title: Mitre

text: In the Church of England, the mitre fell out of use after the Reformation, but was restored in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a result of the Oxford Movement, and is now worn by most bishops of the Anglican Communion on at least some occasions. In The Episcopal Church of the United States, the first Presiding Bishop, Samuel Seabury wore a mitre as early as 1786. The mitre is also worn by bishops in a number of Lutheran churches, for example the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia, the Church of Sweden, and the Lutheran Church in Great Britain.


title: Mitre

text: In the Catholic Church, ecclesial law gives the right to use the mitre and other pontifical insignia (crosier, pectoral cross, and ring) to (1) bishops, (2) abbots, (3) cardinals, and (4) those canonically equivalent to diocesan bishops who do not receive episcopal ordination. The principal celebrant presents the mitre and other pontifical insignia to a newly ordained bishop during the Rite of Ordination of a Bishop and to a new abbot during the Rite of Blessing of an Abbot. In the case of a person who is canonically equivalent to a diocesan bishop but does not receive episcopal ordination, this presentation normally occurs during a public installation as the ordinary of his jurisdiction. Catholic ecclesial law also permits former Anglican bishops received into full communion and subsequently ordained to the order of presbyter in the Catholic Church to obtain permission to use pontifical insignia as a mark of recognition of their previous ministry (they also may be admitted to the national or regional episcopal conference with status equivalent to that of retired Catholic bishops), but former Anglican bishops typically have not requested permission to use pontifical insignia under this provision.


title: Mitre

text: The proper colour of a mitre is always white, although in liturgical usage white also includes vestments made from gold and silver fabrics. The embroidered bands and other ornaments which adorn a mitre and the lappets may be of other colours and often are.


title: Mitre

text: On all occasions, an altar server may wear a shawl-style veil, called a vimpa, around the shoulders when holding the bishop's mitre.


title: Mitre

text: In ecclesiastical heraldry, a mitre was placed above the shield of all persons who were entitled to wear the mitre, including abbots. It substituted for the helm of military arms, but also appeared as a crest placed atop a helmet, as was common in German heraldry. In the Anglican Churches, the Church of Sweden, and the Lutheran Church of Finland, the mitre is still placed above the arms of bishops instead of the ecclesiastical hat. In the Roman Catholic Church, the use of the mitre above the shield on the personal arms of clergy was suppressed in 1969, and is now found only on some corporate arms, like those of dioceses. Previously, the mitre was often included under the hat, and even in the arms of a cardinal, the mitre was not entirely displaced. In heraldry the mitre is always shown in gold, and the lappets (infulae) are of the same colour. It has been asserted that before the reformation, a distinction was used to be drawn between the mitre of a bishop and an abbot by the omission of the infulae in the abbot's arms. In England and France it was usual to place the mitre of an abbot slightly in profile.


title: Mitre

text: With his inauguration as pope, Benedict XVI broke with tradition and replaced the papal tiara even on his papal coat of arms with a papal mitre (containing still the three levels of 'crowns' representing the powers of the papacy in a simplified form) and pallium. Prior to Benedict XVI, each pope's coat of arms always contained the image of the papal tiara and St. Peter's crossed keys, even though the tiara had fallen into disuse, especially under popes John Paul I and John Paul II. Pope Paul VI was the last pope to date to begin his papal reign with a formal coronation in June 1963. However, as a sign of the perceived need for greater simplification of the papal rites, as well as the changing nature of the papacy itself, he abandoned the use of his tiara in a dramatic ceremony in Saint Peter's Basilica during the second session of Vatican II in November 1963. However his 1975 Apostolic Constitution made it clear the tiara had not been abolished: in the constitution he made provision for his successor to receive a coronation. Pope John Paul I, however, declined to follow Paul VI's constitution and opted for a simpler papal inauguration, a precedent followed by his three successors. Pope John Paul II's 1996 Apostolic Constitution left open several options by not specifying what sort of ceremony was to be used, other than that some ceremony would be held to inaugurate a new pontificate.


title: Mitre

text: The most typical mitre in the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic churches is based on the closed Imperial crown of the late Byzantine Empire. Therefore, it too is ultimately based on the older καμιλαύκιον although it diverged from the secular headdress at a much later date, after it had already undergone further development.


title: Mitre

text: Orthodox bishops started wearing mitres around the 16th or 17th century, but the date of adoption is disputed. The use of headgear of any kind by the Byzantine church was a late development, and before the 1500s they wore no headgear. Theodore Balsamon, Patriarch of Antioch (ca. 1130–1140) stated that the patriarch of Alexandria was the only Orthodox prelate to wear a hat during the liturgy. This claim was repeated by Symeon of Thessalonica in the fifteenth century, who in his "Concerning the Holy Temple," wrote that all Eastern hierarchs and priests, with the exception of the patriarch of Alexandria conduct sacred service with uncovered heads.


title: Mitre

text: Another evidence pointing to the lack of headgear among the Orthodox bishops was the complaint against John XI of Constantinople who was accused of copying the Catholic pope in wearing a mitre. In 1585 a Russian envoy witnessed the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, and Jerusalem celebrated the divine liturgy together and only the Alexandrian patriarch wore a mitre.


title: Mitre

text: Some modern scholars believe that the mitre was first adopted among the Orthodox when Cyril Lucaris (previously patriarch of Alexandria) became Ecumenical Patriarch in the early 1600s. Others instead claim that the mitre started being used after the fall of Constantinople (1453). There are some examples of Orthodox religious headgear (and possibly mitres) as early as the 14th century, such as a fresco of Metropolitan Kalevit in the Kremikovtsi Monastery or the mitre donated to the patriarhc of Belgrade by Katarina Branković.


title: Mitre

text: Some have hypothesized that shape of the mitres adopted after the fall of Constantinople was likely derived by the "stemma", the Byzantine imperial crown. Together with other imperial-derived vestements like the sakkos, the crown-like mitre embodied the regality and richness of the defunct empire, of which the bishops inherited the legacy.


title: Mitre

text: In medieval Russia bishops wore hats with a fringe, but not a mitre. This is in contrast to Constantinople and most other Orthodox clergy who did not wear any headgear, and might be accounted for by the cold temperatures in Russia. The mitre was first appeared in Russia with Patriarch Nikon, who adopted it from the tradition of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Initially, it was only worn by the Patriarch of Moscow, but it was soon adopted by the rest of the bishops, and a council in 1675 mandated the mitre for all bishops, following the Greek custom. Mitres were also given to some archimandrites, by the decree of Peter the Great in 1705; in 1786 Catherine the Great awarded a mitre to her spiritual father, Archpriest John Pamphilov. In 1797 the decree of Paul I allowed the mitre to be awarded to archpriests as mark of special distinction. In 1988, the Holy Synod of the Russian Church decided that the mitres of all bishops would be topped with a cross, which until then was reserved for the Patriarch (also granted to the metropolitan of Kiev starting in 1686).


title: Mitre

text: The Eastern mitre is made in the shape of a bulbous crown, completely enclosed, and the material is of brocade, damask or cloth of gold. It may also be embroidered, and is often richly decorated with jewels. There are normally four icons attached to the mitre (often of Christ, the Theotokos, John the Baptist and the Cross), which the bishop may kiss before he puts it on. Eastern mitres are usually gold, but other liturgical colours may be used.


title: Mitre

text: The mitre is topped by a cross, either made out of metal and standing upright, or embroidered in cloth and lying flat on the top. In Greek practice, the mitres of all bishops are topped with a standing cross. The same is true in the Russian tradition. Mitres awarded to priests will have the cross lying flat. Sometimes, instead of the flat cross, the mitre may have an icon on the top.


title: Mitre

text: As an item of Imperial , along with other such items as the sakkos (Imperial dalmatic) and epigonation, the mitre came to signify the temporal authority of bishops (especially that of the Patriarch of Constantinople) within the administration of the "Rum millet" (i.e., the Christian community) of the Ottoman Empire. The mitre is removed at certain solemn moments during the Divine Liturgy and other services, usually being removed and replaced by the protodeacon.


title: Mitre

text: The use of the mitre is a prerogative of bishops, but it may be awarded to archpriests, protopresbyters and archimandrites. The priestly mitre is not surmounted by a cross, and is awarded at the discretion of a synod of bishops.


title: Mitre

text: During the 18th century (and in a few cases the 19th), soldiers designated as grenadiers in various northern European armies wore a mitre (usually called a "mitre cap") similar in outline to those worn by western bishops. As first adopted in the 1680s this cap had been worn instead of the usual broad-brimmed hat to avoid the headdress being knocked off when the soldier threw a grenade. The hand grenade in its primitive form had become obsolete by the mid-18th century but grenadiers continued as elite troops in most European armies, usually retaining the mitre cap as a distinction.


title: Mitre

text: Militarily, this headdress came in different styles. The Prussian style had a cone-shaped brass or white metal front with a cloth rear having lace braiding; the Russian style initially consisted of a tall brass plate atop of a leather cap with a peak at the rear, although the German model was subsequently adopted. The British style—usually simply called a "grenadier cap" instead of a mitre—had a tall cloth front with elaborate regimental embroidery forward of a sloping red back, lined in white. Some German and Russian fusilier regiments also wore a mitre with a smaller brass front-plate.


title: Mitre

text: By the end of the 18th century, due to changes in military fashion, the mitre had generally given way to the bearskin or had been replaced by the standard infantry tricorn or bicorn. The British Army made this change in 1765 and the Prussian Army in 1790. All Russian grenadiers continued however to wear mitre caps until 1805, even when on active service.


title: Mitre

text: The mitre in its classic metal-fronted 18th century form survived as an item of ceremonial parade dress in the Prussian "Leib-Grenadier No 1," "1st Garde-Regiment zu Fuss" regiments, and the Russian Pavlovskii Regiment, until World War I.


title: Mitre

text: The bishop in the board game chess is represented by a stylised Western mitre having Unicode codes U+2657 (white) and U+265D (black): ♗♝.


title: Mitre

text: The crowns of the Austrian Empire and Imperial Russia incorporated a mitre of precious metal and jewels into their design. The Austrian Imperial Crown was originally the personal crown of Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II and has the form proper to that of a Holy Roman Emperor. At the Roman rite of their Coronation, the Pope placed a mitre on their heads before placing the crown over it. Their empress consorts also received both a mitre and crown on their heads from a cardinal bishop at the same ceremony. The form of the Russian Imperial Crown dates back to the time of Peter the Great’s early attempts to westernise Russia and was probably inspired by the crowns worn by Habsburg emperors of the Holy Roman Empire and possibly also the Orthodox mitre.


title: Mitre

text: Abbesses of certain very ancient abbeys in the West also wore mitres, but of a very different form than that worn by male prelates.


title: Mitre

text: The mitral valve of the human heart, which is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle, is named so because of its similarity in shape to the mitre. Andreas Vesalius, the father of anatomy, noted the striking similarity between the two while performing anatomic dissections in the sixteenth century.


title: Black Russian

text: The black Russian is a cocktail of vodka and coffee liqueur. It contains 50 ml vodka and 20 ml coffee liqueur, per IBA specified ingredients.


title: Black Russian

text: The drink is made by pouring the vodka and coffee liqueur over ice cubes or cracked ice in an old-fashioned glass and stirring. The black Russian is often garnished with a lemon slice and a Luxardo maraschino cherry on a stick.


title: Black Russian

text: The black Russian cocktail first appeared in 1949 and is ascribed to Gustave Tops, a Belgian barman, who created it at the Hotel Metropole in Brussels in honor of Perle Mesta, then United States Ambassador to Luxembourg. The cocktail owes its name to the use of vodka, a typical Russian spirit, and the blackness of the coffee liqueur.


title: No Rest for the Wicked (Ozzy Osbourne album)

text: No Rest for the Wicked is the fifth solo studio album by English heavy metal vocalist Ozzy Osbourne. It was released on 28 September 1988, and was re-issued / remastered on 22 August 1995, and again on 25 June 2002. The album was certified gold in December 1988 and has since gone double platinum. It peaked at number 13 on the "Billboard" 200. It was the first album to feature guitarist Zakk Wylde, keyboardist John Sinclair and the first to feature bassist Bob Daisley since "Bark at the Moon".


text: "No Rest for the Wicked" is the recording debut of lead guitarist Zakk Wylde. After firing lead guitarist Jake E. Lee in 1987, Osbourne received a demo tape from Wylde and later hired him after an audition.


text: Bassist/lyricist Bob Daisley made his return to Osbourne's band after the two had a falling out in 1985. Once the album's recording was complete, Daisley was once again out, replaced by Osbourne's former Black Sabbath bandmate Geezer Butler for subsequent promotional tours.


text: "Miracle Man", "Crazy Babies", and "Breakin' All the Rules" were released as singles with accompanying music videos. The song "Hero" was an unlisted hidden bonus track on the original 1988 CD and cassette releases. The song "Miracle Man" was a pointed barb aimed at disgraced televangelist Jimmy Swaggart. Swaggart had long been critical of Osbourne's music and live performances, before he himself was involved in a 1988 prostitution scandal.


text: Creative Director John Carver was hired by Sharon Osbourne to conceptualize and art direct the album sleeve for "No Rest For the Wicked". John's concept was to position and portray Ozzy as Jesus Christ. John commissioned legendary photographer Bob Carlos Clarke to photograph the sleeve. John's image of Ozzy has achieved legendary status and has appeared in various "best album sleeve..." books.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: Sad Wings of Destiny is the second studio album by English heavy metal band Judas Priest, released on 23 March 1976 by Gull Records. It is considered the album on which Judas Priest consolidated their sound and image, and songs from it such as "Victim of Changes" and "The Ripper" have since become live standards. It was the band's only album to feature drummer Alan Moore.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: Noted for its riff-driven sound and the wide range of Rob Halford's vocals, the album displays a wide variety of styles, moods and textures, inspired by an array of groups such as Queen, Led Zeppelin, Deep Purple and Black Sabbath. The centrepiece "Victim of Changes" is a nearly eight-minute track featuring heavy riffing trading off with high-pitched vocals, extended guitar leads, and a slow, moody breakdown toward the end. "Tyrant" and "The Ripper" are short, dense, high-powered rockers with many parts and changes. Riffs and solos dominate "Genocide", "Island of Domination", and "Deceiver", and the band finds more laid-back moments in the crooning piano-backed "Epitaph" and the moody "Dreamer Deceiver".


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: "Sad Wings of Destiny" had a positive reception but weak sales. The band recorded their first two albums with the independent Gull label under tight budgets; after living off a single meal per day while working side jobs to support themselves, the group grew frustrated with the financial situation and signed with for their next album, "Sin After Sin" (1977). Breaking their contract resulted in the rights to "Sad Wings of Destiny" and its demo recordings falling into Gull's hands. In retrospect, the album has received acclaim as one of the most important albums in heavy metal history, with the album's image and style going on to influence many later metal bands, as well as later Judas Priest albums.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: Judas Priest formed in September 1969 in industrial West Bromwich, Birmingham by lead vocalist/founding Al Atkins and bass guitarist/co-founding Brian "Bruno" Steppenhill, who chose the band's name, wanting one similar to Black Sabbath's. The bands were contemporaries and were both from Birmingham, though Judas Priest failed to find a significant audience until Black Sabbath began to fade from the spotlight. The band's guitarists Glenn Tipton and K. K. Downing have said the heavy riffing and complexity of the song arrangements were inspired by the factories of Birmingham.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: By the time Judas Priest's first album, "Rocka Rolla", was released in 1974, there had been so many lineup changes that only K.K Downing and Ian Hill were the original members The first album displayed a mix of styles from a wide variety of influences, but the band found the performance and production disappointing. The band gigged occasionally through 1975, at times sharing the stage with bands such as Pink Fairies and UFO. Drummer John Hinch left the band for reasons that are disputed and was replaced with Alan Moore in October 1975, who had drummed in an early incarnation of the band.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: The band performed the "Dreamer Deceiver"–"Deceiver" pair on BBC Two's "The Old Grey Whistle Test" the year before the songs appeared on "Sad Wings of Destiny". They were frustrated with the BBC's volume restrictions, as high volume is a key component in producing a heavy-metal sound. The band had yet to develop the studs-and-leather image that was to become their trademark; instead, they wore contemporary mid-1970s fashions, including high-heeled boots and frilled shirts, and a long-haired Halford donned a pink satin top which he later said he borrowed from his sister. By 1976, the band's singer Rob Halford joked that fans should burn their copies of "Rocka Rolla".


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: Finances were tight: the record label Gull provided a recording budget of £2,000 for each of the band's first two albums. During the recording of "Sad Wings of Destiny", band members restricted themselves to one meal a day, and several took on part-time work: Tipton as a gardener, Downing in a factory, and Hill driving a delivery van. The group went into the studio with the intention of making an album that mixed straight-ahead rock with a progressive edge.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: Recording took place over three months in November and December 1975 at Rockfield Studios in Wales with producers Jeffrey Calvert and Gereint "Max West" Hughes, and Chris Tsangarides as co-engineer. Calvert and Hughes were the main members of the pop group Typically Tropical who topped the UK charts in 1975 with "Barbados", Gull's first hit. The band stayed sober during the recording sessions, which lasted from 3:00 pm until 3:00 am. Mixing took a week at Morgan Studios in London.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: David Howells of Gull records commissioned Patrick Woodroffe to provide the cover art, a piece called "Fallen Angel" depicting a struggling, grounded angel surrounded by flames and wearing a devil's three-pronged cross, which was the band's symbol. Halford posed Christ-like on the reverse, and Gothic fonts adorned the front and back.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: "Sad Wings of Destiny" was released 23 March 1976, and four days earlier "The Ripper" appeared as a single backed with "Island of Domination".


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: The album had the A-side and B-side reversed, so that "Prelude" opens the second side and "Victim of Changes" the first, while the sleeve has "Prelude" opening the first side.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: The album had little commercial success at first and had difficulty getting noticed due to critical competition from the rise of punk rock. The band supported the album with a headlining tour of the UK from 6 April to 20 June 1976.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: The album peaked at in the UK, and was awarded a gold record in 1989. "Sad Wings of Destiny" arrived at the same time as other influential metal albums from the late 70's – the same year saw the release of "Rising" from Ritchie Blackmore's Rainbow and "Virgin Killer" from Scorpions.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: The band had grown dissatisfied with Gull; the tight finances led Moore to leave the band a second time—this time permanently.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: The album caught the attention of , and with the help of new manager David Hemmings, the band signed with CBS and received a £ budget for their next record, "Sin After Sin" (1977). Downing described how the disappointed feelings the group had over Gull's management influenced the dark themes that appeared on "Sad Wings of Destiny".


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: The signing required breaking their contract with Gull, resulting in the rights to the first two albums and all related recordings—including demos—becoming property of Gull.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: Gull periodically repackaged and re-released the material from these albums, such as on the 1981 double album "Hero, Hero".


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: For the most part, the band was to abandon the progressive rock elements of their first two albums for a more straight-ahead heavy rock sound; the band revisited these progressive elements in 2008 on the album "Nostradamus".


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: Fans, critics, and the band have come to see "Sad Wings of Destiny" as the album on which Judas Priest consolidated their sound and image. In "Rolling Stone" Kris Nicholson gave the album a positive review, comparing it favourably to Deep Purple's "Machine Head" of 1972. Martin Popoff cites the album's "reinvention" of the heavy metal genre. The technical dexterity and operatic vocals pointed toward trends in heavy metal that new wave of British heavy metal bands such as Iron Maiden were to follow, and the album's dark themes reappeared in the 1980s American thrash metal, such as in the music of Slayer and Metallica. An early sign of the band's influence was that Van Halen included "Victim of Changes" in their sets before achieving fame. Dave Mustaine of Megadeth relates that his brother-in-law punched him in the face for listening to "Sad Wings of Destiny"; Mustaine called this a turning point, where he chose heavy metal as a career as "revenge". Mikael Åkerfeldt of Opeth named "Sad Wings of Destiny" his second favourite metal album. "PopMatters" described the album as "not-at-all shabby" and listed "Epitaph" as one of its "25 Best Progressive Rock Songs of All Time" in 2011. Halford has called the album his favourite of the band's.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: "Victim of Changes", "The Ripper", "Tyrant", and "Genocide"—with an extended introduction—appear on the band's first live album, "Unleashed in the East" (1979). The first three of those songs have survived until 2019 in the band's setlists, with "Victim of Changes" being one of the band's most played songs ever, while "Genocide" got retired in the early 1980s. With "Dreamer Deceiver", "Deceiver" and "Island of Domination" present on 1975–76 set lists, 7 of the album's 9 songs have been performed in concert.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: During the "Sad Wings" sessions, Howells encouraged the band to work on a heavy metal cover of "Diamonds & Rust" by folk singer Joan Baez, but it did not appear on the album. The band had a hit in the UK with a re-recording of the cover version the following year, after they had moved to CBS Records. Gull released the version from the "Sad Wings" sessions in 1978 on the compilation album "The Best of Judas Priest".


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: Judas Priest's 1990 album "Painkiller" features a winged figure Halford has described as a futuristic version of the Fallen Angel from the "Sad Wings of Destiny" cover. The band's 2005 album "Angel of Retribution"—with Halford again in the band—revives the Fallen Angel again: the cover concept has the angel rise and seek retribution, and the song "Judas Rising" has him cast off his gloom and rise in optimism.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: After Halford left the group in the 1990s, Tim Owens was hired to replace him after auditioning "Victim of Changes" and "The Ripper". Downing and Tipton thereafter nicknamed Owens "The Ripper". Judas Priest's original singer Al Atkins recorded a version of "Victim of Changes" for his album "Victim of Changes" of 1998. Judas Priest frequently performed the song "Mother Sun" during the "Sad Wings" era, but never recorded it. The ballad, with its Queen-like vocals, has survived only in bootleg recordings. In 2014 Swedish metal band Portrait released a cover version as a B-side on a 2014 CD single.


title: Sad Wings of Destiny

text: The "Sad Wings of Destiny" disc of the seventeen-disc "Complete Albums Collection" from 2012 puts the Side B tracks before those from "Side A". "Prelude" did not appear on some pressings.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: The Forsyte Saga, first published under that title in 1922, is a series of three novels and two interludes published between 1906 and 1921 by the English author John Galsworthy, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature. They chronicle the vicissitudes of the leading members of a large upper-middle-class English family that is similar to Galsworthy's. Only a few generations removed from their farmer ancestors, its members are keenly aware of their status as "new money". The main character, the solicitor and connoisseur Soames Forsyte, sees himself as a "man of property" by virtue of his ability to accumulate material possessions, but that does not succeed in bringing him pleasure.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: Separate sections of the saga, as well as the lengthy story in its entirety, have been adapted for cinema and television. "The Man of Property", the first book, was adapted in 1949 by Hollywood as "That Forsyte Woman", starring Errol Flynn, Greer Garson, Walter Pidgeon, and Robert Young. In 1967, the BBC produced a popular 26-part serial that dramatised "The Forsyte Saga" and a subsequent trilogy concerning the Forsytes, "A Modern Comedy". In 2002 Granada Television produced two series for the ITV network: "The Forsyte Saga" and "The Forsyte Saga: To Let". Both made runs in the US as parts of "Masterpiece Theatre". In 2003, "The Forsyte Saga" was listed as #123 on the BBC's The Big Read poll of the UK's "best-loved novel".


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: Following "The Forsyte Saga", Galsworthy wrote two more trilogies and several more interludes based around the titular family. The resulting series is collectively titled The Forsyte Chronicles.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: In this first novel of the "Forsyte Saga", after introducing us to the impressive array of Forsytes headed by the formidable Aunt Ann, Galsworthy moves into the main action of the saga by detailing Soames Forsyte's desire to own things, including his beautiful wife, Irene Forsyte (née Heron). The character of Irene is based upon Galsworthy's wife Ada Galsworthy. Forsyte is jealous of her friendships and wants her to be his alone. He concocts a plan to move her to a house he is having built at Robin Hill, away from everyone she knows and cares for. She resists his grasping intentions, and falls in love with the architect Philip Bosinney, who has been engaged by Soames to build the house. Bosinney returns her love, although he is the fiancé of her young friend June Forsyte, the daughter of Soames's estranged cousin "Young" Jolyon. There is no happy ending: Irene leaves Soames after he asserts what he perceives to be his ultimate right on his property by raping her, and Bosinney dies under the wheels of a bus after being driven frantic by the news of the rape.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: In a short interlude after "The Man of Property" Galsworthy delves into the newfound friendship between Irene and Old Jolyon Forsyte (June's grandfather, now the owner of the house Soames had built). This attachment gives Old Jolyon pleasure, but exhausts his strength. He leaves Irene money in his will, with Young Jolyon, his son, as trustee. In the end Old Jolyon dies under an ancient oak tree in the garden of the Robin Hill house.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: The marital discord of both Soames and his sister Winifred is the subject of the second novel (the title refers to the Court of Chancery, which dealt with domestic issues). They take steps to divorce their spouses, Irene and Montague Dartie respectively. However, while Soames tells his sister to brave the consequences of going to court, he is unwilling to go through a divorce. Instead he stalks and hounds Irene, follows her abroad, and asks her to have his child, which was his father's wish.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: Irene inherits £15,000 after Old Jolyon's death. His son, Young Jolyon Forsyte, also Soames's cousin, manages Irene's finances. When she first leaves Soames, Young Jolyon offers his support. By the time his son Jolly dies in the South African War, Irene has developed a strong friendship with Jolyon. Then Soames confronts young Jolyon and Irene at Robin Hill, falsely accusing them of having an affair. Young Jolyon and Irene assert that they have had an affair because Soames has it in his mind already. This statement gives Soames the evidence he needs for divorce proceedings. That confrontation sparks an eventual consummation between young Jolyon and Irene, leading to their marriage once the divorce is final and the birth of a son Jolyon "Jon" Forsyte. Soames marries Annette, the young daughter of a French Soho restaurant owner. With his new wife, he has his only child, a daughter named Fleur Forsyte.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: The subject of the second interlude is the naive and exuberant lifestyle of eight-year-old Jon Forsyte. He loves and is loved by his parents. He has an idyllic youth, and his every desire indulged.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: This novel concludes the Forsyte Saga. Second cousins Fleur and Jon Forsyte meet and fall in love, ignorant of their parents' past troubles, indiscretions and misdeeds. Once Soames, Jolyon, and Irene discover their romance, they forbid their children to see each other again. Irene and Jolyon also fear that Fleur is too much like her father, and once she has Jon in her grasp, will want to possess him entirely. Despite her feelings for Jon, Fleur has a very suitable suitor, Michael Mont, heir to a baronetcy, who has fallen in love with her. If they marry, Fleur would elevate the status of her family from "nouveau riche" to the aristocratic upper class. The title derives from Soames' reflections as he breaks up the house in which his Uncle Timothy, recently deceased in 1920 at age 101 and the last of the older generation of Forsytes, had lived a recluse, hoarding his life like property.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: Knowing he is soon to die from a weak heart, Jolyon writes a letter to Jon, detailing the events of Irene's marriage to Soames, including her love affair with Philip Bosinney and Soames's rape of her and warns him that Irene would be alone if he were to marry Fleur. But while Jon reads the letter, Jolyon suddenly dies of a heart attack, and Jon is left torn between the past and his present love for Fleur. He ultimately rejects Fleur, breaking his own heart as well as hers, and leaves for Canada. Fleur marries Michael Mont, though she knows she doesn't love him. With her marriage, Soames is separated from the only person whom he has truly loved. Irene also leaves for Canada, selling the house at Robin Hill. Soames and Irene briefly exchange glances at a distance and a kind of peace is made between them, but Soames is left contemplating all that he never really had but tried to possess.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: A 1949 adaptation, called "That Forsyte Woman" in its United States release, starred Errol Flynn as Soames, Greer Garson as Irene, Walter Pidgeon as Young Jolyon, and Robert Young as Philip Bosinney.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: A television adaptation by the BBC of "The Forsyte Saga", and its sequel trilogy "A Modern Comedy", starred Eric Porter as Soames, Joseph O'Conor as Old Jolyon, Susan Hampshire as Fleur, Kenneth More as Young Jolyon and Nyree Dawn Porter as Irene. It was produced by Donald Wilson and was shown in 26 episodes on Saturday evenings between 7 January and 1 July 1967 on BBC2. It was the repeat on Sunday evenings on BBC1 starting on 8 September 1968 that secured the programme's success, with 18 million tuning in for the final episode in 1969. It was shown in the United States on public television and broadcast all over the world, and became the first British television programme to be sold to the Soviet Union.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: There have been various BBC radio dramatisations. The first was probably a radio production of "The Man of Property" in 11 weekly parts commencing 9 December 1945 on the BBC Home Service. The music used as the opening and closing theme came from Edward Elgar's "Enigma Variations", specifically the "Nimrod" variation. This adaptation starred Leo Genn as Jo, Grizelda Hervey as Irene and Ronald Simpson as Soames. It was adapted by Muriel Levy and produced by Val Gielgud and Felix Felton. Young Jolyons in later adaptations included Andrew Cruickshank, Leo Genn and Guy Rolfe. Another production of the dramatised cycle, which had Rachel Gurney as Irene, Noel Johnson as Young Jolyon and Alan Wheatley as Soames, came soon after the 1967 television series. The version broadcast in 1990 comprised a 75-minute opening episode followed by 22 hour-long episodes, entitled "The Forsyte Chronicles". It was the most expensive radio drama serial ever broadcast, due to its length and its big-name cast, which included Dirk Bogarde, Diana Quick, Michael Williams and Alan Howard. This radio series was rerun on BBC 7 radio in 2004, and has been released commercially.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: In January 2016, BBC Radio 4 began broadcasting a new radio adaptation by Shaun McKenna and Lin Coghlan under the title "The Forsytes", scheduled to continue until late 2017. The cast was led by Joseph Millson as Soames, Jessica Raine as Fleur, Juliet Aubrey as Irene, Harry Haddon Paton as Bosinney and Ewan Bailey as Young Jolyon. It was directed by Marion Nancarrow and Gemma Jenkins.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: In 2002, the first two books and the first interlude were adapted by Granada Television for the ITV network, although, like the 1967 production, the miniseries took many liberties with Galsworthy's original work. Additional funding for this production was provided by American PBS station WGBH, the BBC version having been a success on PBS in the early 1970s.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: Immediately following the success of the 2002 adaptation, a second series was released in 2003. It portrays the saga's last book "To Let". Much of the cast resumed their roles, but most of the first generation of Forsytes had died in the previous series. The principal characters played by Damian Lewis, Gina McKee, Rupert Graves, and Amanda Root return. It has also been released on DVD.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: Duty versus Desire: Young Jolyon was the favourite of the family until he left his wife for his daughter's governess. He eschews his status in society and in the Forsyte clan to follow his heart. Soames, though it seems he is the polar opposite of Jolyon, has those same inclinations toward doing what he desires. For example, instead of finding a wife who is rich, he marries Irene and then Annette, who have neither money nor status. When he takes Irene to a play about a married woman and her lover, he ironically sympathizes with the lover and not the husband. However, most of his decisions are on the side of duty.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: Generations and Change: The many generations of the Forsyte clan remind everyone of what has come to pass over the years. However, as the old ranks begin to die, people are able to change. For example, after a few generations, the fact that they are nouveau riche does not matter as much. This is also the case with Soames and Irene's marital problems. Once they grow old and their children can overcome their parents' past, Soames can finally let go of the past. Another change with generations is the diminished number of Forsyte offspring. Many of the second generation have fewer children.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: Galsworthy's sequel to "The Forsyte Saga" was "A Modern Comedy", written in the years 1924 to 1928. This comprises the novel "The White Monkey"; an interlude, "A Silent Wooing"; a second novel, "The Silver Spoon"; a second interlude, "Passers By"; and a third novel, "Swan Song". The principal characters are Soames and Fleur, and the second saga ends with the death of Soames in 1926. This is also the point reached at the end of the 1967 television series.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: Galsworthy wrote one further trilogy, "End of the Chapter", comprising "Maid in Waiting", "Flowering Wilderness", and "Over the River" (also known as "One More River"), chiefly dealing with Michael Mont's young cousin, Dinny Cherrell.


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: In 1930 Galsworthy published "On Forsyte 'Change", which deals in the main with the older Forsytes before the events chronicled in "The Man of Property". Galsworthy states in a foreword that "They have all been written since "Swan Song" was finished but in place they come between the Saga and the Comedy ..." By way of explanation he writes that "It is hard to part suddenly and finally from those with whom one has lived so long; and these footnotes do really, I think, help to fill in and round out the chronicles of the Forsyte family."


title: The Forsyte Saga

text: In 1994 Suleika Dawson published a sequel to "The Forsytes" titled "" in which Soames's daughter, Fleur, Lady Mont, is the main character. She has been a dutiful wife and mother, and has long forgotten her love for Jon Forsyte, but when tragedy brings Jon back to England Fleur is determined to recapture the past and the love of her life.


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: Jeffrey Bruce "Jeff" Skiles (born November 18, 1959) is an airline pilot for American Airlines. On January 15, 2009, he became globally known as first officer of US Airways Flight 1549, when he worked together with captain Chesley Sullenberger to land the aircraft on the Hudson River after the plane lost both of its engines. They were widely celebrated as heroes for landing the plane with no loss of life.


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: Jeff Skiles was born and raised in the greater Madison metropolitan area of Wisconsin. Both of Skiles' parents, James Skiles and Deloris McKenney, were pilots during his childhood, and he became a pilot himself when he was sixteen years old. He first worked flying cargo planes, then worked for Midstate Airlines from 1983 to 1986, and after that joined US Airways. At the time of the emergency landing he had been with US Airways for 23 years.


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: Skiles was flying as a First Officer on Flight 1549 due to a staff reduction at US Airways; he had usually flown as Captain prior to the staff reduction and had slightly more flight hours than Sullenberger (though Skiles was relatively new to flying the Airbus A320).


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: Atul Gawande, author of "The Checklist Manifesto", asserted that the successful emergency landing relied on the cooperation of Sullenberger and Skiles. Gawande's central premise is that even really experienced people in any field encounter rare events, and that successfully coping with the rare event requires first, the careful anticipation of future emergencies, and secondly, preparing a well thought-out list of steps to follow, in advance:


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: In his book, Gawande stated that, during an emergency, there are so many tasks to complete that the first officer is working at least as hard as the captain. Sullenberger had taken on the task of finding a safe place to land, and actually landing, leaving his experienced co-pilot Skiles the task of following the checklist to try to restart the jet engines. Gawande noted that Skiles was able to complete the checklist in the less than three-minute period between the bird strike and the landing, noting this was "something investigators later testified to be "very remarkable" in the time frame he hadand something they found difficult to replicate in simulation."


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: PBS interviewer Charlie Rose interviewed Skiles on February 10, 2009. During that interview Skiles predicted that Sullenberger would receive on-going attention, but his (Skiles') fifteen minutes of fame would end when he left Rose's studio. However, he has continued to be a well-known speaker on corporate organizational reform and crisis management.


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) conducted a lengthy and extensive investigation of the accident culminating in their published report dated April 4, 2010, stating: “The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the ingestion of large birds into each engine, which resulted in an almost total loss of thrust in both engines and the subsequent ditching on the Hudson River.”


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: After a formal review of their performance, both Sullenberger and Skiles had their flight status restored, but Sullenberger retired in 2010. Sullenberger and Skiles flew together, on March 3, 2010, on a recreation of their original flight plan, on Sullenberger's last flight for US Airways.


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: Skiles went on to become the Vice President of the Coalition of Airline Pilots Associations (CAPA) that represents the interests of 28,000 airline pilots in safety and security issues. In this role he was instrumental in the creation of the First Officer Qualification rule, which significantly increased the requirements for training and experience of First Officers on the flight deck of US registered airliners. Skiles joined with the Families of Continental Flight 3407 and the National Air Disaster Alliance to mold the creation of and ensure passage of the Airline Safety Act of 2010, which significantly improved safety in the US airline industry. Since its passage, the only fatality in a US airline accident occurred April 17, 2018, when a passenger died onboard Southwest Airlines Flight 1380.


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: In September 2009, Skiles and Sullenberger became the honorary Co-Chairmen of the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA)'s Young Eagles program, that utilizes EAA's nationwide network of local chapters to offer free airplane rides to young people and expose them to general aviation and careers in aviation. EAA volunteers have performed over 2.2 million flights since its inception, making it the most successful program of its kind in history.


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: On January 16, 2009, the United States Senate passed a resolution recognizing and honoring Sullenberger, Skiles, the cabin crew, the passengers, and the first responders involved in Flight 1549's emergency landing; and during the Super Bowl XLIII pre-game ceremony on February 1, 2009, Sullenberger, Skiles, and Flight 1549's cabin crew—Doreen Welsh, Sheila Dail, and Donna Dent—were honored with a standing ovation. Skiles and the entire crew of Flight 1549 also received a Masters Medal by the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators and a Key to the City of New York in 2009, as well as the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum Trophy for Current Achievement in 2010. Through their involvement with the Young Eagles and various aviation safety advocacy efforts, Skiles and Sullenberger received the 2015 EAA Freedom of Flight Award.


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: Skiles is a writer and, since 2011, has published over 100 articles on safety and general interest aviation topics in nationally distributed magazines such as "Sport Aviation", "Flying", "Air & Space", "PilotMag", "Midwest Flyer", "Vintage Airplane", and the "Physicians Executive Journal".


title: Jeffrey Skiles

text: In the 2016 drama film "Sully", directed by Clint Eastwood, Skiles is portrayed by Aaron Eckhart, while Sullenberger is portrayed by Tom Hanks.


title: Glass fiber

text: Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of glass fiber was only made possible with the invention of finer machine tooling. In 1893, Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited a dress at the World's Columbian Exposition incorporating glass fibers with the diameter and texture of silk fibers. Glass fibers can also occur naturally, as Pele's hair.


title: Glass fiber

text: Glass wool, which is one product called "fiberglass" today, was invented some time between 1932 to 1933 by Games Slayter of Owens-Illinois, as a material to be used as thermal building insulation. It is marketed under the trade name Fiberglas, which has become a genericized trademark. Glass fiber when used as a thermal insulating material is specially manufactured with a bonding agent to trap many small air cells, resulting in the characteristically air-filled low-density "glass wool" family of products.


title: Glass fiber

text: Glass fiber has roughly comparable mechanical properties to other fibers such as polymers and carbon fiber. Although not as rigid as carbon fiber, it is much cheaper and significantly less brittle when used in composites. Glass fiber reinforced composites are used in marine industry and piping industries because of good environmental resistance, better damage tolerance for impact loading, high specific strength and stiffness.


title: Glass fiber

text: Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other formulation glass are extruded into many fibers with small diameters suitable for textile processing. The technique of heating and drawing glass into fine fibers has been known for millennia, and was practiced in Egypt and Venice. Before the recent use of these fibers for textile applications, all glass fiber had been manufactured as staple (that is, clusters of short lengths of fiber).


title: Glass fiber

text: The modern method for producing glass wool is the invention of Games Slayter working at the Owens-Illinois Glass Company (Toledo, Ohio). He first applied for a patent for a new process to make glass wool in 1933. The first commercial production of glass fiber was in 1936. In 1938 Owens-Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass Works joined to form the Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation. When the two companies joined to produce and promote glass fiber, they introduced continuous filament glass fibers. Owens-Corning is still the major glass-fiber producer in the market today.


title: Glass fiber

text: The most common type of glass fiber used in fiberglass is E-glass, which is alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used for glass-reinforced plastics. Other types of glass used are A-glass (Alkali-lime glass with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-glass (Electrical/Chemical Resistance; alumino-lime silicate with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, with high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and insulation), D-glass (borosilicate glass, named for its low dielectric constant), R-glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements as reinforcement), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength).


title: Glass fiber

text: Pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled as fused quartz into a glass with no true melting point, can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass, but has the drawback that it must be worked at very high temperatures. In order to lower the necessary work temperature, other materials are introduced as "fluxing agents" (i.e., components to lower the melting point). Ordinary A-glass ("A" for "alkali-lime") or soda lime glass, crushed and ready to be remelted, as so-called cullet glass, was the first type of glass used for fiberglass. E-glass ("E" because of initial electrical application), is alkali free, and was the first glass formulation used for continuous filament formation. It now makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world, and also is the single largest consumer of boron minerals globally. It is susceptible to chloride ion attack and is a poor choice for marine applications. S-glass ("S" for "Strength") is used when high tensile strength (modulus) is important, and is thus important in composites for building and aircraft construction. The same substance is known as R-glass ("R" for "reinforcement") in Europe. C-glass ("C" for "chemical resistance") and T-glass ("T" is for "thermal insulator" – a North American variant of C-glass) are resistant to chemical attack; both are often found in insulation-grades of blown fiberglass.


title: Glass fiber

text: The basis of textile-grade glass fibers is silica, SiO. In its pure form it exists as a polymer, (SiO). It has no true melting point but softens up to 1200 °C, where it starts to degrade. At 1713 °C, most of the molecules can move about freely. If the glass is extruded and cooled quickly at this temperature, it will be unable to form an ordered structure. In the polymer it forms SiO groups which are configured as a tetrahedron with the silicon atom at the center, and four oxygen atoms at the corners. These atoms then form a network bonded at the corners by sharing the oxygen atoms.


title: Glass fiber

text: The vitreous and crystalline states of silica (glass and quartz) have similar energy levels on a molecular basis, also implying that the glassy form is extremely stable. In order to induce crystallization, it must be heated to temperatures above 1200 °C for long periods of time.


title: Glass fiber

text: Although pure silica is a perfectly viable glass and glass fiber, it must be worked with at very high temperatures, which is a drawback unless its specific chemical properties are needed. It is usual to introduce impurities into the glass in the form of other materials to lower its working temperature. These materials also impart various other properties to the glass that may be beneficial in different applications. The first type of glass used for fiber was soda lime glass or A-glass ("A" for the alkali it contains). It is not very resistant to alkali. A newer, alkali-free (<2%) type, E-glass, is an alumino-borosilicate glass. C-glass was developed to resist attack from chemicals, mostly acids that destroy E-glass. T-glass is a North American variant of C-glass. AR-glass is alkali-resistant glass. Most glass fibers have limited solubility in water but are very dependent on pH. Chloride ions will also attack and dissolve E-glass surfaces.


title: Glass fiber

text: E-glass does not actually melt, but softens instead, the softening point being "the temperature at which a 0.55–0.77 mm diameter fiber 235 mm long, elongates under its own weight at 1 mm/min when suspended vertically and heated at the rate of 5 °C per minute". The strain point is reached when the glass has a viscosity of 10 poise. The annealing point, which is the temperature where the internal stresses are reduced to an acceptable commercial limit in 15 minutes, is marked by a viscosity of 10 poise.


title: Glass fiber

text: Fabrics of woven glass fibers are useful thermal insulators because of their high ratio of surface area to weight. However, the increased surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack. By trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber make good thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity of the order of 0.05 W/(m·K).


title: Glass fiber

text: The strength of glass is usually tested and reported for "virgin" or pristine fibers—those that have just been manufactured. The freshest, thinnest fibers are the strongest because the thinner fibers are more ductile. The more the surface is scratched, the less the resulting tenacity. Because glass has an amorphous structure, its properties are the same along the fiber and across the fiber. Humidity is an important factor in the tensile strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects, and lessen tenacity.


title: Glass fiber

text: In contrast to carbon fiber, glass can undergo more elongation before it breaks. Thinner filaments can bend further before they break. The viscosity of the molten glass is very important for manufacturing success. During drawing, the process where the hot glass is pulled to reduce the diameter of the fiber, the viscosity must be relatively low. If it is too high, the fiber will break during drawing. However, if it is too low, the glass will form droplets instead of being drawn out into a fiber.


title: Glass fiber

text: There are two main types of glass fiber manufacture and two main types of glass fiber product. First, fiber is made either from a direct melt process or a marble remelt process. Both start with the raw materials in solid form. The materials are mixed together and melted in a furnace. Then, for the marble process, the molten material is sheared and rolled into marbles which are cooled and packaged. The marbles are taken to the fiber manufacturing facility where they are inserted into a can and remelted. The molten glass is extruded to the bushing to be formed into fiber. In the direct melt process, the molten glass in the furnace goes directly to the bushing for formation.


title: Glass fiber

text: The bushing plate is the most important part of the machinery for making the fiber. This is a small metal furnace containing nozzles for the fiber to be formed through. It is almost always made of platinum alloyed with rhodium for durability. Platinum is used because the glass melt has a natural affinity for wetting it. When bushings were first used they were 100% platinum, and the glass wetted the bushing so easily that it ran under the plate after exiting the nozzle and accumulated on the underside. Also, due to its cost and the tendency to wear, the platinum was alloyed with rhodium. In the direct melt process, the bushing serves as a collector for the molten glass. It is heated slightly to keep the glass at the correct temperature for fiber formation. In the marble melt process, the bushing acts more like a furnace as it melts more of the material.


title: Glass fiber

text: Bushings are the major expense in fiber glass production. The nozzle design is also critical. The number of nozzles ranges from 200 to 4000 in multiples of 200. The important part of the nozzle in continuous filament manufacture is the thickness of its walls in the exit region. It was found that inserting a counterbore here reduced wetting. Today, the nozzles are designed to have a minimum thickness at the exit. As glass flows through the nozzle, it forms a drop which is suspended from the end. As it falls, it leaves a thread attached by the meniscus to the nozzle as long as the viscosity is in the correct range for fiber formation. The smaller the annular ring of the nozzle and the thinner the wall at exit, the faster the drop will form and fall away, and the lower its tendency to wet the vertical part of the nozzle. The surface tension of the glass is what influences the formation of the meniscus. For E-glass it should be around 400 mN/m.


title: Glass fiber

text: The attenuation (drawing) speed is important in the nozzle design. Although slowing this speed down can make coarser fiber, it is uneconomic to run at speeds for which the nozzles were not designed.


title: Glass fiber

text: In the continuous filament process, after the fiber is drawn, a size is applied. This size helps protect the fiber as it is wound onto a bobbin. The particular size applied relates to end-use. While some sizes are processing aids, others make the fiber have an affinity for a certain resin, if the fiber is to be used in a composite. Size is usually added at 0.5–2.0% by weight. Winding then takes place at around 1 km/min.


title: Glass fiber

text: For staple fiber production, there are a number of ways to manufacture the fiber. The glass can be blown or blasted with heat or steam after exiting the formation machine. Usually these fibers are made into some sort of mat. The most common process used is the rotary process. Here, the glass enters a rotating spinner, and due to centrifugal force is thrown out horizontally. The air jets push it down vertically, and binder is applied. Then the mat is vacuumed to a screen and the binder is cured in the oven.


title: Glass fiber

text: Glass fiber has increased in popularity since the discovery that asbestos causes cancer and its subsequent removal from most products. However, the safety of glass fiber is also being called into question, as research shows that the composition of this material (asbestos and glass fiber are both silicate fibers) can cause similar toxicity as asbestos.


title: Glass fiber

text: 1970s studies on rats found that fibrous glass of less than 3 μm in diameter and greater than 20 μm in length is a "potent carcinogen". Likewise, the International Agency for Research on Cancer found it "may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen" in 1990. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, on the other hand, says that there is insufficient evidence, and that glass fiber is in group A4: "Not classifiable as a human carcinogen".


title: Glass fiber

text: The North American Insulation Manufacturers Association (NAIMA) claims that glass fiber is fundamentally different from asbestos, since it is man-made instead of naturally occurring. They claim that glass fiber "dissolves in the lungs", while asbestos remains in the body for life. Although both glass fiber and asbestos are made from silica filaments, NAIMA claims that asbestos is more dangerous because of its crystalline structure, which causes it to cleave into smaller, more dangerous pieces, citing the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services:


title: Glass fiber

text: A 1998 study using rats found that the biopersistence of synthetic fibers after one year was 0.04–13%, but 27% for amosite asbestos. Fibers that persisted longer were found to be more carcinogenic.


title: Glass fiber

text: Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite material or fiber-reinforced plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine glass fibers. Like graphite-reinforced plastic, the composite material is commonly referred to as fiberglass. The glass can be in the form of a chopped strand mat (CSM) or a woven fabric.


title: Glass fiber

text: As with many other composite materials (such as reinforced concrete), the two materials act together, each overcoming the deficits of the other. Whereas the plastic resins are strong in compressive loading and relatively weak in tensile strength, the glass fibers are very strong in tension but tend not to resist compression. By combining the two materials, GRP becomes a material that resists both compressive and tensile forces well. The two materials may be used uniformly or the glass may be specifically placed in those portions of the structure that will experience tensile loads.


title: Glass fiber

text: Uses for regular glass fiber include mats and fabrics for thermal insulation, electrical insulation, sound insulation, high-strength fabrics or heat- and corrosion-resistant fabrics. It is also used to reinforce various materials, such as tent poles, pole vault poles, arrows, bows and crossbows, translucent roofing panels, automobile bodies, hockey sticks, surfboards, boat hulls, and paper honeycomb. It has been used for medical purposes in casts. Glass fiber is extensively used for making FRP tanks and vessels.


title: Glass fiber

text: Open-weave glass fiber grids are used to reinforce asphalt pavement. Non-woven glass fiber/polymer blend mats are used saturated with asphalt emulsion and overlaid with asphalt, producing a waterproof, crack-resistant membrane. Use of glass-fiber reinforced polymer rebar instead of steel rebar shows promise in areas where avoidance of steel corrosion is desired.


title: Glass fiber

text: Glass fiber use has recently seen use in biomedical applications in the assistance of joint replacement where the electric field orientation of short phosphate glass fibers can improve osteogenic qualities through the proliferation of osteoblasts and with improved surface chemistry. Another potential use is within electronic applications as sodium based glass fibers assist or replace lithium in lithium-ion batteries due to its improved electronic properties.


title: Glass fiber

text: Manufacturers of glass-fiber insulation can use recycled glass. Recycled glass fiber contains up to 40% recycled glass.


title: Ball Corporation

text: Ball Corporation is an American company headquartered in Broomfield, Colorado. It is best known for its early production of glass jars, lids, and related products used for home canning. Since its founding in Buffalo, New York, in 1880, when it was known as the Wooden Jacket Can Company, the Ball company has expanded and diversified into other business ventures, including aerospace technology. It eventually became the world's largest manufacturer of recyclable metal beverage and food containers.


title: Ball Corporation

text: The Ball brothers renamed their business the Ball Brothers Glass Manufacturing Company, incorporated in 1886. Its headquarters, as well as its glass and metal manufacturing operations, were moved to Muncie, Indiana, by 1889. The business was renamed the Ball Brothers Company in 1922 and the Ball Corporation in 1969. It became a publicly traded stock company on the New York Stock Exchange in 1973.


title: Ball Corporation

text: Ball left the home canning business in 1993 by spinning off a former subsidiary (Alltrista) into a free-standing company, which renamed itself Jarden Corporation. As part of the spin-off, Jarden is licensed to use the Ball registered trademark on its line of home-canning products. Today, the Ball brand for mason jars and home canning supplies belongs to Newell Brands.


title: Ball Corporation

text: In 1880, Frank C. and Edmund B. Ball, two of the five Ball brothers, borrowed $200 from their uncle, George Harvey Ball, founder and first president of Keuka College, to buy the Wooden Jacket Can Company, a small manufacturing business in Buffalo, New York. Soon, the three other brothers (William, Lucius, and George) joined Frank and Edmund in Buffalo. (Years later, the brothers reciprocated their uncle's early assistance by providing financial support to Keuka College.)


title: Ball Corporation

text: The Ball brothers' company made tin cans encased in wooden jackets to hold kerosene, paints, or varnishes. Because the acid used to refine kerosene caused corrosion in tin, the brothers decided to use glass for the inserts of the wood-jacketed cans. Initially, they bought the glass containers from a factory in Poughkeepsie, New York. Around 1885 a group of Belgian glassblowers who were passing through Buffalo encouraged the Ball brothers to build their own factory. The Ball brothers purchased land in East Buffalo, where they built a two-story brick building for the stamping works and a one-story frame factory for the glass works. Although a fire destroyed an early glass factory in Buffalo, the brothers rebuilt and expanded the business. To keep the new factory's furnace operating at full capacity, the company introduced new products and made improvements to its glass and metal manufacturing processes.


title: Ball Corporation

text: Around 1884, when the brothers discovered that the patent covering the Mason Improved fruit jar had expired, their company began manufacturing canning jars in their glassworks. The Ball brothers' "Buffalo" jars, which were made in such sizes as half-gallon, pint, and midget, were manufactured during a part of 1884, 1885, and 1886. Jar lids were produced in their metal fabricating factory. The Ball Company's logo was embossed onto the surface of the jars, which were made of either amber or aqua (blue-green) glass.


title: Ball Corporation

text: On February 13, 1886, the company incorporated as Ball Brothers Manufacturing Company. About the same time the factory in Buffalo was destroyed by fire in 1886, the brothers began to consider moving their business closer to natural gas supplies. While on a business trip in Cleveland, Ohio, Frank heard about the natural gas boom in Findlay, Ohio. After visiting the town, he told Edmund about the economic advantages of using natural gas instead of coal for manufacturing glass. Edmund visited several towns in the gas fields, including Muncie, Indiana. The two brothers decided to make a more extensive trip to investigate the possibility of establishing a glass factory closer to an abundant supply of natural gas. They briefly had doubts about extending beyond Buffalo, but decided to explore the use of natural gas as a means of expanding their glass-making business.


title: Ball Corporation

text: Frank and Edmund first visited in Fostoria, Ohio, where they were enthusiastically welcomed. The next stop was Bowling Green, Ohio. After a night in town, Edmund returned to Buffalo, but Frank remained. After Frank had been in Bowling Green for about a week, he received a telegram from James Boyce, a Muncie businessman. Frank, who had become weary of Bowling Green, was ready for a change and "decided to run down to Muncie and see what they had to offer." As Frank recalled his early discussions with Muncie's town leaders, "There was nothing about the town that particularly appealed to me, but the men were all courteous, kind, and businesslike." Frank agreed to a proposal that offered the Ball brothers of land for a factory site, a gas well, and $5,000 in cash to encourage the move to Muncie. In addition, city officials agreed to provide a railroad connection to the brothers' new facilities. By September 1887 construction had begun on the Muncie factory and the Ball brothers began plans to move their glass manufacturing operations from New York. Frank remained in Muncie to get the factory up and running, while Edmund closed the glass factory in Buffalo, then moved to Muncie to join Frank. Their brothers, William and George, remained in Buffalo to operate the stamping works and a factory in Bath, New York.


title: Ball Corporation

text: In 1888 the company opened its first glass manufacturing facility in Muncie. On February 18 fires were started in the new factory's furnace; on March 1 its first glass products were made. The first products to be manufactured in the new factory in Muncie were oil containers and lamp chimneys, not fruit jars. By 1889 the Ball company's headquarters and its glass and metal manufacturing operations had moved to Muncie. The other Ball brothers moved to Indiana in the 1890s. George moved to Muncie in 1893, William arrived in 1897, and Lucius, a company shareholder and a physician, moved to Muncie in 1894.


title: Ball Corporation

text: In the late nineteenth century, the company continued to grow and prosper, but not without experiencing some challenges. Fires at its Muncie factories and warehouses in 1891 and 1898 damaged its facilities, but they were rebuilt. Despite the economic panic of 1893, the company was able to produce 22 million fruit jars for the year beginning in September 1894, and 37 million jars by 1897. When natural gas supplies in the area began to diminish, the Ball brothers installed gas converters to use Indiana coal in their factories and continued manufacturing operations. The company's F. C. Ball machine, patented in 1898, introduced mass production into its glass-blowing process and gave it a competitive market advantage. By 1905 the company was producing 60 million canning jars per year and had acquired other glass manufacturers, expanding its operations to include seven factories in addition to its main facilities at Muncie.


title: Ball Corporation

text: In a continuation of the company's difficulties in Muncie, workers organized with Local 200 (Glass Workers) of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) at the main facility, went on strike in March 1910, with the strikers demanding wage increases. A settlement was quickly reached on March 29, but company management reneged on the agreement and threatened to declare a lockout. The strike continued, but was weakened by the refusal of machinists affiliated with the American Federation of Labor to join the strike. By the end of April, the strike was lost.


title: Ball Corporation

text: Ball remained a family-owned business for over 90 years. Renamed the Ball Brothers Company in 1922, it is best known for manufacturing fruit jars, lids, and related products for home canning. The company also entered into other business ventures. Because the four main components of their core product line of canning jars included glass, zinc, rubber, and paper, the Ball company acquired a zinc strip rolling mill to produce metal lids for their glass jars, manufactured rubber sealing rings for the jars, and acquired a paper mill to fabricate the packaging used in shipping their products. The company also acquired tin, steel, and later, plastic companies.


title: Ball Corporation

text: The Ball company faced additional challenges and opportunities during the Great Depression and World War II. Prior to 1933, Ball was the largest domestic manufacturer of home canning jars. In 1939 it manufactured 54% of all the canning jars made in the US. A drop in demand for the jars during the 1930s led the Ball brothers to begin manufacturing other types of jars and bottles for commercial use, and expand into other lines of business. During World War II the company's operations were converted to produce shells and machine parts for the military. After the war, Ball's glass-making business was hindered by an antitrust case in which the company was one of several defendants. The legal case was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. The final decision, which was handed down in 1947, restricted Ball's ability to acquire other glass manufacturers and other businesses producing glass-making machinery without prior court approval. In 1949 decreasing demand for canning jars caused the company to suffer its first net operating loss. With legal restrictions on the company's ability to expand its glass-making business and declining demand for its canning jars, Ball company executives decided that in order to grow it had to further diversity its holdings.


title: Ball Corporation

text: In the 1950s the Ball company entered the aerospace industry. Laboratories for the Ball Brothers Research Corporation were established at Boulder, Colorado, and in Muncie. The company began manufacturing aerospace equipment in 1959. Its OSO-1 (Orbiting Solar Observatory) satellite, designed and built for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) with $1.4 million in grants, launched into space on March 7, 1962, at Cape Canaveral, Florida. Its success led to additional contracts to build more satellites, a total of seven, but not without some losses. An explosion killed three workers and damaged the company's OSO-2 satellite in 1964.


title: Ball Corporation

text: The company continued to expand into other areas such as avionics, aerospace systems, and metal beverage and food containers. Renamed the Ball Corporation in 1969, it acquired Jeffco Manufacturing Company, a maker of recyclable aluminum beverage cans, and became the largest producer of recyclable beverage cans in the world. Although glass production in Muncie ceased in 1962, it continued at other Ball plants until its final glass manufacturing operations were sold in 1996.


title: Ball Corporation

text: Ball Corporation's stock went public on July 13, 1972. It became a publicly traded stock company on the New York Stock Exchange in 1973. The stock began trading at $26 per share on the NYSE on December 17, 1973, using the trading symbol BLL.


title: Ball Corporation

text: Ball no longer produces its glass canning jars. In the early 1990s Ball exited the home-canning business, when it established a subsidiary named Alltrista, which consisted of seven smaller Ball subsidiaries that included the Ball jar and other canning-related products. When Altrista Corporation became a separate company in April 1993, Ball shareholders received one share of Alltrista stock for every four shares of Ball stock. Altrista was renamed Jarden Corporation in 2001. Jarden retains the license to use the Ball registered trademark on its line of home-canning products, a part of Jarden's branded consumables business. (Jarden produces lids for several brands of fruit jars at its Muncie plant and its jars are made by a variety of glass producers.)


title: Ball Corporation

text: In 1998 the Ball Corporation moved its corporate headquarters from Muncie to Broomfield, Colorado, where its oversees global operations as a manufacturer of metal food and beverage containers, as well as a manufacturer of equipment and supplier of services to the aerospace industry.


title: Ball Corporation

text: The Ball Corporation has made improvements to its environmental record since 2006, when the company began its first formal sustainability efforts. In 2008 the Ball Corporation issued its first sustainability report and began releases subsequent sustainability reports on its website. The first report was an ACCA-Ceres North American Sustainability Awards cowinner of the Best First Time Reporter award in 2009.


title: Ball Corporation

text: In the Toxic 100 list for 2004, using data from 2002, researchers at the University of Massachusetts Amherst's Political Economy Research Institute (PERI) identified the Ball Corporation as the 59th-largest corporate producer of Air pollution in the United States, with an estimated 4.57 million pounds of toxic air released annually. The PERI report for 2008, using data from 2005, ranked the Ball Corporation 54th on its Toxic 100 list; PERI's report for 2010, using data from 2006, ranked it 65th. The PERI studies indicated major pollutants included glycol ethers and 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene.


title: Ball Corporation

text: The PERI Toxic 100 Air Polluters list for 2013 ranked the Ball Corporation as 619 in its list of companies producing the most air pollution in the United States. In 2015 "Newsweek" ranked the Ball Corporation as 70th in their "Green 2015" report, which reviewed the environmental performances of the 500 largest publicly traded companies in the United States.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Das Rheingold (; The Rhinegold), WWV 86A, is the first of the four music dramas that constitute Richard Wagner's "Der Ring des Nibelungen" (English: "The Ring of the Nibelung"). It was performed, as a single opera, at the National Theatre Munich on 22 September 1869, and received its first performance as part of the "Ring" cycle at the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, on 13 August 1876.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Wagner wrote the "Ring" librettos in reverse order, so that "Das Rheingold" was the last of the texts to be written; it was, however, the first to be set to music. The score was completed in 1854, but Wagner was unwilling to sanction its performance until the whole cycle was complete; he worked intermittently on this music until 1874. The 1869 Munich premiere of "Das Rheingold" was staged, much against Wagner's wishes, on the orders of his patron, King Ludwig II of Bavaria. Following its 1876 Bayreuth premiere, the "Ring" cycle was introduced into the worldwide repertory, with performances in all the main opera houses, in which it has remained a regular and popular fixture.


title: Das Rheingold

text: In his 1851 essay "Opera and Drama", Wagner had set out new principles as to how music dramas should be constructed, under which the conventional forms of opera (arias, ensembles, choruses) were rejected. Rather than providing word-settings, the music would interpret the text emotionally, reflecting the feelings and moods behind the work, by using a system of recurring leitmotifs to represent people, ideas and situations. "Das Rheingold" was Wagner's first work that adopted these principles, and his most rigid adherence to them, despite a few deviations – the Rhinemaidens frequently sing in ensemble.


title: Das Rheingold

text: As the "preliminary evening" within the cycle, "Das Rheingold" gives the background to the events that drive the main dramas of the cycle. It recounts Alberich's theft of the Rhine gold after his renunciation of love; his fashioning of the all-powerful ring from the gold and his enslavement of the Nibelungs; Wotan's seizure of the gold and the ring, to pay his debt to the giants who have built his fortress Valhalla; Alberich's curse on the ring and its possessors; Erda's warning to Wotan to forsake the ring; the early manifestation of the curse's power after Wotan yields the ring to the giants; and the gods' uneasy entry into Valhalla, under the shadow of their impending doom.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Having completed his opera "Lohengrin" in April 1848, Richard Wagner chose as his next subject Siegfried, the legendary hero of Germanic myth. In October of that year he prepared a prose outline for "Siegfried's Death", which during the following months he developed into a full libretto. After his flight from Dresden and relocation in Switzerland, he continued to develop and expand his Siegfried project, having decided meantime that a single work would not suffice for his purposes; in his enlarged concept, "Siegfried's Death" would be the culmination of a series of musical dramas incorporating a network of myths from his sources and imagination, each telling a stage of the story. In 1851 he outlined his purpose in his essay "A Communication to My Friends": "I propose to produce my myth in three complete dramas, preceded by a lengthy prelude (Vorspiel)." Each of these dramas would, he said, constitute an independent whole, but would not be performed separately. "At a specially-appointed Festival, I propose, some future time, to produce those three dramas with their prelude, in the course of three days and a fore-evening.


title: Das Rheingold

text: In accordance with this scheme, "Siegfried's Death", much revised from its original form, eventually became "Götterdämmerung" ("The Twilight of the Gods"). It was preceded by the story of Siegfried's youth, "Young Siegfried", later renamed "Siegfried", itself preceded by "Die Walküre" ("The Valkyrie"). Finally, to these three works Wagner added a prologue which he named "Das Rheingold".


title: Das Rheingold

text: At the bottom of the Rhine, the three Rhinemaidens, Woglinde, Wellgunde, and Floßhilde, play together. Alberich, a Nibelung dwarf, appears from a deep chasm and tries to woo them. The maidens mock his advances and he grows angry – he chases them, but they elude, tease and humiliate him. A sudden ray of sunshine pierces the depths, to reveal the Rhinegold. The maidens rejoice in the gold's gleam. Alberich asks what it is. They explain that the gold, which their father has ordered them to guard, can be made into a magic ring which gives power to rule the world, if its bearer first renounces love. The maidens think they have nothing to fear from the lustful dwarf, but Alberich, embittered by their mockery, curses love, seizes the gold and returns to his chasm, leaving them screaming in dismay.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Wotan, ruler of the gods, is asleep on a mountaintop, with a magnificent castle behind him. His wife, Fricka, wakes Wotan, who salutes their new home. Fricka reminds him of his promise to the giants Fasolt and Fafner, who built the castle, that he would give them Fricka's sister Freia, the goddess of youth and beauty, as payment. Fricka is worried for her sister, but Wotan trusts that Loge, the cunning demigod of fire, will find an alternative payment.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Freia enters in a panic, followed by Fasolt and Fafner. Fasolt demands that Freia be given up. He points out that Wotan's authority is sustained by the treaties carved into his spear, including his contract with the giants, which Wotan therefore cannot violate. Donner, god of thunder, and Froh, god of sunshine, arrive to defend Freia, but Wotan cannot permit the use of force to break the agreement. Hoping that Loge will arrive with the alternative payment he has promised, Wotan tries to stall.


title: Das Rheingold

text: When Loge arrives, his initial report is discouraging: nothing is more valuable to men than love, so there is apparently no possible alternative payment besides Freia. Loge was able to find only one instance where someone willingly gave up love for something else: Alberich the Nibelung has renounced love, stolen the Rhine gold, and made a powerful magic ring out of it. A discussion of the ring and its powers ensues, and everyone finds good reasons for wanting to own it. Fafner makes a counter-offer: the giants will accept the Nibelung's treasure in payment, instead of Freia. When Wotan tries to haggle, the giants depart, taking Freia with them as hostage and threatening to keep her forever unless the gods ransom her by obtaining and giving them the Nibelung's gold by the end of the day.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Freia's golden apples had kept the gods eternally young, but in her absence they begin to age and weaken. In order to redeem Freia, Wotan resolves to travel with Loge to Alberich's subterranean kingdom to obtain the gold.


title: Das Rheingold

text: In Nibelheim, Alberich has enslaved the rest of the Nibelung dwarves with the power of the ring. He has forced his brother Mime, a skillful smith, to create a magic helmet, the Tarnhelm. Alberich demonstrates the Tarnhelm's power by making himself invisible, the better to torment his subjects.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Wotan and Loge arrive and happen upon Mime, who tells them of the dwarves' misery under Alberich's rule. Alberich returns, driving his slaves to pile up a huge mound of gold. He boasts to the visitors about his plans to conquer the world using the power of the ring. Loge asks how he can protect himself against a thief while he sleeps. Alberich replies the Tarnhelm will hide him, by allowing him to turn invisible or change his form. Loge expresses doubt and requests a demonstration. Alberich complies by transforming himself into a giant snake; Loge acts suitably impressed, and then asks whether Alberich can also reduce his size, which would be very useful for hiding. Alberich transforms himself into a toad. Wotan and Loge seize him, tie his hands, and drag him up to the surface.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Back on the mountaintop, Wotan and Loge force Alberich to exchange his wealth for his freedom. He summons the Nibelungen, who bring up the hoard of gold. He then asks for the return of the Tarnhelm, but Loge says that it is part of his ransom. Alberich still hopes he can keep the ring, but Wotan demands it, and when Alberich refuses, Wotan tears it from Alberich's hand and puts it on his own finger. Crushed by his loss, Alberich lays a curse on the ring: until it returns to him, it will inspire restless jealousy in all who possess it, and murderous envy in those who do not.


title: Das Rheingold

text: The gods reconvene. Fasolt and Fafner return with Freia. Fasolt, reluctant to release her, insists that the gold be piled high enough to hide her from view. Wotan is forced to relinquish the Tarnhelm, to help cover Freia completely. However, Fasolt spots a remaining crack in the gold, through which one of Freia's eyes can be seen. Loge says that there is no more gold, but Fafner, who has noticed the ring on Wotan's finger, demands that Wotan add it to the pile, to block the crack. Loge protests that the ring belongs to the Rheinmaidens, and Wotan angrily declares that he intends to keep it for his own. As the giants seize Freia and start to leave, Erda, the earth goddess, appears and warns Wotan of impending doom, urging him to give up the cursed ring. Troubled, Wotan calls the giants back and surrenders the ring. The giants release Freia and begin dividing the treasure, but they quarrel over the ring itself. Fafner clubs Fasolt to death. Wotan, horrified, realizes that Alberich's curse has terrible power.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Donner summons a thunderstorm to clear the air, after which Froh creates a rainbow bridge that stretches to the gate of the castle. Wotan leads the gods across the bridge to the castle, which he names Valhalla. Loge does not follow; he says in an aside that he is tempted to destroy the complacent gods by fire – he will think it over. Far below, the Rhine maidens mourn the loss of their gold and condemn the gods as false and cowardly.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Because Wagner developed his "Ring" scheme in reverse chronological order, the "poem" (libretto) for "Das Rheingold" was the last of the four to be written. He finished his prose plan for the work in March 1852, and on 15 September began writing the full libretto, which he completed on 3 November. In February 1853, at the Hotel Baur au Lac in Zürich, Wagner read the whole "Ring" text to an invited audience, after which all four parts were published in a private edition limited to 50 copies. The text was not published commercially until 1863.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Of the principal sources that Wagner used in creating the "Ring" cycle, the Scandinavian Eddas – the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda – provided most of the material for "Das Rheingold". These are poems and texts from 12th and 13th-century Iceland, which relate the doings of various Norse gods. Among these stories, a magic ring and a hoard of gold held by the dwarf Andvari (Wagner's Alberich) are stolen by the gods Odin (Wotan) and Loki (Loge) and used to redeem a debt to two brothers. One of these, Fafnir, kills his brother and turns himself into a dragon to guard the gold. The Eddas also introduce the gods Thor (Donner), Frey (Froh) and the goddesses Frigg (Fricka) and Freyja (Freia). The idea of Erda, the earth mother, may have been derived from the character Jord (meaning "Earth"), who appears in the Eddas as the mother of Thor.


title: Das Rheingold

text: A few Rhinegold characters originate from outside the Eddas. Mime appears in the Thidriks saga, as a human smith rather than as an enslaved Nibelung. The three Rhinemaidens do not appear in any of the sagas and are substantially Wagner's own invention; he also provided their individual names Woglinde, Wellgunde and Floßhilde. In his analysis of "The Ring" Deryck Cooke suggests the Rhinemaidens' origin may be in the "Nibelungenlied", where three water sprites tease the characters Hagen and Gunther. Wagner may also have been influenced by the Rhine-based German legend of Lorelei, who lures fishermen on to the rocks by her singing, and by the Greek Hesperides myth in which three maidens guard a golden treasure.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Robert Jacobs, in his biography of the composer, observes that the "Nibelung Myth" on which Wagner based his entire "Ring" story was "very much a personal creation", the result of Wagner's "brilliant manipulation" of his sources. In the "Rheingold" text, Wagner used his imaginative powers to adapt, change and distort the stories and characters from the sagas. J.K. Holman, in his "Listener's Guide and Concordance" (2001), cites the Alberich character as typifying Wagner's ability to "consolidate selected aspects from diverse stories to create ... vivid, consistent and psychologically compelling portrait[s]". While some characters' importance is enhanced in Wagner's version, others, such as Donner, Froh, and Freia, who are major figures in the sagas, are reduced by Wagner to roles of largely passive impotence.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Wagner originally conceived the first scene of "Das Rheingold" as a prologue to the three scenes that follow it. As such, the structure replicates that of "Götterdämmerung", and also that of the full "Ring" cycle.


title: Das Rheingold

text: As early as 1840, in his novella "A Pilgrimage to Beethoven", Wagner had anticipated a form of lyric drama in which the standard operatic divisions would disappear. In early 1851 he published his book-length essay "Opera and Drama", in which he expounded his emerging ideas around the concept of "Gesamtkunstwerk" – "total work of art". In the new kind of musical drama, he wrote, the traditional operatic norms of chorus, arias and vocal numbers would have no part. The vocal line would, in Gutman's words, "interpret the text emotionally through artificially calculated juxtapositions of rhythm, accent, pitch and key relationships". The orchestra, as well as providing the instrumental colour appropriate to each stage situation, would use a system of leitmotifs, each representing musically a person, an idea or a situation. Wagner termed these "motifs of reminiscence and presentiment", which carry intense emotional experience through music rather than words. According to Jacobs, they should "permeate the entire tissue of the music drama". The Rheingold score is structured around many such motifs; analysts have used different principles in determining the total number. Holman counts 42, while Roger Scruton, in his 2017 philosophical analysis of the "Ring", numbers them at 53.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Apart from some early sketches in 1850, relating to "Siegfried's Death", Wagner composed the "Ring" music in its proper sequence. Thus, "Das Rheingold" was his first attempt to adopt the principles set out in "Opera and Drama". According to his memoirs, Wagner's first inspiration for the music came to him in a half-dream, on 4 September 1853, while he was in Spezia in Italy. He records a feeling of "sinking in swiftly flowing water. The rushing sound formed itself in my brain into a musical sound, the chord of E flat major, which continually re-echoed in broken forms ... I at once recognised that the orchestral overture to the Rheingold, which must long have lain latent within me, though it had been unable to find definite form, had at last been revealed to me". Some authorities (for example Millington et al., 1992) have disputed the validity of this tale, which Nikolaus Bacht refers to as an "acoustic hallucination".


title: Das Rheingold

text: After an extended tour, Wagner was back in Zürich by late October and began writing down the "Rheingold" music on 1 November. He finished the first draft in mid-January 1854, and by the end of May had completed the full orchestral score. According to Holman, the result was "a stunning break from Wagner's earlier musical output" In the three years following his completion of the "Rheingold" score, Wagner wrote the music for "Die Walküre", and for the first two acts of "Siegfried". At that point, in 1857, he set "Siegfried" aside in order to work on "Tristan und Isolde", and did not return to the "Ring" project for 12 years.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Long before "Das Rheingold" was ready for performance, Wagner conducted excerpts of the music from scenes 1, 2 and 4, at a concert in Vienna on 26 December 1862. The work remained unstaged, but by 1869 Wagner's principal financial sponsor, King Ludwig of Bavaria, was pressing for an early performance in Munich. Wagner wanted to wait until the cycle was completed, when he would stage the work himself; also, his return to Munich would likely have precipitated a scandal, in view of his, at the time, affair with the married Cosima von Bülow. Wagner was horrified at the idea of his work being presented in accordance with Ludwig's eccentric tastes.However, Ludwig, who possessed the copyright, was insistent that "Rheingold" be produced at the Munich Hofoper without further delay. Wagner did all he could to sabotage this production, fixed for August 1869, and persuaded the appointed conductor, Hans Richter to stand down after a troublesome dress rehearsal. Ludwig was unmoved; he denounced Wagner, sacked Richter, appointed another conductor, Franz Wüllner, and rescheduled the premiere for 22 September. Wagner was refused admission to the rehearsals at the theatre, and returned, angry and defeated, to his home in Tribschen.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Accounts differ as to the success or otherwise of the Munich premiere. Osborne maintains that the performance was successful, as does Holman, while Oliver Hilmes in his biography of Cosima describes it as "an artistic disaster". Cosima's diary entries for 24 and 27 September note that the performance was portrayed in the Munich press as a "succès d'estime", or otherwise as "a lavishly decorated, boring work". Gutman maintains that much of the adverse comment on the Munich premiere derives from later Bayreuth propaganda, and concludes that, "in many ways, these Munich performances surpassed the level of the first Bayreuth festival". As to the public's reaction, the audience's main interest was in the novel scenery and stage effects; Wagner's new approach to composition largely passed them by.


title: Das Rheingold

text: In 1876, with the Bayreuth Festspielhaus built, Wagner was ready to stage the first Bayreuth Festival with his own production of the now complete "Ring" cycle, beginning with a performance of "Das Rheingold" on 13 August. This event was preceded by months of preparation in which Wagner was deeply engaged; according to witnesses, he was "director, producer, coach, conductor, singer, actor, stage manager, stage hand and prompter". He searched Europe for the finest orchestral players, and selected a largely new cast of singers – of the Munich cast, only Heinrich Vogl (Loge) was engaged, although Richter, deposed as conductor in Munich, was given the baton in Bayreuth.


title: Das Rheingold

text: The 13 August premiere was an event of international importance, and attracted a distinguished audience which included Kaiser Wilhelm I, Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and numerous representatives of the various European royal houses. King Ludwig, unwilling to face contact with his fellow-royals or the assembled crowd, attended the dress rehearsals incognito, but left Bayreuth before the opening night. Most of Europe's leading composers were also present, including Tchaikovsky, Gounod, Bruckner, Grieg, Saint-Saëns and Wagner's father-in law Franz Liszt, together with a large corps of music critics and opera house managers. The huge influx of visitors overwhelmed the resources of the modest-sized town and caused considerable discomfort to some of the most distinguished of the guests; Tchaikovsky later described his sojourn at Bayreuth as a "struggle for existence".


title: Das Rheingold

text: Despite the careful preparation, the first Bayreuth performance of "Das Rheingold" was punctuated by several mishaps. Some scene changes were mishandled; at one point a backdrop was prematurely lifted to reveal a number of stagehands and stage machinery; early in scene 4, Franz Betz (as Wotan) mislaid the ring and had to go backstage to look for it; the gas lighting failed repeatedly, plunging the auditorium into darkness. Some innovations worked well – the wheeled machinery used by the Rhinemaidens to simulate swimming was successful, and the quality of the singing pleased even Wagner, who was otherwise in despair and refused to present himself to the audience despite their clamouring for him. The critics made much of the technical shortcomings, which were largely overcome during the course of the festival, although, to Wagner's fury, they failed to acknowledge this fact.


title: Das Rheingold

text: After the 1876 festival, "Das Rheingold" was not seen again at Bayreuth for 20 years, until Cosima revived the "Ring" cycle for the 1896 festival. Meanwhile, opera houses across Europe sought to mount their own productions, the first to do so being the Vienna State Opera, which staged "Das Rheingold" on 24 January 1878. In April 1878 "Das Rheingold" was produced in Leipzig, as part of the first full "Ring" cycle to be staged outside Bayreuth. London followed suit in May 1882, when "Rheingold" began a cycle at Her Majesty's Theatre, Haymarket, under the baton of Anton Seidl. In the years following the London premiere, "Ring" cycles were staged in many European capitals. In Budapest on 26 January 1889, the first Hungarian performance of "Das Rheingold", conducted by the young Gustav Mahler, was briefly interrupted when the prompt-box caught fire and a number of patrons fled the theatre.