title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The policy of nationalising the coal mines had been accepted in principle by owners and miners alike before the elections of 1945. The owners were paid £165,000,000. The government set up the National Coal Board to manage the coal mines; and it loaned it £150,000,000 to modernise the system. The general condition of the coal industry had been unsatisfactory for many years, with poor productivity. In 1945, there were 28% more workers in the coal mines than in 1890, but the annual output was only 8% greater. Young people avoided the pits; between 1931 and 1945 the percentage of miners more than 40 years old rose from 35% to 43%, and 24,000 over 65 years old. The number of surface workers decreased between 1938 and 1945 by only 3,200, but in that same time the number of underground workers declined by 69,600, substantially altering the balance of labour in the mines. That accidents, breakdowns, and repairs in the mines were nearly twice as costly in terms of production in 1945 as they had been in 1939 was probably a by-product of the war. Output in 1946 averaged 3,300,000 tons weekly. By summer 1946 it was clear that the country was facing a coal shortage for the upcoming winter with stock piles of 5 million tons too low. Nationalisation exposed both a lack of preparation for public ownership and a failure to stabilize the industry in advance of the change. Also lacking were any significant incentives to maintain or increase coal production to meet demand.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The 1950s and 1960s were prosperous times and saw continued modernisation of the economy. Representative was the construction of the first motorways, for example. Britain maintained and increased its financial role in the world economy, and used the English language to promote its educational system to students from around the globe. Unemployment was relatively low during this period, and the standard of living continued to rise, with more new private and council housing developments and the number of slum properties diminishing. Churchill and the Conservatives were back in power following the 1951 elections, but they largely continued the welfare state policies as set out by the Labour Party in the late 1940s.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: During the "golden age" of the 1950s and 1960s, unemployment in Britain averaged only 2%. As prosperity returned, Britons became more family centred. Leisure activities became more accessible to more people after the war. Holiday camps, which had first opened in the 1930s, became popular holiday destinations in the 1950s – and people increasingly had the money to pursue their personal hobbies. The BBC's early television service was given a major boost in 1952 with the coronation of Elizabeth II, attracting a worldwide audience of twenty million, plus tens of millions more by radio, proving an impetus for middle-class people to buy televisions. In 1950, just 1% owned television sets; by 1965 25% did. As austerity receded after 1950 and consumer demand kept growing, the Labour Party hurt itself by shunning consumerism as the antithesis of the socialism it demanded.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Small neighbourhood shops were increasingly replaced by chain stores and shopping centres, with their wide variety of goods, smart advertising, and frequent sales. Cars were becoming a significant part of British life, with city-centre congestion and ribbon developments springing up along many of the major roads. These problems led to the idea of the green belt to protect the countryside, which was at risk from development of new housing units.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The post-World War II period witnessed a dramatic rise in the average standard of living, with a 40% rise in average real wages from 1950 to 1965. Workers in traditionally poorly paid semi-skilled and unskilled occupations saw a particularly marked improvement in their wages and living standards. In terms of consumption, there was more equality, especially as the landed gentry was hard pressed to pay its taxes and had to reduce its level of consumption. As a result of wage rises, consumer spending also increased by about 20% during the same period, while economic growth remained at about 3%. In addition, the last food rations were ended in 1954 while hire-purchase controls were relaxed in the same year. As a result of these changes, large numbers of the working classes were able to participate in the consumer market for the first time.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Entitlement to various fringe benefits was improved. In 1955, 96% of manual labourers were entitled to two weeks' holiday with pay, compared with 61% in 1951. By the end of the 1950s, Britain had become one of the world's most affluent countries, and by the early Sixties, most Britons enjoyed a level of prosperity that had previously been known only to a small minority of the population. For the young and unattached there was, for the first time in decades, spare cash for leisure, clothes, and luxuries. In 1959, "Queen" magazine declared that "Britain has launched into an age of unparalleled lavish living." Average wages were high while jobs were plentiful, and people saw their personal prosperity climb even higher. Prime Minister Harold Macmillan claimed that "the luxuries of the rich have become the necessities of the poor". As summed up by R. J. Unstead,


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The number one selection for the housewife was a washing machine. Ownership jumped from 18 percent in 1955 to 29 percent in 1958, and 60 percent in 1966. By 1963, 82% of all private households had a television, 72% a vacuum cleaner, and 30% a refrigerator. John Burnett notes that ownership had spread down the social scale so that the gap between consumption by professional and manual workers had considerably narrowed. The provision of household amenities steadily improved in the late decades of the century. From 1971 to 1983, households having the sole use of a fixed bath or shower rose from 88% to 97%, and those with an internal WC from 87% to 97%. In addition, the number of households with central heating almost doubled during that same period, from 34% to 64%. By 1983, 94% of all households had a refrigerator, 81% a colour television, 80% a washing machine, 57% a deep freezer, and 28% a tumble-drier.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: From a European perspective, however, Britain was not keeping pace. Between 1950 and 1970, it was overtaken by most of the countries of the European Common Market in terms of the number of telephones, refrigerators, television sets, cars, and washing machines per 100 of the population. Education provision expanded, but not as fast as in neighbouring European countries. By the early 1980s, some 80% to 90% of school leavers in France and West Germany received vocational training, compared with only 40% in the United Kingdom. By the mid-1980s, over 80% of pupils in the United States and West Germany and over 90% in Japan continued in education until the age of eighteen, compared with barely 33% of British pupils. In 1987, only 35% of 16- to 18-year-olds were in full-time education or training, compared with 80% in the United States, 77% in Japan, 69% in France, and 49% in Germany.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Economic growth in Britain, though steady through the 1950s, was not nearly as fast as on the continent. The statistics should be interpreted with care: Britain was far ahead of some other European nations in terms of economic development and urbanisation. Countries like Italy, France and Spain, overwhelmingly agrarian in character at the end of the Second World War, were experiencing a process of rapid industrialisation and urbanisation that Britain had already passed through in the 19th century. This explanation is known as the "early start theory" among economists, and explains why European nations showed markedly stronger levels of absolute growth in industry compared to the UK, a country which was already transitioning into a post-industrial, service-based economy. These countries had large surplus agricultural populations to draw into the cities to work in factories, while the UK as the most heavily urbanised nation in Europe had only a mere 5% of the population employed on the land by 1945 (dropping to 2.7% by 1977). As such, the traditional source of new labour for low-wage factory work, rural labourers, was virtually non-existent in Britain and this constrained growth potential. Immigration from the Commonwealth, and later from Europe, was one policy response to this officially perceived labour shortage.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: There was also a systemic malaise in British industry, which was famously inefficient and opposed to innovations. Tony Judt described the prevailing attitude of post-war industrialists: "British factory managers preferred to operate in a cycle of under-investment, limited research and development, low wages and a shrinking pool of clients, rather than risk a fresh start with new products in new markets." The overriding emphasis placed on exports by the British government, in its effort to repair the nation's dollar deficit, made things worse, because it encouraged manufacturers to place all investment in expanding output, at the expense of updating machinery, introducing new technologies, improving production methods, etc. This policy was sustainable in the short-term, because in the late 1940s and early 50s world trade boomed and Britain, with its large and relatively undamaged industrial base, was in a uniquely advantageous position to satisfy demand. In 1950, 25% percent of world exports were British-made, and the total volume of British manufactured goods was double that of France and Germany combined. However, by the late 1950s, the economies of West Germany, France, Japan, and Italy, had recovered from wartime infrastructure damage, replacing destroyed stock with state-of-the-art machinery and applying modern production methods in a process called "rejuvenation by defeat". Continental governments actively encouraged recovery through direct investment/subsidies in targeted industries, in the case of Italy and France, or more widely through encouraging easy access to credit through national banks, a marked characteristic in France and West Germany. British industrialists saw no such intervention from their own government, which more or less left the private sector to itself. British goods were also more expensive abroad because of Sterling's overvaluation, but inferior in quality compared to the products flooding the world market from the United States, Germany and Italy.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Rapid decolonization in the British Empire through the late 1950s and 1960s dealt a further blow to British industry. Britain had enjoyed a virtual monopoly of the consumer markets within the Empire, enforced by the closed Pound Sterling Bloc, but it could not compete once the territories gained independence and were free to negotiate their own trade agreements.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Although the 1950s were overall a time of prosperity for Britain, the Suez Crisis of November 1956 precipitated a financial crisis and a speculative run on Sterling which underlined the fragility of post-war British finances. The tripartite invasion of the Suez Canal Zone by Britain, France and Israel in late October 1956, following Egypt's nationalisation in July of the Suez Canal Company (hitherto, a French company, albeit one with a majority share holding owned by the British government), was a disaster for British prestige and the economy. The United States and the United Nations came out firmly against the occupation, which caused a run on sterling as foreign governments withdrew their holdings and converted them into either the US dollar or gold. In the run up to the invasion £214 million was withdrawn by nervous investors and foreign governments. Britain's decision to freeze Egypt's holdings in response to the nationalization inspired panic in other foreign governments who feared their assets might be frozen if they supported the Egyptian cause. With the invasion a further £279 million was withdrawn, leaving a scarce £1.965 billion left in sterling reserves. The Bank of England sought to prevent devaluation by purchasing the pound on foreign exchange markets, using up its precious dollar reserves in the process. By November dollar reserves had fallen beneath the $2 billion floor which the UK had sought to maintain since the late 1940s. Since the Canal was closed to shipping, the UK was reliant on imports of American oil, and devaluing the pound would make oil more expensive and possibly trigger serious inflation.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Within days of the invasion, the UK had declared a cease-fire and Prime Minister Anthony Eden was appealing to the International Monetary Fund for a $560 million loan, which was only granted on the condition that the country vacate the Canal Zone. This was agreed to, and Britain received a combined $1.3 billion in loans through the IMF and the American Export-Import Bank. British withdrawal from the Canal Zone was completed by 22 December, and the pound returned to its pre-crisis parity with the dollar by January 1957, but not without very nearly losing its value as an international reserve currency.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom has experienced considerable deindustrialisation, especially in both heavy industry (such as mining and steel) and light manufacturing. New jobs have appeared with either low wages, or with high skill requirements that the laid-off workers lack. Meanwhile, the political reverberations have been growing. Jim Tomlinson agrees that deindustrialisation is a major phenomenon but denies that it represents a decline or failure.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The UK's share of global manufacturing output had risen from 9.5% in 1830, to 22.9% in the 1870s. It fell to 13.6% by 1913, 10.7% by 1938, and 4.9% by 1973. Overseas competition, trade unionism, the welfare state, loss of the British Empire, and lack of innovation have all been put forward as explanations for the industrial decline. It reached a crisis point in the 1970s, with a worldwide energy crisis, high inflation, and a dramatic influx of low-cost manufactured goods from Asia. Coal mining quickly collapsed and practically disappeared by the 21st century. Railways were decrepit, more textile mills closed than opened, steel employment fell sharply, and the car-making industry suffered. The government decided in 1964 that underdeveloped or industrially obsolete areas with high unemployment would benefit from economic subsidy, and at least three aluminum smelters enjoyed subsidy "totaling some $144‐million and representing a 40 per cent investment grant for plant and machinery. The two largest smelters were fostered by the decision to authorize cheap bulk sales of electric power based on anticipated breakthroughs in nuclear power costs. High power costs in Britain previously militated against the electrolytic aluminum industry, which is an enormous power user... Another purpose of encouraging the development of domestic primary aluminum industry was to reduce imports. Previously, the only primary production in Britain was at British Aluminium's two small Scottish smelters, which had a total output of 39,000 tons" in 1970.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Popular responses varied a great deal; Tim Strangleman "et al." found a range of responses from the affected workers: for example, some invoked a glorious industrial past to cope with their new-found personal economic insecurity, while others looked to the European Union for help. It has been argued that these reverberations contributed towards the popular vote in favour of Brexit in 2016.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Economists developed two alternative interpretations to explain de-industrialization in Britain. The first was developed by Oxford economists Robert Bacon and Walter Eltis. They argue that the public sector expansion deprived the private sector of sufficient labour and capital. In a word, the government "crowded out" the private sector. A variation of this theory emphasizes the increases in taxation cut the funds needed for wages and profits. Union demands for higher wage rates resulted in lower profitability in the private sector, and a fall in investment. However, many economists counter that public expenditures have lowered unemployment levels, not increased them.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The second explanation is the New Cambridge model associated with Wynne Godley and Francis Cripps. It stresses the long-term decline and competitiveness of British industry. During the 1970s especially, the manufacturing sector steadily lost its share of both home and international markets. The historic substantial surplus of exports over Imports slipped into an even balance. That balance is maintained by North Sea oil primarily, and to a lesser extent from some efficiency improvement in agriculture and service sectors. The New Cambridge model posits several different causes for the decline in competitiveness. Down to the 1970s, the model stresses bad delivery times, poor design of products, and general low-quality. The implication is that although research levels are high in Britain, industry has been laggard in implementing innovation. The model after 1979 points to the appreciation of sterling against other currencies, so that British products are more expensive. In terms of policy, the New Cambridge model recommends general import controls, or else unemployment will continue to mount. The model indicates that deindustrialisation is a serious problem which threatens the nation's ability to maintain balance of payments equilibrium in the long run. The situation after North Sea oil runs out appears troublesome. De-industrialisation imposes that serious social consequences. Workers skilled in the manufacturing sector are no longer needed, and are shuffled off to lower paying, less technologically valuable jobs. Computerisation and globalisation are compounding that problem. Nicholas Crafts attributes the relatively poor productivity growth of the British economy during the postwar period to a mixture of failure to invest in equipment and skills, poor management, insufficient competition, dysfunctional management-labour relations and poor economic policy.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Deindustrialisation meant the closure of many enterprises in mining, heavy industry and manufacturing, with the resulting loss of high paid working-class jobs. A certain amount of turnover had always taken place, with older businesses shutting down and new ones opening up. However, the post-1973 scene was different, with a worldwide energy crisis, and an influx of low-cost manufactured goods from Asia. Coal mining slowly collapsed, and finally disappeared in the 21st century. The railways were decrepit, more textile mills closed than opened, steel employment fell sharply, and the automobile industry practically disappeared, apart from some luxury production. There was a range of popular response. By the 21st century, grievances accumulated enough to have a political impact. The political reverberations came to a head in the unexpected popular vote in favour of Brexit in 2016.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: While industry performance had remained strong in nearly 20 years following the end of the war, and extensive house building and construction of new commercial developments and public buildings also kept unemployment low throughout this time. As negative factors coalesced during the 1960s, the slogan used by Prime Minister Harold Macmillan "(most of) our people have never had it so good" seemed increasingly hollow. The Conservative Government presided over a 'stop-go' economy as it tried to prevent inflation spiralling out of control without snuffing out economic growth. Growth continued to be disappointing, at about only half the rate Germany or France achieved in the same period.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: In comparing economic prosperity (using gross national product per person), there was a common perception of continued relative economic decline; Britain slipped from seventh place in the world ranks of income per capita in 1950, to 12th in 1965, and to 20th in 1975. Labour politician Richard Crossman, after visiting prosperous Canada, returned to England with a "sense of restriction, yes, even of decline, the old country always teetering on the edge of a crisis, trying to keep up appearances, with no confident vision of the future."


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Economists provided four overlapping explanations. The "early start" theory said that Britain's rivals were doing so well relatively because they were still moving large numbers of farm workers into more lucrative employment, structural change achieved in the UK in the 19th century. A second theory emphasised the "rejuvenation by defeat", whereby Germans and Japanese managers and politicians had been forced to reequip, rethink and restructure their economies. The third approach emphasised the drag of "Imperial distractions", whereby Britain's responsibilities to its extensive, though rapidly declining empire handicapped the domestic economy, especially through defence spending, and economic aid. Finally, the theory of "institutional failure" stressed the negative roles of discontinuity, unpredictability, and class envy. The last theory blamed public schools, and universities perpetuating an elitist anti-industrial attitude while trade unions were regarded as traditionalist and conservative. An additional factor, perhaps a feature of the social traditionalism, was the alleged disappointing performance of British management.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The result was a major political crisis, and a Winter of Discontent in the winter of 1978–1979, during which there were widespread strikes by public sector unions that seriously inconvenienced and angered the public.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Historians Alan Sked and Chris Cook have summarised the general consensus of historians regarding Labour in power in the 1970s:


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The Labour Party under Harold Wilson from 1964 to 1970 was unable to provide a solution either, and eventually devalued the pound from US$2.80 to US$2.40 took effect on 18 November 1967. Economist Nicholas Crafts attributes Britain's relatively low growth in this period to a combination of a lack of competition in some sectors of the economy, especially in the nationalised industries; poor industrial relations; and insufficient vocational training. He writes that this was a period of government failure caused by poor understanding of economic theory, short-termism, and a failure to confront interest groups.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Both political parties had come to the conclusion that Britain needed to enter the European Economic Community (EEC) in order to revive its economy. This decision came after establishing a European Free Trade Association (EFTA) with other, non-EEC countries since this provided little economic stimulus to Britain's economy. Levels of trade with the Commonwealth halved in the period 1945–1965 to around 25% while trade with the EEC had doubled during the same period. Charles de Gaulle vetoed a British attempt at membership in 1963 and again in 1967.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The general election in June 1970 saw the Conservatives, now led by Edward Heath, achieve a surprise return to government after the opinion polls had suggested a third successive Labour victory. Unemployment was still low by this stage, standing at 3% nationally. It was Heath who took the country into the EEC, in 1973.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: However, with the continuing relative decline of Britain's economy during the 1960s, management-labour relations deteriorated towards the end of the Wilson government and this worker discontent led to a dramatic breakdown of the industrial environment under the Conservative Government of Edward Heath (1970–1974). In the early 1970s, the British economy suffered even more as strike action by trade unions, especially successful action by the miners' union, plus the effects of the 1973 oil crisis, led to a three-day week in 1973–74. However, despite a brief period of calm negotiated by the recently re-elected Labour Government of 1974 known as the Social Contract, a breakdown with the unions occurred again in 1978, leading to the Winter of Discontent, and eventually leading to the end of the Labour Government, then being led by James Callaghan, who had succeeded Wilson in 1976.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Unemployment had also risen during this difficult period for the British economy; unemployment reached 1.5 million in 1978 – nearly triple the figure of a decade earlier, with the national rate exceeding 5% for the first time in the postwar era. It had not fallen below 1 million since 1975, and has remained above this level ever since, rarely dropping below 1.5 million.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Also in the 1970s, oil was found in the North Sea, off the coast of Scotland, although its contribution to the UK economy was minimised by the need to pay for rising national debt and for welfare payments to the growing number of unemployed people.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The election of Margaret Thatcher in 1979 marked the end of the post-war consensus and a new approach to economic policy, including privatisation and deregulation,


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: reform of industrial relations, and tax changes. Competition policy was emphasised instead of industrial policy; consequent deindustrialisation and structural unemployment was more or less accepted. Thatcher's battles with the unions culminated in the Miners' Strike of 1984.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The Government applied monetarist policies to reduce inflation, and reduced public spending. Deflationary measures were implemented against the backdrop of the recession of 1980/81. Inflation was at its worst at over 20% in 1980, but by 1982–83 it had subsided to less than 10% and continued to subside until stabilizing at around 4% in the autumn of 1987. With the recession of 1980/81, unemployment passed 2 million in the autumn of 1980, 2.5 million the following spring. By January 1982, unemployment had reached 3 million for the first time since the early 1930s, though this time the figure accounted for a lesser percentage of the workforce than the early 1930s figures, now standing at around 12.5% rather than in excess of 20%. In areas hit particularly hard by the loss of industry, unemployment was much higher, coming close to 20% in Northern Ireland and exceeding 15% in many parts of Wales, Scotland and northern England. The peak of unemployment actually came some two years after the recession ended and growth had been re-established, when in April 1984 unemployment stood at just under 3.3 million.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: According to Eric Hobsbawm, Thatcher oversaw an "industrial holocaust", which saw Britain's industrial capacity decrease by fully one quarter during the years 1980–1984. Major state-controlled firms were privatised, including British Aerospace (1981), British Telecom (1984), British Leyland (1984), Rolls-Royce (1987), and British Steel Corporation (1988). The electricity, gas and English water industries were split up and sold off.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Exchange controls, in operation since the war, were abolished in 1979. This led to more volatile exchange rates, with the pound reaching a low of $1.054 on 25 February 1985 after which it recovered to almost $2 in February 1991. British net assets abroad rose approximately ninefold from £12 billion at the end of 1979 to nearly £110 billion at the end of 1986, a record post-war level and second only to Japan. Privatisation of nationalised industries increased share ownership in Britain: the proportion of the adult population owning shares went up from 7% in 1979 to 25% in 1989. The Single European Act (SEA), signed by Margaret Thatcher, allowed for the free movement of goods within the European Union area. The ostensible benefit of this was to give the spur of competition to the British economy, and increase its ultimate efficiency.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The early 1980s recession saw unemployment rise above three million, but the subsequent recovery, which saw annual growth of over 4% in the late 1980s, led to contemporary claims of a British 'economic miracle'. There is significant controversy as to whether Thatcherism was the reason for the boom in Britain in the 1980s; North Sea oil has been identified as a contributing factor in the increases in economic growth in the mid and late 1980s. However, many of the economic policies put in place by the Thatcher governments have been kept since, and even the Labour Party which had once been so opposed to the policies had by the late 1990s, on its return to government after nearly 20 years in opposition, dropped all opposition to them.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Indeed, the Labour Party of the 1980s had taken a shift to the left after the election of Michael Foot as leader in 1980, leading to a split in the party to form the centrist Social Democratic Party, which formed an alliance with the Liberals and contested two general elections, with disappointing results, before merging in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats. The Conservatives were re-elected in 1983 and again in 1987, with a majority of more than 100 seats both times.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: By the end of 1986, Britain was in the first stages of an economic boom, which saw unemployment fall below 3 million and reach a 10-year low of 1.6 million by December 1989. However, the rate of economic growth slowed down in 1989, with inflation approaching 10% and fears of an imminent recession being rife in the national media. Interest rates were increased by the government in an attempt to control inflation.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: In November 1990, Margaret Thatcher stood down from the office of Prime Minister after losing first the confidence and then the support in Parliament of the Conservative Party's MPs, which she needed in order to continue. John Major was elected her successor. The government's popularity was also falling following the introduction of poll tax earlier that year, while unemployment was also starting to increase again as another recession loomed. Opinion polls were suggesting that the next general election could be won by Labour, led by Neil Kinnock since the resignation of Michael Foot in 1983.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Despite several major economies showing quarterly detraction during 1989, the British economy continued to grow well into 1990, with the first quarterly detraction taking place in the third quarter of the year, by which time unemployment was starting to creep upwards again after four years of falling. The beginning of another recession was confirmed in January 1991. Interest rates had been increased between 1988 and 1990 to control inflation, which topped 10% in 1990 but was below 3% by the end of 1992.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Economic growth was not re-established until early 1993, but the Conservative government which had been in power continuously since 1979 managed to achieve re-election in April 1992, fending off a strong challenge from Neil Kinnock and Labour, although with a significantly reduced majority.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The early 1990s recession was officially the longest in Britain since the Great Depression some 60 years earlier, though the fall in output was not as sharp as that of the downturn of the Great Depression or even that of the early 1980s recession. It had started during 1990 and the end of the recession was not officially declared until April 1993, by which time nearly 3 million people were unemployed.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The British pound was tied to EU exchange rates, using the Deutsche Mark as a basis, as part of the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM); however, this resulted in disaster for Britain. The restrictions imposed by the ERM put pressure on the pound, leading to a run on the currency. Black Wednesday in September 1992 ended British membership of the ERM. It also damaged the credibility of the Conservative's reputation for economic competence, and contributed to the end of the 18 years of consecutive Conservative government in 1997. The party had long been divided over European issues and many of these rifts within the party had still not been mended by 1997.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Despite the downfall of the Conservative government, it had seen a strong economic recovery in which unemployment had fallen by more than 1 million since the end of 1992 to 1.7 million by the time of their election defeat just over four years later. Inflation also remained low, with the ERM exit in 1992 being followed by a gradual decrease in interest rates during the years that followed.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: From May 1997, Tony Blair's newly elected Labour government stuck with the Conservatives' spending plans. The Chancellor, Gordon Brown, gained a reputation by some as the "prudent Chancellor" and helped to inspire renewed confidence in Labour's ability to manage the economy following the economic failures of earlier Labour governments. One of the first acts that the new Labour government embarked on was to give the power to set interest rates to the Bank of England, effectively ending the use of interest rates as a political tool. Control of the banks was given to the Financial Services Agency.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Labour introduced the minimum wage, which has been raised every year since its introduction in April 1999. The Blair government also introduced a number of strategies to cut unemployment, including an expansion of the public sector. Unemployment was constantly below 1.5 million during the first half of the 2000s – a level not seen since the late 1970s, although the government never succeeded in getting unemployment back into the six figure tallies which were seen for most of the 30 years after the end of World War II.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The level of trade union membership fell sharply in the 1980s, and continued falling for most of the 1990s. The long decline of most of the industries in which manual trade unions were strong—e.g. steel, coal, printing, the docks—was one of the causes of this loss of trade union members.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: In 2011, there were 6,135,000 members in TUC-affiliated unions, down from a peak of 12,174,000 in 1980. Trade union density was 14.1% in the private sector and 56.5% in the public sector.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: In the Labour Party's second term in office, beginning in 2001, when it achieved another landslide victory, the party increased taxes and borrowing. The government wanted the money to increase spending on public services, notably the National Health Service, which they claimed was suffering from chronic under-funding. The economy shifted from manufacturing, which had been declining since the 1960s and grew on the back of the services and finance sectors, while the public sector continued to expand. The country was also at war with first Afghanistan, invading in 2001 and then Iraq, in 2003 – which proved controversial with the British public. Spending on both reached several billion pounds a year and the government's popularity began to slide, although it did manage to win a third general election under Blair in 2005 with a reduced majority. Blair stepped down two years later after a decade as prime minister to be succeeded by the former Chancellor Gordon Brown, the change of leader coming at a time when Labour was starting to lag behind the Conservatives (led by David Cameron) in the opinion polls.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: By this stage, unemployment had increased slightly to 1.6 million although the economy continued to grow, the UK was continuing to lose large numbers of manufacturing jobs due to companies encountering financial problems or switching production overseas to save labour costs. This was particularly evident in the car industry, with General Motors (Vauxhall) and Ford having significantly cut back on UK operations, while Peugeot (the French carmaker who had bought the former Rootes Group and Chrysler Europe operations in the late 1970s) had completely withdrawn from Britain. These closures resulted in thousands of job losses, although the biggest single blow to the car industry came in 2005 when MG Rover went into liquidation; more than 6,000 jobs were lost at the carmaker alone and some 20,000 more were lost in associated supply industries and dealerships, not to mention the business failures and job cuts which befell businesses that had relied largely on trade from the carmaker's employees. This was the largest collapse of any European carmaker in modern times.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Growth rates were consistently between 1.6% and 3% from 2000 to early 2008. Inflation though relativity steady at around 2%, did rise in the approach to the financial crash. The Bank of England's control of interest rates was a major factor in the stability of the British economy over that period. The pound continued to fluctuate, however, reaching a low against the dollar in 2001 (to a rate of $1.37 per £1), but rising again to a rate of approximately $2 per £1 in 2007. Against the Euro, the pound was steady at a rate of approximately €1.45 per £1. Since then, the effects of the Credit crunch have led to a slowdown of the economy. At the start of November 2008, for example, the pound was worth around €1.26; by the end of the year, it had almost approached parity, dropping at one point below €1.02 and ending the year at €1.04.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The UK entered a recession in Q2 of 2008, according to the UK Office for National Statistics (ONS) and exited it in Q4 of 2009. The revised ONS figures of November 2009 showed that the UK had suffered six consecutive quarters of contraction. On 23 January 2009, Government figures from the Office for National Statistics showed that the UK was officially in recession for the first time since 1991. It entered a recession in the final quarter of 2008, accompanied by unemployment rising from 5.2% in May 2008 to 7.6% in May 2009. The unemployment rate among 18 to 24-year-olds rose from 11.9% to 17.3%. Although initially Britain lagged behind other major economies including Germany, France, Japan, and the US which all returned to growth in the second quarter of 2009, the country eventually returned to growth in the last quarter of 2009. On 26 January 2010, it was confirmed that the UK had left its recession, the last major economy in the world to do so. In the 3 months to February 2010 the UK economy grew yet again by 0.4%. In Q2 of 2010 the economy grew by 1.2% the fastest rate of growth in 9 years. In Q3 of 2010 figures released showed the UK economy grew by 0.8%; this was the fastest Q3 growth in 10 years.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: On 5 March 2009, the Bank of England announced that they would pump £200 billion of new capital into the economy through a process known as quantitative easing. This is the first time in the United Kingdom's history that this measure has been used, although the Bank's Governor Mervyn King suggested it was not an experiment. The process saw the BoE creating new money for itself, which it used to purchase assets such as government bonds, bank loans, and mortgages. Despite the misconception that quantitative easing involves printing money, instead the money was created electronically and thus did not actually enter the cash circulation system. The initial amount created through this method was £75 billion, although former Chancellor of the Exchequer Alistair Darling had given permission for up to £150 billion to be created if necessary. It is thought the process is likely to occur over a period of three months with results only likely in the long term.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The BoE has stated that the decision has been taken to prevent the rate of inflation falling below the two percent target rate. Mervyn King, the Governor of the BoE, also suggested there were no other monetary options left as interest rates had already been cut to their lowest level ever of 0.5% and it was unlikely they would be cut further.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: As of the end of November 2009, the economy had shrunk by 4.9%, making the 2008–2009 recession the longest since records began. In December 2009, the Office for National Statistics revised figures for the third quarter of 2009 showed that the economy shrank by 0.2%, compared to a 0.6% fall the previous quarter.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: It has been suggested that the UK initially lagged behind its European neighbours because the UK entered the 2008 recession later. However, German GDP fell 4.7% year on year compared to the UK's 5.1%, and Germany has now posted a second quarterly gain in GDP. Commentators suggested that the UK suffered a slightly longer recession than other large European countries as a result of government policy dating back to the policies of the Thatcher government of 1979, in which UK governments have moved away from supporting manufacturing and focused on the financial sector. The OECD predicts that the UK will grow 1.6% in 2010. The unemployment rate recorded by the Labour Force Survey fell in the fourth quarter of 2009, the first of the big three economies in the EU to do so. GDP decreased by a (second revision) figure of 0.2% in the third quarter of 2009, after a decrease of 0.6% in the second quarter, according to the Office for National Statistics (ONS). There was a 2.4% decline in the first quarter of 2009. By October 2009 the economy had contracted 5.9% from its peak before the recession began.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: In October 2007, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) had forecast British GDP to grow by 3.1% in 2007 and 2.3% in 2008. However, GDP growth slowed to a fall of 0.1% in the April–June (second) quarter of 2008 (revised down from zero). In September 2008, the OECD forecast contraction for at least two quarters for the UK economy, possibly severe, placing its predicted performance last in the G7 of leading economies. Six quarters later the UK economy was still contracting, placing a question mark over OECD forecasting methods.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: It has been argued that heavy government borrowing over the past cycle has led to a severe structural deficit, reminiscent of previous crises, which will inevitably exacerbate the situation and place the UK economy in an unfavourable position compared to its OECD partners as attempts are made to stimulate recovery, other OECD nations having allowed greater room for manoeuvre thanks to contrasting policies of relatively tighter fiscal control prior to the global downturn.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: In May 2009 the European Commission (EC) stated: "The UK economy is now clearly experiencing one of its worst recessions in recent history." The EC expected GDP to decline 3.8% in 2009 and projected that growth will remain negative for the first three quarters of 2009. It predicted two quarters of "virtual stagnation" in late 2009 and early 2010, followed by a gradual return to "slight positive growth by late 2010".


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The FTSE 100 and FTSE 250 rose to their highest levels in a year on 9 September 2009 with the FTSE 100 breaking through 5,000 and the FTSE 250 breaking through 9,000. On 8 September the National Institute of Economic and Social Research believed that the economy had grown by 0.2% in the three months to August, but was proved wrong. In its eyes the UK recession was officially over, although it did warn that "normal economic conditions" had not returned. On the same day, figures also showed UK manufacturing output rising at its fastest rate in 18 months in July. On 15 September 2009 the European Union incorrectly predicted the UK economy to grow by 0.2% between July and September, on the same day the governor of the Bank of England, Mervyn King said the UK GDP was now growing. At the same time unemployment fell in Wales.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Many commentators in the UK were certain that the UK would leave recession officially in Q3, believing that all the signs showed that growth was extremely likely, although in fact government spending had been insufficient to rescue the economy from recession at that point. Figures in fact showed no growth in retail sales in September 2009, and a 2.5% decline in industrial output in August. The revised UK figures confirmed that the economy shrank in Q3 of 2009 by 0.2%, although government spending on cash for the car scrappage scheme helped. The car scrappage scheme enabled owners of cars at least 10 years old to buy a new car at a reduced price in return for having their old car scrapped, and proved very popular with motorists.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: UK manufacturers' body, the EEF, appealed for more cash from the government: "Without an extension of support for business investment in the pre-Budget statement next month, it will be difficult to see where the momentum for growth will come from."


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The downturn in the economy during 2008 and 2009 saw the popularity of the Labour government slump, and opinion polls all showed the Conservatives in the lead during this time, although by early 2010 the gap between the parties was narrow enough to suggest that the imminent general election would result in a hung parliament – as happened in May 2010. The Conservatives had the largest number of seats in the election, 20 short of a majority, and formed a government in coalition with the Liberal Democrats. The new government was faced with having to make deep public spending cuts over the following years in order to tackle the high level of national debt which had mounted up during Labour's response to the recession, which meant that unemployment remained high and the economy struggled to re-establish growth, although a marked improvement finally occurred in 2013 when economic growth and falling unemployment were sustained.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Moody's maintained the UK's AAA credit rating in September 2010, forecasting stable finances largely driven by governmental action. It also reported that while the economy is flexible to grow in the future household debt repayments, a poor export market and the economy's large exposure to the finance sector were factors likely to sap growth.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Subsequent to that, the economy contracted in 5 of the next 7 quarters, thus ensuring zero net growth from the end of the recession at the end of 2009, through to the middle of 2012. In 2010, the economy picked up and growing steadily however in the summer the European debt crisis centred on Greece led to a second slow down in all European countries. The euro-zone entered a double dip recession that lasted from Q1 2011 until Q2 2013, and while the UK had no double dip recession it did however experience stagnant growth. While the first half of 2012 saw inflationary pressures subside and business confidence increase, a number of fundamental weaknesses remain, most notably a decline in the productivity of British business.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: From Q2 2013, the UK's economy continued to grow for five consecutive quarters, the longest since Q1 of 2008, showing growth beating most developed economies helped by the rebound in the housing market and strong growth in both manufacturing and services industries. The IMF increased UK growth forecasts for 2014 from 1.9% to 2.4% in January 2014. Subsequently, inflation dropped to a low of 1.6% in Q1 2014, unemployment dropped to 6.8% (the lowest level since 2009) with impressive growth in employment leading to an all-time high of 30.4 million. The UK government posted a £107.6 billion national deficit for the fiscal year ending March 2014, meeting the target of £107.7 billion set a month previously. This was especially impressive since many countries in the EU, more specifically in the Euro, were stagnating such as France and Italy. However, it has been argued that the economic recovery was not reaching the majority of the people in the country, with wage growth not keeping up with inflation. In 2014 this metric improved with wage growth outpacing inflation for the first time after six years.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: Business history in Britain emerged in the 1950s following the publication of a series of influential company histories and the establishment of the journal "Business History" in 1958 at the University of Liverpool. The most influential of these early company histories was Charles Wilson's "History of Unilever", the first volume of which was published in 1954. Other examples include D. C. Coleman's work on Courtaulds and artificial fibres, B. W. E. Alford on Wills and the tobacco industry, and T. C. (Theo) Barker on Pilkington's and glass manufacture. These early studies were conducted primarily by economic historians interested in the role of leading firms in the development of the wider industry, and therefore went beyond mere corporate histories. Although some work examined the successful industries of the industrial revolution and the role of the key entrepreneurs, in the 1960s scholarly debate in British business history became increasingly focused on economic decline. For economic historians, the loss of British competitive advantage after 1870 could at least in part be explained by entrepreneurial failure, prompting further business history research into individual industry and corporate cases. However, by 1970 this interpretation of 'entrepreneurial failure' had been challenged by cliometricians, notably by Deirdre McCloskey, who quantitatively assessed the productivity path of the British economy in a more favourable light. More traditional analysis presented by Peter Payne in "British Entrepreneurship in the Nineteenth Century" presented a similar, though more deliberately nuanced, refutation of the thesis of "entrepreneurial failure"


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: One debate concerns the performance of firms in the Lancashire cotton textile industry. Often seen as the "leading sector" that propelled "economic take-off" of industrialisation, by 1890 its firms appeared relatively slow to invest in and adopt recent technological developments and demonstrated low levels of relative labour productivity by 1900. William Lazonick for example argued that cotton textile entrepreneurs in Lancashire, like their American cotton-textile producing counterparts, failed to develop the larger integrated plants found in other sectors of the American economy; a general conclusion proposed by Chandler in a number of comparative case studies. Paradoxically, J. & P. Coats, a Scottish cotton manufacturing firm headquartered in Paisley, Renfrewshire, not only achieved the industry's highest levels of productivity, in the world, let alone the United Kingdom, but the company also owned, amongst its impressive portfolio of subsidiaries, what was probably the best performing cotton manufacturing firm in the United States of America. While Lancashire may have failed, J. & P. Coats, the world's largest manufacturing company by equity market value in 1900, did not.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: With the economic performance of British businessmen before 1914 now viewed in a better informed and more balanced way, the critics turned to sociology to emphasise their position in the class structure, especially their supposed subordinate relationship to the aristocracy, and their desire to use their wealth to purchase landed estates, and acquire hereditary titles.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: British business history began to widen its scope in the 1980s, with innovative research conducted at the London School of Economics's Business History Unit, led first by Leslie Hannah, then by Terry Gourvish; here David Jeremy edited the multi-volume. A similar collection of biographies was published by scholars associated with the Centre for Business History in Glasgow, the "Dictionary of Scottish Business Biography". Other research centres followed, including Reading, reflecting an increasing involvement in the discipline by Business and Management School academics.


title: Economic history of the United Kingdom

text: The journal "Business History" reflected the widening ambition of the discipline as editors, first, Geoffrey Jones (Harvard Business School), Charles Harvey (University of Newcastle Business School), and more latterly, John Wilson (University of Newcastle Business School) and Steven Toms (Leeds University Business School) promoted management strategy themes such as networks, family capitalism, corporate governance, human resource management, marketing and brands, and multi-national organisations in their international as well as merely British context. These new themes have allowed business historians to challenge and adapt the earlier conclusions of Alfred D. Chandler Jr. and others about British businessmen and the performance of the British economy.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Alone in the Dark is a 2005 action horror film directed by Uwe Boll and written by Elan Mastai, Michael Roesch, and Peter Scheerer. Based on the video game series of the same name, it stars Christian Slater, Tara Reid, and Stephen Dorff as paranormal investigators who combat a supernatural threat. The film's story is an adaptation of the game "" (2001).


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Upon release, the film received overwhelmingly negative reviews for the story, dialogue, special effects, and Reid's performance. Holding a 1% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, "Alone in the Dark" is considered one of the worst films ever made. It was also a commercial failure, grossing $12.7 million on a $20 million budget, although the home media releases were more successful. A sequel with a different cast and story was released to home media in 2008; Boll served as a producer.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Paranormal investigator and former agent of Agency 713, Edward Carnby has a nightmare in which he hides from alien-like creatures as a child. Edward is on board a commercial airliner while en route to an urban museum where his girlfriend, Aline Cedric, works as an assistant curator. Edward holds within his hands an artifact-puzzle piece of the Abkani, an extinct Native American tribe. After leaving the airport in a taxi, a strange man follows and attacks Edward and his cab driver with supernatural durability and strength, trying to steal the artifact, but eventually dies after many escape attempts by Edward.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: At the same time, in a different location, a ship recovers a coffin made of gold from the ocean floor. After docking, the captain locks up Prof. Hudgens (curator of said museum) while his crew opens the gold coffin against better judgment. Hudgens escapes his imprisonment to find everyone killed by a mysterious creature and the coffin empty. Hudgens finds a secret compartment and collects an artifact from the coffin, and he slips away ashore.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Upon opening the gold coffin, several people across the western USA and Canada walk off into the night after hearing an ear-splitting screech. During which, Edward passes out while studying his artifact. At the same time, Bureau 713 (B-713) is also made aware by a surveillance team of evidence of electromagnetic waves.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Edward thinks it's related to the Abkani as everyone who disappeared that same night was from the same location. Edward arrives that evening at the museum where he is reunited with Aline with the artifact, and she shows him another Abkani artifact that recently arrived that she has been working on since Prof. Hudgens was away. The mysterious creature from the ship attacks them inside the museum, killing a security guard, but Edward and Aline hide in a storage closet long enough for troopers from Bureau 713 to arrive, and the creature retreats into the night.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Commander Burke, team leader of the B-713 strike force, arrives where Edward tries to relay information to him, but Burke rebukes him, saying that since he no longer works to stay out of it. Edward tries to get information from his former co-workers at B-713, like staff surgeon and pathologist Sam Fischer, to learn more about the creature encountered and the Abnaki's history.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Prof. Hudgens arrives back at the museum to his office, where he has a captured creature. Hudgens uses a syringe to draw fluid from the captive creature to study it as part of his further research to combine the DNA of man and beast. Edward continues investigating his past by going to his former orphanage to learn more about Hudgens' research, and back to his apartment where he and Aline have sex.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: While the Bureau 713 soldiers are patrolling the museum, they are attacked by several creatures, who are the missing people that wandered off upon the opening of the gold coffin. During the firefight, several soldiers and most of the human-creatures are killed. Edward arrives on the scene and talks more with Burke, who again tells him to stay away. However, during a scuffle, Edward picks Burke's pocket containing his Bureau 713 security badge.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Edward goes to Bureau 713 where he talks with Fischer in the morgue looking at one of the dead bodies, and Fischer shows Edward a small, centipede-like creature in the dorsal spine of his old friend. Fischer also discovers that Edward has one of his own in his body, but it is dead, presumably because of the electroshock Edward had as a child. Burke and his men arrive and escort Edward out of the building. That evening, Professor Hudgens ambushes Fischer at his home and inserts a baby creature into Fischer's mouth.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Edward discovers that the Abkani had fought those creatures which can get killed by light. They also disrupt electrical light, creating blackouts. The Abkani artifacts found all over the world actually open the gate to another dimension, where millions of those creatures are sleeping, waiting to be freed. Hudgens makes further experiments, injecting himself with the blood of one of the creatures, granting him the ability to control the monsters.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Edward, Aline, Burke, and Burke's military squad go to an abandoned gold mine near Edward's orphanage, where there are strong electromagnetic disruptions. They are attacked by dozens of the creatures and all of the humans except Edward, Aline, and Burke are killed. They reach the old surgery room underground where the baby creature was transplanted into Edward. There, Hudgens takes Edward's artifact and opens the gate. Millions of creatures start to wake up and run towards the gate. Burke kills Hudgens, and the group places a bomb and runs away, only to realize that they cannot detonate the bomb from such a long distance. Burke goes back and sacrifices himself.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Edward and Aline rise to the surface at dawn but find an evacuated city with cars abandoned on the streets. As they walk down the street, something runs toward them.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Blair Erickson came up with the first drafts of the script for "Alone in the Dark". According to Erickson, Uwe Boll suggested through various e-mails changes that would turn it from a thriller into an action film. Erickson stated his disgust at the treatment and spoke negatively of his working relationship with Boll on Something Awful:


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: As a result, there were seven distinct scripts in circulation without a consensus to which one was used.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Tara Reid starred in the film opposite Christian Slater. Artisan Pictures picked up North American distribution rights to the film in June 2003.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: "Alone in the Dark" was released in Canada and the United States on January 28, 2005. It was released in Germany on February 3, 2005.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: The film was released on VHS and DVD on 10 May 2005. An unrated director's cut was released in Germany, France, and Australia and was #1 on the German DVD market for three weeks. It was released on DVD in North America on 25 September 2007. In the newest version of the film, the sex scene between Carnby and Aline has been removed.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Originally, the film version of "Alone in the Dark" was to be released with "Alone in the Dark 5", the fifth title in the series; however, the creators of "Alone in the Dark", Eden Games, delayed the game and reworked it entirely from scratch. Boll stated his disappointment on the region 1 DVD commentary but also said that Atari had face shots of Christian Slater for "Alone in the Dark 5", which was released on 26 June 2008.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: "Alone in the Dark" grossed $2.8 million in its opening weekend, ranking at #12; by the end of its run, the film had grossed $12.7 million worldwide.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads: "Inept on almost every level, "Alone in the Dark" may not work as a thriller, but it's good for some head-slapping, incredulous laughter". Metacritic gave the film a 9 out of 100 based on 25 reviews, meaning "overwhelming dislike". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an F grade.


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: Scott Brown of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film an F grade, commenting that the film was "so bad it's postmodern". In the film's only positive review listed by Rotten Tomatoes, Michelle Alexandria of Eclipse Magazine wrote: ""Alone in the Dark" isn't going to set the world on fire, but it largely succeeds with what it has to work with. Just don't take it seriously and you'll have a fun time".


title: Alone in the Dark (2005 film)

text: The 2-disc soundtrack was released by Nuclear Blast, with Wolfgang Herold as executive producer. The German band Agathodaimon's contribution was the title song. Finnish symphonic metal band Nightwish had a music video of "Wish I Had an Angel" directed by Uwe Boll, with clips from the film.


title: Asian conical hat

text: The Asian conical hat is a simple style of conically shaped sun hat originating in East, South and Southeast Asia; and notable in modern-day nations and regions of China, Taiwan, parts of Outer Manchuria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Nepal, Tibet, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is kept on the head by a cloth (often silk) or fiber chin strap.


title: Asian conical hat

text: English terms for the hat include sedge hat, rice hat, paddy hat, bamboo hat and sometimes coolie hat. Note, however, that "coolie" is often considered a derogatory racial slur.


title: Asian conical hat

text: In Southeast Asia, it is known as (ដួន) in Cambodia; or in Indonesia; () in Laos; in Malaysia; () in Thailand; () in Myanmar; , and among other names in the Philippines; and in Vietnam.


title: Asian conical hat

text: In East Asia it is called (, literally meaning a "one- bamboo hat") in China; in Japan; and () in Korea.


title: Asian conical hat

text: Asian conical hats are, throughout Asia, primarily used as a form of protection from the sun and rain. When made of straw or other woven materials, it can be dipped in water and worn as an impromptu evaporative cooling device.


title: Asian conical hat

text: In China, it was typically associated with farmers, while mandarins wore tighter circular caps, especially in the winter. There are several conical hat types worn during the Qing dynasty (see Qing official headwear).


title: Asian conical hat

text: It is also widely understood in East Asia, most notably Japan, where they were known as , as a symbol of Buddhism, as it is traditionally worn by pilgrims and Buddhist monks in search of alms.


title: Asian conical hat

text: Sturdier, even metal, variants, known as (battle kasa), were also worn by samurai and foot-soldiers in Japan, as helmets.


title: Asian conical hat

text: In the Philippines, the "salakot" is more commonly a pointed dome-shape, rather than conical, with a spike or knob finial. Unlike most other mainland Asian conical hats, it is characterized by an inner headband in addition to a chinstrap. It can be made from various materials including bamboo, rattan, nito, bottle gourd, buri straw, nipa leaves, pandan leaves, and carabao horn. The plain type is typically worn by farmers, but nobles in the pre-colonial period (and later "principalia" in the Spanish period) crafted ornate variations with jewels, precious metals, or tortoiseshell. These are considered heirloom objects passed down from generation to generation within families.


title: Asian conical hat

text: The "salakot" was also commonly worn by native soldiers in the Spanish colonial army. It was adopted by Spanish troops in the early 18th century as part of their campaign uniform. In doing so, it became the direct precursor of the pith helmet (still called "salacot" or "salacco" in Spanish and French).


title: Asian conical hat

text: In Vietnam, the nón lá, (“hats”), (“rice hat”), (“conical hat”) or ("bamboo hat") forms a perfect right circular cone which tapers smoothly from the base to the apex. Special conical hats in Vietnam contain colourful hand-stitch depictions or words while the varieties are famous for their (lit. poem conical hats). These contain random poetic verses and Chữ Hán which can be revealed when the hat is directed above one's head in the sunlight. In modernity, they have become part of Vietnam's national costume.


title: Asian conical hat

text: In India, Bangladesh and Borneo, the plain conical hat was worn by commoners during their daily work, but more decoratively-colored ones were used for festivities. In Sabah, the colorful conical hat is worn for certain dances while in Assam they are hung in homes as decoration or worn by the upper classes for special occasions.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Nadine Alexis Paguia Lustre (, ; born October 31, 1993) is a Filipino actress and singer. She rose to fame after playing the lead role of Eya Rodriguez in the film "Diary ng Panget" (2014).


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre has since starred in the television series "On the Wings of Love" (2015) and the films "Never Not Love You" (2018), "Ulan" (2019), and "Indak" (2019). Dubbed the “Multimedia Princess” by various media outlets, Lustre has won three FAMAS Awards including wins for Best Actress & a German Moreno Youth Achievement Award and a Nickelodeon Kids Choice Award for 'Best Pinoy Act' in the United States.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In 2018, her performance as Joanne Candelaria in the romantic drama film "Never Not Love You" received critical acclaim and garnered her several awards such as the Young Critics Circle Best Performer award, the FAMAS Award for Best Actress, and the Gawad Urian for Best Actress.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre was born on October 31, 1993 in Quezon City, Philippines. She is the eldest of four children to Myraquel Paguia-Lustre and Ulysses Lustre, a mechanical engineer.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: She attended Diliman Preparatory School and took Communication Arts Major in Films at Colegio de San Lorenzo in Congressional Avenue, Quezon City.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre, at the age of 8, started as a TV host in RPN's (a government-sequestered network, now privatized by the late Antonio Cabangon Chua as CNN Philippines) children oriented show entitled "Storyland". She was also featured in Disney Channel Asia as a child host. After signing with Viva Entertainment, she became a member of the cast in TV5's youth-oriented program "" and appeared in several GMA Network shows, including performances in "SOP Rules." Lustre also appeared in the film "Petrang Kabayo" with Vice Ganda and starred in TV5 drama series, "P. S. I Love You."


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre debuted as one of the members in a girl group, "Pop Girls" which was launched by Viva Entertainment in 2009. She eventually left the group to start a solo music career.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In 2014, Lustre released her self-titled EP under Viva Records. It had hit singles such as "Para-paraan, Paligoy-ligoy, No Erase, Bahala Na, and Hanap-hanap"; the last three songs mentioned she collaborated with James Reid, who later on became Lustre's onscreen and real life partner couple.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In 2015, her song "Me and You", from her self-titled album, was given the Titanium Award by Australian digital radio station "SBS PopAsia". Lustre is among other artists like K-pop groups Super Junior, U-KISS and EXO who had songs that achieved Titanium status.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre and Callalily vocalist Kean Cipriano interpreted the song written by Mark Villar (not the Las Piñas Congressman) entitled "Sa Ibang Mundo" for the 2015 PhilPop songwriting competition. They earned the People's Choice award and the song was the second runner-up during the 2015 PhilPop's finals night held on July 25, 2015 at the Meralco Theater.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Also in 2015, Lustre collaborated with Yassi Pressman's song, "Hush", where Lustre showed off her rap skills. Lustre and Reid also released their own version of the song "On The Wings of Love" for their "teleserye" with the same name.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In the 2016 Philippines Myx Music Awards, Lustre won Favorite Song and Favorite Music Video for her song "Me and You". She also won Favorite Artist and Favorite Female Artist. Lustre also bagged the Favorite Collaboration award for her song "Hanap-Hanap" with Reid.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre and Reid in 2016 also released their own version of the song "This Time" under Viva which was used for their movie with the same name.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In 2017, Lustre started collaborating with James Reid's newly founded record label, Careless Music Manila. She was featured in the song IL2LU, which was included in Reid's LP, "Palm Dreams". In the same year, Lustre also collaborated with Bret Jackson in a song called "Nowhere I Wouldn't Go", which was included in the latter's album, Island City Poems.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In January 2018, Lustre released her first single under Careless Music Manila. The song is called "St4y Up". Lustre worked with Reid and music producer CRWN for the song's production. In the same month, she released a music video directed by Petersen Vargas for the single.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In March 2018, Lustre and Reid released a cover of Sugarfree's "Prom" under Viva Records, as part of the official soundtrack of their romance movie "Never Not Love You."


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In October 2018, Lustre was featured in three tracks from the "Careless Mixtape", which consists of songs from various artists of the record label. The tracks were "I Like It", a song she penned herself; "Summer", which was a duet with Reid; and "Nobody", which also featured Sofia Romualdez.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In August 2019, Lustre once again recorded songs under Viva Records for the soundtrack of her dance musical film, Indak. She was featured in the track "Sumayaw sa Indak" and in the cover of Thyro and Yumi's hit song "Triangulo". She also had a duet called "Swerte Sa Palad Mo" with her co-star Sam Concepcion.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In November 2019, Careless released another collaborative mixtape called "The Island City Playlist". Lustre was featured in the track "Headspace" along with Curtismith, Massiah, and Billy Davis. She also collaborated in a track called "No 32" with rapper Ruby Ibarra. In December 2019, Lustre officially signed a recording contract with Careless Music.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In October 2020, Lustre announced her first full-length album under Careless Music, entitled "Wildest Dreams". The visual album, the first of its kind in the Philippines, garnered 1 million views in 2 days.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre started her career in film by playing bit roles in several projects produced by Viva such as "Petrang Kabayo", "Who's That Girl?", and "When the Love is Gone". Her breakthrough role came in 2014 when she took on the role of Reah "Eya" Rodriguez in the teen romantic comedy "Diary ng Panget", a Viva-produced movie based on the novel of the same name written by HaveYouSeenThisGirL. The author was very particular about who played her characters and handpicked Lustre for the role of Eya. Lustre starred together with Reid, Pressman and Andre Paras. The film was released on April 2, 2014, and earned at least 120 million pesos during its four-week run. The film received negative reviews, but the young cast was praised for their performances. Zig Marasigan of "Rappler" wrote, "Despite this criticism, "Diary ng Panget" succeeds in bringing together a particularly charming cast with relative newcomer Nadine Lustre leading the charge."


title: Nadine Lustre

text: With the success of "Diary ng Panget" and her tandem with Reid, the pair moved on to star in the film adaptation of another Wattpad novel, "Talk Back and You're Dead", which was written by Alesana Marie. The film also featured Joseph Marco and Pressman. It was released on August 20, 2014 in theaters nationwide. Lustre played the role of Miracle Samantha Perez, a rich girl who fell in love with a teenage gang leader who was also her childhood sweetheart.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In 2015, Lustre starred in her third film opposite of Reid", Para sa Hopeless Romantic", which is a film adaptation of the novel with the same name written by Marcelo Santos III. Lustre played the role of Rebecca del Mundo, a college student who writes love stories with bitter endings as a way of expressing her heartbreak. The movie received negative reviews. However, Oggs Cruz of "Rappler" wrote of Lustre's performance, "Lustre makes her character's seemingly unimportant struggle moving."


title: Nadine Lustre

text: She also had a special role in Adolf Alix Jr.'s horror film "Chain Mail" as Anne Nuñez, which premiered on August 22, 2015. In December 2015, Lustre alongside Reid starred in an action comedy drama movie with Vice Ganda and Coco Martin in "Beauty and the Bestie" for the 2015 Metro Manila Film Festival directed by Wenn V. Deramas. As of January 25, 2016, the movie earned 526 million pesos in local and domestic screenings making it the highest-grossing Filipino film at that time. The movie received lukewarm reviews from critics. Philbert Dy of Click The City, however, praised the cast for being "so game" and "unafraid to look goofy". He remarks that Lustre is "pretty funny."


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre and Reid starred on their fourth movie called "This Time" in May 2016 which earned 15 million pesos on its opening day. The movie was directed by Nuel Naval and was loosely based on the Wattpad novel "That One Summer" by Aly Almario.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In 2018, Lustre and Reid made a comeback to the big screen with "Never Not Love You", which was directed by Antoinette Jadaone. Lustre's performance in the film earned her major awards from three of the most prestigious award-giving bodies in the Philippines, namely, the Young Critics' Circle, Gawad Urian, and FAMAS. Wanngo Gallaga of "Click The City" called Lustre a "powerhouse" and the "real star" of the film while praising her performance by saying that "There is a whole world of emotions within her that she carries with every movement". "The Philippine Daily Inquirer's" Cake Evangelista praised Lustre for being someone who "evokes a wealth of meaning and emotion"


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In 2019, she starred in Irene Villamor's Ulan, her first major film project without Reid. She played the role of romance novel editor turned children's book writer Maya Landicho in the film, which uses elements of magic realism. Praising Lustre's performance in the film, Tito Valiente of "Business Mirror" wrote, "It has been such a long time when the camera of a local film has ever been in love with an actress. Nadine Lustre, with the face that can act, deserves that love." The film, which was co-produced by HOOQ, got recognized by the Asian Academy Creative Awards. It won several awards in the regional category of the awards procedure, including one for Best Actress. Lustre competed with other regional winners for the Grand Prize, but lost to India's Shefali Shah.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre also starred in the dance musical film Paul Basinilio's "Indak" opposite Sam Concepcion. She played the role of Jen, an island girl who joined a dance group after a video of her dancing went viral on social media. Lustre and Concepcion, along with other dancers in the film, went through weeks of dance training before filming began.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: On August 26, 2014, Lustre and Reid signed a two-year exclusive contract with ABS-CBN at an event attended by some of the prominent figures of the station. The contract signed Lustre and Reid as ABS-CBN's new loveteam. Any music, films or television shows headlined by them will be released under ABS-CBN and Viva.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Their television project with ABS-CBN was "Wansapanataym"s month-long special entitled "My App Boyfie" in October 2014, where Lustre portrayed the lead female role Anika Andres.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre and Reid moved on to their "MMK" debut for its Valentine's Day episode, titled "Signs of Love", where the actress played the role of Carmina Joven.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: On VIVA Channel, Lustre and Reid starred in their own show called "#JaDine" where every project given to them from endorsement, commercial, TV, and film shoots are documented and shown every 7p.m. (PHT) on Wednesdays.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre's breakthrough and most prominent role to date is Leah Olivar on the romantic comedy series "On The Wings Of Love", which she starred alongside Reid as her leading man. The "teleserye" was originally supposed to run for 10 weeks but was extended for another three months. The show ended on February 26, 2016, with a live finale viewing in Ynares Sports Complex, Antipolo City. The "teleserye" made Nadine Lustre and her partner James Reid household names in Philippine showbusiness.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: A 4-episode TV special dubbed "JaDine Flying High on Love" also aired in ABS-CBN showing the travels of Lustre and Reid in Doha, Dubai, Paris, London, Milan, Rome, Verona, and Vatican City.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In 2016, Lustre and Reid starred on their 2nd teleserye, on the ABS-CBN Primetime Bida series entitled Till I Met You.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: On February 20, 2016, Lustre and Reid had their first major concert titled "JaDine in Love" at the Smart Araneta Coliseum. Within seven hours after the concert announcement, there was already a total of ₱9 million in ticket revenues. It was announced during the presscon that tickets for general admission is sold out, and SRO (Standing Room Only) tickets were made available for purchase by producers due to high demand.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: "JaDine in Love" was produced by Viva Concerts and ABS-CBN's entertainment unit Dreamscape. Performing in front of a sold-out crowd, the two were joined by guest performers Pressman, Myrtle Sarrosa, Elmo Magalona, Vice Ganda, Erik Santos, and Kyla. Other notable guests were their co-actors in "On The Wings Of Love". Due to the clamor of their fans overseas, Lustre and Reid held a "Jadine in Love World Tour" last March 2016. They brought their modified Araneta Concert in Doha, Dubai, London, and Milan with new special guests such as Yeng Constantino, Jay R, and Tart Carlos. On May 12, 2016, Lustre and Reid flew to North America to start their second world tour called "JaDine High on Love" in the United States and Canada.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: On February 9, 2018, Lustre and Reid had their second major concert entitled "Revolution: a JaDine Concert at Araneta Coliseum".


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In 2017, Lustre co-directed the music video of Reid's "The Life" with film director Petersen Vargas. The music video was released in December 2017. It won the Music Video of the Year award at the 2017 Myx Music Awards. Lustre's follow up project as a music video director came in January 2019 for her duet with Reid entitled "Summer". She shares directing credit for the video with Chino Villagracia of The Visual Club.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In April 2018, Lustre launched her first ever make-up collection called "Lustrous" in collaboration with the international Australian brand, BYS. Lustre is the first ever Filipina celebrity to collaborate with the international brand. In a private launch held on March 23, she mentioned that she shares the same advocacy with BYS which stands for "be your self" and said that ""It's nice to be able to work with a brand who inspires all the girls to be themselves."" The event was hosted in Flossom Kitchen and Cafe by one of her closest friends Kiana Valenciano, daughter of singer-songwriter, musician and actor Gary Valenciano.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: The make-up line consists of a contour & highlight kit, lip & cheek tints in the shade Raw and Vermillion, eye shadow palettes in the shades Luna and Calypso, eyeliners in the shades Turquoise, Moonstone and Sapphire, mascaras in the shades Void and Lazuli and an eyebrow pencil & eyebrow gel in the shade Natural Brown. Each item is contained in a gold packaging and comes with different glittery, red and brownish shades. The make-up line also offers a gift box that contains one shade of each item and is placed in a pink box with a tropical design. Lustrous is available in selected SM Beauty and Watsons stores nationwide. Customers can also pre-order through their Instagram page lustrousph.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In December 2018, Lustre released her signature fragrance called "Luster". The fragrance was first teased by Lustre in 2017 when she posted several boudoir-themed photos from the campaign. She revealed the project on Valentine's night. In an interview with "Preview", Lustre revealed details about how she personally and independently produced and conceptualized the product. The idea came from her mother who knew a chemist who makes perfumes. She then started conceptualizing the campaign, which was inspired by "boudoir photos, 18th-century fashion photos, and vintage "Vogue"" She revealed that she chose such themes because she wanted to show everyone that she is "slowly changing and growing into a woman." The perfume bottle was made to look like a "love potion or an 18th century perfume bottle" For the campaign, Lustre worked with photographer BJ Pascual. The packaging was designed by artist Soleil Ignacio. When asked about what it means to her to have her own brand of perfume, Lustre said, ""What does it mean for me? For me, this perfume, "Luster", showcases my creativity as a person. It showcases my character because it's the scent that I like. I'm selling you myself. I'm selling you a piece of me. This is as personal as it gets. This is me showing everyone "na ito ako". This is what I can do. This is the real me. When you buy the perfume, it's like literally taking me with you wherever you are."


title: Nadine Lustre

text: After some delay, Luster was officially launched on December 22, 2018. The fragrance was described as having a "signature powdery fragrance with a luscious vanilla scent". Lustre released brand new promotional photos, which were "Thumbelina-inspired" and featured life-sized peonies. For this campaign, Lustre collaborated with photographer Xander Angeles and her make up artist, Jelly Eugenio.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In February 2019, Lustre held an official launch event for the fragrance line in the form of a pop up store. The event was held at Vetro, an art gallery in Quezon City.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In February 2019, Lustre became the first Filipino ambassador of fast fashion giant H&M. On March 14 of the same year, her swimwear line collaboration with the brand, which was called "Selected by Nadine", was released. A second wave of Lustre's special swimwear line was released the following month.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: In June 2020, Lustre appeared alongside actress Maja Salvador for another campaign for H&M's swimwear line. The collection was called "Selected by Nadine and Maja." The collection was supposed to be launched in March, but was pushed back because of the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Although not known primarily as an activist, Lustre has been outspoken about issues and advocacies she cares deeply about, such as her advocacy for mental health awareness, her support for the environmental activist group Greenpeace, her call for women's independence, and the need for the government to address the 2020 COVID-19 crisis with ""help, compassion and transparency, not threats and lies"."


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre is a fan of American popstar Lady Gaga, whom she once called her "ultimate idol". Discussing the popstar, Lustre has said, "She's very creative, she's out of this world. That's why I really love everything that she does. I love following her. I like her fashion sense, everything about her. Her creativity and her beauty, everything about her is just so unconventional. It's not the usual. It's really fascinating, and how talented she is." Sharing that she has seen Lady Gaga's Netflix documentary "over ten times", Lustre said, "She's real, she's honest. She's not afraid to show everyone who she really is, and I’m learning from that." Lustre has a tattoo on her finger that says "ohh la la", which is a reference to Lady Gaga's Bad Romance.


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre has listed "Moments" by Jhené Aiko, "Way Back" by Amber Mark, "A Sky Full of Stars" by Coldplay, Army of Me by Bjork, and Digital Love by Daft Punk as the five songs that changed her life. When asked by "Rappler" to cite an album she thinks has shaped the 2010s, she answered Capacities by Up Dharma Down, saying, "The music and lyrics also speak to me in a way that I can never explain. Until now, I still listen to the whole album and it always feels like the first time listening to it."


title: Nadine Lustre

text: Lustre enjoys listening to "future bass, deep house, and the newer EDM sound that's going around". She has also referred to Rihanna, Ariana Grande, and Coldplay as her "all-time favorite artists. When making music, she considers Tinashe, Doja Cat, and Jhene Aiko as some of her inspirations.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: The Bradford City stadium fire occurred during a Football League Third Division match on Saturday, 11 May 1985 at the Valley Parade stadium in Bradford, West Yorkshire, England, killing 56 spectators and injuring at least 265. The stadium was known for its antiquated design and facilities, which included the wooden roof of the main stand. Previous warnings had also been given about a major build-up of litter in the cavity below the seats in the stand. The stand had been officially condemned and was due to be replaced with a steel structure after the season ended.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: The match between Bradford City and Lincoln City, the final game of that season, had started in a celebratory atmosphere with the home team receiving the Third Division championship trophy. At 3.40 p.m., television commentator John Helm remarked upon a small fire in the main stand; in less than four minutes, with the windy conditions, the fire had engulfed the whole stand, trapping some people in their seats. In the panic that ensued, fleeing crowds escaped on to the pitch but others at the back of the stand tried to break down locked exit doors to escape. Many were burnt to death at the turnstiles gates, which had also been locked after the match had begun. There were many cases of heroism, with more than fifty people later receiving police awards or commendations for bravery.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: The disaster led to rigid new safety standards in UK stadiums, including the banning of new wooden grandstands. It was also a catalyst for the substantial redevelopment and modernisation of many British football grounds within the following thirty years. Bradford City continues to support the burns unit at the University of Bradford as its official charity.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: Valley Parade in Bradford, West Yorkshire, was built in 1886 and was initially the home ground of Manningham Rugby Football Club. Since 1903, when the club was formed, Bradford City Association Football Club had played their home games at the ground. The playing area and stands were very basic but the ground had enough room for 18,000 spectators. When the association football club was formed, the ground was changed very little and had no covered accommodation. However, when Bradford City won promotion to the highest level of English football, Division One, in 1908, club officials sanctioned an upgrade programme. Football architect Archibald Leitch was commissioned to carry out the work. By 1911, his work was completed. It included a main stand which seated 5,300 fans, and had room for a further 7,000 standing spectators in the paddock in front. The main stand was described as a "mammoth structure", but was unusual for its time because of its place on the side of a hill. The entrances to the stand were all at the rear and were higher than the rest of the ground.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: Although there had been some changes to other parts of the ground, the main stand remained unaltered by 1985. Football ground writer Simon Inglis had described the view from the stand as "like watching football from the cockpit of a Sopwith Camel" because of its antiquated supports and struts. However, he also warned the club of a build-up of litter beneath the stand because of a gap between the seats. Some repair work was carried out, but in July 1984 the club was warned again, this time by a county council engineer, because of the club's plans to claim for ground improvements from the Football Trust. One letter from the council said the problems "should be rectified as soon as possible"; a second said: "A carelessly discarded cigarette could give rise to a fire risk." In March 1985 the club's plans became more apparent when it took delivery of steel for a new roof.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: The 1984–85 season had been one of Bradford City's most successful seasons, ending with City clinching the championship title courtesy of a 2–0 victory against Bolton Wanderers in the penultimate game of the season. As a result, Bradford-born captain Peter Jackson was presented with the league trophy before the final game of the season with mid-table Lincoln City at Valley Parade on 11 May 1985. As it was the first piece of league silverware that the club had captured since they won the Division Three (North) title 56 years earlier, 11,076 supporters were in the ground. It was nearly double the season's average of 6,610 and included 3,000 fans in the ground's main stand. In the crowd were local dignitaries and guests from three of Bradford's twin towns—Verviers in Belgium, and Mönchengladbach and Hamm in West Germany.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: Bradford's "Telegraph & Argus" newspaper published a souvenir issue for 11 May, entitled, "Spit and Polish for the Parade Ground". It detailed the safety work which would be carried out at Valley Parade as a result of the club's promotion, admitting the ground was "inadequate in so many ways for modern requirements". Steel was to be installed in the roof, and the wooden terracing was to be replaced with concrete. The work was expected to cost £400,000 (£ million today).


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: The Bradford City matchday squad of players and staff consisted of Terry Yorath, Trevor Cherry, Chris Withe, Don Goodman, Eric McManus, Tony Clegg, John Hawley, Dave Evans, Bryan Edwards, John Hendrie, Mark Ellis, Stuart McCall, Peter Jackson, Bobby Campbell, Martin Singleton and Greg Abbott.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: The match kicked off at 3:04 pm and after forty minutes of the first half, the score remained 0–0, in what was described as a drab affair with neither team threatening to score.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: At 3:44 pm, five minutes before half-time, the first sign of a firea glowing lightwas noticed three rows from the back of block G, as reported by television commentator John Helm. Helm later described the start of the fire in an interview to the "Express" newspaper:


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: One witness saw paper or debris on fire, about below the floor boards. The stand seats did not have risers; this had allowed a large accumulation of rubbish and paper waste in the cavity space under the stand, which had not been cleared for many months. Spectators later spoke of initially feeling their feet becoming warmer; one of them ran to the back of the stand for a fire extinguisher but found none. A police officer shouted to a colleague for an extinguisher, but his call was misheard and instead the fire brigade were radioed. The call was timed at 3:43 pm.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: The fire escalated very rapidly, and flames became visible; police started to evacuate the stand. As the blaze spread, the wooden stands and roofcovered with layers of highly flammable bituminous roofing feltquickly went ablaze. Burning timbers and molten materials fell from the roof onto the crowd and seating below, and dense black smoke enveloped a passageway behind the stand, where many spectators were trying to escape. One eyewitness, Geoffrey Mitchell, told the BBC: "It spread like a flash. I've never seen anything like it. The smoke was choking. You could hardly breathe." As spectators began to cascade over the wall separating the stand from the pitch, the linesman on that side of the pitch informed referee Norman Glover, who stopped the game with three minutes remaining before half-time. It took less than four minutes for the entire stand to be engulfed in flames.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: There were no extinguishers in the stand's passageway for fear of vandalism, and one spectator ran to the clubhouse to find one but was overcome by smoke and impeded by others trying to escape. Supporters either ran upwards to the back of the stand or downwards to the pitch to escape. The stand had no perimeter fencing to keep fans from accessing the pitch, thus averting an instance of crush asphyxia as in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster. Footage of the accident at this point shows levels of confusion among the spectatorswhile many were trying to escape or to cross the pitch to the relative safety of the neighbouring stands, other spectators were observed cheering or waving to the still-rolling pitchside cameras.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: Most of the exits at the back were locked or shut and there were no stewards present to open them, but seven were forced open or found open. Three men smashed down one door and at least one exit was opened by people outside, which again helped prevent further deaths. Geoffrey Mitchell said: "There was panic as fans stampeded to an exit which was padlocked. Two or three burly men put their weight against it and smashed the gate open. Otherwise, I would not have been able to get out." At the front of the stand, men threw children over the wall to help them escape. Most of those who escaped onto the pitch were saved.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: People who had escaped the fire then tried to assist their fellow supporters. Police officers also assisted in the rescue attempts. One man clambered over burning seats to help a fan, as did player John Hawley, and one officer led fans to an exit, only to find it shut and had to turn around. Bradford City's coach Terry Yorath, whose family was in the stand, ran onto the pitch to help evacuate people. Another player went into the office space to ensure there was nobody there. One fan put his jumper over a fellow supporter's head to extinguish flames. Those who escaped were taken out of the ground to neighbouring homes and a pub, where a television screened "World of Sport", which broadcast video recorded of the fire just an hour after it was filmed.


title: Bradford City stadium fire

text: The fire brigade arrived at the ground four minutes after they were initially alerted. However, the fire had consumed the stand entirely by that point and they were faced with huge flames and very dense smoke. As many supporters still required rescue from the stand, they were unable to immediately start fighting the source of the fire.