February 2018, Sagna signed with Serie A side Benevento Calcio for six months and a year in option. On 29 April, Sagna scored his sole goal for Benevento with 90th-minute header in their 3–3 draw to Udinese.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: On 8 August 2018, Sagna signed with Montreal Impact in Major League Soccer for the remainder of the 2018 season, with an option for 2019. Although the option was not taken up, Sagna subsequently signed a one-year contract to stay with the club for the 2019 season.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Sagna has previously represented the French under-21 team, with whom he also participated at the 2006 European Under-21 Championship.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: At age 17 Sagna wished to join up with the Senegalese national team, stating, "I wanted to play for Senegal when I was 17, but they didn't reply. So I was a bit disappointed. But when I started playing for Auxerre for the first team, they contacted me and I had a game on the same day with the French national team under 21s so I had to make a choice."


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Sagna received his first senior international cap for France on 22 August 2007 in a friendly match against Slovakia on the road, which they won 1–0, coming on as a substitute for François Clerc after one hour of play. He went on to make his competitive debut for France in their 6–0 away win at the Faroe Islands on 13 October 2007 in the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers, playing all 90 minutes. It was his only appearance in the Euro 2008 qualifying. He was not a candidate to join the French team at the Euro 2008 finals in Austria and Switzerland as he was still recovering from the injury sustained in Arsenal's Premier League match at Chelsea in March 2008.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: After recovering from the injury, Sagna returned to the French team for their friendly match against Sweden in August 2008, playing all 90 minutes in a 3–2 away win. He went on to become a regular in the French team's qualifying campaign for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. He was also a part of the disastrous French World Cup campaign when the team crashed out at the group stage after losing 2–1 against hosts South Africa.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: Bacary Sagna was born in Sens, France to Senegalese parents. He is a Muslim. In 2010, he married French-Algerian model Ludivine Kadri with whom he already had a son named Elias (born in 2009). In 2013, Kadri gave birth to the couple's second son Kais.


title: Bacary Sagna

text: On 31 March 2011, Sagna became an ambassador for Grassroot Soccer, an international non-profit that uses the power of football to educate, inspire, and mobilise communities to stop the spread of HIV.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: Queen Alia International Airport () is an international airport located in Zizya, 30 kilometers (18 miles) south of Amman, Jordan's capital city, as well as the largest city in the nation. The largest airport in the country, it is named after Queen Alia, who died in a helicopter crash in 1977. The airport is home to the country's national flag carrier, Royal Jordanian Airlines, and serves as a significant hub for Jordan Aviation.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: A new terminal was opened in March 2013 to replace the airport's older two passenger terminals and one cargo terminal. The three original terminals were made obsolete once the new terminal officially began operations. In 2014, the new airport received the "Best Improvement by Region: Middle East" and "Best Airport by Region: Middle East" awards by the Airport Council International. The awards are given to the airports which achieved the highest customer satisfaction in the ASQ Survey.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: Queen Alia International Airport (QAIA) was built in 1983 in response to the growing airport traffic needs that Amman Civil Airport could not accommodate. At the time, passenger traffic was increasing at a rate above the international average, recording 25–30% growth per annum and placing considerable pressure on airport facilities despite continuous expansion and development. In 1981, the number of arriving, departing, and transit passengers exceeded 2.3 million, while cargo traffic reached 62,000 tonnes and aircraft traffic topped 27,000 movements.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: The Jordanian Ministry of Transport undertook the building of a new international airport with sufficient capacity to cope with demand in the foreseeable future. QAIA was built at an estimated total cost of JOD 84 million. Passenger facilities were designed to serve 3.5 million passengers per annum.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: QAIA has since grown to become the kingdom's primary international gateway and a stop-over for international airlines in the Middle East. By 2012, QAIA was serving on average more than 6 million passengers and 40 airlines from around the world.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: In 2007, the Government of Jordan selected Airport International Group (AIG) through an open tender to operate, rehabilitate and manage QAIA under a 25-year concession agreement. In response to the continual surge in passenger traffic at the time, AIG was also placed in charge of constructing a new terminal, one which not only would expand the airport's then insufficient annual capacity of 3.5 million passengers, but that would also introduce a "unique travel experience" to help advance QAIA's position as a niche transit hub in the region.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: The new terminal also accommodates rising annual passenger traffic, taking the original airport capacity from 3.5 million passengers per year to 7.5 million.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: Inaugurated by King Abdullah II on 14 March 2013, the new airport was launched officially following an overnight operational transfer. The last flight departed from the old terminal at 10:05 pm on 20 March 2013, upon which all operations were shifted to the new terminal, where its first flight departed at 2:30 am on 21 March 2013.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: On 20 January 2014, AIG launched the second phase of QAIA's expansion, valued at a total cost of over $100 million USD.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: In 2016, the second expansion phase, costing $1 billion, was completed raising QAIA's annual passenger traffic capacity to 12 million, supporting Jordan's national tourism strategy to serve as a regional transit hub for leisure and business travel. The aim is to boost its capacity to 16 million passengers annually by the end of the concession time frame in 2032. Following the airport expansion, Emirates operated a one-off Airbus A380 service to Amman, celebrating 30 years of Emirates' operation to Jordan. The superjumbo (registration A6-EUC) operated EK901/EK902 on 25 September 2016, and it was the first-ever A380 service to the Levant. Since then, Emirates has continued daily A380 service to Amman through EK903/EK904.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: On 14 March 2020, it was announced by the Jordanian Ministry of Health that "...all flights to and from the Kingdom will be suspended from Tuesday, 17 March 2020, until further notice, excluding commercial freight traffic." The airport had been closed to passenger traffic since 17 March 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, several Royal Jordanian flights were commissioned to return Jordanian citizens, especially students, back to Jordan during the pandemic if they desired.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: On 8 September 2020, the airport was reopened for commercial flights but was subject to strict health and safety regulations. On 1 March 2022, all travel restrictions regarding the COVID-19 pandemic were subsequently lifted.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: QAIA's new design was created by architects Foster + Partners. The roof was inspired by Bedouin tents and is composed of 127 concrete domes, each weighing up to 600 metric tonnes.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: The airport has three lounges, one operated by Royal Jordanian for business and first-class passengers, one operated by Airport Hotel next to the North Concourse, and the last exclusively run by telecom operator Zain Jordan for its VIP customers. Retail space was expanded by 25% at the new terminal, covering more than . The terminal houses several international food and beverage venues. In addition to restaurants and supermarkets, the terminal also includes a nuts roastery, a large Duty-Free area, a children's play area, shopping outlets, and internet connectivity.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: Airport International Group (AIG) is a French company formed to rehabilitate, expand, and operate Queen Alia International Airport under a 25-year Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) concession agreement. The concession was awarded to AIG in 2007 by the Government of Jordan after an open international tender that was overseen by the International Finance Corporation of the World Bank acting as an advisor to the Government. AIG's shareholders are French, Persian Gulf, and Palestinian partners. As of 2018, 51% of the shares are owned by Aéroports de Paris (ADP). The other shareholders are Meridiam Eastern Europe Investments (32%), Mena Airport Holding Ltd. (funded by the IDB; 12.75%), and the EDGO Group (owned by the al-Masri family; 4.75%).


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: Through the BOT public-private partnership framework, the Government retains ownership of the airport and receives 54.47% of the airport's gross revenues for the first six years and 54.64% of the gross revenues for the remaining 19 years of the agreement's 25-year term.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: As part of its public-private partnership with the Government of Jordan, AIG closely collaborates with the Government on a day-to-day basis on all issues related to the airport. A dedicated project management unit within the Jordanian Ministry of Transport oversees the project for the Government. The Ministry of Transport receives complete annual financial statements and quarterly financial and operational reports.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: The global "Airport Service Quality (ASQ) Survey" for Q1 2014 ranked QAIA first place in 18 different service and facility categories from ten airports across the Middle East. QAIA also came in at 13th place from amongst 81 airports worldwide within the group of airports serving 5-15 million passengers and recorded an Overall Satisfaction Score of 4.42 out of a possible 5.0, an improvement compared to its 4.23 score in Q4 2013. Regarding luggage delivery speed, QAIA earned a 4.13 score, up from 3.99 during the previous quarter.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: QAIA also received two 2013 Airport Service Quality (ASQ) Awards in February 2014, ranking at first place in the category of "Best Improvement by Region: Middle East" and 5th in the category of "Best Airport by Region: Middle East." The ASQ Awards results were based on the ASQ Survey, an international airport passenger satisfaction benchmark program. In the 2014 version of the awards, QAIA again received the "Best Improvement In the Middle East region" award and leaped forward to become the best airport in the middle east, ahead of Abu Dhabi International Airport, Ben Gurion International Airport, Hamad International Airport and Dubai International Airport.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: In March 2013, QAIA was named one of the world's top 40 Public–private partnership PPP projects, receiving Gold recognition as "Best Emerging Market Infrastructure Project for Europe, Central Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa" in "Emerging Partnerships". The winning PPPs, selected from among projects nominated by governments, industry, NGOs, academia and other organizations following a global call for submissions, demonstrated best practices for governments working with the private sector to provide a wide range of public services and to spur economic development in their countries.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: In June 2013, QAIA became the second airport in the Middle East to achieve the "Mapping" level of the Airport Carbon Accreditation program run by Airports Council International Europe. The 'Mapping' level recognizes the airport's commitment to determining its carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emission sources at its operational boundary, as well as to engaging a third party to verify the airport's annual carbon footprint.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: The airport is connected to Amman by Sariyah shuttle buses that ply back and forth between Amman and the airport every 30 minutes.


title: Queen Alia International Airport

text: An airport taxi service is also available around the clock. Car rental is also available at the airport.


title: Alok Nath

text: Alok Nath (born 10 July 1956) is an Indian film character actor known for his work in Hindi cinema and television. He made his film debut with the 1982 English (and Hindi) film "Gandhi", directed by Sir Richard Attenborough, which won an Oscar Academy Award for Best Picture that year. He appeared in the soap opera, Buniyaad, which took the country by storm in 1986. He was also in "Rishtey", which aired from 1999 to 2001. He appeared in Star Plus serials like Sapna Babul Ka...Bidaai, "Yahaaan Main Ghar Ghar Kheli" and "Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai". Nath was born in Khagaria (Bihar) on 10 July 1956. Nath has a sister, Vineeta Malik, she is known for the portrayal of the character Bhairavi in the television series "Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai".


title: Alok Nath

text: In December 2013, jokes and memes based on characters played by Alok Nath started trending on social media and spread quickly. "The Curious Case of Alok Nath - Why did Alok Nath Trend on Twitter", a case-study to analyze the content which led to the interest in Nath, became popular on 4 January 2014. Reacting to the jokes, the actor admitted that he liked most of them.


title: Alok Nath

text: Nath was accused of rape by writer-producer Vinda Nanda and sexual misconduct by multiple women during the Indian Me Too movement in 2018 and he was charged with rape by the Mumbai Police.


title: Alok Nath

text: In October 2018, amidst India's Me too movement, Alok Nath was accused of rape by TV producer Vinta Nanda who worked with him in the TV show Tara in the mid-90s. Alok Nath denied the allegation. Subsequently, actresses Renuka Shahane, Himani Shivpuri, Sandhya Mridul, Deepika Amin, and an anonymous Hum Saath-Saath Hain crew member have either admitted to knowing about Nath's predatory behaviour or written about instances where they themselves have been assaulted by him.


title: Alok Nath

text: On 15 October 2018, Nath sued Nanda for defamation, asking for a written apology and Re 1 as compensation. He has filed the case jointly with his wife Ashu Nath.


title: Alok Nath

text: On 1 March 2019, Mumbai Mirror reported that Alok Nath portrayed a judge in a movie based on the Me Too movement.


title: Alok Nath

text: On 11 August 2019, "India Today" reported that rape case against Alok Nath by Vinta Nanda has been closed due to lack of evidence.


title: Santander, Spain

text: Santander () is the capital of the autonomous community and historical region of Cantabria situated on the north coast of Spain. It is a port city located east of Gijón and west of Bilbao with a population of 172,000 (2017).


title: Santander, Spain

text: It is believed to have been a port since ancient times, due to its favorable location, and is documented as far back as the 11th century. Much of the medieval city was lost in the Great Fire of 1941. Today, its remaining old town, beach and other attractions are popular with tourists and other visitors and its economy is mainly service based. The port is still very active and a regular ferry service operates to the United Kingdom. Fish and seafood dominate the local cuisine. Santander notably houses the headquarters of multinational bank Banco Santander, which was founded there. The city has a mild climate typical of the Spanish northern coastline with frequent rainfall and stable temperatures. Cold snaps and heat waves are very rare.


title: Santander, Spain

text: The origin of the earliest human settlements in the current Santander is not easy to establish because there is little written and archaeological data. However, there would appear to be good practical reasons for ancient settlers to have chosen the north side of the bay, sheltered from it and safer from the storms of the Bay of Biscay, on the north side of the promontory of Somorrostro and along the ancient Becedo estuary. Moreover, the hillside provided good visibility for spotting potential attackers, making this the ideal place for the foundation of a stable settlement, which was to evolve throughout the Middle Ages.


title: Santander, Spain

text: Although it is mentioned for the first time in 1068, in a draft document made by King Sancho II, in the 9th century Alfonso II the Chaste founded the Abbey of the Holy Bodies in the existing chapel on the hill of Somorrostro, housing as holy relics the heads of Saint Emeterius and Saint Celedonius and the graves of other unknown martyrs, giving the abbey its name.


title: Santander, Spain

text: During the 12th and 13th centuries the population was contained within the walls of two different pueblas. La Puebla, the older, on the hill overlooking the city facing the bay, included the old castle, the Abbey of the Holy Bodies and the cloister. It had three rows of houses, separated by Rua Carnicerias and Rua Mayor, where the homes of prominent people of the town were, as well as those of the Abbot's canons. Meanwhile, the Puebla Nueva contained the convent of Santa Clara and San Francisco, which gave its name to one of the main streets; other important streets were the Rua de la Sal, The cavalcade Palace, Ribera, Don Gutierre, Puerta de la Sierra, Gallows and the Arcillero Rua. The two pueblas were joined by a bridge over the river that divided Becedo and flowed down to the shipyards, which were ordered by the king to take timber from the Cantabrian forests for shipbuilding. The villa was required to give the monarchy a ship per year.


title: Santander, Spain

text: The city owes its existence to the excellent harbour of the Bay of Santander. Santander was an important port for Castile in the later Middle Ages, and also for trade with the New World. It officially became a city in 1755.


title: Santander, Spain

text: On 3 November 1893 a steamship, , caught fire while she was being unloaded at a pier in the heart of the city. A crowd of 2,000 to 3,000 people watched as crew and firefighters fought the fire. About 40 tonnes of dynamite being carried in her forward holds exploded, killing about 590 people, injuring about 2,000, sinking the ship and destroying at least 65 buildings near the harbour.


title: Santander, Spain

text: On 21 March 1894 a salvage diver working to salvage cargo from "Cabo Machichaco"s wreck accidentally detonated about 11 tonnes of dynamite that were submerged in the after hold of the ship. 18 people were killed and 11 injured.


title: Santander, Spain

text: Santander fell victim to a great fire in 1941. Fanned by a strong south wind, the fire burned for two days. The fire started in Cádiz Street, next to the harbour, the Cathedral and the medieval quarter. The fire destroyed the Old Town Hall, Jesús de Monasterio and Vargas streets and Atarazanas square buildings. It led to a major change in the architecture of Santander, away from the older small stone and wood buildings with balconies to the enormous blocks of flats built during the reconstruction.


title: Santander, Spain

text: There was only one casualty of the fire, a firefighter from Madrid killed in the line of duty, but thousands of families were left homeless and the city was plunged into chaos. The fire destroyed the greater part of the medieval town centre and gutted the city's Romanesque cathedral.


title: Santander, Spain

text: The city of Santander has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfb"), the annual thermal oscillation of the average monthly temperatures reaching around 10 °C (18 °F).


title: Santander, Spain

text: The maximum temperature reached in Santander Airport was on 27 June 2009, and the minimum temperature on 21 January 1957. The warmest maximum daytime average for a month was in August 2003, with . Warm months (mean above ) are however rare. The warmest temperature recorded in downtown is in August 1940.


title: Santander, Spain

text: Sunshine hours are very low by comparison with the rest of mainland and southern Spain. Even compared with other areas of northern Spain, such as Galicia, which have much more sunshine hours in coastal cities such as Vigo or Pontevedra. With just around 1650 hours of sunshine, Santander's southern areas are about as sunny as London and Paris, and quite a bit less sunny than most of England's south coastal regions. The area closer to the coast has higher sunshine time but lower summer afternoon temperatures.


title: Santander, Spain

text: The bars and restaurants of the old town are popular with tourists, as well as the El Sardinero beach a couple of kilometres away.


title: Santander, Spain

text: The Cathedral of Santander: The lower temple, called "cripta del Cristo" was built around 1200 on other earlier Roman buildings. It is long and wide, organised into three naves. Its style is a transition from Romanesque to Gothic.


title: Santander, Spain

text: Parque de la Vaguada de las Llamas is one of the largest parks in northern Spain, covering of the city.


title: Santander, Spain

text: As a service centre at the regional level, Santander contains important public institutions and private organisations with a large number of employees, including Marqués de Valdecilla University Hospital, the University of Cantabria and Grupo Santander. Activities related to culture, leisure and tourism are an important part of the city's economy, and the regional and municipal authorities look to augment the summer tourist trade with additional offerings, including conventions, conferences, cultural festivals and cruises. Banco Santander, Spain's largest bank and corporation, has had its legal headquarters located in the city since its foundation.


title: Santander, Spain

text: There are ferry services to and from Portsmouth and Plymouth in the United Kingdom and Cork in Ireland, all operated by Brittany Ferries. Santander railway station serves three million annual passengers.


title: Santander, Spain

text: The city is served by the Seve Ballesteros–Santander Airport (SDR), located south of the city centre.


title: Santander, Spain

text: Santander has a great tradition and cultural activity, with events that play an important role in cultural and social life of the city. UIMP is a major international summer university and organizes large festivals of music and dance. The Festival Internacional de Santander (FIS), Festival Internacional de Música de Órgano (FiMÓC), Encuentro de Música y Academia and the Paloma O'Shea International Piano Competition are main cultural events.


title: Santander, Spain

text: Santander's cuisine is characteristic of Cantabria in that it is based mainly on seafood. Popular shellfish include "almejas" (clams) and "navajas" (razor clams); fish include seabream, red mullet, anchovies, seabass and sardines; and squid and cuttlefish are also commonly eaten.


title: Santander, Spain

text: Some typical dishes from the city of Santander are the fried calamari called "rabas", double donuts, bean stew called "cocido montañés", and seafood dishes ranging from seabass and sardine to products such as "morguera".


title: Santander, Spain

text: Racing de Santander is the main football team in the city, playing their home games at the Campos de Sport de El Sardinero.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: San Luis Potosí (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of San Luis Potosí (), is one of the 32 states which compose the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and its capital city is San Luis Potosí City.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Located in Central Mexico, San Luis Potosí is bordered by seven other Mexican states: Nuevo León to the north; Tamaulipas to the north-east; Veracruz to the east; Hidalgo, Querétaro and Guanajuato to the south; and Zacatecas to north-west. In addition to the capital city, other major cities in the state include Ciudad Valles, Matehuala, Rioverde, and Tamazunchale.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: In pre-Columbian times, the territory now occupied by the state of San Luis Potosí contained parts of the cultural areas of Mesoamerica and Aridoamerica. Its northern and western-central areas were inhabited by the Otomi and Chichimeca tribes. These indigenous groups were nomadic hunter-gatherers. Although many indigenous people died during Spanish colonization, Huasteco groups still live, along with Pame and Náhua peoples.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: In 1592, gold and silver deposits were discovered, which triggered the establishment of the state. Spanish miners established the first town known as “San Luis de Mezquitique”, modern location of the capital San Luis Potosí. This led to Juan de Oñate being appointed as the first mayor.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The State was given the name "San Luis Rey", "King Saint Louis", in honor of Louis IX of France, and "Potosí" because the wealth of the state compared to the rich silver mines in Potosí, Bolivia. Settlers had hopes of rivaling the Bolivian mine wealth, but this was never truly accomplished. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Franciscans, Augustinians, and Jesuits arrived in the area and settled, then began to build churches and buildings, many of which are still standing and have been turned into museums and universities.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: In mid-1821, after the Independence of Mexico, General Jose Antonio Echavarri intimidated and threatened the Mayor and the City Council to surrender the city of San Luis to the Army of the Three Guarantees of Agustín de Iturbide (Ejercito de las Tres Garantias de Iturbide), who at the time was emperor of Mexico. They submitted to his demand, as there was no way to resist, and thus proclamation of Independence of San Luis Potosí was declared. The first Constitution of San Luis Potosí was then written on October 16, 1826, and this was in effect until 1835 when Congress proclaimed it centralist. At this point, local legislatures disappeared and state governors were appointed by the central government. This situation lasted until the promulgation of the 1857 Constitution.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The state participation in the Mexican–American War in the years of 1846-1847 gave it the name "San Luis de la Patria", which translates into English, "Saint Louis of the Homeland", for having contributed important leaders and ideas during the struggle with the United States. During the Reform War, state involvement was very prominent, and during the French Intervention in 1863, the city of San Luis Potosí became the capital of the country under the order of President Benito Juárez.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: During the regime of Maximilian, San Luis became an important location. The city was held by the Imperialists until late 1866. In that year, the telegraph line was opened between San Luis Potosí and Mexico City, which opened up communication lines and helped begin the industrialization of the state.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The state lies mostly on the Mexican Plateau, with the exception of the eastern part of the state, where the tableland breaks down into the tropical valley of the Tampaon River (which continues flowing northwestward until it becomes the Pánuco River, which divides San Luis Potosí from the north-eastern state of Tamaulipas). The surface of the plateau is comparatively level, with some low mountainous wooded ridges. The Sierra Madre Oriental runs north and south through the state, and separates the Mexican Plateau from the Gulf Coastal Plain to the east. The Sierra Madre Oriental is home to the Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests. The easternmost portion of the state lies on the Gulf Coastal Plain, and covered by the Veracruz moist forests. The eastern part is included in the region commonly referred to as "La Huasteca".


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The Tampaón river and its tributaries drain the southern and southeastern portion of the state. The northern and central portion of the state, including the capital, lie on an interior drainage basin which does not drain to the sea.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The mean elevation is about 6,000 ft ensuring a temperate climate for the most part. The state lies partly within the arid zone of the north, while the southern half receiving more rainfall through the influence of the Nortes, which deliver significant amounts of rain. The rainfall, however, is uncertain at the western and northern regions, and much of the state does not have major rivers. The soil is fertile and in favorable seasons large crops of wheat, maize, beans and cotton are grown on the uplands. In the low tropical valleys, sugar, coffee, tobacco, peppers and fruit are staple products. Livestock is an important industry and hides, tallow and wool are exported. Fine cabinet and construction woods are also made and exported to a limited extent.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Potosí (in Bolivia) was believed to have enough gold to build a bridge between Potosí and Spain. San Luis Potosí was compared to it upon the discovery of the mines and therefore named after it.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: At one time San Luis Potosí ranked among the leading mining provinces of Mexico, but the revolts following independence resulted in a great decline in that industry. The area around Real de Catorce has some of the richest silver mines in the country. Other well-known silver mining districts are Peñón Blanco, Ramos and Guadalcázar. The development of Guadalcazar dates from 1620 and its ores yield gold, copper, zinc and bismuth, as well as silver. In the Ramos district, the Cocinera lode was said to have had a total yield of over $60,000,000 in the first decade of the 20th century.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The State of San Luis Potosí is divided into 58 municipalities (), each headed by a municipal president (mayor). These are similar in function to counties. Is it so divided into four zones municipalities Altiplano (Highlands), Centro (centre), Media and Huasteca zone


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The state has several protected elements included in the federal system of protected areas administered by the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP):


title: San Luis Potosí

text: It also has a declared place Ramsar site (n. Ref 1766, declared in 2008), Arrochas y Manantiales de Tanchachín.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: In addition, it has 12 other natural areas protected by state competition managed by the SEGAM (Secretariat of Ecology and Environmental Management):


title: San Luis Potosí

text: In 1996, Minera San Xavier (MSX), a subsidiary of Canadian company New Gold, announced plans to start open pit mining at Cerro San Pedro. There was major opposition to the project, but in 2007, the mine started operating, and was still both active and disputed as of 2016.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: One of the mountains within the state's declared National Sacred Site, Wirikuta, is being purchased for silver mining by a Canadian company, First Majestic Silver . The mountain is an important site for the Huichol ceremonial migration, Peyote hunt, and deer dance. On October 27, 2000 United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) claimed this site as a protected area for its importance as a cultural route and endemic flora and fauna species. Later on June 9, 2001, it was declared as a National Sacred Site under the State of San Luis Potosí's Natural Protection act. Canada's First Majestic Silver Corp still decided to purchase mineral rights on November 13, 2009, with 80% of their interest within the protected land. The company's current methods includes open pit mining and leaching through cyanide, using two kilograms of NaCN per tonne of ore. While open pit mining itself removes entire habitats and landscapes, the addition of sodium cyanide (with a mean lethal dose of only 0.2 grams) is potentially lethal. In April 2010 the company also opened a new cyanidation plant in Coahila, Mexico where it has started producing 3500 tons of cyanide a day to help them expand their mining efforts. Currently the Huichol people are trying to find outside groups to help them in the conservation of their land and culture by protecting this mountain.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The coat of arms of the state shows Louis IX of France, after whom the state was named, standing on a hill in the town of Cerro de San Pedro, where gold and silver were discovered. The state was well known for its gold and silver mines, so there are two gold bars on the left and two silver bars on the right. The blue and yellow backgrounds represent night and day, respectively.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The State has a unique position within the country, since it is located in between three major cities; Mexico City, Monterrey, and Guadalajara, and near four major ports; Tampico, Altamira, Manzanillo, and Mazatlán. Its varied climate patterns and territory along with extensive communications networks enabled it to maintain attractive business environments.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Traditionally, the Real de Minas potosino has driven the industrial engines in the state of San Luis Potosí, and as such, nowadays basic metallurgy still has the largest contribution within the gross domestic product of the entity. The main metals and products extracted across mines are zinc, copper, lead, gold, silver, mercury, manganese, and arsenic. Other major industries following the mining lead are in the sectors of chemicals, foods, beverages, tobacco, and textiles.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The services sector, also known as tertiary, is second regarding contribution to the state's income with a 21%, followed by commerce, hotels and restaurants with 18%.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Agriculture has been a traditional activity, sometimes still practiced in the Huasteca region. Currently, even if it contributes very little to the state GDP, it nevertheless employs as much as 20% of the EAP of the entity. The main agricultural products grown on Potosí soil are maize, beans, barley, sugar cane, oranges, coffee, sour lemon, prickly pear, and mango. Livestock activities are focused on raising sheep, cattle, and pigs.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The state is also a contributor to the large automotive industry of Mexico. General Motors now has a plant under construction, San Luis Potosí Assembly, to employ up to 1,800 people which will have the capacity to produce up to 160,000 vehicles per year, or about 440 cars per day.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Cummins has also had a manufacturing presence in San Luis Potosí since 1980 and employs nearly 2,000 people there.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: ABB Group multinational in Mexico moved its headquarters from Mexico City to San Luis Potosí in 2007.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Throughout the state, major industrial parks can be seen, especially in highly urbanized areas such as the capital, San Luis Potosí, and other major cities.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The state of San Luis Potosí reports a population of 2,822,255 people. The population growth rate from 2010 to 2013 was about 3.6%.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The state's population is relatively young, 60% of its residents being under 30 years of age. The state reports a life expectancy rate similar to the national average, that is, 72 years for men, and 77 years of age for women.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Regarding cultural and ethnic diversity, 15% of the state population is indigenous, and the most representative language is Nahuatl, followed by Huasteco. The native people of the state include the Huastec and Pame peoples.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: According to the 2020 Census, 44.8% of San Luis Potosí's population identified as Indigenous, 8.2% Afro-Mexican, and 39.1% Spanish descent and 7.9% mix/other.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Concerning immigrants and people of European ancestry, 63% of the population has some form of European roots, mostly from Spain. During the colonization and establishment of Mexico, there was a constant flow of Spanish immigrants. There have also been large influxes during instabilities in Spain, such as during the Spanish Civil War. Besides Spanish people, there is also a significant population of descendants of Italian immigrants, especially in cities such as Rio Verde and Cerritos. Most of the European peoples have arrived through the state of Veracruz to the East.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Nonetheless, due to its relative isolation, the state is one of the nine states in Mexico which report high rates of migration into the United States between the years of 2000 to 2008.


title: San Luis Potosí

text: The average schooling rate for those over 15 years of age lies at 7.7 years of education, considerably lower than the 8.1 found nationally. The same portion of those older than the age of 15 yield a 28% dropout rate of primary school. Children under the age of 14 years have a 4% school dropout rate. The literacy rate is about 90.8%, most of the illiterate being the older generation. There is only one major university in the state, Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí (UASLP).


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Newspapers of San Luis Potosí include: "Diario Regional El Mañana de Valles", "El Sol de San Luis", "Esto del Centro", "Gran Diario Regional Zona Media El Mañana de Rioverde", "La Jornada de San Luis", "La Prensa del Centro", and "Pulso Diario de San Luis."


title: San Luis Potosí

text: Ponciano Arriaga International Airport serves the capital of San Luis Potosí (named the same) with a variety of domestic and international daily flights. Other cities such as Matehuala, Tamuin and Rioverde also have airports but they only serve domestic flights.