title: Bunker

text: Nuclear bunkers must also cope with the underpressure that lasts for several seconds after the shock wave passes, and block radiation. Usually these features are easy to provide. The overburden (soil) and structure provide substantial radiation shielding, and the negative pressure is usually only 1/3 of the overpressure.


title: Bunker

text: The doors must be at least as strong as the walls. The usual design is now starting to incorporate vault doors. To reduce the weight, the door is normally constructed of steel, with a fitted steel lintel and frame. Very thick wood also serves, and is more resistant to heat because it chars rather than melts. If the door is on the surface and will be exposed to the blast wave, the edge of the door is normally counter-sunk in the frame so that the blast wave or a reflection cannot lift the edge. A bunker should have two doors. Door shafts may double as ventilation shafts to reduce digging.


title: Bunker

text: In bunkers inhabited for prolonged periods, large amounts of ventilation or air conditioning must be provided in order to prevent ill effects of heat. In bunkers designed for war-time use, manually operated ventilators must be provided because supplies of electricity or gas are unreliable. One of the most efficient manual ventilator designs is the Kearny Air Pump. Ventilation openings in a bunker must be protected by blast valves. A blast valve is closed by a shock wave, but otherwise remains open. One form of expedient blast valve is worn flat rubber tire treads nailed or bolted to frames strong enough to resist the maximum overpressure.


title: Bunker

text: Bunkers can be destroyed with powerful explosives and bunkerbusting warheads. The crew of a pillbox can be killed with flamethrowers. Complex, well-built and well-protected fortifications are often vulnerable to attacks on access points. If the exits to the surface can be closed off, those manning the facility can be trapped. The fortification can then be bypassed.


title: Bunker

text: Famous bunkers include the post-World War I Maginot Line on the French eastern border and Czechoslovak border fortifications mainly on the northern Czech border facing Germany (but to lesser extent all around), Fort Eben-Emael in Belgium, Alpine Wall on the north of Italy, World War II Führerbunker and in Italy, industrial Marnate's Bunker, the V-weapon installations in Germany (Mittelwerk) & France (La Coupole, and the Blockhaus d'Éperlecques) and the Cold War installations in the United States (Cheyenne Mountain Complex, Site R, and The Greenbrier), United Kingdom (Burlington), Sweden (Boden Fortress) and Canada (Diefenbunker). In Switzerland, there is an unusually large number of bunkers because of a law requiring protective shelters to be constructed for all new buildings since 1963, as well as a number of bunkers built as part of its National Redoubt military defense plan. Some of Switzerland's bunkers have since become tourist attractions housing hotels and museums such as Sasso San Gottardo Museum.


title: Bunker

text: The Soviet Union maintained huge bunkers (one of the secondary uses of the very deeply dug Moscow Metro and Kyiv metro systems was as nuclear shelters). A number of facilities were constructed in China, such as Beijing's Underground City and Underground Project 131 in Hubei; in Albania, Enver Hoxha dotted the country with hundreds of thousands of bunkers. In the United States, the Presidential Emergency Operations Center underneath the East Wing of the White House serves as a secure shelter and communications center for the President of the United States in case of an emergency.


title: Sean Biggerstaff

text: Sean Biggerstaff (born 15 March 1983) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for playing Oliver Wood in the "Harry Potter" film series, appearing in "Philosopher's Stone" (2001), "Chamber of Secrets" (2002), and "Deathly Hallows – Part 2" (2011).


title: Sean Biggerstaff

text: Biggerstaff began acting as a child actor at the age of five and made his screen debut in the television miniseries "The Crow Road" (1996). He won a BAFTA Scotland Award for playing Jeremy Wolfenden in the television film "Consenting Adults" (2007). He also appeared in the feature films "Cashback" (2006) and "Mary Queen of Scots" (2013).


title: Sean Biggerstaff

text: Biggerstaff was born in Glasgow, Scotland, growing up with his parents in Maryhill. He went to Parkview Primary School in Summerston and joined the local drama group, the Maryhill Youth Theatre, when he was seven.


title: Sean Biggerstaff

text: Biggerstaff gained his first professional acting role at ten, playing the son of MacDuff in a Michael Boyd production of "Macbeth" at the Tron Theatre, Glasgow. He then joined the Scottish Youth Theatre and spent six years with the group. In 1996, at the age of 13, Biggerstaff secured his first major TV role, playing Young Darren in the BBC production of "The Crow Road". At 14, he was cast by future fellow "Harry Potter" actor Alan Rickman in his new movie, "The Winter Guest", as Tom, a mischievous schoolboy. In a 2002 interview, Biggerstaff recalled: "It was while at the Scottish Youth Theatre that I was chosen for The Winter Guest. Alan Rickman (known to most of the kids as "the bad guy from "Die Hard"") popped along one day looking for two boys to accompany him to the coldest place on Earth, Fife, for two months to make a film. Myself and the suspicious character that is Douglas Murphy were the lucky ones."


title: Sean Biggerstaff

text: Rickman later recommended Biggerstaff to the London acting agency International Creative Management and Paul Lyon-Maris. Within a week, the "Harry Potter" castings were being distributed. During auditions, the directors suggested that Biggerstaff consider the part of Oliver Wood, and he played the role in the first two films, returning for a brief appearance in "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2".


title: Sean Biggerstaff

text: Biggerstaff's career since the first two "Harry Potter" films has included playing Henry, Duke of Gloucester in the 2004 television mini-series ""; Matt in the world premiere of Sharman MacDonald's stage play "The Girl With Red Hair"; and Ben Willis in the short film "Cashback" for which extra scenes were recorded, and the piece was adapted into a feature released in 2006.


title: Sean Biggerstaff

text: In 2007, Biggerstaff played Jeremy Wolfenden in the BBC 4 television film "Consenting Adults" which was nominated for BAFTA Scotland's Best Drama Award on 18 November 2007, and won him the BAFTA Scotland's Award for Best Actor – Television. He appeared in the film "Hippie Hippie Shake". and appeared in "Whisky Galore!" (2016) with Gillies MacKinnon and Eddie Izzard.


title: Sean Biggerstaff

text: In 2016, Biggerstaff played the lead role in French-Canadian Catherine-Anne Toupin's "Right Now", a translation by Chris Campbell of "À présent", directed by Michael Boyd, which was critically and commercially well received in Bath, London, and Edinburgh.


title: Sean Biggerstaff

text: In 2017, it was announced that he would star opposite Georgia Tennant in the Big Finish audio series "Jenny: The Doctor's Daughter", taking the role of Noah.


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: Bessel van der Kolk (born 1943) is a psychiatrist, author, researcher and educator based in Boston, United States. Since the 1970s his research has been in the area of post-traumatic stress. He is the author of "The New York Times" best seller, "The Body Keeps the Score". Van der Kolk formerly served as president of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, and is a former co-director of the National Child Traumatic Stress Network. He is a professor of Psychiatry at Boston University School of Medicine and president of the Trauma Research Foundation in Brookline, Massachusetts.


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: Van der Kolk has published over 150 peer reviewed scientific articles. His books include "Post-traumatic Stress Disorder" (1984), "Psychological Trauma" (1987), "Traumatic Stress" (1996, with Alexander C. McFarlane and Lars Weisæth) and "The Body Keeps the Score" (2014).


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: He studied a pre-medical curriculum with a political science major at the University of Hawaii in 1965. He gained his M.D. at the Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Chicago, in 1970, and completed his psychiatric residency at the Massachusetts Mental Health Center, Harvard Medical School, in 1974.


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: After his training, he worked as a director of Boston State Hospital and then became a staff psychiatrist at the Boston Veterans Administration Outpatient Clinic, where he acquired his interest in studying traumatic stress.


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: Van der Kolk started the Trauma Center in Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1982 when he was working as a junior faculty member at Harvard Medical School. Since then, he has conducted numerous training programs and clinical trials. He did extensive studies on the nature of traumatic memory, and he took a leading role in the first studies on the psychopharmacological treatments of PTSD. He conducted some of the first studies on the biological substrates of PTSD and on stress-induced analgesia. He was involved in the first neuroimaging studies of PTSD and of Dissociative Identity Disorder, and he received the first grants from the National Institutes of Health to study EMDR and yoga.


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: He has a particular interest in developmental psychopathology, studying how trauma has a differential effect, depending on developmental stage and the security of the attachment system, and he coined the term "Developmental Trauma Disorder" for the complex range of psychological and biological reactions to trauma over the course of human development.


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: In 1999 he initiated the creation of the National Child Traumatic Stress Network, which by 2019 had grown in to a network of 150 sites specializing in treating traumatized children and their families around the US. He has advocated innovative treatments for traumatic stress in children and adults, such as trauma-sensitive yoga, embodied therapies, neurofeedback, and psychedelic therapies.


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: Since 1989, he has been course director of the annual Boston International Trauma Conference, which brings together leading scientists and clinicians specializing in trauma, developmental psychopathology, attachment studies, body-oriented therapies, theater and expressive arts.


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: In 2017, van der Kolk was terminated from the parent organization of the Trauma Center, Justice Resource Institute, due to allegations of creating a hostile environment that allowed van der Kolk, then executive director of the Trauma Center, to engage in abusive practices. Van der Kolk stated that the termination was an attempt by the Justice Resource Institute to mitigate its own legal responsibility for the alleged misconduct. The executive team of the Trauma Center unanimously protested this termination, and all senior members of the Trauma Center resigned. Van der Kolk filed a lawsuit against the Justice Resource Institute for several counts of action including misrepresentation and defamation. The suit was settled quickly out of court. In 2020, the Trauma Center at the Justice Resource Institute closed permanently.


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: In May 2018, van der Kolk used the funds won in his settlement with the Justice Resource Institute to found the Trauma Research Foundation.


title: Bessel van der Kolk

text: Van der Kolk teaches within the United States and internationally, having taught all over Europe as well as in China, Japan, Australia, Indonesia, India, New Zealand, Egypt, Israel, the UAE, Turkey and South Africa.


title: Personal data

text: Personal data, also known as personal information or personally identifiable information (PII), is any information related to an identifiable person.


title: Personal data

text: The abbreviation PII is widely accepted in the United States, but the phrase it abbreviates has four common variants based on "personal" or "personally", and "identifiable" or "identifying". Not all are equivalent, and for legal purposes the effective definitions vary depending on the jurisdiction and the purposes for which the term is being used. Under European and other data protection regimes, which centre primarily on the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), the term "personal data" is significantly broader, and determines the scope of the regulatory regime.


title: Personal data

text: National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 800-122 defines personally identifiable information as "any information about an individual maintained by an agency, including (1) any information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual's identity, such as name, social security number, date and place of birth, mother's maiden name, or biometric records; and (2) any other information that is linked or linkable to an individual, such as medical, educational, financial, and employment information." For instance, a user's IP address is not classed as PII on its own, but is classified as a linked PII.


title: Personal data

text: Personal data is defined under the GDPR as "any information which [is] related to an identified or identifiable natural person". The IP address of an Internet subscriber may be classes as personal data.


title: Personal data

text: The concept of PII has become prevalent as information technology and the Internet have made it easier to collect PII leading to a profitable market in collecting and reselling PII. PII can also be exploited by criminals to stalk or steal the identity of a person, or to aid in the planning of criminal acts. As a response to these threats, many website privacy policies specifically address the gathering of PII, and lawmakers such as the European Parliament have enacted a series of legislation such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) to limit the distribution and accessibility of PII.


title: Personal data

text: Important confusion arises around whether PII means information which is identifiable (that is, can be associated with a person) or identifying (that is, associated uniquely with a person, such that the PII "identifies" them). In prescriptive data privacy regimes such as HIPAA, PII items have been specifically defined. In broader data protection regimes such as the GDPR, personal data is defined in a non-prescriptive principles-based way. Information that might not count as PII under HIPAA can be personal data for the purposes of GDPR. For this reason, "PII" is typically deprecated internationally.


title: Personal data

text: The U.S. government used the term "personally identifiable" in 2007 in a memorandum from the Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and that usage now appears in US standards such as the NIST "Guide to Protecting the Confidentiality of Personally Identifiable Information" (SP 800-122). The OMB memorandum defines PII as follows:


title: Personal data

text: A term similar to PII, "personal data" is defined in EU directive 95/46/EC, for the purposes of the directive:


title: Personal data

text: In the EU rules, there has been a more specific notion that the data subject can potentially be identified through additional processing of other attributes—quasi- or pseudo-identifiers. In the GDPR Personal Data is defined as:


title: Personal data

text: A simple example of this distinction: the color name "red" by itself is "not" personal data, but that same value stored as part of a person's record as their "favorite color" "is" personal data; it's the connection to the person that makes it personal data, not (as in PII) the value itself.


title: Personal data

text: Another term similar to PII, "personal information" is defined in a section of the California data breach notification law, SB1386:


title: Personal data

text: The concept of information combination given in the SB1386 definition is key to correctly distinguishing PII, as defined by OMB, from "personal information", as defined by SB1386. Information, such as a name, that lacks context cannot be said to be SB1386 "personal information", but it must be said to be PII as defined by OMB. For example, the name John Smith has no meaning in the current context and is therefore not SB1386 "personal information", but it is PII. A Social Security Number (SSN) without a name or some other associated identity or context information is not SB1386 "personal information", but it is PII. For example, the SSN 078-05-1120 by itself is PII, but it is not SB1386 "personal information". However the combination of a valid name with the correct SSN is SB1386 "personal information".


title: Personal data

text: The combination of a name with a context may also be considered PII; for example, if a person's name is on a list of patients for an HIV clinic. However, it is not necessary for the name to be combined with a context in order for it to be PII. The reason for this distinction is that bits of information such as names, although they may not be sufficient by themselves to make an identification, may later be combined with other information to identify persons and expose them to harm.


title: Personal data

text: According to the OMB, it is not always the case that PII is "sensitive", and context may be taken into account in deciding whether certain PII is or is not sensitive.


title: Personal data

text: When a person wishes to remain anonymous, descriptions of them will often employ several of the above, such as "a 34-year-old white male who works at Target". Note that information can still be "private", in the sense that a person may not wish for it to become publicly known, without being personally identifiable. Moreover, sometimes multiple pieces of information, none sufficient by itself to uniquely identify an individual, may uniquely identify a person when combined; this is one reason that multiple pieces of evidence are usually presented at criminal trials. It has been shown that, in 1990, 87% of the population of the United States could be uniquely identified by gender, ZIP code, and full date of birth.


title: Personal data

text: In hacker and Internet slang, the practice of finding and releasing such information is called "doxing". It is sometimes used to deter collaboration with law enforcement. On occasion, the doxing can trigger an arrest, particularly if law enforcement agencies suspect that the "doxed" individual may panic and disappear.


title: Personal data

text: In Australia, the Privacy Act 1988 deals with the protection of individual privacy, using the OECD Privacy Principles from the 1980s to set up a broad, principles-based regulatory model (unlike in the US, where coverage is generally not based on broad principles but on specific technologies, business practices or data items). Section 6 has the relevant definition. The critical detail is that the definition of 'personal information' also applies to where the individual can be indirectly identified:


title: Personal data

text: It appears that this definition is significantly broader than the Californian example given above, and thus that Australian privacy law may cover a broader category of data and information than in some US law.


title: Personal data

text: In particular, online behavioral advertising businesses based in the US but surreptitiously collecting information from people in other countries in the form of cookies, bugs, trackers and the like may find that their preference to avoid the implications of wanting to build a psychographic profile of a particular person using the rubric of 'we don't collect personal information' may find that this does not make sense under a broader definition like that in the Australian Privacy Act.


title: Personal data

text: European data protection law does not utilize the concept of personally identifiable information, and its scope is instead determined by non-synonymous, wider concept of "personal data".


title: Personal data

text: The Federal Act on Data Protection of 19 June 1992 (in force since 1993) has set up a protection of privacy by prohibiting virtually any processing of personal data which is not expressly authorized by the data subjects. The protection is subject to the authority of the Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner.


title: Personal data

text: Additionally, any person may ask in writing a company (managing data files) the correction or deletion of any personal data. The company must respond within thirty days.


title: Personal data

text: The Privacy Act of 1974 (Pub.L. 93–579, 88 Stat. 1896, enacted 31 December 1974, 5 U.S.C. § 552a), a United States federal law, establishes a Code of Fair Information Practice that governs the collection, maintenance, use, and dissemination of personally identifiable information about individuals that is maintained in systems of records by federal agencies.


title: Personal data

text: One of the primary focuses of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), is to protect a patient's Protected Health Information (PHI), which is similar to PII. The U.S. Senate proposed the Privacy Act of 2005, which attempted to strictly limit the display, purchase, or sale of PII without the person's consent. Similarly, the (proposed) Anti-Phishing Act of 2005 attempted to prevent the acquiring of PII through phishing.


title: Personal data

text: U.S. lawmakers have paid special attention to the social security number because it can be easily used to commit identity theft. The (proposed) Social Security Number Protection Act of 2005 and (proposed) Identity Theft Prevention Act of 2005 each sought to limit the distribution of an individual's social security number.


title: Personal data

text: Additional U.S. specific personally identifiable information includes, but is not limited to, I-94 Records, Medicaid ID Numbers, Internal Revenue Services (I.R.S.) documentation. Exclusivity of personally identifiable information affiliated with the U.S. highlights national data security concerns and the influence of personally identifiable information in U.S. federal data management systems.


title: Personal data

text: The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a physical sciences laboratory, and a non-regulatory agency of the United States Department of Commerce. Its mission is to promote innovation and industrial competitiveness.


title: Personal data

text: The following data, often used for the express purpose of distinguishing individual identity, clearly classify as personally identifiable information under the definition used by the NIST (described in detail below):


title: Personal data

text: The following are less often used to distinguish individual identity, because they are traits shared by many people. However, they are potentially PII, because they may be combined with other personal information to identify an individual.


title: Personal data

text: In forensics, particularly the identification and prosecution of criminals, personally identifiable information is critical in establishing evidence in criminal procedure. Criminals may go to great trouble to avoid leaving any PII, such as by:


title: Personal data

text: Personal data is a key component of online identity and can be exploited by individuals. For instance, data can be altered and used to create fake documents, hijack mail boxes and phone calls or harass people, such as in the data breach from the EE Limited company.


title: Personal data

text: Another key case can be referred to as Financial Identity Theft, which usually entails bank account and credit card information being stolen, and then being used or sold.


title: Personal data

text: Personal data can also be used to create fake online identity, including fake accounts and profiles (that can be referred as Identity Cloning or Identity Fraud) for celebrities to gather data from other users more easily. Even individuals can be concerned, especially for personal purpose (this is more widely known as sockpuppetry).


title: Personal data

text: The most critical information, such as one's password, date of birth, ID documents or Social Insurance Number, can be used to log in to different websites (See Password reuse and Account verification) to gather more information and access more content.


title: Personal data

text: Also, several agencies ask for discretion on subject related to their work, for the safety of their employees. For this reason, the United States Department of Defense (DoD) has strict policies controlling release of personally identifiable information of DoD personnel. Many intelligence agencies have similar policies, sometimes to the point where employees do not disclose to their friends that they work for the agency.


title: Personal data

text: Similar identity protection concerns exist for witness protection programs, women's shelters, and victims of domestic violence and other threats.


title: Personal data

text: During the second half of the 20th century, the digital revolution introduced "privacy economics", or the trade of personal data. The value of data can change over time and over different contexts. Disclosing data can reverse information asymmetry, though the costs of doing so can be unclear. In relation to companies, consumers often have "imperfect information regarding when their data is collected, with what purposes, and with what consequences."


title: Personal data

text: Writing in 2015, Alessandro Acquisti, Curtis Taylor and Liad Wagman identified three "waves" in the trade of personal data:


title: Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon? (season 4)

text: "Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon?" is an anime series based on the light novel series created by Fujino Ōmori. The story follows the exploits of Bell Cranel, a 14-year-old solo adventurer under the goddess Hestia.


text: The anime is produced by J.C.Staff. The fourth season of the anime series was announced at GA FES 2021 on January 31, 2021. It features returning staff members from previous seasons, with the addition of Fujino Ōmori, the original author, who will supervise the scripts alongside Hideki Shirane. The fourth season premiered on July 22, 2022. The first half of the season aired in July and concluded on September 29, 2022, with the second half (which titled "DanMachi IV Deep Chapter: Calamity Arc") set to be released on January 5, 2023.


text: The first opening theme for the fourth season is "Tentō" by sajou no hana, and the first ending theme is "Guide" by Saori Hayami. The second opening theme is "Shikō" by Saori Hayami, and the second ending theme is "Kirikizu" by sajou no hana.


title: Vector calculus

text: Vector calculus, or vector analysis, is concerned with differentiation and integration of vector fields, primarily in 3-dimensional Euclidean space formula_1 The term "vector calculus" is sometimes used as a synonym for the broader subject of multivariable calculus, which spans vector calculus as well as partial differentiation and multiple integration. Vector calculus plays an important role in differential geometry and in the study of partial differential equations. It is used extensively in physics and engineering, especially in the description of


title: Vector calculus

text: Vector calculus was developed from quaternion analysis by J. Willard Gibbs and Oliver Heaviside near the end of the 19th century, and most of the notation and terminology was established by Gibbs and Edwin Bidwell Wilson in their 1901 book, "Vector Analysis". In the conventional form using cross products, vector calculus does not generalize to higher dimensions, while the alternative approach of geometric algebra which uses exterior products does (see below for more).


title: Vector calculus

text: A scalar field associates a scalar value to every point in a space. The scalar is a mathematical number representing a physical quantity. Examples of scalar fields in applications include the temperature distribution throughout space, the pressure distribution in a fluid, and spin-zero quantum fields (known as scalar bosons), such as the Higgs field. These fields are the subject of scalar field theory.


title: Vector calculus

text: A vector field is an assignment of a vector to each point in a space. A vector field in the plane, for instance, can be visualized as a collection of arrows with a given magnitude and direction each attached to a point in the plane. Vector fields are often used to model, for example, the speed and direction of a moving fluid throughout space, or the strength and direction of some force, such as the magnetic or gravitational force, as it changes from point to point. This can be used, for example, to calculate work done over a line.


title: Vector calculus

text: In more advanced treatments, one further distinguishes pseudovector fields and pseudoscalar fields, which are identical to vector fields and scalar fields, except that they change sign under an orientation-reversing map: for example, the curl of a vector field is a pseudovector field, and if one reflects a vector field, the curl points in the opposite direction. This distinction is clarified and elaborated in geometric algebra, as described below.


title: Vector calculus

text: The algebraic (non-differential) operations in vector calculus are referred to as vector algebra, being defined for a vector space and then globally applied to a vector field. The basic algebraic operations consist of:


title: Vector calculus

text: Vector calculus studies various differential operators defined on scalar or vector fields, which are typically expressed in terms of the del operator (formula_2), also known as "nabla". The three basic vector operators are:


title: Vector calculus

text: A quantity called the Jacobian matrix is useful for studying functions when both the domain and range of the function are multivariable, such as a change of variables during integration.


title: Vector calculus

text: The three basic vector operators have corresponding theorems which generalize the fundamental theorem of calculus to higher dimensions:


title: Vector calculus

text: Linear approximations are used to replace complicated functions with linear functions that are almost the same. Given a differentiable function with real values, one can approximate for close to by the formula


title: Vector calculus

text: For a continuously differentiable function of several real variables, a point "P" (that is, a set of values for the input variables, which is viewed as a point in R) is critical if all of the partial derivatives of the function are zero at "P", or, equivalently, if its gradient is zero. The critical values are the values of the function at the critical points.


title: Vector calculus

text: If the function is smooth, or, at least twice continuously differentiable, a critical point may be either a local maximum, a local minimum or a saddle point. The different cases may be distinguished by considering the eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix of second derivatives.


title: Vector calculus

text: By Fermat's theorem, all local maxima and minima of a differentiable function occur at critical points. Therefore, to find the local maxima and minima, it suffices, theoretically, to compute the zeros of the gradient and the eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix at these zeros.


title: Vector calculus

text: Vector calculus is initially defined for Euclidean 3-space, formula_4 which has additional structure beyond simply being a 3-dimensional real vector space, namely: a norm (giving a notion of length) defined via an inner product (the dot product), which in turn gives a notion of angle, and an orientation, which gives a notion of left-handed and right-handed. These structures give rise to a volume form, and also the cross product, which is used pervasively in vector calculus.


title: Vector calculus

text: The gradient and divergence require only the inner product, while the curl and the cross product also requires the handedness of the coordinate system to be taken into account (see cross product and handedness for more detail).


title: Vector calculus

text: Vector calculus can be defined on other 3-dimensional real vector spaces if they have an inner product (or more generally a symmetric nondegenerate form) and an orientation; note that this is less data than an isomorphism to Euclidean space, as it does not require a set of coordinates (a frame of reference), which reflects the fact that vector calculus is invariant under rotations (the special orthogonal group SO(3)).


title: Vector calculus

text: More generally, vector calculus can be defined on any 3-dimensional oriented Riemannian manifold, or more generally pseudo-Riemannian manifold. This structure simply means that the tangent space at each point has an inner product (more generally, a symmetric nondegenerate form) and an orientation, or more globally that there is a symmetric nondegenerate metric tensor and an orientation, and works because vector calculus is defined in terms of tangent vectors at each point.


title: Vector calculus

text: Most of the analytic results are easily understood, in a more general form, using the machinery of differential geometry, of which vector calculus forms a subset. Grad and div generalize immediately to other dimensions, as do the gradient theorem, divergence theorem, and Laplacian (yielding harmonic analysis), while curl and cross product do not generalize as directly.


title: Vector calculus

text: From a general point of view, the various fields in (3-dimensional) vector calculus are uniformly seen as being "k"-vector fields: scalar fields are 0-vector fields, vector fields are 1-vector fields, pseudovector fields are 2-vector fields, and pseudoscalar fields are 3-vector fields. In higher dimensions there are additional types of fields (scalar/vector/pseudovector/pseudoscalar corresponding to 0/1/"n"−1/"n" dimensions, which is exhaustive in dimension 3), so one cannot only work with (pseudo)scalars and (pseudo)vectors.


title: Vector calculus

text: In any dimension, assuming a nondegenerate form, grad of a scalar function is a vector field, and div of a vector field is a scalar function, but only in dimension 3 or 7 (and, trivially, in dimension 0 or 1) is the curl of a vector field a vector field, and only in 3 or 7 dimensions can a cross product be defined (generalizations in other dimensionalities either require formula_5 vectors to yield 1 vector, or are alternative Lie algebras, which are more general antisymmetric bilinear products). The generalization of grad and div, and how curl may be generalized is elaborated at Curl: Generalizations; in brief, the curl of a vector field is a bivector field, which may be interpreted as the special orthogonal Lie algebra of infinitesimal rotations; however, this cannot be identified with a vector field because the dimensions differ – there are 3 dimensions of rotations in 3 dimensions, but 6 dimensions of rotations in 4 dimensions (and more generally formula_6 dimensions of rotations in "n" dimensions).


title: Vector calculus

text: There are two important alternative generalizations of vector calculus. The first, geometric algebra, uses "k"-vector fields instead of vector fields (in 3 or fewer dimensions, every "k"-vector field can be identified with a scalar function or vector field, but this is not true in higher dimensions). This replaces the cross product, which is specific to 3 dimensions, taking in two vector fields and giving as output a vector field, with the exterior product, which exists in all dimensions and takes in two vector fields, giving as output a bivector (2-vector) field. This product yields Clifford algebras as the algebraic structure on vector spaces (with an orientation and nondegenerate form). Geometric algebra is mostly used in generalizations of physics and other applied fields to higher dimensions.


title: Vector calculus

text: The second generalization uses differential forms ("k"-covector fields) instead of vector fields or "k"-vector fields, and is widely used in mathematics, particularly in differential geometry, geometric topology, and harmonic analysis, in particular yielding Hodge theory on oriented pseudo-Riemannian manifolds. From this point of view, grad, curl, and div correspond to the exterior derivative of 0-forms, 1-forms, and 2-forms, respectively, and the key theorems of vector calculus are all special cases of the general form of Stokes' theorem.


title: Vector calculus

text: From the point of view of both of these generalizations, vector calculus implicitly identifies mathematically distinct objects, which makes the presentation simpler but the underlying mathematical structure and generalizations less clear.


title: Vector calculus

text: From the point of view of geometric algebra, vector calculus implicitly identifies "k"-vector fields with vector fields or scalar functions: 0-vectors and 3-vectors with scalars, 1-vectors and 2-vectors with vectors. From the point of view of differential forms, vector calculus implicitly identifies "k"-forms with scalar fields or vector fields: 0-forms and 3-forms with scalar fields, 1-forms and 2-forms with vector fields. Thus for example the curl naturally takes as input a vector field or 1-form, but naturally has as output a 2-vector field or 2-form (hence pseudovector field), which is then interpreted as a vector field, rather than directly taking a vector field to a vector field; this is reflected in the curl of a vector field in higher dimensions not having as output a vector field.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting cells (also known as "accessory cells") of the mammalian immune system. Their main function is to process antigen material and present it on the cell surface to the T cells of the immune system. They act as messengers between the innate and the adaptive immune systems.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Dendritic cells are present in those tissues that are in contact with the external environment, such as the skin (where there is a specialized dendritic cell type called the Langerhans cell) and the inner lining of the nose, lungs, stomach and intestines. They can also be found in an immature state in the blood. Once activated, they migrate to the lymph nodes where they interact with T cells and B cells to initiate and shape the adaptive immune response. At certain development stages they grow branched projections, the "dendrites" that give the cell its name (δένδρον or déndron being Greek for 'tree'). While similar in appearance, these are structures distinct from the dendrites of neurons. Immature dendritic cells are also called veiled cells, as they possess large cytoplasmic 'veils' rather than dendrites.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Dendritic cells were first described by Paul Langerhans (hence "Langerhans cells") in the late nineteenth century. The term "dendritic cells" was coined in 1973 by Ralph M. Steinman and Zanvil A. Cohn. For discovering the central role of dendritic cells in the adaptive immune response, Steinman was awarded the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 2007 and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2011.


title: Dendritic cell

text: The morphology of dendritic cells results in a very large surface-to-volume ratio. That is, the dendritic cell has a very large surface area compared to the overall cell volume.


title: Dendritic cell

text: The most common division of dendritic cells is conventional dendritic cells (a.k.a. myeloid dendritic cells) vs. plasmacytoid dendritic cell (most likely of lymphoid lineage) as described in the table below:


title: Dendritic cell

text: Lymphoid and myeloid DCs evolve from lymphoid and myeloid precursors, respectively, and thus are of hematopoietic origin. By contrast, follicular dendritic cells (FDC) are probably of mesenchymal rather than hematopoietic origin and do not express MHC class II, but are so named because they are located in lymphoid follicles and have long "dendritic" processes.


title: Dendritic cell

text: The blood DCs are typically identified and enumerated in flow cytometry. Three types of DCs have been defined in human blood: the CD1c+ myeloid DCs, the CD141+ myeloid DCs and the CD303+ plasmacytoid DCs. This represents the nomenclature proposed by the nomenclature committee of the International Union of Immunological Societies.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Dendritic cells that circulate in blood do not have all the typical features of their counterparts in tissue, i.e. they are less mature and have no dendrites. Still, they can perform complex functions including chemokine-production (in CD1c+ myeloid DCs), cross-presentation (in CD141+ myeloid DCs), and IFNalpha production (in CD303+ plasmacytoid DCs).


title: Dendritic cell

text: In some respects, dendritic cells cultured in vitro do not show the same behaviour or capability as dendritic cells isolated "ex vivo". Nonetheless, they are often used for research as they are still much more readily available than genuine DCs.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Dendritic cells are derived from hematopoietic bone marrow progenitor cells (HSC). These progenitor cells initially transform into immature dendritic cells. These cells are characterized by high endocytic activity and low T-cell activation potential. Immature dendritic cells constantly sample the surrounding environment for pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. This is done through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as the toll-like receptors (TLRs). TLRs recognize specific chemical signatures found on subsets of pathogens. Immature dendritic cells may also phagocytose small quantities of membrane from live own cells, in a process called nibbling. Once they have come into contact with a presentable antigen, they become activated into mature dendritic cells and begin to migrate to a lymph node. Immature dendritic cells phagocytose pathogens and degrade their proteins into small pieces and upon maturation present those fragments at their cell surface using MHC molecules. Simultaneously, they upregulate cell-surface receptors that act as co-receptors in T-cell activation such as CD80 (B7.1), CD86 (B7.2), and CD40 greatly enhancing their ability to activate T-cells. They also upregulate CCR7, a chemotactic receptor that induces the dendritic cell to travel through the blood stream to the spleen or through the lymphatic system to a lymph node. Here they act as antigen-presenting cells: they activate helper T-cells and killer T-cells as well as B-cells by presenting them with antigens derived from the pathogen, alongside non-antigen specific costimulatory signals. Dendritic cells can also induce T-cell tolerance (unresponsiveness). Certain C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) on the surface of dendritic cells, some functioning as PRRs, help instruct dendritic cells as to when it is appropriate to induce immune tolerance rather than lymphocyte activation.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Every helper T-cell is specific to one particular antigen. Only professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs: macrophages, B lymphocytes, and dendritic cells) are able to activate a resting helper T-cell when the matching antigen is presented. However, in non-lymphoid organs, macrophages and B cells can only activate memory T cells whereas dendritic cells can activate both memory and naive T cells, and are the most potent of all the antigen-presenting cells. In the lymph node and secondary lymphoid organs, all three APCs can activate naive T cells. Whereas mature dendritic cells are able to activate antigen-specific naive CD8 T cells, the formation of CD8 memory T cells requires the interaction of dendritic cells with CD4 helper T cells. This help from CD4 T cells additionally activates the matured dendritic cells and licenses (empowers) them to efficiently induce CD8 memory T cells, which are also able to be expanded a second time. For this activation of CD8+, concurrent interaction of all three cell types, namely CD4 T helper cells, CD8 T cells and dendritic cells, seems to be required.


title: Dendritic cell

text: As mentioned above, mDC probably arise from monocytes, white blood cells which circulate in the body and, depending on the right signal, can turn into either dendritic cells or macrophages. The monocytes in turn are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Monocyte-derived dendritic cells can be generated in vitro from peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMCs). Plating of PBMCs in a tissue culture flask permits adherence of monocytes. Treatment of these monocytes with interleukin 4 (IL-4) and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) leads to differentiation to immature dendritic cells (iDCs) in about a week. Subsequent treatment with tumor necrosis factor (TNF) further differentiates the iDCs into mature dendritic cells. Monocytes can be induced to differentiate into dendritic cells by a self-peptide Ep1.B derived from apolipoprotein E. These are primarily tolerogenic plasmacytoid dendritic cells.


title: Dendritic cell

text: In mice, it has been estimated that dendritic cells are replenished from the blood at a rate of 4000 cells per hour, and undergo a limited number of divisions during their residence in the spleen over 10 to 14 days.


title: Dendritic cell

text: The exact genesis and development of the different types and subsets of dendritic cells and their interrelationship is only marginally understood at the moment, as dendritic cells are so rare and difficult to isolate that only in recent years they have become subject of focused research. Distinct surface antigens that characterize dendritic cells have only become known from 2000 on; before that, researchers had to work with a 'cocktail' of several antigens which, used in combination, result in isolation of cells with characteristics unique to DCs.


title: Dendritic cell

text: The dendritic cells are constantly in communication with other cells in the body. This communication can take the form of direct cell–cell contact based on the interaction of cell-surface proteins. An example of this includes the interaction of the membrane proteins of the B7 family of the dendritic cell with CD28 present on the lymphocyte. However, the cell–cell interaction can also take place at a distance via cytokines.


title: Dendritic cell

text: For example, stimulating dendritic cells "in vivo" with microbial extracts causes the dendritic cells to rapidly begin producing IL-12. IL-12 is a signal that helps send naive CD4 T cells towards a Th1 phenotype. The ultimate consequence is priming and activation of the immune system for attack against the antigens which the dendritic cell presents on its surface. However, there are differences in the cytokines produced depending on the type of dendritic cell. The plasmacytoid DC has the ability to produce huge amounts of type-1 IFNs, which recruit more activated macrophages to allow phagocytosis.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm is a rare type of myeloid cancer in which malignant pDCs infiltrate the skin, bone marrow, central nervous system, and other tissues. Typically, the disease presents with skin lesions (e.g. nodules, tumors, papules, bruise-like patches, and/or ulcers) that most often occur on the head, face, and upper torso. This presentation may be accompanied by cPC infiltrations into other tissues to result in swollen lymph nodes, enlarged liver, enlarged spleen, symptoms of central nervous system dysfunction, and similar abnormalities in breasts, eyes, kidneys, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, bone, sinuses, ears, and/or testes. The disease may also present as a pDC leukemia, i.e. increased levels of malignant pDC in blood (i.e. >2% of nucleated cells) and bone marrow and evidence (i.e. cytopenias) of bone marrow failure. Blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm has a high rate of recurrence following initial treatments with various chemotherapy regimens. In consequence, the disease has a poor overall prognosis and newer chemotherapeutic and novel non-chemotherapeutic drug regimens to improve the situation are under study.


title: Dendritic cell

text: HIV, which causes AIDS, can bind to dendritic cells via various receptors expressed on the cell. The best studied example is DC-SIGN (usually on MDC subset 1, but also on other subsets under certain conditions; since not all dendritic cell subsets express DC-SIGN, its exact role in sexual HIV-1 transmission is not clear). When the dendritic cell takes up HIV and then travels to the lymph node, the virus can be transferred to helper CD4+ T-cells, contributing to the developing infection. This infection of dendritic cells by HIV explains one mechanism by which the virus could persist after prolonged HAART.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Many other viruses, such as the SARS virus, seem to use DC-SIGN to 'hitchhike' to its target cells. However, most work with virus binding to DC-SIGN expressing cells has been conducted using in vitro derived cells such as moDCs. The physiological role of DC-SIGN in vivo is more difficult to ascertain.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Dendritic cells are usually not abundant at tumor sites, but increased densities of populations of dendritic cells have been associated with better clinical outcome, suggesting that these cells can participate in controlling cancer progression. Lung cancers have been found to include four different subsets of dendritic cells: three classical dendritic cell subsets and one plasmacytoid dendritic cell subset. At least some of these dendritic cell subsets can activate CD4+ helper T cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells, which are immune cells that can also suppress tumor growth. In experimental models, dendritic cells have also been shown to contribute to the success of cancer immunotherapies, for example with the immune checkpoint blocker anti-PD-1.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Altered function of dendritic cells is also known to play a major or even key role in allergy and autoimmune diseases like lupus erythematosus and inflammatory bowel diseases (Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis).


title: Dendritic cell

text: The above applies to humans. In other organisms, the function of dendritic cells can differ slightly. However, the principal function of dendritic cells as known to date is always to act as an immune sentinel. They survey the body and collect information relevant to the immune system, they are then able to instruct and direct the adaptive arms to respond to challenges.


title: Dendritic cell

text: In addition, an immediate precursor to myeloid and lymphoid dendritic cells of the spleen has been identified. This precursor, termed pre-DC, lacks MHC class II surface expression, and is distinct from monocytes, which primarily give rise to DCs in non-lymphoid tissues.


title: Dendritic cell

text: Dendritic cells have been found in rainbow trout ("Oncorhynchus mykiss") and zebrafish ("Danio rerio") but their role is still not fully understood


title: Aquatic animal

text: An aquatic animal is any animal, whether invertebrate or vertebrate, that lives in water for most or all of its lifetime. Many insects such as mosquitoes, mayflies, dragonflies and caddisflies have aquatic larvae, with winged adults. Aquatic animals may breathe air or extract oxygen from water through specialised organs called gills, or directly through the skin. Natural environments and the animals that live in them can be categorized as aquatic (water) or terrestrial (land). This designation is polyphyletic.


title: Aquatic animal

text: The term aquatic can be applied to animals that live in either fresh water or salt water. However, the adjective marine is most commonly used for animals that live in saltwater, i.e. in oceans, seas, etc.


title: Aquatic animal

text: Aquatic animals (especially freshwater animals) are often of special concern to conservationists because of the fragility of their environments. Aquatic animals are subject to pressure from overfishing, destructive fishing, marine pollution, hunting, and climate change. Many habitats are at risk which puts aquatic animals at risk as well. Aquatic animals play an important role in the world. The biodiversity of aquatic animals provide food, energy, and even jobs.


title: Aquatic animal

text: Fresh water creates a hypotonic environment for aquatic organisms. This is problematic for some organisms with pervious skins or with gill membranes, whose cell membranes may burst if excess water is not excreted. Some protists accomplish this using contractile vacuoles, while freshwater fish excrete excess water via the kidney. Although most aquatic organisms have a limited ability to regulate their osmotic balance and therefore can only live within a narrow range of salinity, diadromous fish have the ability to migrate between fresh water and saline water bodies. During these migrations they undergo changes to adapt to the surroundings of the changed salinities; these processes are hormonally controlled. The eel ("Anguilla anguilla") uses the hormone prolactin, while in salmon ("Salmo salar") the hormone cortisol plays a key role during this process.


title: Aquatic animal

text: Freshwater molluscs include freshwater snails and freshwater bivalves. Freshwater crustaceans include freshwater crabs and crayfish.


title: Aquatic animal

text: In addition to water breathing animals, e.g., fish, most mollusks etc., the term "aquatic animal" can be applied to air-breathing aquatic or sea mammals such as those in the orders Cetacea (whales) and Sirenia (sea cows), which cannot survive on land, as well as the pinnipeds (true seals, eared seals, and the walrus). The term "aquatic mammal" is also applied to four-footed mammals like the river otter ("Lontra canadensis") and beavers (family Castoridae), although these are technically amphibious or semiaquatic. There are up to one million types of aquatic animals and aquatic species.


title: Aquatic animal

text: Amphibians, like frogs (the order Anura), while requiring water, are separated into their own environmental classification. The majority of amphibians (class Amphibia) have an aquatic larval stage, like a tadpole, but then live as terrestrial adults, and may return to the water to mate.


title: Aquatic animal

text: Certain fish also evolved to breathe air to survive oxygen-deprived water, such as "Arapaima" (family Osteoglossidae) and walking catfish.


title: Aquatic animal

text: Most mollusks have gills, while some fresh water ones have a lung instead (e.g. "Planorbidae") and some amphibious ones have both (e.g. "Ampullariidae"). Many species of aquatic animals lack a backbone or are invertebrates.


title: Aquatic animal

text: Aquatic animals play an important role for the environment as well as human's daily usage. The importance of aquatic animals comes from the fact that they are organisms that provide humans with sources such as medicine, food, energy shelter, and raw materials that are used for daily life.


title: Aquatic animal

text: Each aquatic species plays a different role to help us make every day easier, healthier, and also more productive. They also help with the atmospheric pressure and global climate change.


title: John Smoltz

text: John Andrew Smoltz (born May 15, 1967), nicknamed "Smoltzie" and "Marmaduke", is an American former baseball pitcher who played 22 seasons in Major League Baseball from 1988 to 2009, all but the last year with the Atlanta Braves. An eight-time All-Star, Smoltz was part of a celebrated trio of starting pitchers, along with Greg Maddux and Tom Glavine, who propelled Atlanta to perennial pennant contention in the 1990s, highlighted by a championship in the 1995 World Series. He won the National League (NL) Cy Young Award in 1996 after posting a record of 24–8, equaling the most victories by an NL pitcher since 1972. Though predominantly known as a starter, Smoltz was converted to a reliever in 2001 after his recovery from Tommy John surgery, and spent four years as the team's closer before returning to a starting role. In 2002, he set a National League record with 55 saves and became only the second pitcher in history (joining Dennis Eckersley) to record both a 20-win season and a 50-save season. He is the only pitcher in Major League history to record both 200 wins and 150 saves.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz was one of the most prominent pitchers in playoff history, posting a record of 15–4 with a 2.67 earned run average (ERA) in 41 career postseason games, (and in two of those four losses, he surrendered only unearned runs). He was named the Most Valuable Player of the 1992 NL Championship Series; Andy Pettitte later broke his record for career postseason wins. Smoltz led the NL in wins, winning percentage, strikeouts and innings pitched twice each, and his NL total of 3,084 strikeouts ranked fifth in league history when he retired. He also holds the Braves franchise record for career strikeouts (3,011), and the record for the most career games pitched for the Braves (708) since the club's move to Atlanta in 1966; from 2004 to 2014, he held the franchise record for career saves and has the single season record. Smoltz left the Braves after 2008 and split his final season with the Boston Red Sox and St. Louis Cardinals. Since retiring as a player, he has served as a color commentator and analyst for both Fox Sports and MLB Network. Since 2016, he has provided color commentary during baseball's biggest events, notably the All-Star Game and World Series. He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 2015.


title: John Smoltz

text: The Detroit Tigers selected him in the 22nd round of the 1985 amateur draft. He was the 574th selection of the draft.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz played initially for the Class A Lakeland Tigers minor-league team, and then moved on to the Class AA Glens Falls Tigers in 1987, posting records of 7–8 and 4–10. In 1987, the Tigers were in a three-team race, chasing the Toronto Blue Jays for the AL East division lead; in need of pitching help, Detroit sent their 20-year-old prospect to the Braves for 36-year-old veteran Doyle Alexander on August 12. While Alexander did help the Tigers overtake the Blue Jays for the division title, going 9–0 down the stretch, he was out of baseball by 1989. Smoltz, in contrast, became one of the cornerstones of the Braves franchise for the next two decades.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz made his major league debut on July 23, 1988. He posted poor statistics in a dozen starts, but in 1989 Smoltz blossomed. In 29 starts, he recorded a 12–11 record and 2.94 ERA while pitching 208 innings, and was named to the NL All-Star team. Teammate Tom Glavine also had his first good year in 1989, raising optimism about the future of Atlanta's pitching staff.


title: John Smoltz

text: Over his career, Smoltz threw a four-seam fastball that was clocked as high as 98 miles per hour, a strong, effective slider and an 88–91 mph split-finger fastball that he used as a strikeout pitch. He also used a curveball and change-up on occasion, and in 1999, he began experimenting with both a knuckleball and a screwball, though he rarely used either in game situations. He admitted in 2016 that he never learned to throw sliders until he reached the Majors, nor does he recommend to children to throw sliders.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz began the 1991 season with a 2–11 record. He began seeing a sports psychologist, after which he closed out the season on a 12–2 pace, helping the Braves win a tight NL West race. His winning ways continued into the 1991 National League Championship Series. Smoltz won both his starts against the Pittsburgh Pirates, capped by a complete game shutout in the seventh game, propelling the Braves to their first World Series since moving to Atlanta in 1966. Smoltz had two no-decisions against the Minnesota Twins, with a 1.26 ERA. In the seventh and deciding game, he faced his former Detroit Tiger hero, Jack Morris. Both starters pitched shutout ball for seven innings, before Smoltz was removed from the scoreless game during a Twins threat in the eighth. Atlanta reliever Mike Stanton pitched out of the jam, getting Smoltz off the hook, and Morris eventually pitched a 10-inning complete-game victory.


title: John Smoltz

text: The next year, Smoltz won 15 regular-season games and was the MVP of the 1992 National League Championship Series, winning two games. He left the seventh game trailing, but ended up with a no-decision as the Braves mounted a dramatic ninth-inning comeback win. In the World Series that year, Smoltz started two of the six games in the series, with a no-decision in Game 2 and a win with the Braves facing elimination in Game 5.


title: John Smoltz

text: Before the 1993 season, the Braves signed renowned control pitcher Greg Maddux, completing — along with Smoltz and Glavine — what many consider to be the most accomplished starting trio ever assembled on a single major-league team. Smoltz again won 15 games, but suffered his first postseason loss to the Philadelphia Phillies in the NLCS despite not allowing an earned run.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz had a 6–10 record in the strike-shortened 1994 season, and during the break, had bone chips removed from his elbow. Returning as the Braves' No. 3 starter, he posted a 12–7 record in 1995. Ironically, the year the Braves won their one World Series title in their long run of division titles was the one year Smoltz had shaky postseason numbers. He did avoid being tagged with any losses despite a 6.60 ERA, but his Game 3 start in that World Series was his only poor World Series start in his career, getting knocked out in the third inning. But Smoltz and the Braves won the franchise's first World Series in Atlanta, thanks in great part to Maddux and Glavine, who had begun to overshadow Smoltz. Smoltz would have been the Game 7 starter had the series gone that far.


title: John Smoltz

text: In 1996, Smoltz went 24–8 with a 2.94 ERA and 276 strikeouts, including winning a franchise-record 14 straight decisions from April 9 to June 19. His wins and strikeout totals led the majors that year. Smoltz continued to pitch brilliantly in the postseason, winning a game in the Division Series, two more in the League Championship Series, and somehow ending up only 1–1 in the World Series despite a 0.64 ERA, losing Game 5 1–0 on an unearned run. He won the NL Cy Young Award with 26 of the 28 first-place votes. Smoltz's effectiveness in 1997 was only slightly less than in his Cy Young season, but frugal run support limited him to a 15–12 record. Smoltz also received a Silver Slugger Award for his batting, as he led all pitchers with 18 base hits.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz continued to post excellent statistics in 1998 and 1999, but he was spending significant time on the disabled list and missed about a quarter of his starts. In 1999, Smoltz began experimenting with both a knuckleball and a three-quarters delivery, though he rarely used either in game situations.


title: John Smoltz

text: He underwent Tommy John surgery before the 2000 season, and missed the entire year. When he was unable to perform effectively as a starter in 2001, Smoltz transitioned to the bullpen, replacing John Rocker as the Braves' closer.


title: John Smoltz

text: In 2002, his first full season as a closer, Smoltz set a National League record with 55 saves, topping the previous mark of 53 shared by Randy Myers (1993) and Trevor Hoffman (1998). Smoltz finished third in the Cy Young Award voting; Éric Gagné equaled his record a year later with the Dodgers. Injuries limited Smoltz slightly in 2003, but he still recorded 45 saves with a 1.12 ERA in innings pitched. In 2004, Smoltz finished with 44 saves, but was frustrated with his inability to make an impact as a closer during another Braves' postseason loss. That year, he broke Gene Garber's franchise record of 141 career saves; his final total of 154 saves was eventually surpassed by Craig Kimbrel in 2014.


title: John Smoltz

text: By this point, Smoltz was the final remaining member of the Braves' dominant rotation of the 1990s. Glavine had moved on to play for the Mets, a divisional rival, while Maddux returned to his old team, the Chicago Cubs.


title: John Smoltz

text: After three years as one of baseball's most dominating closers, the team's management agreed to return Smoltz to the starting rotation before the 2005 season. His renewed career as a starter began inauspiciously. He allowed six earned runs in only 1 innings—matching the shortest starts of his career—as the Braves were blown out on Opening Day by the Marlins. Poor run support contributed to an 0–3 start despite stronger pitching performances by Smoltz. After these initial difficulties, though, things fell into place. At the All-Star break, Smoltz was 9–5 with an ERA of 2.68 and was chosen for the 2005 NL All-Star team. Smoltz gave up a solo home run to Miguel Tejada in the second inning of the American League's 7–5 victory and was charged with the loss. For his career, he was 1–2 in All-Star games, putting him in a tie for the most losses.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz finished 2005 at 14–7, with a 3.06 ERA and 169 strikeouts while allowing less than one hit per inning. Smoltz had answered the critics who doubted he would be able to reach the 200-inning plateau after three years in the bullpen. Nonetheless, Smoltz's increased workload caused him to wear down toward the end of the season.


title: John Smoltz

text: Despite a sore shoulder, Smoltz pitched seven innings in the Braves' 7–1 win over the Houston Astros in Game 2 of the 2005 NL Division Series; it was the only game the Braves won in the series against the eventual National League champions. The victory over Houston gave Smoltz a 13–4 record as a starter (15–4 overall) with a 2.65 ERA in the postseason. In two of those post-season losses, he surrendered only unearned runs. He has the second-most postseason wins (15) behind only Andy Pettitte with 19. They are followed by Glavine (14) and Maddux (11).


title: John Smoltz

text: In 2006, Smoltz finished the season with a record of 16–9, an ERA of 3.49, and 211 strikeouts. He was one of four pitchers tied for the NL lead in wins, and was third in strikeouts. He pitched more than well enough for a 20-win season, but the Braves' bullpen blew six of his leads, on their way to being the single-handed cause of the end of the team's playoff appearance streak. The number of blown saves alone by the Braves' bullpen was greater than the number of games out of first place the team finished.


title: John Smoltz

text: On September 21, 2006, the Braves announced they had picked up Smoltz's $8 million contract option for the 2007 season. On April 26, 2007, Smoltz agreed to a contract extension with the Braves. The extension includes a $14 million salary for the 2008 season, a $12 million vesting option for 2009 dependent on his ability to pitch 200 innings in 2008 and a $12 or $13 million team option for 2010 dependent on his ability to pitch 200 innings in 2009.


title: John Smoltz

text: 2007 was a year of reunions and milestones for Smoltz. On May 9, he faced Maddux for the first time since July 10, 1992. Smoltz earned a win in a 3–2 victory over the San Diego Padres; Maddux received no decision. On May 24, exactly 11 years to the day after recording his 100th win, Smoltz recorded his 200th win against Glavine. He faced Glavine three other times, faring 3–1 overall against him. On June 27, Smoltz, Glavine and Maddux each recorded wins on the same day. On August 19, Smoltz set the Braves strikeout record by striking out the Arizona Diamondbacks' Mark Reynolds. It was his 2,913th strikeout, passing Phil Niekro on the club's all-time list; he struck out a season-high 12 in the game. He finished the year 14–8 with a 3.11 ERA and 197 strikeouts. The stalwart pitcher was the only holdover on the Braves roster from their 1991 worst-to-first season until Glavine returned to the Braves after an absence of several years following the 2007 season.


title: John Smoltz

text: On April 22, 2008, Smoltz became the 16th pitcher in Major League history to reach 3,000 career strikeouts, and the fourth pitcher to strike out 3,000 batters for one team, joining Walter Johnson, Bob Gibson and Steve Carlton.


title: John Smoltz

text: On May 1, 2008, Smoltz indicated that he intended to return to being a relief pitcher. After coming off the disabled list on June 2, 2008, he blew his first save opportunity in three years. Two days later, the Braves placed him back on the disabled list. Smoltz underwent season-ending shoulder surgery on June 10, 2008. His contract expired at the end of the season, and the contract offer from the Braves was not sufficient to keep him.


title: John Smoltz

text: In December 2008, several members of the Boston Red Sox organization, including pitching coach John Farrell, vice president of player personnel Ben Cherington and assistant trainer Mike Reinold, flew to Atlanta to participate in a 90-minute workout with Smoltz. Throwing for only the second time since having surgery on a torn labrum in his pitching shoulder, he threw a 50-pitch side session and showcased not only his tremendous progress since the surgery, but an arsenal of well-developed pitches which made him so successful throughout his career. He impressed the Red Sox enough during the workout that less than a month later, a one-year contract was offered by the organization.


title: John Smoltz

text: On January 13, 2009, Smoltz signed a one-year contract with the Red Sox for a reported base salary of $5.5 million with roster time incentives and miscellaneous award incentives which could net as much as $10 million. He made his first start in the Red Sox rotation on June 25, allowing seven hits and five runs through five innings. Smoltz posted a 2–5 record over eight games with an 8.32 ERA and no quality starts. He was designated for assignment on August 7 after a 13–6 loss to the New York Yankees, giving the Red Sox ten days to release or trade him, or send him to the minors. The Red Sox offered Smoltz a minor league stint in order to prepare him to be placed in the bullpen, but he rejected the offer. On August 17, the Red Sox released Smoltz.


title: John Smoltz

text: On August 19, 2009, Smoltz signed with the St. Louis Cardinals; he made his debut against the Padres on August 23. In his first game for the Cardinals, he went five innings, striking out nine and walking none, while setting a Cardinals franchise record by striking out seven batters in a row.


title: John Smoltz

text: That win against the Padres was his only win with St. Louis that season. Smoltz finished 1–3 with an ERA of 4.26 with the Cardinals. He was 3–8 with an ERA of 6.35 overall with the Red Sox and Cardinals. In Game 3 of the 2009 NL Division Series, Smoltz pitched two innings of relief in a losing cause, allowing four hits and an earned run while striking out five.


title: John Smoltz

text: In 2008 and 2010, Smoltz served as a color analyst alongside Joe Simpson for Braves games on Peachtree TV. Nationally, Smoltz has been an analyst for MLB Network and called regular-season and postseason games for TBS. In 2014, he was hired by Fox Sports as a game analyst. He was paired with Matt Vasgersian and called games in the No. 2 booth. He has also joined Fox Sports South and SportSouth to be an analyst for select Braves games during the 2014 season. Smoltz replaced Harold Reynolds and Tom Verducci, his colleagues from MLB Network, as the lead analyst for "Major League Baseball on Fox" for the 2016 season, teaming up with Joe Buck and Joe Davis. In 2021, Smoltz won his first Sports Emmy Award as an Event Analyst. Smoltz was forced to end his in-studio work for MLB Network after he refused to receive the COVID-19 vaccine, which is required for the company's employees.


title: John Smoltz

text: On April 16, 2012, the Braves announced that they would retire Smoltz's number 29. The ceremony, which took place before a June 8 game against the Toronto Blue Jays, included speeches by former broadcaster Pete van Wieren, former teammate Matt Diaz and former manager Bobby Cox.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 2015. He was the first starting pitcher since 1987 to be elected despite having fewer than 250 wins and only one Cy Young Award, the first such starter ever elected on the first ballot, and the first pitcher to have Tommy John surgery and be elected to the Hall.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz met his first wife Dyan Struble at the Omni Hotel in downtown Atlanta; the couple had four children before divorcing in 2007 after 16 years of marriage. Smoltz lives in Alpharetta, Georgia and also has a home at Sea Island, a golf resort. On May 16, 2009, Smoltz married Kathryn Darden at his home with 70 friends and family in attendance. Smoltz is a Christian.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz is a good friend of pro golfer Tiger Woods; the two often play golf together. Woods has stated that Smoltz is the best golfer outside of the PGA Tour that he has seen. Smoltz has stated that he once had a plus 4 handicap. In 2018, Smoltz qualified for the U.S. Senior Open, one of senior golf's major championships. He is also involved in the sport of bowling.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz plays every year in the American Century Championship at Lake Tahoe. He won the Diamond Resorts Tournament of Champions in Orlando in January 2019.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz counts Doc Rivers as a personal friend dating back to Rivers' playing days in Atlanta. In the January 12, 2008 edition of the "Boston Globe", Rivers is quoted as saying, "I offered him my apartment... I just told him about Terry and the Red Sox organization. I told him it's a no-brainer."


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz is also an accomplished accordionist and has starred in a television commercial for The Home Depot.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz produced an automated campaign phone recording on behalf of the candidacy of Ralph E. Reed, Jr. for Lieutenant Governor of Georgia during the 2006 primary.


title: John Smoltz

text: In a 2004 interview, Smoltz was quoted as comparing the legalization of gay marriage with bestiality, saying "What’s next? Marrying an animal?" per the Associated Press. Smoltz later stated the article had portrayed his quote inaccurately.


title: John Smoltz

text: It was speculated that Smoltz might run for Congress in 2010 as a Republican candidate to fill the departing John Linder's seat in Georgia's 7th congressional district.


title: John Smoltz

text: On April 22, 2012, Smoltz hosted a fundraiser for Andrea Cascarilla, a Democratic candidate for State Representative in Michigan's 71st House District. The 71st District encompasses Waverly Senior High School, where Smoltz was an All-State baseball and basketball player.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz and his good friend Jeff Foxworthy hosted the charity event "An Evening With Smoltz and Friends" on November 9, 2008, at the Verizon Amphitheater in Alpharetta to raise money for the John Smoltz Foundation, which has supported numerous charitable endeavors in the Atlanta area over the past decade.


title: John Smoltz

text: Smoltz is the Atlanta host for Big League Impact, an eight-city fantasy football network created and led by longtime Cardinals pitcher and former teammate Adam Wainwright. In 2015, the organization raised more than $1 million for various charitable organizations.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Okavango Delta (or Okavango Grassland; formerly spelled "Okovango" or "Okovanggo") in Botswana is a swampy inland delta formed where the Okavango River reaches a tectonic trough at an altitude of 930–1,000 m in the central part of the endorheic basin of the Kalahari. All the water reaching the delta is ultimately evaporated and transpired and does not flow into any sea or ocean. Each year, about of water spreads over the area. Some flood waters drain into Lake Ngami. The area was once part of Lake Makgadikgadi, an ancient lake that had mostly dried up by the early Holocene.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Moremi Game Reserve, a national park, is on the eastern side of the delta. The delta was named as one of the Seven Natural Wonders of Africa, which were officially declared on 11 February 2013 in Arusha, Tanzania. On 22 June 2014, the Okavango Delta became the 1000th site to be officially inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Okavango is produced by seasonal flooding. The Okavango River drains the summer (January–February) rainfall from the Angola highlands and the surge flows in around one month. The waters then spread over the area of the delta over the next four months (March–June). The high temperature of the delta causes rapid transpiration and evaporation, resulting in 3 cycles of rising and falling water level that was not fully understood until the early 20th century. The flood peaks between June and August, during Botswana's dry winter months, when the delta swells to three times its permanent size, attracting animals from kilometres around and creating one of Africa’s greatest concentrations of wildlife.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The delta is very flat, with less than variation in height across its , while the water drops about 60 m from Mohembo to Maun.


title: Okavango Delta

text: When the water levels gradually recede, water remains in major canals and river beds, in waterholes and in a number of larger lagoons, which then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps and lodges are found near some of these lagoons. Among the larger lagoons are:


title: Okavango Delta

text: The agglomeration of salt around plant roots leads to barren white patches in the centre of many of the thousands of islands, which have become too salty to support plants, aside from the odd salt-resistant palm tree. Trees and grasses grow in the sand around the edges of the islands that have not become too salty yet.


title: Okavango Delta

text: About 70% of the islands began as termite mounds (often "Macrotermes" spp.), where a tree then takes root on the mound of soil.


title: Okavango Delta

text: Chief's Island, the largest island in the delta, was formed by a fault line which uplifted an area over and . Historically, it was reserved as an exclusive hunting area for the chief, but is now a protected area for wildlife. It now provides the core area for much of the resident wildlife when the waters rise.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Delta's profuse greenery is not the result of a wet climate; rather, it is an oasis in an arid country. The average annual rainfall is (approximately one-third that of its Angolan catchment area) and most of it falls between December and March in the form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms.


title: Okavango Delta

text: December to February are hot wet months with daytime temperatures as high as , warm nights, and humidity levels fluctuating between 50 and 80%. From March to May, the temperature reduces, with a maximum of during the day and mild to cool nights. The rains quickly dry up leading into the dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at this time of year are mild to warm, but the temperature falls considerably after sunset. Nights can be cold in the delta, with temperatures barely above freezing.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The September to November span has the heat and atmospheric pressure build up once more, as the dry season slides into the rainy season. October is the most challenging month for visitors: daytime temperatures often push past and the dryness is only occasionally broken by a sudden cloudburst.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Okavango Delta is both a permanent and seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife which is now a popular tourist attraction. All of the big five game animals—the lion, leopard, African buffalo, African bush elephant and rhinoceros (both black and white rhinoceros)—are present.


title: Okavango Delta

text: Other species include giraffe, blue wildebeest, plains zebra, hippopotamus, impala, common eland, greater kudu, sable antelope, roan antelope, puku, lechwe, waterbuck, sitatunga, tsessebe, cheetah, African wild dog, spotted hyena, black-backed jackal, caracal, serval, aardvark, aardwolf, bat-eared fox, African savanna hare, honey badger, crested porcupine, common warthog, chacma baboon, vervet monkey and Nile crocodile.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The delta also hosts over 400 bird species, including the helmeted guineafowl, African fish eagle, Pel's fishing owl, Egyptian goose, South African shelduck, African jacana, African skimmer, marabou stork, crested crane, African spoonbill, African darter, southern ground hornbill, wattled crane, lilac-breasted roller, secretary bird, and common ostrich. Prime bird-watching areas are those with a mix of habitats such as the panhandle, the seasonal delta and the parts of the Moremi Game Reserve that are close to the water.


title: Okavango Delta

text: Since 2005, the protected area has been considered a Lion Conservation Unit together with Hwange National Park.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The most populous large mammal is the lechwe, with estimates suggesting approximately 88,000 individuals. The lechwe a bit larger than an impala, with elongated hooves and a water-repellent substance on its legs that enable rapid movement through knee-deep water. Lechwe graze on aquatic plants and, like the waterbuck, take to water when threatened by predators. Only the males have horns.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Okavango Delta is home to 71 fish species, including the tigerfish, species of tilapia, and various species of catfish. Fish sizes range from the African sharptooth catfish to the sickle barb. The same species are found in the Zambezi River, indicating an historic link between the two river systems.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Okavango Delta is home to 1068 plants which belong to 134 families and 530 genera. There are five important plant communities in the perennial swamp: "Papyrus cyperus" in the deeper waters", Miscanthus" in the shallowly flooded sites, and "Phragmites australis", "Typha capensis" and "Pycreus" in between. The swamp-dominant species, which are usually found in the perennial swamp, also extend far into the seasonally inundated area. "Papyrus cyperus" reeds beds grow best in slow flowing waters of medium depth and are prominent at the channel sides. On the islands and mainlands edges above the flooded grasslands different communities of flora are found. These species are located according to their water preference: for instance "Philenoptera violacea" requires little water, is found at the highest elevations in the perennial swamps, and is common on drier seasonal swamp islands. Trees restricted to islands within the perennial swamp are a mixture of the palm "Hyphaene" "petersiana" and acacia"."


title: Okavango Delta

text: The mainland in the delta is characterized by mosaic of grassland and woodland communities composed of trees, shrubs and understory herbs, basically the vegetation is notably drier than the swamp. "Acacia", "Boscia", "Combretum" and "Terminalia" are some of the principal genera which make up the majority of plants within the Okavango Delta. The natural phenomenon of the annual flood in the dry season and the distinct rainy season in time of low rain is the result of the exceptionally high plant diversity within the delta.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The plants of the delta play an important role in providing cohesion for the sand. The banks or levees of a river normally have a high mud content, and this combines with the sand in the river’s load to continuously build up the river banks. The river’s load In the delta consists almost entirely of sand, because the clean waters of the Okavango contain little mud. The plants capture the sand, acting as the glue and making up for the lack of mud, and in the process creating further islands on which more plants can take root.


title: Okavango Delta

text: This process is not important in the formation of linear islands. They are long and thin and often curved like a gently meandering river because they are actually the natural banks of old river channels which have become blocked up by plant growth and sand deposition, resulting in the river changing course and the old river levees becoming islands. Due to the flatness of the delta and the large tonnage of sand flowing into it from the Okavango River, the floor of the delta is slowly but constantly rising. Where channels are today, islands will be tomorrow and then new channels may wash away these existing islands.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Okavango Delta peoples consist of five ethnic groups, each with its own ethnic identity and language. They are Hambukushu (also known as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), Wayeyi (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, ) and (Gxanekwe, , River Bushmen, Swamp Bushmen, , , Xanekwe). The Hambukushu, Dceriku, and Wayeyi have traditionally engaged in mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, the collection of wild plant foods, and pastoralism.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Bugakhwe and are Bushmen, who have traditionally practised fishing, hunting, and the collection of wild plant foods; Bugakhwe used both forest and riverine resources, while the mostly focused on riverine resources. The Hambukushu, Dceriku, and Bugakhwe are present along the Okavango River in Angola and in the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, and small numbers of Hambukushu and Bugakhwe are in Zambia, as well. Within the Okavango Delta, over the past 150 years or so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, and Bugakhwe have inhabited the panhandle and the Magwegqana in the northeastern delta. have inhabited the panhandle and the area along the Boro River through the delta, as well as the area along the Boteti River.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Wayeyi have inhabited the area around Seronga as well as the southern delta around Maun, and a few Wayeyi live in their putative ancestral home in the Caprivi Strip. Within the past 20 years many people from all over the Okavango have migrated to Maun, the late 1960s and early 1970s over 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola were settled in the area around Etsha in the western Panhandle.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Okavango Delta has been under the political control of the Batawana (a Tswana nation) since the late 18th century. Led by the house of Mathiba I, the leader of a Bangwato offshoot, the Batawana established complete control over the delta in the 1850s as the regional ivory trade exploded. Most Batawana, however, have traditionally lived on the edges of the delta, due to the threat that the tsetse fly poses to their cattle. During a hiatus of some 40 years, the tsetse fly retreated and most Batawana lived in the swamps from 1896 through the late 1930s. Since then, the edge of the delta has become increasingly crowded with its growing human and livestock populations.


title: Okavango Delta

text: After the flooding season, the waters in the lower parts of the delta, near the base, recede, leaving moisture behind in the soil. This residual moisture is used for planting fodder and other crops that can thrive on it. This land is locally known as "molapo".


title: Okavango Delta

text: During 1974 to 1978, the floods were more intensive than normal and flood recession cropping was not possible, so severe food and fodder shortages occurred. In response, the Molapo Development Project was initiated. It protected the "molapo" areas with bunds to control the flooding and prevent severe flooding. The bunds are provided with sluice gates so the stored water can be released and flood recession cropping can start.


title: Okavango Delta

text: One possible threat is oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration in April 2021 revealed oil deposits in sedimentary rock. Environmentalists are concerned that the project will have a negative ecological impact and that some of the main bodies of water could be threatened.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Namibian government has presented plans to build a hydropower station in the Zambezi Region, which would regulate the Okavango's flow to some extent. While proponents argue that the effect would be minimal, environmentalists argue that this project could destroy most of the rich animal and plant life in the delta. Other threats include local human encroachment and regional extraction of water in both Angola and Namibia.


title: Okavango Delta

text: South African filmmaker and conservationist Rick Lomba warned in the 1980s of the threat of cattle invasion to the area. His documentary "The End of Eden" portrayed his lobbying on behalf of the delta.


title: Okavango Delta

text: The Okavango catchment is projected to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming. The effects of global warming are likely to result in reductions in the extent of floodplains in the Okavango Delta, which will have significant impacts on water availability as well as livestock rearing and agricultural activities in the region.


title: Erzurum

text: Erzurum (; ) is a city in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the largest city in and capital of Erzurum Province. It is situated 1,900 meters (6,233 feet) above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 361,235 in the 2000 census, increasing to 367,250 by 2010.


title: Erzurum

text: The city uses the double-headed eagle as its coat-of-arms, a motif that has been a common symbol throughout Anatolia since the Bronze Age.


title: Erzurum

text: The city was originally known in Armenian as Karno K'aghak' (), meaning city of Karin, to distinguish it from the district of Karin (Կարին). It is presumed its name was derived from a local tribe called the Karenitis. An alternate theory contends that a local princely family, the Kamsarakans, the Armenian off-shoot of the Iranian Kārin Pahlav family, lent its name to the locale that eventually became the city.


title: Erzurum

text: During Roman times, Erzurum was named Theodosiopolis (, ). After the Arab conquest of Armenia in the seventh century, the city was known to the Arabs as Kālīkalā (adopted from the original Armenian name Karno K'aghak' (), meaning "Karin City", to distinguish it from the district of Karin (Կարին).


title: Erzurum

text: It received its present name after its conquest by the Seljuk Turks following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. In 1048/49, a neighboring commercial city named Artze (Arcn, Arzan; Armenian: Արծն) was heavily sacked by the Seljuks. Its Armenian, Syrian, and other Christian inhabitants moved to Theodosiopolis, which they began calling "Artsn Rum" (meaning Artze of the Rûm, "i.e.", Romans) to distinguish it from their former residence.


title: Erzurum

text: Later, Erzurum existed under the Armenian name of Karin. During the reigns of the Artaxiad and Arsacid kings of Armenia, Karin served as the capital of the eponymous canton of Karin, in the province Bardzr Hayk' (Upper Armenia). After the partition of Armenia between the Eastern Roman Empire and Sassanid Persia in 387 AD, the city passed into the hands of the Romans. They fortified the city and renamed it Theodosiopolis, after Emperor Theodosius I.


title: Erzurum

text: As the chief military stronghold along the eastern border of the empire, Theodosiopolis held a highly important strategic location and was fiercely contested in wars between the Byzantines and Persians. Emperors Anastasius I and Justinian I both refortified the city and built new defenses during their reigns.


title: Erzurum

text: Theodosiopolis was conquered by the Umayyad general Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik in 700/701. It became the capital of the emirate of Ḳālīḳalā and was used as a base for raids into Byzantine territory. Though only an island of Arab power within Christian Armenian-populated territory, the native population was generally a reliable client of the Caliph's governors. As the power of the Caliphate declined, and the resurgence of Byzantium began, the local Armenian leaders preferred the city to be under the control of powerless Muslim emirs rather than powerful Byzantine emperors.


title: Erzurum

text: In 931, and again in 949, Byzantine forces led by Theophilos Kourkouas, grandfather of the future emperor John I Tzimiskes, captured Theodosiopolis. Its Arab population was expelled and the city was resettled by Greeks and Armenians. Emperor Basil II rebuilt the city and its defenses in 1018 with the help of the local Armenian population. In 1071, after the decisive battle at Manzikert, the Seljuk Turks took possession of Theodosiopolis. The Saltukids were rulers of an Anatolian beylik (principality) centered in Erzurum, who ruled from 1071 to 1202. Melike Mama Hatun, sister of Nâsırüddin Muhammed, was the ruler between 1191 and 1200.


title: Erzurum

text: Theodosiopolis repelled many attacks and military campaigns by the Seljuks and Georgians (the latter knew the city as Karnu-Kalaki) until 1201 when the city and the province was conquered by the Seljuk sultan Süleymanshah II. Erzen-Erzurum fell to the Mongol siege in 1242, and the city was looted and devastated. After the fall of the Sultanate of Rum in early 14th century, it became an administrative province of the Ilkhanate, and later on the city was under Empire of Trebizond occupation for a while around the 1310s. Then became part of the Çoban beylik, Black Sheep Turkmen, empire of Timur Lenk and White Sheep Turkmen. It subsequently passed to Safavid Persia, until the Ottomans under Selim I in 1514 conquered it through the Battle of Chaldiran. During Ottoman imperial rule, the city served as the main base of military power in the region.


title: Erzurum

text: It served as the capital of the "eyalet" of Erzurum. Early in the seventeenth century, the province was threatened by Safavid Persia and a revolt by the province governor Abaza Mehmed Pasha. This revolt was combined with Jelali Revolts (the uprising of the provincial musketeers called the Jelali), backed by Iran and lasted until 1628. In 1733, Iranian ruler Nader Shah took Erzurum during the Ottoman–Persian War (1730–35), but the city returned to Ottoman possession following his death in 1747.


title: Erzurum

text: In 1821, during the last major Ottoman-Persian War, the Ottomans were decisively defeated at Erzurum by the Iranian Qajars at the Battle of Erzurum (1821). In 1829 the city was captured by the Russian Empire, but was returned to the Ottoman Empire under the Treaty of Adrianople (Edirne), in September of the same year. During the Crimean war Russian forces approached Erzurum, but did not attack it because of insufficient forces and the continuing Russian siege of Kars. The city was unsuccessfully attacked (Battle of Erzurum (1877)) by a Russian army in the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–78. However, in February 1878, the Russians took Erzurum without resistance, but it was again returned to the Ottoman Empire, this time under the Treaty of San Stefano. There were massacres of the city's Armenian citizens during the Hamidian massacres (1894–1896).


title: Erzurum

text: The 40,000-strong Armenian population was deported from the city and killed en masse during the 1915 Armenian genocide. Their cultural institutions, including churches, clubs, and schools, were looted, destroyed, or otherwise left derelict. When Russian forces occupied Erzurum in 1916, there were scarcely 200 Armenians left alive.


title: Erzurum

text: The city was also the location of one of the key battles in the Caucasus Campaign of World War I between the armies of the Ottoman and Russian Empires. This resulted in the capture of Erzurum by Russian forces under the command of Grand Duke Nicholas and Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich on February 16, 1916. Erzurum reverted to Ottoman control after the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. In 1919, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, one of the key founders of the modern Turkish Republic, resigned from the Ottoman army in Erzurum and was declared an "Honorary Native" and freeman of the city, which issued him his first citizenship registration and certificate (Nüfus Cuzdanı) of the new Turkish Republic. The Erzurum Congress of 1919 was one of the starting points of the Turkish War of Independence.


title: Erzurum

text: In September 1935 Erzurum was made the seat of the newly created third Inspectorate General ("Umumi Müfettişlik," UM). The third UM span over the provinces of Erzurum, Artvin, Rize, Trabzon, Kars Gümüşhane, Erzincan and Ağrı. It was governed by an Inspector General. The Inspectorate General was dissolved in 1952 during the Government of the Democrat Party.


title: Erzurum

text: Erzurum, known as "The Rock" in NATO code, served as NATO's southeasternmost air force post during the Cold War.


title: Erzurum

text: Theodosiopolis was important enough in the Late Roman province of Armenia Tertia to become a bishopric, which the Annuario Pontificio lists as suffragan of the Archdiocese of Comachus, but in "Notitiae Episcopatuum" from the seventh and early tenth centuries, its (later?) Metropolitan is the Archdiocese of Caesarea in Cappadocia. In either case, it was in the sway of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.


title: Erzurum

text: After the long Byzantine-Sasanian War of 572-591, Byzantine rule was extended to all western parts of Armenia, and emperor Maurice (582-602) decided to strengthen political control over the region by supporting pro-Chalcedonian fraction of the Armenian Church. In 593, regional council of western Armenian bishops met in Theodosiopolis, proclaimed allegiance to the Chalcedonian Definition and elected John (Yovhannes, or Hovhannes) of Bagaran as new Catholicos of Chalcedonian Armenians.


title: Erzurum

text: As Ancient Theodosiopolis in Armenia (or "in Cappadocia"), the former bishopric remains a Latin Catholic titular see, renamed as Titular Archiepiscopal See of Aprus. Its post is vacant since 1968, Antonio Gregorio Vuccino was its last archbishop.


title: Erzurum

text: One of the largest source of income and economic activity in the city has been Atatürk University. Established in 1950, it is one of the largest universities in Turkey, having more than forty-thousand students. Tourism also provides a portion of the province's revenues. The city is a popular destination in Turkey for winter sports at the nearby Palandöken Mountain.