title: Scarlet (color)

text: The Latin term for scarlet used in the Bible comes from "coccus", a "tiny grain". The finest scarlets in ancient times were made from the tiny scale insect called kermes, which fed on certain oak trees in Turkey, Persia, Armenia and other parts of the Middle East. The insects contained a very strong natural dye, also called kermes, which produced the scarlet color. The insects were so small they were historically thought to be a kind of grain. This was the origin of the expression "dyed in the grain."


title: Scarlet (color)

text: The early Christian church adopted many of the symbols of the Roman Empire, including the importance of the color scarlet. The flag of the Crusaders was a scarlet cross on a white background, with scarlet indicating blood and sacrifice. By a church edict in 1295, Cardinals of the church, second in authority to the Pope, wore red robes, but a red closer in color to the purple of the Byzantine Emperors, a color coming from murex, a type of mollusk. After the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, however, the imperial purple was no longer available, and Cardinals began instead to wear scarlet made from kermes.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, scarlet was the color worn by Kings, princes and the wealthy, partly because of its color and partly because of its high price. The exact shade, which varied widely, was not as important as the brilliance and richness of the color. The finest scarlet, called "scarlatto" or Venetian scarlet, came from Venice, where it was made from kermes by a specific guild which closely guarded the formula. Cloth dyed scarlet cost as much as ten times more than cloth dyed with blue.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: In the "Assumption", by Titian (1516-1518), the figures of God, the Virgin Mary and two apostles are highlighted by their scarlet costumes, painted with vermilion pigment from Venice. The young Queen Elizabeth I (here in about 1563) liked to wear bright reds, before she adopted the more sober image of the Virgin Queen. Her satin gown was probably dyed with kermes. In the 16th century, an even more vivid scarlet began to arrive in Europe from the New World. When the Spanish conquistadores conquered Mexico, they found that the Aztecs were making brilliant red shades from another variety of scale insect called cochineal, similar to the European kermes vermiilo, but producing better shades of red at lower costs. The first shipments were sent from Mexico to Seville in 1523. The Venetian guilds at first tried to block the use of the cochineal in Europe, but before the century was over, it was being used to make scarlet dye in Spain, France, Italy, and Holland, and almost all the fine scarlet garments of Europe were made with cochineal.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: Scarlet was the traditional color of the British nobility in the 17th and 18th century. The members of the House of Lords wore red ceremonial gowns for the opening of Parliament, and today sit on red benches.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: The red military uniform was adopted by the British Army in 1645, and was still worn as a dress uniform until the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. Ordinary soldiers wore red coats dyed with madder, while officers wore scarlet coats dyed with the more expensive cochineal. This led to British soldiers being known as red coats.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: From the 8th century until the early 20th century, the most important scarlet pigment used in western art was vermilion, made from the mineral cinnabar. It was used, along with red lake pigments, by artists from Botticelli and Raphael to Renoir. However, in 1919 commercial production began of an intense new synthetic pigment, cadmium red, made from cadmium sulfide and selenium. The new pigment became the standard red of Henri Matisse and the other important painters of the 20th century.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: In the 20th century, scarlet also became associated with revolution. Red flags had first been used as revolutionary emblems, symbolizing the blood of martyrs, during the French Revolution and Paris uprisings in 1848. Red became the color of socialism, then communism, and became the color of the flags of both the Soviet Union and Communist China. China still uses a scarlet flag; in Chinese culture red is also the color of happiness. Since the fall of the Soviet Union the flag of Russia is red, blue and white, the colors of the historic Russian flag from the time of Peter the Great, adapted by him from the colors of the Dutch flag.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: Scarlet is the color worn in traditional academic dress in the United Kingdom for those awarded doctorates. It is also the color of many of the undergraduate gowns worn by students of the ancient universities of Scotland.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: In academic dress in the United States, scarlet is used for hood bindings (borders) and, depending on the university or school, other parts of the dress (velvet chevrons, facings, etc.) to denote a degree in some form or branch of Theology (e.g., Sacred Theology, Canon Law, Divinity, Ministry).


title: Scarlet (color)

text: In the French academic dress system, the five traditional fields of study (Arts, Science, Medicine, Law and Divinity) are each symbolized by a distinctive color, which appears in the academic dress of the people who graduated in this field. Scarlet is the distinctive color for Law. As such, it is also the color worn on their court dress by French high magistrates.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: In the Roman Catholic Church, scarlet robes — symbolizing the color of the blood of Christ and the Christian martyrs — are worn by cardinals as a symbol of their willingness to defend their faith with their own blood. In the Lutheran tradition, scarlet is the color for paraments for Palm or Passion Sunday, and for all of Holy Week through Maundy Thursday.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: In countries that have traditionally been dominated by Christian ideas, scarlet is associated with prostitution. The Book of Revelation refers to the Whore of Babylon riding upon a "scarlet beast" and dressed in purple and scarlet. The phrase "Great Scarlet Whore" has been used by Puritans in the 17th century, and the phrase "The Scarlet Woman" was used by many Protestants and later Mormons in North America well into the 20th century. Scarlet and crimson are also linked to the Judeo-Christian concept of sin in the Book of Isaiah, rendered in the King James Version "though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow; though they be red like crimson, they shall be as wool."


title: Scarlet (color)

text: The connection of red or scarlet with prostitution was very common in Europe and America. Prostitutes were obliged to wear red in some European cities, and even today areas in European cities where prostitutes can work legally are known as red-light districts. Sex worker advocacy groups like the Scarlet Alliance use the striking color to associate themselves with prostitution.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: This is a variation on the standard RGB or Hex combination that produces a truer Scarlet color on some monitors. It is slightly more orange than the standard Scarlet RGB value of 255, 36, 0, but does give a truer color on displays where the red dominates over the orange and would otherwise make the color appear more as a normal red rather than a genuine Scarlet.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: This is the color now called "scarlet" in Crayola crayons. It was originally formulated as torch red in 1998 and then renamed "scarlet" by Crayola in 2000.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: The source of this color is the "ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names" (1955), a color dictionary used by stamp collectors to identify the colors of stamps. A sample of the color "Flame" (color sample #34) is also displayed in the "Dictionary" online version.


title: Scarlet (color)

text: Displayed adjacent is the color Boston University Scarlet, the color which, along with white, is symbolic of Boston University. The color is identical to Utah Crimson.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: Rules of Engagement is a 2000 American war and legal drama film, directed by William Friedkin, written by Stephen Gaghan, from a story by Jim Webb, and starring Tommy Lee Jones and Samuel L. Jackson. Jackson plays U.S. Marine Colonel Terry Childers, who is brought to court-martial after men under Childers' orders kill many civilians outside the U.S. embassy in Yemen.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: In 1968 during the Vietnam War, a disastrous American advance leaves U.S. Marine Lieutenant Hayes Hodges wounded and his men dead. His squadmate Lieutenant Terry Childers executes a North Vietnamese prisoner to intimidate a captive officer into calling off a mortar attack on Hodges' position; sparing the officer's life, Childers rescues Hodges. In 1996, Hodges, now a colonel, is set to retire after 28 years as a JAG officer. At his pre-retirement party at the Camp Lejeune Officers Club, he is honored by his old friend, Colonel Terry Childers, now the commanding officer of a Marine Expeditionary Unit.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: Childers and his unit are deployed to Southwest Asia as part of an Amphibious Readiness Group, called to evacuate the U.S. Ambassador to Yemen when a routine anti-American demonstration at the embassy erupts in rock-throwing, Molotov cocktails, and gunfire. Escorting Ambassador Mourain and his family safely to a helicopter, Childers retrieves the embassy's American flag. Under heavy fire from snipers on nearby rooftops, three Marines are killed, and Childers orders his men to open fire on the crowd, resulting in the deaths of 83 irregular Yemeni soldiers and civilians, including children; the remaining Marines and embassy staff are saved.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: U.S. National Security Advisor Bill Sokal pressures the military to court-martial Childers, hoping to salvage American relations in the Middle East by placing all blame for the incident on the colonel. Childers asks Hodges to serve as his defense attorney, and he reluctantly accepts. Hodges rejects a plea deal from the prosecutor, Major Biggs, who is convinced of Childers' guilt but privately refuses to consider the death penalty. With little time to prepare a defense, Hodges goes to Yemen, where witnesses and police claim that the Marines fired first on the unarmed crowd. Visiting the abandoned embassy and some of the wounded, he notices an undamaged security camera and scattered audio cassette tapes.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: Returning to the U.S., Hodges confronts Childers about the complete lack of evidence to support his version of events, resulting in a fistfight. Sokal burns a videotape revealing the crowd was armed and fired on the Marines, and forces Mourain to lie on the stand that the crowd was peaceful, and that Childers ignored his orders and was violent and disrespectful to him and his family. Hodges meets with Mourain's wife, who admits Childers acted valiantly but refuses to testify. Captain Lee, who hesitated to follow Childers' order, is unable to testify to having seen gunfire from the crowd. A Yemeni doctor testifies that the tapes Hodges found are propaganda inciting violence against Americans, but declares the protest was peaceful.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: With Sokal on the stand, Hodges presents a shipping manifest proving that the tape from the undamaged camera – the tape Sokal burned – was delivered to Sokal's office but disappeared, with footage that would likely have exonerated Childers. Taking the stand, Childers explains that he was the only surviving Marine able to see the crowd was armed. On cross-examination, Biggs goads Childers into admitting that he ordered his men to open fire by shouting "waste the motherfuckers". Childers loses his temper, declaring that he would not sacrifice the lives of his men to appease the likes of Biggs, to Hodges' dismay.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: The prosecution presents Colonel Binh Le Cao, the Vietnamese officer whose life he spared, as a rebuttal witness, testifying that Childers executed an unarmed prisoner of war. During Hodges' cross-examination, Cao agrees that Childers took action to save American lives, and that if circumstances were reversed, Cao would have done the same. After the trial, Hodges confronts Sokal about the missing tape, vowing to uncover the truth. Childers is found guilty of the minor charge of breach of peace, but cleared of conduct unbecoming an officer, and murder; Biggs approaches Hodges about investigating Childers' actions in Vietnam, but Hodges declines to testify. Leaving the courthouse, Cao and Childers salute each other.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: An epilogue reveals that Sokal was found guilty of destroying evidence and Mourain of perjury, both losing their jobs, while Childers retired honorably.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: In addition, Baoan Coleman portrays retired NVA Colonel Cao, while G. Gordon Liddy has a cameo as a talk show host.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: The script was based on an original screenplay by James Webb, who developed it alongside producer Scott Rudin, with Sylvester Stallone in talks to star in the film.William Friedkin was hired to direct, but had trouble collaborating with Webb on script rewrites. Rudin passed the project over to Richard Zanuck, who then hired Stephen Gaghan to work on the screenplay. Webb hated Gaghan's work and frustrated the filmmaker's attempts to receive cooperation from the Department of Defense, which was eventually obtained nonetheless.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: Location shooting took place in Morocco, Nokesville, Virginia, Warrenton, Virginia (military base scenes), Hunting Island, South Carolina (Vietnam scenes), and Mount Washington, Virginia (Gen. Hodges' estate scenes).


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, of critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads: "The script is unconvincing and the courtroom action is unengaging." On Metacritic it has a score of 45% based on reviews from 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "A-" on scale of A to F.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times", gave it two and a half out of four stars, praising its "expert melodrama" while criticizing an "infuriating screenplay".


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" wrote that the film was "lazily plotted, grotesquely dishonest, and dripping with a creepy strain of Islamophobia".


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: Charles Gittins, writing from a legal perspective for CNN, wrote that "the movie succeeds in capturing the details of a successful military operation and showing the possible political fallout from such an operation. The drama lags, however, once it enters the courtroom where "Rules of Engagement" is neither accurate nor compelling."


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: The American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee described it as "probably the most racist film ever made against Arabs by Hollywood", comparing it with "The Birth of a Nation" and "The Eternal Jew". Director William Friedkin, dismissed accusations that the film was racist:


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: Let me state right up front, the film is not anti-Arab, is not anti-Muslim and is certainly not anti-Yemen. In order to make the film in Morocco, the present King of Morocco had to read the script and approve it and sign his name ... and nobody participating from the Arab side of things felt that the film was anti-Arab. The film is anti-terrorist. It takes a strong stand against terrorism and it says that terrorism wears many faces ... but we haven't made this film to slander the government of Yemen. It's a democracy and I don't believe for a moment they support terrorists any more than America does.


title: Rules of Engagement (film)

text: Friedkin later stated the film "was a box office hit but many critics saw it as jingoism". He says that James Webb later saw the film on the recommendation of his friend Colonel David Hackworth; Webb then rang Friedkin to say how much he liked it.


title: Logan Henderson

text: Logan Phillip Henderson (born September 14, 1989) is an American actor and singer. He played the role of Logan Mitchell on the Nickelodeon series "Big Time Rush" and is a current member of the Big Time Rush band.


title: Logan Henderson

text: Henderson was born in Temple, Texas and raised in North Richland Hills, Texas. His father is a school therapist and his mother works in the pharmaceutical industry.


title: Logan Henderson

text: He had a role as "Teenage Boy #2" on the television program "Friday Night Lights," before moving to California at the age of 18 to pursue an acting career.


title: Logan Henderson

text: Henderson's breakthrough role was "Big Time Rush". He played the character Logan Mitchell, who on the show is the person who is always getting the group out of trouble. Henderson and the rest of Big Time Rush made an appearance at the 2010 and 2013 Kids' Choice Awards and performed at the 2011 Kids' Choice Awards. He also appeared in an episode of BrainSurge during the week of April 18–22, 2011. Henderson and Big Time Rush made a guest appearance on Figure It Out in June 2012.


title: Logan Henderson

text: Henderson signed with Sony Music Entertainment and Columbia Records as a part of Big Time Rush in 2009. After releasing four promotional singles including "Big Time Rush", "City Is Ours", "Halfway There", and "Til I Forget About You" the group released their debut album "B.T.R." on October 11, 2010. On the album, Henderson co-wrote on the song "Oh Yeah". B.T.R. peaked at number 3 on the "Billboard" 200, and at #1 on the iTunes digital albums list. It was later certified Gold in the U.S. and Mexico. They released their second album "Elevate" on November 21, 2011. Henderson co-wrote "Time of Our Life" with Nicholas "Ras" Furlong. In addition, Henderson co-wrote three other songs, which were "Music Sounds Better With U", "Love Me Love Me" and "Superstar". The band's third album, "24/Seven" was released on June 11, 2013. Henderson co-wrote many of the songs on this album as well, including the title track "24/Seven".


title: Logan Henderson

text: After the band's hiatus in 2014, Henderson took a 3-year break to focus on his personal life. In December 2016, he announced the release of his debut solo single "Sleepwalker". Released on January 27, 2017, the track introduced a new sound for the artist, described by the producer Nicholas Furlong as a “dark grunge pop sound”, which was a departure of the music of B.T.R. His second single "Bite My Tongue" was released on September 15, 2017 and continued the style of his first solo release. A third single "Speak of the Devil" was released for digital download on October 30, 2017. On February 15, 2018 a single titled "Acoustic Sessions" was released featuring his first three singles in acoustic form.


title: Logan Henderson

text: In 2018, the singer teased the release of his forthcoming debut album on his social media, posting pictures from the photo shoot including one post with the album's track list. On May 14, 2018, Henderson announced the title of his debut album, "Echoes of Departure and the Endless Street of Dreams - Pt. 1," which was to be released on May 18, 2018. His single from the album, "Pull Me Deep", was released on August 14, 2018 and peaked at number 40 on the "Billboard" Mainstream Top 40.


title: Logan Henderson

text: As a lyricist and record producer, most of his songs' lyrics revolve based on his personal stories and other's stories. His debut EP was fixated around confronting tough personal battles in order to get closure and the payoff in getting comfortable with vulnerability.


title: Logan Henderson

text: Henderson grew up listening to Aretha Franklin, Billie Holiday, B.B. King, Elvis Costello and Prince.


title: Logan Henderson

text: Some of the artists who inspired him are James Brown, Ben Folds, Kanye West, Death Cab for Cutie, Prodigy, Coldplay, The Killers, and Radiohead. He also listed Elton John as a huge influence and inspiration for him.


title: Emotion classification

text: Emotion classification, the means by which one may distinguish or contrast one emotion from another, is a contested issue in emotion research and in affective science. Researchers have approached the classification of emotions from one of two fundamental viewpoints:


title: Emotion classification

text: In discrete emotion theory, all humans are thought to have an innate set of basic emotions that are cross-culturally recognizable. These basic emotions are described as "discrete" because they are believed to be distinguishable by an individual's facial expression and biological processes. Theorists have conducted studies to determine which emotions are basic. A popular example is Paul Ekman and his colleagues' cross-cultural study of 1992, in which they concluded that the six basic emotions are anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. Ekman explains that there are particular characteristics attached to each of these emotions, allowing them to be expressed in varying degrees. Each emotion acts as a discrete category rather than an individual emotional state.


title: Emotion classification

text: Humans' subjective experience is that emotions are clearly recognizable in ourselves and others. This apparent ease of recognition has led to the identification of a number of emotions that are said to be basic, and universal among all people. However, a debate among experts has questioned this understanding of what emotions are. There has been recent discussion of the progression on the different views of emotion over the years.


title: Emotion classification

text: On "basic emotion" accounts, activation of an emotion, such as anger, sadness, or fear, is "triggered" by the brain's appraisal of a stimulus or event with respect to the perceiver's goals or survival. In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology. Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the eliciting event should not be necessary to deduce what the person is feeling from observing the biological signatures.


title: Emotion classification

text: On "constructionist" accounts, the emotion a person feels in response to a stimulus or event is "constructed" from more elemental biological and psychological ingredients. Two hypothesized ingredients are "core affect" (characterized by, e.g., hedonic valence and physiological arousal) and conceptual knowledge (such as the semantic meaning of the emotion labels themselves, e.g., the word "anger"). A theme common to many constructionist theories is that different emotions do not have specific locations in the nervous system or distinct physiological signatures, and that context is central to the emotion a person feels because of the accessibility of different concepts afforded by different contexts.


title: Emotion classification

text: Eugene Bann proposed a theory that people transmit their understanding of emotions through the language they use that surrounds mentioned emotion keywords. He posits that the more distinct language is used to express a certain emotion, then the more distinct the perception (including proprioception) of that emotion is, and thus more basic. This allows us to select the dimensions best representing the entire spectrum of emotion. Coincidentally, it was found that Ekman's (1972) basic emotion set, arguably the most frequently used for classifying emotions, is the most semantically distinct.


title: Emotion classification

text: For both theoretical and practical reasons researchers define emotions according to one or more dimensions. In his philosophical treatise, The Passions of the Soul, Descartes defines and investigates the six primary passions (wonder, love, hate, desire, joy, and sadness). Wilhelm Max Wundt, the father of modern psychology, proposed in 1897 that emotions can be described by three dimensions: "pleasurable versus unpleasurable", "arousing or subduing" and "strain or relaxation". In 1954 Harold Schlosberg named three dimensions of emotion: "pleasantness–unpleasantness", "attention–rejection" and "level of activation".


title: Emotion classification

text: Dimensional models of emotion attempt to conceptualize human emotions by defining where they lie in two or three dimensions. Most dimensional models incorporate valence and arousal or intensity dimensions. Dimensional models of emotion suggest that a common and interconnected neurophysiological system is responsible for all affective states. These models contrast theories of basic emotion, which propose that different emotions arise from separate neural systems. Several dimensional models of emotion have been developed, though there are just a few that remain as the dominant models currently accepted by most. The two-dimensional models that are most prominent are the circumplex model, the vector model, and the Positive Activation – Negative Activation (PANA) model.


title: Emotion classification

text: The circumplex model of emotion was developed by James Russell. This model suggests that emotions are distributed in a two-dimensional circular space, containing arousal and valence dimensions. Arousal represents the vertical axis and valence represents the horizontal axis, while the center of the circle represents a neutral valence and a medium level of arousal. In this model, emotional states can be represented at any level of valence and arousal, or at a neutral level of one or both of these factors. Circumplex models have been used most commonly to test stimuli of emotion words, emotional facial expressions, and affective states.


title: Emotion classification

text: Russell and Lisa Feldman Barrett describe their modified circumplex model as representative of core affect, or the most elementary feelings that are not necessarily directed toward anything. Different prototypical emotional episodes, or clear emotions that are evoked or directed by specific objects, can be plotted on the circumplex, according to their levels of arousal and pleasure.


title: Emotion classification

text: The vector model of emotion appeared in 1992. This two-dimensional model consists of vectors that point in two directions, representing a "boomerang" shape. The model assumes that there is always an underlying arousal dimension, and that valence determines the direction in which a particular emotion lies. For example, a positive valence would shift the emotion up the top vector and a negative valence would shift the emotion down the bottom vector. In this model, high arousal states are differentiated by their valence, whereas low arousal states are more neutral and are represented near the meeting point of the vectors. Vector models have been most widely used in the testing of word and picture stimuli.


title: Emotion classification

text: The positive activation – negative activation (PANA) or "consensual" model of emotion, originally created by Watson and Tellegen in 1985, suggests that positive affect and negative affect are two separate systems. Similar to the vector model, states of higher arousal tend to be defined by their valence, and states of lower arousal tend to be more neutral in terms of valence. In the PANA model, the vertical axis represents low to high positive affect and the horizontal axis represents low to high negative affect. The dimensions of valence and arousal lay at a 45-degree rotation over these axes.


title: Emotion classification

text: Robert Plutchik offers a three-dimensional model that is a hybrid of both basic-complex categories and dimensional theories. It arranges emotions in concentric circles where inner circles are more basic and outer circles more complex. Notably, outer circles are also formed by blending the inner circle emotions. Plutchik's model, as Russell's, emanates from a circumplex representation, where emotional words were plotted based on similarity. There are numerous emotions, which appear in several intensities and can be combined in various ways to form emotional "dyads".


title: Emotion classification

text: The PAD emotional state model is a psychological model developed by Albert Mehrabian and James A. Russell to describe and measure emotional states. PAD uses three numerical dimensions to represent all emotions. The PAD dimensions are "Pleasure", "Arousal" and "Dominance".


title: Emotion classification

text: The Pleasure-Displeasure Scale measures how pleasant an emotion may be. For instance both anger and fear are unpleasant emotions, and score high on the displeasure scale. However joy is a pleasant emotion.


title: Emotion classification

text: The Arousal-Nonarousal Scale measures how energized or soporific one feels. It is not the intensity of the emotion—for grief and depression can be low arousal intense feelings. While both anger and rage are unpleasant emotions, rage has a higher intensity or a higher arousal state. However boredom, which is also an unpleasant state, has a low arousal value.


title: Emotion classification

text: The Dominance-Submissiveness Scale represents the controlling and dominant nature of the emotion. For instance while both fear and anger are unpleasant emotions, anger is a dominant emotion, while fear is a submissive emotion.


title: Emotion classification

text: Ethnographic and cross-cultural studies of emotions have shown the variety of ways in which emotions differ with cultures. Because of these differences, many cross-cultural psychologists and anthropologists challenge the idea of universal classifications of emotions altogether.


title: Emotion classification

text: Cultural differences have been observed in the way in which emotions are valued, expressed, and regulated. The social norms for emotions, such as the frequency with or circumstances in which they are expressed, also vary drastically. For example, the demonstration of anger is encouraged by Kaluli people, but condemned by Utku Inuit. The largest piece of evidence that disputes the universality of emotions is language. Differences within languages directly correlate to differences in emotion taxonomy. Languages differ in that they categorize emotions based on different components. Some may categorize by event types whereas others categorize by action readiness. Furthermore, emotion taxonomies vary due to the differing implications emotions have in different languages. That being said, not all English words have equivalents in all other languages and vice versa, indicating that there are words for emotions present in some languages but not in others. Emotions such as the schadenfreude in German and saudade in Portuguese are commonly expressed in emotions in their respective languages, but lack an English equivalent. Some languages do not differentiate between emotions that are considered to be the basic emotions in English. For instance, certain African languages have one word for both anger and sadness, and others for shame and fear. There is ethnographic evidence that even challenges the universality of the category "emotions" because certain cultures lack a specific word relating to the English word "emotions".


title: Emotion classification

text: Humans experience emotion, with evidence used that they influence action, thoughts and behavior. Emotions are categorized into various affects, which correspond to the current situation. An affect is the range of feeling experienced. Both positive and negative emotions are needed in our daily lives.


title: Emotion classification

text: A 2009 review of theories of emotion identifies and contrasts fundamental emotions according to three key criteria for mental experiences that:


title: Emotion classification

text: The "emotion annotation and representation language" (EARL) proposed by the Human-Machine Interaction Network on Emotion (HUMAINE) classifies 48 emotions.


title: Emotion classification

text: A tree-structured list of emotions was described in Shaver et al. (1987), and also featured in Parrott (2001).


title: Emotion classification

text: In 1980, Robert Plutchik diagrammed a wheel of eight emotions: joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger and anticipation, inspired by his "Ten Postulates". Plutchik also theorized twenty-four "Primary", "Secondary", and "Tertiary" dyads (feelings composed of two emotions). The wheel emotions can be paired in four groups:


title: Emotion classification

text: There are also triads, emotions formed from 3 primary emotions. This leads to a combination of 24 dyads and 32 triads, making 56 emotions at 1 intensity level. Emotions can be mild or intense; for example, distraction is a mild form of surprise, and rage is an intense form of anger. The kinds of relation between each pair of emotions are:


title: Emotion classification

text: Similar emotions in the wheel are adjacent to each other. Anger, Anticipation, Joy, and Trust are positive in valence, while Fear, Surprise, Sadness, and Disgust are negative in valence. Anger is classified as a "positive" emotion because it involves "moving toward" a goal, while surprise is negative because it is a violation of someone's territory. The emotion dyads each have half-opposites and exact opposites:


title: Emotion classification

text: MIT researchers published a paper titled "An Affective Model of Interplay Between Emotions and Learning: Reengineering Educational Pedagogy—Building a Learning Companion" that lists six axes of emotions with different opposite emotions, and different emotions coming from ranges.


title: Emotion classification

text: Scientists map twenty-one different facial emotions expanded from Paul Ekman's six basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise:


title: Emotion classification

text: The Dalai Lama made a website based on the emotions of enjoyment, disgust, anger, fear and sadness with the help of Paul Ekman. The emotions were similar to the ones found in "Inside Out", a film that Paul Ekman advised.


title: Emotion classification

text: Emotions and stress are connected, so stressful situations produce emotion. Environments that make stress also make emotions.


title: Emotion classification

text: Researchers distinguish several emotion dynamics, most commonly how intense (mean level), variable (fluctuations), inert (temporal dependency), instable (magnitude of moment-to-moment fluctuations), or differentiated someone's emotions are (the specificity of granularity of emotions), and whether and how an emotion augments or blunts other emotions. Meta-analytic reviews show systematic developmental changes in emotion dynamics throughout childhood and adolescence and substantial between-person differences.


title: Journeyman

text: A journeyman, journeywoman, or journeyperson is a worker, skilled in a given building trade or craft, who has successfully completed an official apprenticeship qualification. Journeymen are considered competent and authorized to work in that field as a fully qualified employee. They earn their license by education, supervised experience and examination. Although journeymen have completed a trade certificate and are allowed to work as employees, they may not yet work as self-employed master craftsmen.


title: Journeyman

text: The term "journeyman" was originally used in the medieval trade guilds. Journeymen were paid daily and the word "journey" is derived from "journée", meaning "whole day" in French. Each individual guild generally recognised three ranks of workers: apprentices, journeymen, and masters. A journeyman, as a qualified tradesman could become a master and run their own business, but most continued working as employees.


title: Journeyman

text: Guidelines were put in place to promote responsible tradesmen, who were held accountable for their own work and to protect the individual trade and the general public from unskilled workers. To become a master, a journeyman has to submit a master piece of work to a guild for evaluation. Only after evaluation can a journeyman be admitted to the guild as a master. Sometimes, a journeyman was required to accomplish a three-year working trip, which may be called the journeyman years.


title: Journeyman

text: The word "journey" comes from the French "journée" (day), which in turn comes from the Latin "diurnus" (pertaining to a day, daily). The title "journeyman" refers to the right to charge a fee for each day's work. A journeyman has completed an apprenticeship but is employed by another such as a master craftsman, but they would live apart and might have a family of their own. A journeyman could not employ others. In contrast, an apprentice would be bound to a master, usually for a fixed term of seven years, and lived with the master as a member of the household, receiving most or all compensation in the form of food, lodging, and training.


title: Journeyman

text: In parts of Europe, as in Late Medieval Germany, spending time as a wandering journeyman ("Wandergeselle"), moving from one town to another to gain experience of different workshops, was an important part of the training of an aspirant master. Carpenters and other artisans in German-speaking countries have retained the tradition of traveling journeymen even today, but only a few still practice it. In France, journeymen were known as compagnons.


title: Journeyman

text: In modern apprenticeship systems, a journeyman has a trades certificate to show the required completion of an apprenticeship. In many countries, it is the highest formal rank, as that of master has been eliminated, and they may perform all tasks of the trade in the area certified as well as supervise apprentices and become self-employed.


title: Journeyman

text: The modern apprenticeship system aims to build skills by on-the-job training. An apprentice is able to earn a living while learning new skills. The working environment is closely linked to the employer giving the individual company the opportunity to shape the apprentice, within the guidelines, to suit particular requirements. Quite often, a strong working relationship is built between employee and employer.


title: Journeyman

text: In Germany, however, master craftsmen, after they complete their apprenticeships, are required to take part-time courses that last three to four years or full-time courses that last one year.


title: Journeyman

text: In the United States, employment in some building trades, such as an electrician, carpenter, plumber, machinist, and HVAC contractor, usually requires holding state or local (city or county) license as a journeyman or master. The license certifies that the craftsman has met the requirements of time in the field (usually a minimum of 8,000 hours) and time in an approved classroom setting (usually 700 hours). A journeyman has the responsibility of supervising workers of lesser experience and training them and has the qualifications (knowledge and skills) to work unsupervised himself. A journeyman is commonly expected to have a wide range of experience, covering most fields of their trade. For example, a non-journeyman worker of some 20 or 30 years' experience may have most or all of their experience in only residential, commercial, or industrial applications. A journeyman, however, has a broad field of experience in residential, commercial, and industrial applications.


title: Journeyman

text: In Australia, a journeyman registration allows the permit holder to work under the general direction of an advanced tradesman. A journeyman may oversee the work of apprentices and trades assistants but may not contract for work using that particular registration. A journeyman level qualification is obtained by completing a formal apprenticeship. An apprenticeship is learning a skilled trade under the supervision of an advanced tradesperson. An apprentice is a trainee who is becoming formally trained and qualified in a particular type of trade. The duration of an apprenticeship is usually three to four years, depending on the individual trade. On completion of the training the apprentice will receive a nationally recognised qualification, a trade certificate. Practical on-the-job learning makes up the majority of an apprenticeship, but it also incorporates some classroom learning. Apprenticeships offer real-life experience in the workplace, a regular income and new skills. Examples of licensed trades are plumbers and gas-fitters, electricians, air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics and carpenters and joiners.


title: Journeyman

text: In Canada, in addition to completion of Apprenticeship in a Skilled Trade, the worker may also choose to write an exam to be recognized throughout the country via the Interprovincial Standards Red Seal Program.


title: Journeyman

text: The "modern journeyman" is a term for the many paths of adult education and can be used to describe life's process of continual learning. Although the term "journeyman" is typically traditional, "modern journeyman" is also used to refer to current concepts of adult education: "life-long learning", "up-skilling", "the knowledge wave" and "modern apprenticeships".


title: Journeyman

text: In American English, a journeyman is an athlete or employee in general who is technically competent but unable to excel. The term is used elsewhere (such as in British and Australian contexts) to refer to a professional sportsman who plays for numerous clubs during their career.


title: Civil engineer

text: A civil engineer is a person who practices civil engineering – the application of planning, designing, constructing, maintaining, and operating infrastructure while protecting the public and environmental health, as well as improving existing infrastructure that may have been neglected.


title: Civil engineer

text: Civil engineering is one of the oldest engineering disciplines because it deals with constructed environment including planning, designing, and overseeing construction and maintenance of building structures, and facilities, such as roads, railroads, airports, bridges, harbors, channels, dams, irrigation projects, pipelines, power plants, and water and sewage systems.


title: Civil engineer

text: The term "civil engineer" was established by John Smeaton in 1750 to contrast engineers working on civil projects with the military engineers, who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, various sub-disciplines of civil engineering have become recognized and much of military engineering has been absorbed by civil engineering. Other engineering practices became recognized as independent engineering disciplines, including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering.


title: Civil engineer

text: In some places, a civil engineer may perform land surveying; in others, surveying is limited to construction surveying, unless an additional qualification is obtained.


title: Civil engineer

text: Civil engineers usually practice in a particular specialty, such as construction engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, land development, transportation engineering, hydraulic engineering, and environmental engineering. A civil engineer is concerned with determining the right design for these structures and looking after the construction process so that the longevity of these structures is guaranteed after completion. These structures should also be satisfactory for the public in terms of comfort. Some civil engineers, particularly those working for government agencies, may practice across multiple specializations, particularly when involved in critical infrastructure development or maintenance.


title: Civil engineer

text: Civil engineers generally work in a variety of locations and conditions. Much of a civil engineer's work is dealing with non-engineers or others from different technical disciplines, so training should give skills preparing future civil engineers in organizational relationships between parties to projects, cost and time. Many spend time outdoors at construction sites so that they can monitor operations or solve problems onsite. The job is typically a blend of in-office and on-location work. Most work full-time.


title: Civil engineer

text: In most countries, a civil engineer will have graduated from a post-secondary school with a degree in civil engineering, which requires a strong background in mathematics and the physical sciences; this degree is typically a bachelor's degree, though many civil engineers study further to obtain master's, engineer, doctoral and post doctoral degrees. In many countries, civil engineers are subject to licensure. In some jurisdictions with mandatory licensing, people who do not obtain a license may not call themselves "civil engineers".


title: Civil engineer

text: In Belgium, "Civil Engineer" (abbreviated Ir.) (, ) is a legally protected title applicable to graduates of the five-year engineering course of one of the six universities and the Royal Military Academy. Their speciality can be all fields of engineering: civil, structural, electrical, mechanical, chemical, physics and even computer science. This use of the title may cause confusion to the English speaker as the Belgian "civil" engineer can have a speciality other than civil engineering. In fact, Belgians use the adjective "civil" in the sense of "civilian", as opposed to military engineers.


title: Civil engineer

text: The formation of the civil engineer has a strong mathematical and scientific base and is more theoretical in approach than the practical oriented industrial engineer (Ing.) educated in a five-year program at a polytechnic. Traditionally, students were required to pass an entrance exam on mathematics to start civil engineering studies. This exam was abolished in 2004 for the Flemish Community, but is still organised in the French Community.


title: Civil engineer

text: In Scandinavian countries, civil engineer (civilingenjör (Swedish), sivilingeniør (Norwegian), civilingeniør (Danish)) is a first professional degree, approximately equivalent to Master of Science in Engineering, and a protected title granted to students by selected institutes of technology. As in English the word has its origin in the distinction between civilian and military engineers, as in before the start of the 19th century only military engineers existed and the prefix "civil" was a way to separate those who had studied engineering in a regular University from their military counterparts. Today the degree spans over all fields within engineering, like civil engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science, electronics engineering, etc.


title: Civil engineer

text: There is generally a slight difference between a Master of Science in Engineering degree and the Scandinavian civil engineer degree, the latter's programme having closer ties with the industry's demands. A civil engineer is the most well-known of the two; still, the area of expertise remains obfuscated for most of the public. A noteworthy difference is the mandatory courses in mathematics and physics, regardless of the equivalent master's degree, e.g. computer science.


title: Civil engineer

text: Although a 'college engineer' (högskoleingenjör, diplomingenjör/mellaningenjör (Swedish), høgskoleingeniør (Norwegian), diplomingeniør (Danish)) is roughly equivalent to a Bachelor of Science in Scandinavia, to become a 'civil engineer' one often has had to do up to one extra year of overlapping studies compared to attaining a B.Sc./M.Sc. combination. This is because the higher educational system is not fully adopted to the international standard graduation system, since it is treated as a professional degree. Today (2009) this is starting to change due to the Bologna process.


title: Civil engineer

text: A Scandinavian "civilingenjör" will in international contexts commonly call himself "Master of Science in Engineering" and will occasionally wear an engineering class ring. At the Norwegian Institute of Technology (now the Norwegian University of Science and Technology), the tradition with an NTH Ring goes back to 1914, before the Canadian iron ring.


title: Civil engineer

text: In Norway, the title "Sivilingeniør" is no longer issued after 2007, and has been replaced with "Master i teknologi". In the English translation of the diploma, the title will be "Master of Science", since "Master of Technology" is not an established title in the English-speaking world. The extra overlapping year of studies have also been abolished with this change to make Norwegian degrees more equal to their international counterparts.


title: Civil engineer

text: In Spain, a civil engineering degree can be obtained after four years of study in the various branches of mathematics, physics, mechanics, etc. The earned degree is called "Grado en Ingeniería Civil". Further studies at a graduate school include master's and doctoral degrees.


title: Civil engineer

text: Before the current situation, that is, before the implementation of Bologna Process in 2010, a degree in civil engineering in Spain could be obtained after three to six years of study and was divided into two main degrees.


title: Civil engineer

text: In the first case, the earned degree was called "Ingeniero Técnico de Obras Públicas" ("ITOP"), literally translated as "Public Works Engineer" obtained after three years of study and equivalent to a Bachelor of Civil Engineering.


title: Civil engineer

text: In the second case, the academic degree was called "Ingeniero de Caminos, Canales y Puertos" (often shortened to "Ingeniero de Caminos" or "ICCP"), that literally means "Highways, Canals and Harbors Engineer", though civil engineers in Spain practice in the same fields as civil engineers do elsewhere. This degree is equivalent to a Master of Civil Engineering and is obtained after five or six years of study depending on the school granting the title.


title: Civil engineer

text: The first Spanish Civil Engineering School was the "Escuela Especial de Ingenieros de Caminos y Canales" (now called "Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos"), established in 1802 in Madrid, followed by the "Escuela Especial de Ayudantes de Obras Públicas" (now called "Escuela Universitaria de Ingeniería Técnica de Obras Públicas de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid"), founded in 1854 in Madrid. Both schools now belong to the Technical University of Madrid.


title: Civil engineer

text: In Spain, a civil engineer has the technical and legal ability to design projects of any branch, so any Spanish civil engineer can oversee projects about structures, buildings (except residential structures which are reserved for architects), foundations, hydraulics, the environment, transportation, urbanism, etc. Mechanical and Electrical engineering tasks are included under the Industrial engineering degree.


title: Civil engineer

text: A chartered civil engineer (known as certified or professional engineer in other countries) is a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, and has also passed membership exams. However a non-chartered civil engineer may be a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers or the Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors. The description "Civil Engineer" is not restricted to members of any particular professional organisation although "Chartered Civil Engineer" is.


title: Civil engineer

text: In many Eastern European countries, civil engineering does not exist as a distinct degree or profession but its various sub-professions are often studied in separate university faculties and performed as separate professions, whether they are taught in civilian universities or military engineering academies. Even many polytechnic tertiary schools give out separate degrees for each field of study. Typically study in geology, geodesy, structural engineering and urban engineering allows a person to obtain a degree in construction engineering. Mechanical engineering, automotive engineering, hydraulics and even sometimes metallurgy are fields in a degree in "Machinery Engineering". Computer sciences, control engineering and electrical engineering are fields in a degree in electrical engineering, while security, safety, environmental engineering, transportation, hydrology and meteorology are in a category of their own, typically each with their own degrees, either in separate university faculties or at polytechnic schools.


title: Civil engineer

text: In the United States, civil engineers are typically employed by municipalities, construction firms, consulting engineering firms, architect/engineer firms, the military, state governments, and the federal government. Each state requires engineers who offer their services to the public to be licensed by the state. Licensure is obtained by meeting specified education, examination, and work experience requirements. Specific requirements vary by state.


title: Civil engineer

text: Typically licensed engineers must graduate from an ABET-accredited university or college engineering program with a minimum of bachelor's degree, pass the Fundamentals of Engineering exam, obtain several years of engineering experience under the supervision of a licensed engineer, then pass the Principles and Practice of Engineering Exam. After completing these steps and the granting of licensure by a state board, engineers may use the title "Professional Engineer" or PE in advertising and documents. Most states have implemented mandatory continuing education requirements to maintain a license.


title: Civil engineer

text: The ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) represents more than 140,000 members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. Official members of the ASCE must hold a bachelor's degree from an accredited civil engineering program and be a licensed professional engineer or have five years responsible charge of engineering experience.


title: Civil engineer

text: Most civil engineers join this organization to be updated of current news, projects, and methods (such as sustainability) related to civil engineering; as well as contribute their expertise and knowledge to other civil engineers and students obtaining their civil engineering degree.


title: Civil engineer

text: The ICE (Institution of Civil Engineers) founded in 1818, represents, as of 2008, more than 80,000 members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. Its commercial arm, Thomas Telford Ltd, provides training, recruitment, publishing and contract services.


title: Civil engineer

text: Founded in 1887, the CSCE (Canadian Society for Civil Engineering) represents members of the Canadian civil engineering profession. Official members of the CSCE must hold a bachelor's degree from an accredited civil engineering program. Most civil engineers join this organization to be updated of current news, projects, and methods (such as sustainability) related to civil engineering; as well as contribute their expertise and knowledge to other civil engineers and students obtaining their civil engineering degree. Local sections frequently host events such as seminars, tours, and courses.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Ksenia Anatolyevna Sobchak (, BGN/PCGN: "Kseniya Anatol'yevna Sobchak", GOST: "Ksenija Anatolevna Sobčak", ; born 5 November 1981) is a Russian public figure, TV anchor, journalist, socialite and actress. She is the younger daughter of the first democratically elected mayor of Saint Petersburg, Anatoly Sobchak, and the Russian senator Lyudmila Narusova. Sobchak became known to the wider public as a host of the reality show "Dom-2" on the Russian channel TNT. Later she became an anchor at independent television channel Dozhd ("Rain").


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Sobchak was the Civic Initiative's candidate for the 2018 Russian presidential election. At the age of 36, she became the youngest Russian presidential candidate in history.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Sobchak is the second daughter of the first democratically elected mayor of Saint Petersburg Anatoly Sobchak and Lyudmila Narusova, a Russian politician. Sobchak has described herself as being of part Jewish heritage. Sobchak also revealed that she and her family experienced anti-Semitism.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: As a child, Sobchak attended the ballet school attached to the Mariinsky Theatre and the Hermitage Museum art school. In 1998, Sobchak left the school attached to Herzen University, and enrolled at the Saint Petersburg State University (Department of International Relations). In 2001, Sobchak moved to Moscow and enrolled in the International Relations program at the Moscow State Institute of International Relations. In 2002, Sobchak enrolled in a masters program at the department of politics at the same university.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Sobchak became famous in 2004, as a host of the reality show "Dom-2". She left the show in 2012, because the show's lowbrow orientation became incongruent with her political activism.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: From 2008 to 2010, Sobchak was a host of the reality shows "Who does NOT want to be a millionaire?", "Last Hero-6", and "Sweet life of a blonde", "Muz-TV Awards", and "Two stars".


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: In 2010, Sobchak became a host of the TV program "Freedom of Thought" on the state-run Channel 5. However, she soon left the program, since, according to her, it turned into a never-ending discussion of public utilities maintenance.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Since 2011, Sobchak has hosted the program "Sobchak Live" on the independent channel Dozhd (rain) and Top Model po-russki on Muz-TV.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: On 7 September 2012, MTV Russia launched a talk-show "GosDep (State Department) with Ksenia Sobchak". The show was supposed to cover hot social and political issues. The first episode of the show, titled "Where is Putin leading us?" featured interviews with the head of Left Front Sergei Udaltsov, member of "Solidarnost" (Solidarity) movement Ilya Yashin, and eco-activist Yevgeniya Chirikova. However, the show was promptly shut down after one episode. The second episode was supposed to feature an interview with anti-corruption blogger Alexei Navalny. MTV Russia representatives explained their decision to cancel the show with the lack of interest in politics among the channel's audience.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Sobchak acted in the comedies "Hitler Goes Kaput!", "Rzhevsky Versus Napoleon", "The Best Movie" and "". Sobchak also acted in the film "Thieves and Prostitutes".


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: In 2007, Sobchak recorded the song 'Dance with me (Потанцуй со мной)' with Russian rapper Timati, as well as a music video. Russian media at the time attributed a relationship between Sobchak and Timati.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Sobchak had earlier posed for the cover of the British band Pulp's "This Is Hardcore" album. Released in 1998, the album's artwork was produced by the artist John Currin. Asked about the cover, Sobchak said "The shoot was fun. Jarvis is very nice, very shy."


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: According to Forbes Magazine, in 2021 Sobchak was the 7th highest paid celebrity in Russia. She has been ranked as high as #4 (2010) and as low as #15 (2016) of Russian celebrities. Her annual salary from her media jobs is around $2.1 million a year. In 2011, her income was $2.8 million a year. In 2017, the main source of this annual revenue is from advertising contracts.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Around the time of her interview of Valērijs Kargins in Riga, she and () released the perfume "Married to a Millionaire" ().


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: On 28 December 2008, Sobchak was on an Aeroflot flight from Moscow to New York City when she and other passengers determined that the pilot was drunk prior to take-off. Sobchak used her socialite status to call Aeroflot representatives and remove the pilot from the cockpit.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: In 2009, Russia's "Tatler" magazine included her in a list of most desirable single women in the country. The list was based on women's fortune and celebrity status. She is known across Russia as a socialite, TV host and presenter. Sobchak was Russia's No.1 "it girl", an analogue to Paris Hilton.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Sobchak's father, Anatoly, had been both Vladimir Putin's and Dmitry Medvedev's law professor at Leningrad State University. He built a close relationship with Putin, in particular, and in 1991 Anatoly helped launch Putin's career in politics when he was the mayor of Saint Petersburg. Putin then helped Anatoly flee Russia when he was wanted on corruption charges. According to the Moscow News, "Putin's reported affection for the Sobchak family is widely believed to give Ksenia Sobchak a protected status, which may also explain her boldness", such as her encounter in October 2011 with Vasily Yakemenko, the controversial leader of the pro-Kremlin Nashi youth movement, when she reprimanded him for eating at an expensive restaurant in Moscow and published a video of the encounter on the internet.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Sobchak declared her candidacy in the Russian presidential election 2018 on 18 October 2017. Prior to the announcement of her intention to enter the Presidential race in 2018, Sobchak discussed her intention personally with Putin. She said: "With Vladimir Vladimirovich, my family has been associated with a great deal... so I felt it right to say that I made such a decision". Putin, she said, told her that "every person has the right to make their own decisions and must be responsible for them".


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: In September 2017, prior to her announcement to run, Putin said of Sobchak's presidential intentions to a press conference at the 9th BRICS summit, that "Every person has the right to nominate himself in accordance with the law. And Ksenia Sobchak is not an exception here. I respect her father Anatoly Sobchak, I believe that he was an outstanding figure in contemporary Russian history. I'm saying this without a trace of irony. He was very decent, played a big role in my own destiny. But when it comes to running for presidency, things of a personal nature cannot play any significant role. It depends on what program she's offering, if she'll actually run, and how she'll build her presidential campaign".


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Some skeptics accused Sobchak of being a spoiler to undermine Alexei Navalny; every recent election for the presidency has featured a prominent liberal candidate handpicked by the Kremlin. Other skeptics suspect Sobchak's candidacy is mostly about building her brand. Sobchak did not believe she could win against Putin in 2018, but has stated she's in it for the long haul: "Of course I want to be president, I want to win, but I also want to be sincere. In a system created by Putin, it is only possible for Putin to win. I am realistic about who will become the president."


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: On 15 March 2018, Sobchak and Dmitry Gudkov announced the creation of a new party, called the Party of Changes on the basis of the party Civic Initiative. The aim was of party was to "return our freedom and your freedom". Sobchak won 1.68% of the vote in the 2018 presidential election.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: On 26 October 2022, Russian media reported that police had raided Sobchak's home outside Moscow while Sobchak herself had left Russia for Lithuania. The raid came after the arrest of Kirill Sukhanov, a commercial director at Sobchak's media group, "Ostorozhno, Media", for alleged extortion, with Sobchak reportedly being a suspect in the case. Lithuanian border officials said that Sobchak had arrived on an Israeli passport, while Sobchak called the case an attack on her editorial team. Then, days after she fled the country, she returned to Russia, according to state media.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: In 2012, Sobchak was critical of Putin's political policies. Although she stated that she had "happily" voted for Putin when she was younger, she would not do so any longer. In the 2012 Russian presidential election, Sobchak says she voted for Mikhail Prokhorov.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: After the parliament elections held on 4 December 2011, which are known for the large number of alleged fraud reports, Sobchak joined the protest rallies held in Russia as a response to the alleged electoral frauds. She also took part in the campaign against Putin's re-election, working as an observer during the president elections held on 4 March 2012. She was one of the Russian protest participants targeted by the Investigative Committee of Russia on 12 June 2012, when her apartment in Moscow was entered and searched.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Sobchak is a supporter of free-market capitalism and privatization. Outlining her economic views, she writes:


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Sobchak describes herself as a feminist. In her manifesto, she derides the lack of women's representation in industry and politics.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Ksenia Sobchak is of the opinion that, having annexed Crimea from Ukraine in 2014, Russia violated the 1994 Budapest Memorandum; she claimed on 24 October 2017 that "Under these agreements, we agreed that Crimea is Ukrainian, which is the most important for me". Sobchak stressed that she did not consider the issue with Crimea resolved. "I believe that these things need to be discussed, it is very important to discuss them...look for some ways out." She also added that "the most important thing that Russia and Ukraine should do now is to restore our friendship at any cost." Simultaneously she suggested to hold a new referendum on the status of Crimea after "a broad and equal campaign." In December 2017, Sobchak claimed that an unconditional withdrawal of Russia from Crimea would lead to a civil war in Russia.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: Sobchak has said that if she becomes president, she will remove the body of Vladimir Lenin from Red Square, since, in her opinion, this is an indicator of a "medieval way of life in the country... so the corpse of Lenin must be removed from Red Square." Sobchak's proposal has led to wide-spread criticism, with Gennady Zyuganov stating: "It's tragic for the country when Ksenia and the like appear, who do not respect the will of a great country."


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: In her interview discussion with Julia Volkova in 2021 Sobchak voiced her support for LGBT rights in Russia, stating that she disagrees with the country's controversial "gay propaganda law". On 24 February 2022 Sobchak voiced opposition to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, writing that "We the Russians will be dealing with the consequences of today for many more years".


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: On 1 February 2013 Sobchak married (born 10 September 1972 in Moscow, RSFSR, USSR). He is an actor, known for "Möbius" (2013), "Bite the Dust" (2013) and "Dreamfish" (2016). Together they have a son named Platon, born 18 November 2016. They divorced in 2018. Sobchak married theatre director Konstantin Bogomolov on 13 September 2019.


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: In 2015 Sobchak said that if there was ever the possibility of political persecution against her, she had thought about emigration or getting an Israeli passport, but would prefer the United States where she could find a Russian-speaking community:


title: Ksenia Sobchak

text: I'm a very big patriot. I really love my job, the city, my friends. And if tomorrow is war, then the place for emigration will have to be a Russian-speaking place. I have to work in Russian.


title: Jackson White (actor)

text: Jackson James White is an American actor. He is known for his role as Brendan Fletcher on "Mrs. Fletcher", Ash Baker in the 2017 film "SPF-18" and Officer Zach in the 2022 film "Ambulance".


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Catelyn Stark (née Tully), later known as Lady Stoneheart, is a fictional character in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series of fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin, and its television adaptation "Game of Thrones". She is a prominent point of view character in the first three novels. She also appears in the fourth novel, "A Feast for Crows" (2005) and will return in a prominent role for the forthcoming sixth novel, "The Winds of Winter".


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Catelyn is portrayed by Northern Irish actress Michelle Fairley on the HBO series "Game of Thrones". Fairley's portrayal has garnered critical acclaim, with many in particular praising her performance during the episode "The Rains of Castamere". Due to this popularity, many fans were disappointed she did not appear again in the series, despite the character's resurrection in the novels. Author George RR Martin confirmed he argued against the decision, which he called "the first major diversion of the show from the books", and the character being cut was ultimately made by the television showrunners David Benioff and Dan Weiss.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Catelyn was originally betrothed to Eddard's older brother Brandon Stark, the heir to Winterfell at the time. When Brandon was sadistically executed by King Aerys II, Lord Jon Arryn, who was the guardian of Eddard and Robert Baratheon, rebelled against House Targaryen. Soon after the rebels won the Battle of the Bells, Catelyn was married to Eddard, having never met the new groom before the wedding day, to consolidate the alliance between the Riverlands and the North. She was initially disappointed as Eddard was shorter and perceived to be less handsome than his brother Brandon, but later fell in love with him after seeing the "good sweet heart beneath his solemn face".


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Catelyn Stark is described as beautiful, with fair skin, long auburn hair, blue eyes, long fingers, high cheekbones and full breasts, and dressed simply in the grey color of House Stark or the blue and red of her father’s House Tully. She is proud, strong, kind and generous, has a strong grasp of politics, and is often governed by the desire to protect her children. Catelyn is usually in accord with her husband Eddard Stark, but resents his admission of his extramarital son Jon Snow into their household.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Having decomposed in the river for several days, half of Catelyn's auburn hair had fallen out and what remained was completely grey. From clawing at her face after Robb's murder, Stoneheart also has deep, gashing flesh wounds. She is a hooded woman, and has been mistaken for Beric Dondarrion's lover.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Stoneheart has been described as having "nothing of Catelyn's mercy or kindness". Her objective as leader of the Brotherhood without Banners is to slaughter anyone associated with the Red Wedding. This includes anyone with the Freys, Boltons, or Lannisters. She has been dubbed an "antagonist" or a "villain", especially an antagonist to Brienne. She is unable to speak properly due to her throat slashing, lending to one of her nicknames "the Silent Sister". In order to verbalize commands, she must cover the wound on her throat with her hand. She is also referred to as "The Hangwoman" or "Mother Merciless".


title: Catelyn Stark

text: After the royal party arrives at Winterfell, Catelyn receives a letter from her sister Lysa Arryn stating that the Lannisters had killed her husband Jon Arryn, the king's 'Hand' (second-in-command). King Robert Baratheon persuades Eddard to take his place. When her son Bran is injured and goes into a coma, she sits by his bed until they are attacked by an assassin who has come to kill Bran. Catelyn is wounded in the attack, and travels to King's Landing to warn Eddard after recovering. There, her childhood companion Petyr Baelish tells her that the dagger used in the attack belongs to Tyrion Lannister. On her way back to Winterfell, she takes Tyrion to her sister at the Eyrie for trial, where Tyrion escapes execution by demanding and winning a trial by combat. After the news of Eddard's execution by order of King Joffrey reaches Catelyn, she argues for peace, but is overruled by the newly crowned King Robb and his bannermen.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Catelyn advises against Robb's plan to send Eddard's former ward, Theon Greyjoy, to forge an alliance with Balon Greyjoy. Catelyn is sent by Robb to attempt an alliance with Renly Baratheon and his massive Reach-Stormlands host. Catelyn meets Renly at Bitterbridge and follows his host to the ancestral Baratheon seat of Storm's End, where she witnesses first the unsuccessful parley between Renly and his older brother and rival claimant Stannis, and then Renly's subsequent murder later that night by a shadow creature. Afterwards, Catelyn flees with Brienne of Tarth, one of Renly's kingsguard, to Riverrun. Upon hearing of her younger sons' supposed murder at the hands of Theon Greyjoy, Catelyn goes to confront the captive Jaime Lannister. Although the novel ends her storyline ambiguously, it is revealed at the beginning of the third novel that Catelyn set him free and asked Brienne to escort him to King's Landing in an attempt to exchange him for her daughters, who were still captives of Joffrey. This, however, causes problems for Robb and costs him an ally, House Karstark, which had held grudges against the Lannisters.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Catelyn's brother Edmure Tully places Catelyn under house arrest at Riverrun, but Robb pardons her after he announces his wedding to Jeyne Westerling, invalidating his marriage proposal to House Frey. Lord Walder Frey agrees to forgive Robb if Edmure marries his daughter Roslin, and Catelyn travels to the Frey seat of the Twins to attend the wedding with Robb and other northern lords. However, Walder Frey and his men take revenge on Robb for his slight on their house by slaughtering the northern host, an act of treachery that became known as the "Red Wedding". In an attempt to save her son's life, Catelyn takes Aegon Frey hostage and kills him when Roose Bolton kills Robb regardless, but she still has her throat slashed by Raymund Frey. The Freys then mutilate Robb's corpse, and throw Catelyn's stripped naked corpse into the Green Fork in mockery of House Tully's tradition of river burial.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Three days later, Catelyn's body is washed ashore downstream along with hundreds of other corpses, and a wolf pack led by Arya Stark's stray direwolf Nymeria is drawn to scavenge upon the dead. However, Arya is skinchanging into Nymeria at the time during her sleep, recognizes her mother's body, controls Nymeria to pull it out of the river and guards it against other wolves until the outlaw band Brotherhood Without Banners passes by to repel the wolves. Catelyn is then resurrected by Lord Beric Dondarrion, who sacrifices his life force to revive her in repayment to her husband Eddard's honoring. However, the period of time she spent deceased has caused Catelyn's body to partly decay, disfiguring her looks; furthermore, upon her reanimation she loses most of her previous kind personality, except for her hatred of the Lannisters and the Freys. Catelyn then assumes command of the Brotherhood, and changes their aim to terrorizing anyone related to House Frey and Lannister. Her uncompromising brutality earns her the moniker "Lady Stoneheart".


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Lady Stoneheart has employed Tom of Sevenstreams to be her spy informant during the siege of Riverrun, where the Frey forces are commanded by Walder Frey's grandson and heir, Ryman Frey. Stoneheart's informant Tom acts as a musician, hired by Ryman himself. Tom jokes he will make a song called "Talking to the Fish" about Lord Emmon Frey's speech to the people of Riverrun.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Inside a tent where Ryman entertains his whore, Ser Jaime Lannister notices Ryman is in possession of Robb's bronze crown. When dismissing him for disobeying orders, Jaime instructs that the crown remain behind, and Tom gives an alibi for staying behind. Off-page, Tom then returns Robb's crown to Lady Stoneheart.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Stoneheart and the Brotherhood come across a small party led by Brienne, who informs Stoneheart that she is searching for Sansa at Jaime Lannister's request. Brienne notices Stoneheart has retrieved her son's bronze crown, and when inspecting it, Lady Stoneheart sheds a tear under her hood.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Brienne is named a traitor by Stoneheart because she carries Oathkeeper, a Lannister sword that was forged from Ned Stark's Valyrian steel blade, Ice. Brienne swears that she is still faithful, but Stoneheart insists she must prove it by killing Jaime, whom she believes played a role in the Red Wedding. Stoneheart gives her the ultimatum: sword or noose. Brienne refuses, even when threatened with a hanging. Just before Brienne is to be hanged, she sees the young squire child Podrick Payne choking, along with Hyle Hill, and "shout[s] out a word" to intervene.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Stoneheart is revealed to have spared Brienne, with the word shouted by Brienne evidently being "sword". Brienne locates Jaime at a camp in Pennytree during the siege of Raventree, claiming she has found Sansa with Sandor Clegane, who are both a day's ride away. The maid of Tarth warns Jaime that if he does not come alone, Catelyn's daughter will die. Jaime agrees and leaves. Later, Jaime is reported to have disappeared for weeks, a sign he has been successfully lured into Stoneheart's trap.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: The book states Ryman informed the brotherhood of Jaime's dismissal of Ryman, allowing the outlaws to ambush and hang Ryman near Fairmarket. However, in Brienne's point-of-view in the fourth book, Tom states "our lady" (Stoneheart) had already gone to Fairmarket, because she "never sleeps". This suggests Lady Stoneheart killed Ryman herself, and now sources differ (as "The World of Ice and Fire" is also written from an in-world maester).


title: Catelyn Stark

text: In a 2018 interview with the Chinese "Esquire", author George RR Martin confirmed that Lady Stoneheart will reappear and have a prominent role in the forthcoming novel. He stated: "In the sixth book, I still continue to write her. She is an important part of the entire book."


title: Catelyn Stark

text: In January 2007 HBO secured the rights to adapt Martin's series for television. Jennifer Ehle was originally cast as Catelyn Stark and filmed her scenes in the unaired pilot until she eventually left for family reasons. Michelle Fairley was then cast in the role, which she played for three seasons. Australian actress Essie Davis, who later went on to portray Lady Crane in the sixth season, also auditioned for the role when the series was being developed.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Catelyn's storyline is abbreviated and has minor differences in the first season. Introduced in the pilot, "Winter is Coming", Catelyn does not encourage Ned to journey south. Unlike her book counterpart, she is worrisome of the command due to the fates of his father, Rickard (Wayne Foskett) and Ned's older brother, Brandon (unseen) when they rode south on the command of the Mad King, Aerys Targaryen II (David Rintoul). She also does not seem as encouraged to promote Sansa as a suitable match to be Robert's son and heir, Joffrey Baratheon (Jack Gleeson)'s future queen consort.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: The first season also excludes Catelyn's extended family from "A Game of Thrones" (1996), with the exception of Lysa Arryn (Kate Dickie) and Catelyn's nephew, Robin (renamed from the novels; portrayed by Lino Facioli). Catelyn's suspicion towards the Lannisters is motivated by a shred of blonde hair found where Bran fell from the tower, indicating the Lannisters' involvement (rather than Jaime refusing to join the hunt the next day). Additionally, Catelyn confronts Jaime Lannister (Nikolaj Coster-Waldau) for throwing Bran from the tower by the end of the first season. Meanwhile, in the novels, Catelyn has gradually come to this belief over time in the first two novels, before Jaime admits it in his drunken state by the end of the second novel.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Another difference is Catelyn's travel journeys. Her journey passing the Bloody Gate to meet Blackfish and later ascending the Gates of the Moon and meeting King Robert's bastard daughter, Mya Stone (who is also excluded from the television series) is unseen.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: In the second season, some of Catelyn's political decisions and discoveries are given to other characters. Her son Robb (Richard Madden) commands Rodrik Cassel (Ron Donachie) to go to Winterfell to serve as castellan. This is a change from the novels where Catelyn gave the order in the first book, following his injuries at the Vale, which was also removed from the television series. Catelyn's realization of Stannis' part in killing Renly is given to Brienne of Tarth (Gwendoline Christie), who is also aged up for the television series.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: A major difference is Catelyn's motivation for freeing Jaime Lannister book-to-screen. This event occurs on television in the episode "A Man Without Honor". In the second novel "A Clash of Kings", Robb and Catelyn are informed that Bran and Rickon died, so Catelyn frees Jaime out of motherly grief for her still-living hostage daughters.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: In the television series, however, Bran and Rickon's fates are left unknown (but it is later eventually believed the boys died by "Dark Wings, Dark Words", the second episode of the third season, long after Catelyn frees Jaime). Instead, in the television series, Rickard Karstark (John Stahl) wants to kill Jaime out of revenge for his secondborn son Torrhen's death, and Catelyn sneaks Jaime out in the night to prevent a valuable hostage from dying. She reserves this information from Robb to maintain the Karstark alliance with the northern crown. As a result, Robb fulfils Edmure's role in keeping Catelyn under house arrest until the war ends.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: There is a difference in Catelyn's locale. She is at Riverrun to receive Ned's bones by silent sisters, whereas Petyr Baelish (Aiden Gillen) delivers them in the Stormlands shortly after her envoy mission to negotiate with the feuding Baratheon king-brothers, Renly and Stannis (Stephen Dillane). Similarly, she reunites with Robb while he is in the Westerlands to "accept the surrender" of the Crag, and meets his future wife, Talisa Maegyr of Volantis (Oona Chaplin), rather than discovering Robb's marriage later (to a different character in the novels).


title: Catelyn Stark

text: The episode "Dark Wings, Dark Words" shows Robb and Catelyn receive seemingly definitive proof Bran and Rickon are dead. The timeframe, long after Jaime is released in the television series, is a major difference to the motivations that lead to Robb marrying his wife and Catelyn freeing Jaime. The third season also introduces Catelyn's other family members, Edmure (portrayed by Tobias Menzies) and the Blackfish (portrayed by Clive Russell), who previously appeared in the first two novels, but were absent from the show's first two seasons.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: A major difference includes Catelyn's feelings towards Jon Snow (portrayed by Kit Harington) prior to her death. In the third novel "A Storm of Swords", Catelyn objects to her son King Robb's intention to legitimize Jon and name him heir. She raises a point that Robb trusting Jon is not enough, stating children or grandchildren may rise up against Robb's own children or grandchildren, and remarks the histories of the Blackfyre rebellion against the Targaryen crown.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: However, in the show, Catelyn blames her lack of maternal love for Jon on the reason for her family's tragedies and downfall. The television series reduces Catelyn's fears of Jon as pure jealousy for his mother, rather than the other more complex reasoning in the novels, an attempt to maintain future dynastic peace.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: During the television adaptation of the Red Wedding, Catelyn kills Walder (David Bradley)'s wife, Joyeuse Erenford (Kelly Long). This is a change from the novels where she kills Lord Walder Frey's dimwitted grandson Jinglebell that she mistakes for a son, on the offer of "a son for a son". After Robb dies in the television series, Catelyn goes catatonic, and the Freys seemingly had no intention to keep her alive, with one slashing her throat. Whereas in the novels, it is Catelyn's face-clawing and laughter which points towards her insanity that leads to whispers of suggesting a mercy killing before she is finally killed.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: In the fourth season opener "Two Swords", Sansa (Sophie Turner) mentions Catelyn's body was thrown in the river. This is identical to the novels, as both showcase a mockery of Tully funeral customs.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: However, the aftermath is drastically changed from book to screen. Following the fourth season finale episode, "The Children", many fans expressed disappointment that Catelyn's resurrection as Lady Stoneheart was not included. In the novels, Arya's direwolf Nymeria retrieves her corpse from the Green Fork, and runs away when humans approach. It is later revealed the Brotherhood without Banners found her corpse, and Beric Dondarrion, a six-times resurrected man, gives her the kiss of life, passing on his power to her.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: On the idea of portraying Stoneheart, Fairley joked in a 2013 interview: "I'm completely insane, so it mightn't be too much of an acting stretch!" She elaborated further on the possibility stating:


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Neither showrunners explained the absence, but director Alex Graves explained in 2014 that they were "not sure" about what to "do about it" during production of the previous third season released in 2013. Then he revealed there was no plans for the fourth season, if ever. He also admitted that he was unsure of her purpose, while admitting he had not read the novels:


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss claimed they'd purposely left her out to avoid spoiling "The Winds of Winter" and to minimize character resurrections in the series, despite arguments to keep her from author George RR Martin.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: In the episode "Hardhome", the television adapted version of Arya does not choose the name Cat of the Canals, a secret tribute to her mother, when she poses as an orphan selling oysters. Instead, "Lana" is the name chosen.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: In the episode "No One", Beric Dondarrion (Richard Dormer) is re-introduced following his last appearance in the third season. Being evidently still alive, Beric's appearance negated much of the remaining fan speculation of a potential, delayed entrance for Lady Stoneheart. Actor Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson was also cast as Lem for the episode, an ode to one of Stoneheart's henchmen, Lem Lemoncloak from the novels, and was quickly killed off. Following demand from fans of the novels, the actor agreed to videotape the monologue from the epilogue of "A Storm of Swords" where he delivers the speech of Meritt Frey's execution by the command of his leader, Lady Stoneheart.


title: Catelyn Stark

text: Fairley's performance has received critical acclaim. The closing scene of "Cripples, Bastards, and Broken Things" was praised by HitFix's Alan Sepinwall, highlighting Michelle Fairley's acting as Catelyn gathers allies to arrest Tyrion. "Time" wrote about "The Rains of Castamere": "Michelle Fairley’s fantastic performance captures the horror, with the edge of desperation, anguish, and madness of a woman who has lost her sons (she believes all of them), lost her grandchild, may have lost her daughters, and for all she knows, is witnessing the extinction of the house she belongs to."


title: Chiptune

text: Chiptune, also known as chip music or 8-bit music, is a style of synthesized electronic music made using the programmable sound generator (PSG) sound chips or synthesizers in vintage arcade machines, computers and video game consoles.


title: Chiptune

text: The term is commonly used to refer to tracker format music which intentionally sounds similar to older PSG-created music (this is the original meaning of the term), as well as music that combines PSG sounds with modern musical styles.


title: Chiptune

text: It has been described as "an interpretation of many genres" since any existing song can be arranged in a chiptune style defined more by choice of instrument and timbre than specific style elements.


title: Chiptune

text: A waveform generator is a fundamental module in a sound synthesis system. A waveform generator usually produces a basic geometrical waveform with a fixed or variable timbre and variable pitch. Common waveform generator configurations usually included two or three simple waveforms and often a single pseudo-random-noise generator (PRNG). Available waveforms often included pulse wave (whose timbre can be varied by modifying the duty cycle), square wave (a symmetrical pulse wave producing only odd overtones), triangle wave (which has a fixed timbre containing only odd harmonics, but is softer than a square wave), and sawtooth wave (which has a bright raspy timbre and contains odd and even harmonics). Two notable examples of systems employing this technology were the Nintendo Game Boy portable game console and the Commodore 64 personal computer. The Game Boy uses two pulse channels (switchable between 12.5%, 25%, 50% and 75% wave duty cycle), a channel for 4-bit pulse-code modulation (PCM) playback, and a pseudo-random-noise generator. The Commodore 64, however, used the MOS Technology SID chip which offered 3 channels, each switchable between pulse, saw-tooth, triangle, and noise. Unlike the Game Boy, the pulse channels on the Commodore 64 allowed full control over wave duty cycles. The SID was a very technically advanced chip, offering many other features including ring modulation and adjustable resonance filters.


title: Chiptune

text: Due to limited number of voices in those primitive chips, one of the main challenges is to produce rich polyphonic music with them. The usual method to emulate it is via quick arpeggios, which is one of the most relevant features of chiptune music (along, of course, with its electronic timbres).


title: Chiptune

text: Some older systems featured a simple beeper as their only sound output, as the original ZX Spectrum and IBM PC; despite this, many skilled programmers were able to produce unexpectedly rich music with this bare hardware, where the sound is fully generated by the system's CPU by direct control of the beeper.


title: Chiptune

text: The earliest precursors to chip music can be found in the early history of computer music. In 1951, the computers CSIRAC and Ferranti Mark 1 were used to perform real-time synthesized digital music in public.


title: Chiptune

text: One of the earliest commercial computer music albums came from the First Philadelphia Computer Music Festival, held August 25, 1978, as part of the Personal Computing '78 show. The First Philadelphia Computer Music Festival recordings were published by Creative Computing in 1979.


title: Chiptune

text: By the early 1980s, personal computers had become less expensive and more accessible than they had been previously. This led to a proliferation of outdated personal computers and game consoles that had been abandoned by consumers as they upgraded to newer machines. They were in low demand by consumers as a whole, and thus were not difficult to find, making them a highly accessible and affordable method of creating sound or art. While it has been a mostly underground genre, chiptune has had periods of moderate popularity in the 1980s and 21st century, and has influenced the development of electronic dance music.


title: Chiptune

text: Chiptune music began to appear with the video game music produced during the golden age of video arcade games. An early example was the opening tune in Tomohiro Nishikado's arcade game "Gun Fight" (1975). The first video game to use a continuous background soundtrack was Tomohiro Nishikado's 1978 release "Space Invaders", which had four simple chromatic descending bass notes repeating in a loop, though it was dynamic and interacted with the player, increasing pace as the enemies descended on the player.


title: Chiptune

text: The first video game to feature continuous melodic background music was "Rally-X", an arcade game released by Namco in 1980, featuring a simple tune that repeats continuously during gameplay.


title: Chiptune

text: It was also one of the earliest games to use a digital-to-analog converter to produce sampled sounds.


title: Chiptune

text: That same year, the first video game to feature speech synthesis was also released, Sunsoft's shoot 'em up arcade game "Stratovox".


title: Chiptune

text: In the late 1970s, the pioneering synthpop/electronic dance music group Yellow Magic Orchestra (YMO) were using computers to produce synthesized music.


title: Chiptune

text: Some of their early music, including their 1978 self-titled debut album, were sampling sounds from popular arcade games such as "Space Invaders" and "Gun Fight". In addition to incorporating sounds from contemporary video games into their music, the band would later have a major influence on much of the video game and chiptune music produced during the 8-bit and 16-bit eras.


title: Chiptune

text: Sega's 1982 arcade game "Super Locomotive", for example, featured a chiptune cover version of YMO's "Rydeen" (1979); several later computer games also covered the song, such as "Trooper Truck" (1983) by Rabbit Software as well as "Daley Thompson's Decathlon" (1984) and "Stryker's Run" (1986) arranged by Martin Galway.


title: Chiptune

text: By 1983, Konami's arcade game "Gyruss" utilized five sound chips along with a digital-to-analog converter, which were partly used to create an electronic rendition of J. S. Bach's "Toccata and Fugue in D minor".


title: Chiptune

text: In 1984, former YMO member Haruomi Hosono released an album produced entirely from Namco arcade game samples entitled "Video Game Music", an early example of a chiptune record


title: Chiptune

text: The record featured the work of Namco's chiptune composers: Toshio Kai ("Pac-Man" in 1980), Nobuyuki Ohnogi ("Galaga", "New Rally-X" and "Bosconian" in 1981, and "Pole Position" in 1982), and Yuriko Keino ("Dig Dug" and "Xevious" in 1982).


title: Chiptune

text: A major advance for chip music was the introduction of frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis), first commercially released by Yamaha for their digital synthesizers and FM sound chips, which began appearing in arcade machines from the early 1980s.


title: Chiptune

text: Arcade game composers utilizing FM synthesis at the time included Konami's Miki Higashino ("Gradius", "Yie-Ar Kung Fu", "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles") and Sega's Hiroshi Kawaguchi ("Space Harrier", "Hang-On", "Out Run").


title: Chiptune

text: By the early 1980s, significant improvements to personal computer game music were made possible with the introduction of digital FM synthesis sound. Yamaha began manufacturing FM synth boards for Japanese computers such as the NEC PC-8801 and PC-9801 in the early 1980s, and by the mid-1980s, the PC-8801 and FM-7 had built-in FM sound. This allowed computer game music to have greater complexity than the simplistic beeps from internal speakers. These FM synth boards produced a "warm and pleasant sound" that musicians such as Yuzo Koshiro and Takeshi Abo utilized to produce music that is still highly regarded within the chiptune community.


title: Chiptune

text: In the early 1980s, Japanese personal computers such as the NEC PC-88 and PC-98 featured audio programming languages such as Music Macro Language (MML) and MIDI interfaces, which were most often used to produce video game music.


title: Chiptune

text: Fujitsu also released the "FM Sound Editor" software for the FM-7 in 1985, providing users with a user-friendly interface to create and edit synthesized music.


title: Chiptune

text: In 1987, FM synthesis became available for Western computers when Canadian company Ad Lib released the AdLib Music Synthesizer Card for the IBM Personal Computer, while Singapore-based Creative Labs incorporated the AdLib card's sound chip into its Sound Blaster card in 1989. Both cards were widely supported by MS-DOS game developers in the late 1980s and early 1990s.


title: Chiptune

text: The widespread adoption of FM synthesis by consoles would later be one of the major advances of the 16-bit era, by which time 16-bit arcade machines were using multiple FM synthesis chips. A major chiptune composer during this period was Yuzo Koshiro.


title: Chiptune

text: Despite later advances in audio technology, he would continue to use older PC-8801 hardware to produce chiptune soundtracks for series such as "Streets of Rage" (1991–1994) and "Etrian Odyssey" (2007–present). His soundtrack to "The Revenge of Shinobi" (1989) featured house


title: Chiptune

text: and progressive techno compositions that fused electronic dance music with traditional Japanese music.


title: Chiptune

text: The soundtrack for "Streets of Rage 2" (1992) is considered "revolutionary" and "ahead of its time" for its "blend of swaggering house synths, dirty electro-funk and trancey electronic textures that would feel as comfortable in a nightclub as a video game."


title: Chiptune

text: For the soundtrack to "Streets of Rage 3" (1994), Koshiro created a new composition method called the "Automated Composing System" to produce "fast-beat techno like jungle",


title: Chiptune

text: Koshiro also composed chiptune soundtracks for series such as "Dragon Slayer", "Ys", "Shinobi", and "ActRaiser". Another important FM synth composer was the late Ryu Umemoto, who composed chiptune soundtracks for various visual novel and shoot 'em up games.


title: Chiptune

text: Later on, several demo groups moved to using their own music instead of ripped game music. In 1986, Jeroen "Red" Kimmel studied Rob Hubbard's player routine and used it for original demo songs


title: Chiptune

text: before writing a routine of his own in 1987. Hobbyists were also writing their own dedicated music editor software, such as Chris Hülsbeck's "Soundmonitor" which was released as a type-in listing in a 1986 issue of the German C-64 magazine "64'er".