title: Dispersion (optics)

text: Waveguides are highly dispersive due to their geometry (rather than just to their material composition). Optical fibers are a sort of waveguide for optical frequencies (light) widely used in modern telecommunications systems. The rate at which data can be transported on a single fiber is limited by pulse broadening due to chromatic dispersion among other phenomena.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: In general, for a waveguide mode with an angular frequency "ω"("β") at a propagation constant "β" (so that the electromagnetic fields in the propagation direction "z" oscillate proportional to "e"), the group-velocity dispersion parameter "D" is defined as:


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: where "λ" =  is the vacuum wavelength and "v" =  is the group velocity. This formula generalizes the one in the previous section for homogeneous media, and includes both waveguide dispersion and material dispersion. The reason for defining the dispersion in this way is that |"D"| is the (asymptotic) temporal pulse spreading Δ"t" per unit bandwidth


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: In the case of multi-mode optical fibers, so-called modal dispersion will also lead to pulse broadening. Even in single-mode fibers, pulse broadening can occur as a result of polarization mode dispersion (since there are still two polarization modes). These are "not" examples of chromatic dispersion as they are not dependent on the wavelength or bandwidth of the pulses propagated.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: When a broad range of frequencies (a broad bandwidth) is present in a single wavepacket, such as in an ultrashort pulse or a chirped pulse or other forms of spread spectrum transmission, it may not be accurate to approximate the dispersion by a constant over the entire bandwidth, and more complex calculations are required to compute effects such as pulse spreading.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: In particular, the dispersion parameter "D" defined above is obtained from only one derivative of the group velocity. Higher derivatives are known as "higher-order dispersion". These terms are simply a Taylor series expansion of the dispersion relation "β"("ω") of the medium or waveguide around some particular frequency. Their effects can be computed via numerical evaluation of Fourier transforms of the waveform, via integration of higher-order slowly varying envelope approximations, by a split-step method (which can use the exact dispersion relation rather than a Taylor series), or by direct simulation of the full Maxwell's equations rather than an approximate envelope equation.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: The description of the chromatic dispersion in a perturbative manner through Taylor coefficients is advantageous for optimization problems where the dispersion from several different systems needs to be balanced. For example, in chirp pulse laser amplifiers, the pulses are first stretched in time by a stretcher to avoid optical damage. Then in the amplification process, the pulses accumulate inevitably linear and nonlinear phase passing through materials. And lastly, the pulses are compressed in various types of compressors. To cancel any residual higher orders in the accumulated phase, usually individual orders are measured and balanced. However, for uniform systems, such perturbative description is often not needed (i.e., propagation in waveguides).


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: The dispersion orders have been generalized in a computationally friendly manner, in the form of Lah-Laguerre type transforms.


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: and the dispersion measure (DM) is the column density of free electrons (total electron content) — i.e. the number density of electrons "n" (electrons/cm) integrated along the path traveled by the photon from the pulsar to the Earth — and is given by


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: Typically for astronomical observations, this delay cannot be measured directly, since the emission time is unknown. What "can" be measured is the difference in arrival times at two different frequencies. The delay Δ"t" between a high frequency and a low frequency component of a pulse will be


title: Dispersion (optics)

text: Rewriting the above equation in terms of Δ"t" allows one to determine the DM by measuring pulse arrival times at multiple frequencies. This in turn can be used to study the interstellar medium, as well as allow for observations of pulsars at different frequencies to be combined.


title: Alesso

text: Alessandro Renato Rodolfo Lindblad (born 7 July 1991), better known by his stage name Alesso (), is a Swedish DJ and music producer.


title: Alesso

text: He has worked with numerous artists, including Tove Lo, Theo Hutchcraft, Ryan Tedder, Hailee Steinfeld, Calvin Harris, Katy Perry, Anitta, Usher, David Guetta, Sebastian Ingrosso, Liam Payne, TINI, and Stray Kids. He has performed at numerous music festivals, including Coachella, Electric Daisy Carnival, Creamfields, and Tomorrowland. In 2012, MTV named Alesso one of the "EDM Rookies to Watch".


title: Alesso

text: He was ranked 13th on "DJ Magazine"s 2015 list of the top 100 DJs and number 20th in year 2016 on "DJ Magazine" among the list of Top 100 DJs in the world. His debut full-length album "Forever" was released in 2015 by Def Jam Recordings.


title: Alesso

text: Lindblad was born in Stockholm, and is of Swedish and Italian descent. He started playing piano at age 7, but became interested in Electronic Dance Music when he was 16. He first gained recognition with the release of his "Alesso EP" in 2010. In early 2011, Sebastian Ingrosso of Swedish House Mafia contacted Alesso and asked if he wanted to work together. Ingrosso introduced him to DJing and helped him with the production of tracks.


title: Alesso

text: Since that time, Ingrosso has acted as a mentor for Alesso, who referred to the elder Swede as a "big brother."


title: Alesso

text: Despite having learned to DJ in 2011, Alesso made his debut on "DJ Magazine's" list of the top 100 DJs at number 70 in that same year.


title: Alesso

text: One of the first songs Alesso produced with Sebastian Ingrosso was a 2011 track named "Calling" that reached number 2 on the Beatport charts. The song would later be renamed "Calling (Lose My Mind)" with an additional feature from Ryan Tedder. Alesso's 2011 remix of "Pressure" by Nadia Ali premiered at the #1 spot on The Hype Machine and was one of the most played EDM songs of 2011.


title: Alesso

text: From that point on, his popularity continued to rise. MTV named him one of the "EDM Rookies to Watch in 2012", and he recorded a BBC Radio 1 Essential Mix in March 2012. He played for a crowd of 60,000 at Creamfields, and accompanied Madonna on her MDNA World Tour at select European shows. By the end of 2012, Alesso had released another original mix called "Years" featuring Matthew Koma that performed well in the United Kingdom. He was ranked 20th on the list of the top 100 DJs of 2012 by "DJ Magazine".


title: Alesso

text: By 2013, Alesso had played at music festivals like Coachella, Electric Daisy Carnival, Ultra Music Festival, and Tomorrowland. He released a remix of "If I Lose Myself" by OneRepublic that was nominated for Grammy and garnered almost a million listens on SoundCloud in a relatively short time. In a collaboration with Calvin Harris and Hurts, Alesso released "Under Control" which racked up 88 million views. In 2013, he achieved his highest ranking on the list of the top 100 DJs at number 13.


title: Alesso

text: In July 2014, Alesso signed with Def Jam Recordings, becoming only the second EDM producer to sign with the label (after Afrojack). He debuted a new track called "Tear the Roof Up", which was named a "Future Exclusive" by Zane Lowe. The music video for "Tear The Roof Up" was released exclusively through SnapChat in September 2014. He embarked on his "Heroes Tour", named after his single "Heroes (We Could Be)" featuring Tove Lo.


title: Alesso

text: During the tour, Alesso teamed up with Chime for Change, a global charity that seeks to "improve the lives of women around the world." Alesso's involvement with the charity has raised over $50,000 as of October 2014. His debut studio album was originally set to be released in the first quarter of 2015, but was later released on 22 May 2015. It includes both "Heroes (We Could Be)" and "Tear the Roof Up".


title: Alesso

text: The single "Heroes (We Could Be)" was officially released on 15 December 2014. His new single, titled "Cool" and featuring Roy English, premiered on 13 February 2015, on BBC Radio 1. The track, which samples Kylie Minogue's "Get Outta My Way", was officially released in Europe on 16 February 2015 and in North America on 17 February 2015.


title: Alesso

text: On 30 September 2016, his new version of "I Wanna Know" featuring Taiwanese singer Jolin Tsai was officially released. Alesso and Tsai closed International Music Summit with a discussion of what it takes to bridge the gap between East and West in electronic music. On 1 October 2016, Alesso and Tsai performed the single "I Wanna Know" and a remix version of Tsai's hit "Play" together at the Storm Music Festival in Shanghai. On 4 October 2016, it was announced that Alesso would be releasing a new version of the song "Years", collaborating with K-pop band Exo's member, Chen. The song was released on 7 October through SM Station. On 7 October 2016, Alesso premiered a new single, co-produced by Dillon Francis, called "Take My Breath Away" during Ultra Music Festival Taiwan. The single was later released on 21 October 2016.


title: Alesso

text: On 8 September 2017, Hailee Steinfeld released her new song "Let Me Go" which is a collaboration between Alesso, Watt, and Florida Georgia Line. On 13 October 2017, Alesso released his new single "Is That for Me" which is a collaboration with Brazilian singer Anitta.


title: Alesso

text: In 2018, Alesso went on his European Tour, highlighted by his closing performance at the Tomorrowland festival in Belgium. To celebrate the 10th anniversary of Electric Zoo later that year, Alesso is invited to be the headliner along with Tiesto.


title: Alesso

text: In August 2018, Alesso performed on ABC's Good Morning America's summer concert series where he debuted his new single, "Remedy". The concert was held in New York City's Central Park while Alesso was joined by singer Conor Maynard for the song's performance. Remedy reached number one on the US Dance Airplay chart.


title: Alesso

text: In October 2018, Alesso played three back to back sold-out shows at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles. Previously in the year he also performed shows in Brooklyn and San Francisco.


title: Alesso

text: Alesso's final single release of 2018 was "Tilted Towers", made in partnership with video game streamer Ninja and was debuted live on Twitch where it was watched by over fifty thousand fans. The song's name is based on a popular map in the video game Fortnite, which Alesso and Ninja live streamed playing together to promote the track's release.


title: Alesso

text: He was also featured in Netflix's 'Vai Anitta' docu-series, which follows the life of fellow Shots Studios' superstar, Anitta (singer). An episode of the series focuses on their collaborative single "Is That for Me" and the subsequent music video shot in the Amazon jungle.


title: Alesso

text: Alesso finished off his year with a New Year's Eve performance at Miami's Fontainebleau Resort. He co-headlined the show with Colombian reggaeton star J Balvin where the two played at the venue's poolside.


title: Alesso

text: On 29 January 2019 it was announced that Alesso will perform at the Indy 500 Snake Pit on 26 May 2019, along with Skrillex, Illenium, and Chris Lake. Previous performers have included: Axwell Λ Ingrosso, deadmau5, Diplo, GRiZ, Zedd, Marshmello, Martin Garrix, Steve Aoki, Kaskade, Hardwell, Dillon Francis, and Zeds Dead. On 22 February 2019 he performed at the concert Venezuela Live Aid alongside influencers Lele Pons and Juanpa Zurita to help raise funds to fight Venezuelan humanitarian crisis.


title: Alesso

text: In November 2020, Alesso performed at Road to Ultra Taiwan, one of the few major music events still taking place in 2020 despite the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Alesso

text: One of the heists in the popular video game Payday 2 has the players robbing a vault during an Alesso concert. The heist, named The Alesso Heist, was released on 21 May 2015. The music played during the concert are two of Alesso's own tracks, Payday and Profondo.


title: Alesso

text: Alesso is renowned for his methods of utilizing melodic vibes in his productions along which he also alternates between his rave oriented productions. Productions include "Clash" and "Tear the Roof Up" fit with his graveled rave style, while his other melodically rich counterpart include productions such as "Years" (featuring Matthew Koma), "Heroes" (featuring Tove Lo), and his collaboration with Dirty South and Ruben Haze – "City of Dreams". Some considered him to be the next generation in Swedish music after Swedish House Mafia and Avicii.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: In computer science, best, worst, and average cases of a given algorithm express what the resource usage is "at least", "at most" and "on average", respectively. Usually the resource being considered is running time, i.e. time complexity, but could also be memory or some other resource.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: Best case is the function which performs the minimum number of steps on input data of n elements. Worst case is the function which performs the maximum number of steps on input data of size n. Average case is the function which performs an average number of steps on input data of n elements.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: In real-time computing, the worst-case execution time is often of particular concern since it is important to know how much time might be needed "in the worst case" to guarantee that the algorithm will always finish on time.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: Average performance and worst-case performance are the most used in algorithm analysis. Less widely found is best-case performance, but it does have uses: for example, where the best cases of individual tasks are known, they can be used to improve the accuracy of an overall worst-case analysis. Computer scientists use probabilistic analysis techniques, especially expected value, to determine expected running times.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: The terms are used in other contexts; for example the worst- and best-case outcome of an epidemic, worst-case temperature to which an electronic circuit element is exposed, etc. Where components of specified tolerance are used, devices must be designed to work properly with the worst-case combination of tolerances and external conditions.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: The term "best-case performance" is used in computer science to describe an algorithm's behavior under optimal conditions. For example, the best case for a simple linear search on a list occurs when the desired element is the first element of the list.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: Development and choice of algorithms is rarely based on best-case performance: most academic and commercial enterprises are more interested in improving Average-case complexity and worst-case performance. Algorithms may also be trivially modified to have good best-case running time by hard-coding solutions to a finite set of inputs, making the measure almost meaningless.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: Worst-case performance analysis and average-case performance analysis have some similarities, but in practice usually require different tools and approaches.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: Determining what "typical input" means is difficult, and often that average input has properties which make it difficult to characterise mathematically (consider, for instance, algorithms that are designed to operate on strings of text). Similarly, even when a sensible description of a particular "average case" (which will probably only be applicable for some uses of the algorithm) is possible, they tend to result in more difficult analysis of equations.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: Worst-case analysis gives a "safe" analysis (the worst case is never underestimated), but one which can be overly "pessimistic", since there may be no (realistic) input that would take this many steps.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: In some situations it may be necessary to use a pessimistic analysis in order to guarantee safety. Often however, a pessimistic analysis may be too pessimistic, so an analysis that gets closer to the real value but may be optimistic (perhaps with some known low probability of failure) can be a much more practical approach. One modern approach in academic theory to bridge the gap between worst-case and average-case analysis is called smoothed analysis.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: When analyzing algorithms which often take a small time to complete, but periodically require a much larger time, amortized analysis can be used to determine the worst-case running time over a (possibly infinite) series of operations. This amortized cost can be much closer to the average cost, while still providing a guaranteed upper limit on the running time. So e.g. online algorithms are frequently based on amortized analysis.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: Many algorithms with bad worst-case performance have good average-case performance. For problems we want to solve, this is a good thing: we can hope that the particular instances we care about are average. For cryptography, this is very bad: we want typical instances of a cryptographic problem to be hard. Here methods like random self-reducibility can be used for some specific problems to show that the worst case is no harder than the average case, or, equivalently, that the average case is no easier than the worst case.


title: Best, worst and average case

text: On the other hand, some data structures like hash tables have very poor worst-case behaviors, but a well written hash table of sufficient size will statistically never give the worst case; the average number of operations performed follows an exponential decay curve, and so the run time of an operation is statistically bounded.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fish anatomy is the study of the form or morphology of fish. It can be contrasted with fish physiology, which is the study of how the component parts of fish function together in the living fish. In practice, fish anatomy and fish physiology complement each other, the former dealing with the structure of a fish, its organs or component parts and how they are put together, such as might be observed on the dissecting table or under the microscope, and the latter dealing with how those components function together in living fish.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The anatomy of fish is often shaped by the physical characteristics of water, the medium in which fish live. Water is much denser than air, holds a relatively small amount of dissolved oxygen, and absorbs more light than air does. The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage (cartilaginous fish) or bone (bony fish). The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins, are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays which, with the exception of the caudal fins, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and then around the body in a single circulatory loop. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, which responds to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Sharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, and they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales. They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder. Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large yolky eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous, having the young develop internally, but others are oviparous and the larvae develop externally in egg cases.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from the features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an operculum, and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping scales. Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column.


title: Fish anatomy

text: In many respects, fish anatomy is different from mammalian anatomy. However, it still shares the same basic body plan from which all vertebrates have evolved: a notochord, rudimentary vertebrae, and a well-defined head and tail.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fish have a variety of different body plans. At the broadest level, their body is divided into head, trunk, and tail, although the divisions are not always externally visible. The body is often fusiform, a streamlined body plan often found in fast-moving fish. They may also be filiform (eel-shaped) or vermiform (worm-shaped). Fish are often either compressed (laterally thin) or depressed (dorso-ventrally flat).


title: Fish anatomy

text: There are two different skeletal types: the exoskeleton, which is the stable outer shell of an organism, and the endoskeleton, which forms the support structure inside the body. The skeleton of the fish is made of either cartilage (cartilaginous fishes) or bone (bony fishes). The fins are made up of bony fin rays and, except for the caudal fin, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported only by the muscles. The ribs attach to the spine.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue. Bones come in a variety of shapes and have a complex internal and external structure. They are lightweight, yet strong and hard, in addition to fulfilling their many other biological functions.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fish are vertebrates. All vertebrates are built along the basic chordate body plan: a stiff rod running through the length of the animal (vertebral column or notochord), with a hollow tube of nervous tissue (the spinal cord) above it and the gastrointestinal tract below. In all vertebrates, the mouth is found at, or right below, the anterior end of the animal, while the anus opens to the exterior before the end of the body. The remaining part of the body beyond the anus forms a tail with vertebrae and the spinal cord, but no gut.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, in which the notochord (a stiff rod of uniform composition) found in all chordates has been replaced by a segmented series of stiffer elements (vertebrae) separated by mobile joints (intervertebral discs, derived embryonically and evolutionarily from the notochord). However, a few fish have secondarily lost this anatomy, retaining the notochord into adulthood, such as the sturgeon.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The vertebral column consists of a centrum (the central body or spine of the vertebra), vertebral arches which protrude from the top and bottom of the centrum, and various processes which project from the centrum or arches. An arch extending from the top of the centrum is called a neural arch, while the haemal arch or chevron is found underneath the centrum in the caudal vertebrae of fish. The centrum of a fish is usually concave at each end (amphicoelous), which limits the motion of the fish. In contrast, the centrum of a mammal is flat at each end (acoelous), a shape that can support and distribute compressive forces.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The vertebrae of lobe-finned fishes consist of three discrete bony elements. The vertebral arch surrounds the spinal cord, and is broadly similar in form to that found in most other vertebrates. Just beneath the arch lies the small plate-like pleurocentrum, which protects the upper surface of the notochord. Below that, a larger arch-shaped intercentrum protects the lower border. Both of these structures are embedded within a single cylindrical mass of cartilage. A similar arrangement was found in primitive tetrapods, but in the evolutionary line that led to reptiles, mammals and birds, the intercentrum became partially or wholly replaced by an enlarged pleurocentrum, which in turn became the bony vertebral body.


title: Fish anatomy

text: In most ray-finned fishes, including all teleosts, these two structures are fused with and embedded within a solid piece of bone superficially resembling the vertebral body of mammals. In living amphibians, there is simply a cylindrical piece of bone below the vertebral arch, with no trace of the separate elements present in the early tetrapods.


title: Fish anatomy

text: In cartilaginous fish such as sharks, the vertebrae consist of two cartilaginous tubes. The upper tube is formed from the vertebral arches, but also includes additional cartilaginous structures filling in the gaps between the vertebrae, enclosing the spinal cord in an essentially continuous sheath. The lower tube surrounds the notochord and has a complex structure, often including multiple layers of calcification.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Lampreys have vertebral arches, but nothing resembling the vertebral bodies found in all higher vertebrates. Even the arches are discontinuous, consisting of separate pieces of arch-shaped cartilage around the spinal cord in most parts of the body, changing to long strips of cartilage above and below in the tail region. Hagfishes lack a true vertebral column, and are therefore not properly considered vertebrates, but a few tiny neural arches are present in the tail. Hagfishes do, however, possess a cranium. For this reason, the vertebrate subphylum is sometimes referred to as "Craniata" when discussing morphology. Molecular analysis since 1992 has suggested that the hagfishes are most closely related to lampreys, and so also are vertebrates in a monophyletic sense. Others consider them a sister group of vertebrates in the common taxon of Craniata.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The head or skull includes the skull roof (a set of bones covering the brain, eyes and nostrils), the snout (from the eye to the forward-most point of the upper jaw), the operculum or gill cover (absent in sharks and jawless fish), and the cheek, which extends from the eye to the preopercle. The operculum and preopercle may or may not have spines. In sharks and some primitive bony fish the spiracle, a small extra gill opening, is found behind each eye.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The skull in fishes is formed from a series of only loosely connected bones. Jawless fish and sharks only possess a cartilaginous endocranium, with the upper and lower jaws of cartilaginous fish being separate elements not attached to the skull. Bony fishes have additional dermal bone, forming a more or less coherent skull roof in lungfish and holost fish. The lower jaw defines a chin.


title: Fish anatomy

text: In lampreys, the mouth is formed into an oral disk. In most jawed fish, however, there are three general configurations. The mouth may be on the forward end of the head (terminal), may be upturned (superior), or may be turned downwards or on the bottom of the fish (subterminal or inferior). The mouth may be modified into a suckermouth adapted for clinging onto objects in fast-moving water.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The simpler structure is found in jawless fish, in which the cranium is represented by a trough-like basket of cartilaginous elements only partially enclosing the brain and associated with the capsules for the inner ears and the single nostril. Distinctively, these fish have no jaws.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Cartilaginous fish such as sharks also have simple, and presumably primitive, skull structures. The cranium is a single structure forming a case around the brain, enclosing the lower surface and the sides, but always at least partially open at the top as a large fontanelle. The most anterior part of the cranium includes a forward plate of cartilage, the rostrum, and capsules to enclose the olfactory organs. Behind these are the orbits, and then an additional pair of capsules enclosing the structure of the inner ear. Finally, the skull tapers towards the rear, where the foramen magnum lies immediately above a single condyle, articulating with the first vertebra. Smaller foramina for the cranial nerves can be found at various points throughout the cranium. The jaws consist of separate hoops of cartilage, almost always distinct from the cranium proper.


title: Fish anatomy

text: In the ray-finned fishes, there has also been considerable modification from the primitive pattern. The roof of the skull is generally well formed, and although the exact relationship of its bones to those of tetrapods is unclear, they are usually given similar names for convenience. Other elements of the skull, however, may be reduced; there is little cheek region behind the enlarged orbits, and little if any bone in between them. The upper jaw is often formed largely from the premaxilla, with the maxilla itself located further back, and an additional bone, the sympletic, linking the jaw to the rest of the cranium.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Although the skulls of fossil lobe-finned fish resemble those of the early tetrapods, the same cannot be said of those of the living lungfishes. The skull roof is not fully formed, and consists of multiple, somewhat irregularly shaped bones with no direct relationship to those of tetrapods. The upper jaw is formed from the pterygoid bones and vomers alone, all of which bear teeth. Much of the skull is formed from cartilage, and its overall structure is reduced.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The head may have several fleshy structures known as barbels, which may be very long and resemble whiskers. Many fish species also have a variety of protrusions or spines on the head. The nostrils or nares of almost all fishes do not connect to the oral cavity, but are pits of varying shape and depth.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The vertebrate jaw probably originally evolved in the Silurian period and appeared in the Placoderm fish which further diversified in the Devonian. Jaws are thought to derive from the pharyngeal arches that support the gills in fish. The two most anterior of these arches are thought to have become the jaw itself (see hyomandibula) and the hyoid arch, which braces the jaw against the braincase and increases mechanical efficiency. While there is no fossil evidence directly to support this theory, it makes sense in light of the numbers of pharyngeal arches that are visible in extant jawed animals (the gnathostomes), which have seven arches, and primitive jawless vertebrates (the Agnatha), which have nine.


title: Fish anatomy

text: It is thought that the original selective advantage garnered by the jaw was not related to feeding, but to increase respiration efficiency. The jaws were used in the buccal pump (observable in modern fish and amphibians) that pumps water across the gills of fish or air into the lungs of amphibians. Over evolutionary time, the more familiar use of jaws in feeding was selected for and became a very important function in vertebrates.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Linkage systems are widely distributed in animals. The most thorough overview of the different types of linkages in animals has been provided by M. Muller, who also designed a new classification system which is especially well suited for biological systems. Linkage mechanisms are especially frequent and various in the head of bony fishes, such as wrasses, which have evolved many specialized aquatic feeding mechanisms. Especially advanced are the linkage mechanisms of jaw protrusion. For suction feeding a system of connected four-bar linkages is responsible for the coordinated opening of the mouth and 3-D expansion of the buccal cavity. Other linkages are responsible for protrusion of the premaxilla.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fish eyes are similar to terrestrial vertebrates like birds and mammals, but have a more spherical lens. Their retinas generally have both rod cells and cone cells (for scotopic and photopic vision), and most species have colour vision. Some fish can see ultraviolet and some can see polarized light. Amongst jawless fish, the lamprey has well-developed eyes, while the hagfish has only primitive eyespots. The ancestors of modern hagfish, thought to be protovertebrate, were evidently pushed to very deep, dark waters, where they were less vulnerable to sighted predators and where it is advantageous to have a convex eyespot, which gathers more light than a flat or concave one. Unlike humans, fish normally adjust focus by moving the lens closer to or further from the retina.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The gills, located under the operculum, are a respiratory organ for the extraction of oxygen from water and for the excretion of carbon dioxide. They are not usually visible, but can be seen in some species, such as the frilled shark. The labyrinth organ of Anabantoidei and Clariidae is used to allow the fish to extract oxygen from the air. Gill rakers are finger-like projections off the gill arch which function in filter feeders to retain filtered prey. They may be bony or cartilaginous.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The skin of the fish are a part of the integumentary system, which contains two layers: the epidermis and the dermis layer. The epidermis is derived from the ectoderm and becomes the most superficial layer that consists entirely of live cells, with only minimal quantities of keratin. It is generally permeable. The dermis is derived from the mesoderm and resembles the little connective tissue which are composed of mostly collagen fibers found in bony fish. Some fish species have scales that emerge from the dermis, penetrate the thin layer of the basement membrane that lies between the epidermis and dermis, and becomes externally visible and covers the epidermis layer.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Generally, the skin also contains sweat glands and sebaceous glands that are both unique to mammals, but additional types of skin glands are found in fish. Found in the epidermis, fish typically have numerous individual mucus-secreting skin cells called goblet cells that produce a slimy substance to the surface of the skin. This aids in insulation and protection from bacterial infection. The skin colour of many mammals are often due to melanin found in their epidermis. In fish, however, the colour of the skin are largely due to chromatophores in the dermis, which, in addition to melanin, may contain guanine or carotenoid pigments. Many species, such as flounders, change the colour of their skin by adjusting the relative size of their chromatophores. Some fishes may also have venom glands, photophores, or cells that produce a more watery serous fluid in the dermis.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Also part of the fish's integumentary system are the scales that cover the outer body of many jawed fish. The commonly known scales are the ones that originate from the dermis or mesoderm, and may be similar in structure to teeth. Some species are covered by scutes instead. Others may have no scales covering the outer body.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Another less common type of scale is the scute, which may be an external, shield-like bony plate; a modified, thickened scale that is often keeled or spiny; or a projecting, modified (rough and strongly ridged) scale. Scutes are usually associated with the lateral line, but may be found on the caudal peduncle (where they form caudal keels) or along the ventral profile. Some fish, such as pineconefish, are completely or partially covered in scutes. Their function are intended for protection as a body armor for fish against environmental abrasions and predations from other species.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The lateral line is a sense organ used to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water. For example, fish can use their lateral line system to follow the vortices produced by fleeing prey. In most species, it consists of a line of receptors running along each side of the fish.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Photophores are light-emitting organs which appear as luminous spots on some fishes. The light can be produced from compounds during the digestion of prey, from specialized mitochondrial cells in the organism called photocytes, or from symbiotic bacteria. Photophores are used for attracting food or confusing predators.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fins are the most distinctive features of fish. They are either composed of bony spines or rays protruding from the body with skin covering them and joining them together, either in a webbed fashion as seen in most bony fish, or similar to a flipper as seen in sharks. Apart from the tail or caudal fin, fins have no direct connection with the spine and are supported by muscles only. Their principal function is to help the fish swim. Fins can also be used for gliding or crawling, as seen in the flying fish and frogfish. Fins located in different places on the fish serve different purposes, such as moving forward, turning, and keeping an upright position. For every fin, there are a number of fish species in which this particular fin has been lost during evolution.


title: Fish anatomy

text: In bony fish, most fins may have spines or rays. A fin may contain only spiny rays, only soft rays, or a combination of both. If both are present, the spiny rays are always anterior. Spines are generally stiff, sharp and unsegmented. Rays are generally soft, flexible, segmented, and may be branched. This segmentation of rays is the main difference that distinguishes them from spines; spines may be flexible in certain species, but never segmented.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Spines have a variety of uses. In catfish, they are used as a form of defense; many catfish have the ability to lock their spines outwards. Triggerfish also use spines to lock themselves in crevices to prevent them being pulled out.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Lepidotrichia are bony, bilaterally-paired, segmented fin rays found in bony fishes. They develop around actinotrichia as part of the dermal exoskeleton. Lepidotrichia may have some cartilage or bone in them as well. They are actually segmented and appear as a series of disks stacked one on top of another. The genetic basis for the formation of the fin rays is thought to be genes coding for the proteins actinodin 1 and actinodin 2.


title: Fish anatomy

text: As with other vertebrates, the intestines of fish consist of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine. In most higher vertebrates, the small intestine is further divided into the duodenum and other parts. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not as clear, and the terms "anterior intestine" or "proximal intestine" may be used instead of duodenum.


title: Fish anatomy

text: In bony fish, the intestine is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch-like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epithelium. There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish, such as sharks, sturgeons, and lungfish. Instead, the digestive part of the gut forms a "spiral intestine", connecting the stomach to the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight, but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This fold creates a valve-like structure that greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods. In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The pyloric caecum is a pouch, usually peritoneal, at the beginning of the large intestine. It receives faecal material from the ileum, and connects to the ascending colon of the large intestine. It is present in most amniotes, and also in lungfish. Many fish in addition have a number of small outpocketings, also called pyloric caeca, along their intestine; despite the name they are not homologous to the caecum of amniotes. Their purpose is to increase the overall surface area of the digestive epithelium, therefore optimizing the absorption of sugars, amino acids, and dipeptides, among other nutrients.


title: Fish anatomy

text: As with other vertebrates, the relative positions of the esophageal and duodenal openings to the stomach remain relatively constant. As a result, the stomach always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However, lampreys, hagfishes, chimaeras, lungfishes, and some teleost fish have no stomach at all, with the esophagus opening directly into the intestine. These fish consume diets that either require little storage of food, no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The kidneys of fish are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. They are similar to the mesonephros of higher vertebrates (reptiles, birds, and mammals). The kidneys contain clusters of nephrons, serviced by collecting ducts which usually drain into a mesonephric duct. However, the situation is not always so simple. In cartilaginous fish, there is also a shorter duct which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the mesonephric duct at the bladder or cloaca. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult. Hagfish and lamprey kidneys are unusually simple. They consist of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the mesonephric duct.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fish do not have a discrete adrenal gland with distinct cortex and medulla, similar to those found in mammals. The interrenal and chromaffin cells are located within the head kidney.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The spleen is found in nearly all vertebrates. It is a non-vital organ, similar in structure to a large lymph node. It acts primarily as a blood filter, and plays important roles in regards to red blood cells and the immune system. In cartilaginous and bony fish it consists primarily of red pulp and is normally a somewhat elongated organ as it actually lies inside the serosal lining of the intestine. The only vertebrates lacking a spleen are the lampreys and hagfishes. Even in these animals, there is a diffuse layer of haematopoietic tissue within the gut wall, which has a similar structure to red pulp, and is presumed to be homologous to the spleen of higher vertebrates.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The liver is a large vital organ present in all fish. It has a wide range of functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion. It is very susceptible to contamination by organic and inorganic compounds because they can accumulate over time and cause potentially life-threatening conditions. Because of the liver's capacity for detoxification and storage of harmful components, it is often used as an environmental biomarker.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fish have what is often described as a two-chambered heart, consisting of one atrium to receive blood and one ventricle to pump it, in contrast to three chambers (two atria, one ventricle) of amphibian and most reptile hearts and four chambers (two atria, two ventricles) of mammal and bird hearts. However, the fish heart has entry and exit compartments that may be called chambers, so it is also sometimes described as three-chambered, or four-chambered, depending on what is counted as a chamber. The atrium and ventricle are sometimes considered "true chambers", while the others are considered "accessory chambers".


title: Fish anatomy

text: Ostial valves, consisting of flap-like connective tissues, prevent blood from flowing backward through the compartments. The ostial valve between the sinus venosus and atrium is called the sino-atrial valve, which closes during ventricular contraction. Between the atrium and ventricle is an ostial valve called the atrioventricular valve, and between the bulbus arteriosus and ventricle is an ostial valve called the bulbo-ventricular valve. The conus arteriosus has a variable number of semilunar valves.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The ventral aorta delivers blood to the gills where it is oxygenated and flows, through the dorsal aorta, into the rest of the body. (In tetrapods, the ventral aorta is divided in two; one half forms the ascending aorta, while the other forms the pulmonary artery).


title: Fish anatomy

text: The circulatory systems of all vertebrates are closed. Fish have the simplest circulatory system, consisting of only one circuit, with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the gills and on to the capillaries of the body tissues. This is known as "single cycle" circulation.


title: Fish anatomy

text: In the adult fish, the four compartments are not arranged in a straight row, instead forming an S-shape with the latter two compartments lying above the former two. This relatively simpler pattern is found in cartilaginous fish and in the ray-finned fish. In teleosts, the conus arteriosus is very small and can more accurately be described as part of the aorta rather than of the heart proper. The conus arteriosus is not present in any amniotes, presumably having been absorbed into the ventricles over the course of evolution. Similarly, while the sinus venosus is present as a vestigial structure in some reptiles and birds, it is otherwise absorbed into the right atrium and is no longer distinguishable.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The swim bladder or gas bladder is an internal organ that contributes to the ability of a fish to control its buoyancy, and thus to stay at the current water depth, ascend, or descend without having to waste energy in swimming. The bladder is found only in the bony fishes. In the more primitive groups like some Leuciscinae, bichirs and lungfish, the bladder is open to the esophagus and doubles as a lung. It is often absent in fast swimming fishes such as the tuna and mackerel families. Fish with bladders open to the esophagus are called physostomes, while fish with the bladder closed are called physoclists. In the latter, the gas content of the bladder is controlled through a rete mirabilis, a network of blood vessels affecting gas exchange between the bladder and the blood.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fishes of the superorder Ostariophysi possess a structure called the Weberian apparatus, a modification which allows them to hear better. This ability may explain the marked success of ostariophysian fishes. The apparatus is made up of a set of bones known as Weberian ossicles, a chain of small bones that connect the auditory system to the swim bladder of fishes. The ossicles connect the gas bladder wall with Y-shaped lymph sinus that is next to the lymph-filled transverse canal joining the saccules of the right and left ears. This allows the transmission of vibrations to the inner ear. A fully functioning Weberian apparatus consists of the swim bladder, the Weberian ossicles, a portion of the anterior vertebral column, and some muscles and ligaments.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fish reproductive organs include testes and ovaries. In most species, gonads are paired organs of similar size, which can be partially or totally fused. There may also be a range of secondary organs that increase reproductive fitness. The genital papilla is a small, fleshy tube behind the anus in some fishes from which the sperm or eggs are released; the sex of a fish often can be determined by the shape of its papilla. Sex determination in fish, which is dependent on intrinsic genetic factors, is followed by sex differentiation through gene expression of feedback mechanisms that ensure the stability of the levels of particular hormones and cellular profile. However, the hermaphroditic species are an exception in which they are able to alter the course of sex differentiation in order to maximize their fitness. There are various determination mechanisms for gonadal sex in fish and processes that aid development of the gonadal function. Gonadal sex is influenced by a number of factors, including cell-autonomous genetic mechanisms, endocrine, paracrine, behavioral, or environmental signals. This results in the primordial germ cells (PGCs) to be able to interpret internal or external stimuli to develop into spermatogonia or oogonia. Spermatogenesis in testes is a process in which spermatogonia differentiates into spermatocytes through mitosis and meiosis, which halves the number of chromosomes, creating haploid spermatids. During spermiogenesis, the last stage of spermatogenesis, the haploid spermatids develop into spermatozoa. In the ovaries, oogonia also undergo mitosis and meiosis during oogenesis, and this gives rise to primary oocytes and then eventually the ovum. The primary oocyte divides and produces the secondary oocyte as well as a polar body, before the secondary oocyte develops into the haploid ootid.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Most male fish have two testes of similar size. In the case of sharks, the testis on the right side is usually larger. The primitive jawless fish have only a single testis located in the midline of the body, although even this forms from the fusion of paired structures in the embryo.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Under a tough membranous shell, the tunica albuginea, the testis of some teleost fish, contains very fine coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules. The tubules are lined with a layer of cells (germ cells) that from puberty into old age, develop into sperm cells (also known as spermatozoa or male gametes). The developing sperm travel through the seminiferous tubules to the rete testis located in the mediastinum testis, to the efferent ducts, and then to the epididymis where newly created sperm cells mature (see spermatogenesis). The sperm move into the vas deferens, and are eventually expelled through the urethra and out of the urethral orifice through muscular contractions.


title: Fish anatomy

text: However, most fish do not possess seminiferous tubules. Instead, the sperm are produced in spherical structures called "sperm ampullae". These are seasonal structures, releasing their contents during the breeding season and then being reabsorbed by the body. Before the next breeding season, new sperm ampullae begin to form and ripen. The ampullae are otherwise essentially identical to the seminiferous tubules in higher vertebrates, including the same range of cell types.


title: Fish anatomy

text: In terms of spermatogonia distribution, the structure of teleost testes have two types: in the most common, spermatogonia occur all along the seminiferous tubules, while in Atherinomorpha, they are confined to the distal portion of these structures. Fish can present cystic or semi-cystic spermatogenesis in relation to the release phase of germ cells in cysts to the lumen of the seminiferous tubules.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Many of the features found in ovaries are common to all vertebrates, including the presence of follicular cells and tunica albuginea There may be hundreds or even millions of fertile eggs present in the ovary of a fish at any given time. Fresh eggs may be developing from the germinal epithelium throughout life. Corpora lutea are found only in mammals, and in some elasmobranch fish; in other species, the remnants of the follicle are quickly resorbed by the ovary. The ovary of teleosts is often contains a hollow, lymph-filled space which opens into the oviduct, and into which the eggs are shed. Most normal female fish have two ovaries. In some elasmobranchs, only the right ovary develops fully. In the primitive jawless fish and some teleosts, there is only one ovary, formed by the fusion of the paired organs in the embryo.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fish ovaries may be of three types: gymnovarian, secondary gymnovarian or cystovarian. In the first type, the oocytes are released directly into the coelomic cavity and then enter the ostium, then through the oviduct and are eliminated. Secondary gymnovarian ovaries shed ova into the coelom from which they go directly into the oviduct. In the third type, the oocytes are conveyed to the exterior through the oviduct. Gymnovaries are the primitive condition found in lungfish, sturgeon, and bowfin. Cystovaries characterize most teleosts, where the ovary lumen has continuity with the oviduct. Secondary gymnovaries are found in salmonids and a few other teleosts.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fish typically have quite small brains relative to body size compared with other vertebrates, typically one-fifteenth the brain mass of a similarly sized bird or mammal. However, some fish have relatively large brains, most notably mormyrids and sharks, which have brains about as massive relative to body weight as birds and marsupials.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Fish brains are divided into several regions. At the front are the olfactory lobes, a pair of structures that receive and process signals from the nostrils via the two olfactory nerves. Similar to the way humans smell chemicals in the air, fish smell chemicals in the water by tasting them. The olfactory lobes are very large in fish that hunt primarily by smell, such as hagfish, sharks, and catfish. Behind the olfactory lobes is the two-lobed telencephalon, the structural equivalent to the cerebrum in higher vertebrates. In fish the telencephalon is concerned mostly with olfaction. Together these structures form the forebrain.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The forebrain is connected to the midbrain via the diencephalon (in the diagram, this structure is below the optic lobes and consequently not visible). The diencephalon performs functions associated with hormones and homeostasis. The pineal body lies just above the diencephalon. This structure detects light, maintains circadian rhythms, and controls color changes. The midbrain or mesencephalon contains the two optic lobes. These are very large in species that hunt by sight, such as rainbow trout and cichlids.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The hindbrain or metencephalon is particularly involved in swimming and balance. The cerebellum is a single-lobed structure that is typically the biggest part of the brain. Hagfish and lampreys have relatively small cerebella, while the mormyrid cerebellum is massive and apparently involved in their electrical sense.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The brain stem or myelencephalon is the brain's posterior. As well as controlling some muscles and body organs, in bony fish at least, the brain stem governs respiration and osmoregulation.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Vertebrates are the only chordate group to exhibit a proper brain. A slight swelling of the anterior end of the dorsal nerve cord is found in the lancelet, though it lacks the eyes and other complex sense organs comparable to those of vertebrates. Other chordates do not show any trends towards cephalisation. The central nervous system is based on a hollow nerve tube running along the length of the animal, from which the peripheral nervous system branches out to innervate the various systems. The front end of the nerve tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the central canal of spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles; the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain) then further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups. Two laterally placed eyes form around outgrows from the midbrain, except in hagfish, though this may be a secondary loss. The forebrain is well developed and subdivided in most tetrapods, while the midbrain dominates in many fish and some salamanders. Vesicles of the forebrain are usually paired, giving rise to hemispheres like the cerebral hemispheres in mammals. The resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single, hollow ventral nerve cord topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles is unique to vertebrates.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The circuits in the cerebellum are similar across all classes of vertebrates, including fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. There is also an analogous brain structure in cephalopods with well-developed brains, such as octopuses. This has been taken as evidence that the cerebellum performs functions important to all animal species with a brain.


title: Fish anatomy

text: There is considerable variation in the size and shape of the cerebellum in different vertebrate species. In amphibians, lampreys, and hagfish, the cerebellum is little developed; in the latter two groups, it is barely distinguishable from the brain-stem. Although the spinocerebellum is present in these groups, the primary structures are small paired nuclei corresponding to the vestibulocerebellum.


title: Fish anatomy

text: The cerebellum of cartilaginous and bony fishes is extraordinarily large and complex. In at least one important respect, it differs in internal structure from the mammalian cerebellum: The fish cerebellum does not contain discrete deep cerebellar nuclei. Instead, the primary targets of Purkinje cells are a distinct type of cell distributed across the cerebellar cortex, a type not seen in mammals. In mormyrids (a family of weakly electrosensitive freshwater fish), the cerebellum is considerably larger than the rest of the brain put together. The largest part of it is a special structure called the "valvula", which has an unusually regular architecture and receives much of its input from the electrosensory system.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Most species of fish and amphibians possess a lateral line system that senses pressure waves in water. One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral line organ, the medial octavolateral nucleus, has a cerebellum-like structure, with granule cells and parallel fibers. In electrosensitive fish, the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus, which also has a cerebellum-like structure. In ray-finned fishes (by far the largest group), the optic tectum has a layer—the marginal layer—that is cerebellum-like.


title: Fish anatomy

text: A neuron is "identified" if it has properties that distinguish it from every other neuron in the same animal—properties such as location, neurotransmitter, gene expression pattern, and connectivity—and if every individual organism belonging to the same species has one and only one neuron with the same set of properties. In vertebrate nervous systems, very few neurons are "identified" in this sense (in humans, there are believed to be none). In simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique.


title: Fish anatomy

text: In vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic Mauthner cells of fish. Every fish has two Mauthner cells, located in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right. Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it goes. The synapses generated by a Mauthner cell are so powerful that a single action potential gives rise to a major behavioral response: within milliseconds the fish curves its body into a C-shape, then straightens, thereby propelling itself rapidly forward. Functionally, this is a fast escape response, triggered most easily by a strong sound wave or pressure wave impinging on the lateral line organ of the fish. Mauthner cells are not the only identified neurons in fish—there are about 20 more types, including pairs of "Mauthner cell analogs" in each spinal segmental nucleus. Although a Mauthner cell is capable of bringing about an escape response all by itself, in the context of ordinary behavior, other types of cells usually contribute to shaping the amplitude and direction of the response.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Mauthner cells have been described as command neurons. A command neuron is a special type of identified neuron, defined as a neuron that is capable of driving a specific behavior all by itself. Such neurons appear most commonly in the fast escape systems of various species—the squid giant axon and squid giant synapse, used for pioneering experiments in neurophysiology because of their enormous size, both participate in the fast escape circuit of the squid. The concept of a command neuron has, however, become controversial, because of studies showing that some neurons that initially appeared to fit the description were really only capable of evoking a response in a limited set of circumstances.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Immune organs vary by type of fish. In the jawless fish (lampreys and hagfish), true lymphoid organs are absent. These fish rely on regions of lymphoid tissue within other organs to produce immune cells. For example, erythrocytes, macrophages and plasma cells are produced in the anterior kidney (or pronephros) and some areas of the gut (where granulocytes mature). They resemble primitive bone marrow in hagfish.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) have a more advanced immune system. They have three specialized organs that are unique to chondrichthyes; the epigonal organs (lymphoid tissues similar to mammalian bone) that surround the gonads, the Leydig's organ within the walls of their esophagus, and a spiral valve in their intestine. These organs house typical immune cells (granulocytes, lymphocytes and plasma cells). They also possess an identifiable thymus and a well-developed spleen (their most important immune organ) where various lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages develop and are stored.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Chondrostean fish (sturgeons, paddlefish and bichirs) possess a major site for the production of granulocytes within a mass that is associated with the meninges, the membranes surrounding the central nervous system. Their heart is frequently covered with tissue that contains lymphocytes, reticular cells and a small number of macrophages. The chondrostean kidney is an important hemopoietic organ; it is where erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes and macrophages develop.


title: Fish anatomy

text: Like chondrostean fish, the major immune tissues of bony fish (teleostei) include the kidney (especially the anterior kidney), which houses many different immune cells. In addition, teleost fish possess a thymus, spleen and scattered immune areas within mucosal tissues (e.g. in the skin, gills, gut and gonads). Much like the mammalian immune system, teleost erythrocytes, neutrophils and granulocytes are believed to reside in the spleen whereas lymphocytes are the major cell type found in the thymus. In 2006, a lymphatic system similar to that in mammals was described in one species of teleost fish, the zebrafish. Although not confirmed as yet, this system presumably will be where unstimulated naive T cells accumulate while waiting to encounter an antigen.


title: Tom Smothers

text: Thomas Bolyn Smothers III (born February 2, 1937) is an American comedian, composer and musician, best known as half of the musical comedy duo the Smothers Brothers, alongside his younger brother Dick.


title: Tom Smothers

text: Smothers was born in 1937 at the Fort Jay army post hospital on Governors Island in New York City, the son of Ruth ("née" Remick), a homemaker; and Major Thomas B. Smothers, an army officer who died a POW, of the Japanese, in April 1945. After moving to California, he graduated from Redondo Union High School in Redondo Beach, California. He was a competitive unicyclist, and a state champion gymnast in the parallel bars. Smothers later attended San José State University, then known as San José State College. At SJSC, Smothers participated both in gymnastics and pole vault for the track team.


title: Tom Smothers

text: The Smothers Brothers initially wanted to be folk musicians. Tom did not feel that he was good enough to be a professional musician, but he was funny enough to do comedy. The two began adding comedy bits to their act.


title: Tom Smothers

text: Tom's first foray into the medium of television was as a regular on "The Steve Allen Show" in 1961. He followed that role with a single episode of "Burke's Law".


title: Tom Smothers

text: The Smothers Brothers next appeared on the CBS sitcom "The Smothers Brothers Show" from 1965 to 1966. Tom felt that the show did not play to the brothers' strengths and wanted creative control over their next venture.


title: Tom Smothers

text: Tom Smothers negotiated creative control over their next CBS show, a variety show entitled "The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour" in 1967. The documentary "Smothered" describes how the brothers (particularly Tom) fought CBS censors to sneak in references to religion, recreational drugs, sex, and the Vietnam War. Smothers is widely quoted as saying: "The only valid censorship of ideas is the right of people not to listen." The brothers' oppositional politics led to their show's demise, with David Steinberg later claiming "The most innovative variety show on television shut down because of political pressure". During the same years, Tom wrote and recorded mainstream songs, such as "Can't Help Falling in Love with You." Tom has since stated, "When the Smothers Brothers came on the air we had no political point of view or social consciousness, it just evolved as the show was on the air."


title: Tom Smothers

text: Smothers introduced some musical acts at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967. As he became more politically active, he befriended similarly inclined celebrities like John Lennon.


title: Tom Smothers

text: In 1969, Smothers played guitar on Lennon's recording of his single "Give Peace a Chance" (his name was also mentioned in the song). The song was written and performed during Lennon's and Yoko Ono's 'Bed-In' honeymoon on June 1, 1969, in Room 1742 at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Smothers can be seen in the hotel room in the 1988 documentary film "".


title: Tom Smothers

text: In the 1970s, Smothers chided popular comedian Bill Cosby for not taking a stand on political issues of the day such as civil rights.


title: Tom Smothers

text: In October 1976, both Cosby and Smothers were in attendance at a Playboy Mansion party. The tension between the two culminated in Cosby's punching Smothers in the head.


title: Tom Smothers

text: Tom Smothers's politics are in marked contrast to those of his brother Dick, whom Tom describes as "more conservative". Tom openly protested Democratic president Lyndon Baines Johnson and his involvement in and perpetuation of the Vietnam war. Tom stated in 2006 that the duo's real-life political and philosophical differences were a key part of their ability to maintain their act for as long as they did.


title: Tom Smothers

text: In motion pictures, Tom Smothers portrayed corporate-executive-turned-tap-dancing-magician Donald Beeman in one of Brian De Palma's earlier films, "Get to Know Your Rabbit" (1972). He also played a banker in "Silver Bears". He later portrayed Spike in "Serial" (1980).


title: Tom Smothers

text: In 1973, he voiced Ted E. Bear (Theodore Edward Bear) in the DePatie-Freleng NBC animated Christmas special "The Bear Who Slept Through Christmas". Ten years later, he voiced Ted E. Bear again for its Halloween sequel "The Great Bear Scare".


title: Tom Smothers

text: In 1980 Smothers starred in the film "There Goes the Bride". In 1982 he played with an ensemble cast in "Pandemonium" in which he was a brave Canadian Mountie chasing down a serial killer at a cheerleader camp. He also voiced one of the characters in the cartoon Christmas movie "" in 1993.


title: Tom Smothers

text: In 2007, Tom and Dick Smothers filmed a series of 30-second commercials and promotional spots for the River Rock Casino in Geyserville, California.


title: Tom Smothers

text: To augment their act in recent years, "Yo-Yo Man" became part of their shows. Tom Smothers had created the mostly non-speaking character in the late '60s, a comedic performer of tricks using a yo-yo. The term "Yo-Yo Man" is registered in his name. In their 2008 tour, Yo-Yo Man was listed as the group's opening act.


title: Tom Smothers

text: In 2008, during the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards, Smothers was awarded a special Emmy. In 1969, when he was head writer of "The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour", the writing staff was awarded the Emmy for Outstanding Writing in a Comedic Series. Smothers had refused to let his name be on the list of writers nominated for the Emmy, because he felt his name was too volatile. The award at the 2008 ceremony was presented by Steve Martin, who was one of the writers who originally won the award.


title: Tom Smothers

text: In December 2009, Tom and Dick both guest starred in a 21st-season episode of "The Simpsons" that also featured Cooper, Peyton and Eli Manning.


title: Tom Smothers

text: On May 6, 2011, the American Civil Liberties Union's Sonoma County chapter honored Smothers with its Jack Green Civil Liberties Award for his work against television censorship and for speaking out for peace and civil liberties.


title: Tom Smothers

text: Tom and Dick Smothers reunited in 2019 to mark the 50th anniversary of "The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour's" abrupt cancellation.


title: Tom Smothers

text: On the December 11, 2022, episode of "CBS News Sunday Morning", the brothers announced that they would be going on tour in 2023.


title: Tom Smothers

text: Smothers is the owner of Remick Ridge Vineyards in Sonoma County, California, with his wife, Marcy Carriker, and two children, Bo (born 1991) and Riley Rose (born 1996). He also has a son, Thomas Bolyn Smothers IV (Tom Jr.), from his first marriage, and one grandson, Phoenix Parrish-Smothers. There is a Smothers sister, Sherry, born in September 1941 in Pasadena, California.


title: Taboo (1980 film)

text: Taboo is a 1980 American pornographic film starring Kay Parker. It was written and produced by Helene Terrie and edited and directed by Kirdy Stevens. The film is the first of a series of 23 episodes to date (from 1980 to 2007).


title: Taboo (1980 film)

text: The story of this film starts with the difficulties of a woman's life after the abandonment of her husband. The Scott family's wife, Barbara (Kay Parker), decides to face life after being abandoned by her husband Chris and the father of her son Paul (Mike Ranger), beginning to look for work without much fortune. Seeing her sad and without company, her friend Gina (Juliet Anderson) gets her a date with a friend, who takes her to a swingers party.


title: Taboo (1980 film)

text: On the other hand, her son Paul with his girlfriend Sherry (Dorothy LeMay) shows a sex addiction and on the eve of his mother's date, Paul begins to have incestuous desires after seeing his mother naked.


title: Taboo (1980 film)

text: Barbara's date was a failure, however the images provoked in her an unthinkable lust for her own son Paul. Regretful and not knowing what to do, Barbara takes refuge affectionately in an old friend, Jerry, who in addition to company and affection gave her a job.


title: Taboo (1980 film)

text: The story shows that Barbara achieved her work and emotional goals, without completely closing her chapter of passion between Paul and her.


title: Taboo (1980 film)

text: In 1983, the film won an "Homer Award" from the prestigious Video Software Dealers Association in the category of "Best Adult Tape" (an inaugural award for X-rated films). The recognition was considered by many as a turning point in the acceptance of adult entertainment by the mainstream video industry. At Website "Adams Underground" praised Kay Parker's performance ("(Parker)...envelops the role of Barbara with a gentle, sensuous mist of sophisticated feminine allure that tantalizes with tangible passion stirring deep within that magnificent bosom") and the movie's visuals. But criticized the unrealistic portrayal of incest, the movie's ending and several technical aspects of the film, including the editing and the sound. Concluding: "In closing, all of Taboo's flaws amount to nothing more than a quickly forgotten boo-boo that Barbara sweetly kisses away with a warm tenderness that leaves you with indelible, pleasant memories." Roger Feelbert from "Pornonomy" gave the film a B+ rating, stating: "Overall, Taboo was well paced and acted and while I personally think it could have benefited from a slightly darker tone (something akin to 3 AM), as its own entity it's befitting of the place it holds in porn history." Roger T. Pipe from "Rogreviews" gave the film 11 out of 12 stars and said about "Taboo": "I don't think anyone is going to pick this up expecting a modern raincoater flick. If you were looking for that, please look elsewhere. The sex scenes are short, softer than we are used to and simply not up to the best of what we get these days. That's the down side of course. On the bright side, we get to see a classic.".


title: Taboo (1980 film)

text: Steve Pulaski from "Steve The Movie Man" called the film a "landmark in porn...that could very well be considered an early American, feature-length porn film focusing on a fetish, in this case, mother/son incest". He also noted that "Taboo" was written by a woman and in its core, the film is about how women are treated in our society: "The film, at its core, shows how a woman is rejected from everything, society, employers, and even her husband for allegedly not being good enough, and the first time she finally does something she wants, she's overcome with guilt and shame. Who would've thought a pornographic film would ever go this deep (metaphorically speaking)?"


title: Robert Caro

text: Robert Allan Caro (born October 30, 1935) is an American journalist and author known for his biographies of United States political figures Robert Moses and Lyndon B. Johnson.


title: Robert Caro

text: After working for many years as a reporter, Caro wrote "The Power Broker" (1974), a biography of New York urban planner Robert Moses, which was chosen by the Modern Library as one of the hundred greatest nonfiction books of the twentieth century. He has since written four of a planned five volumes of "The Years of Lyndon Johnson" (1982, 1990, 2002, 2012), a biography of the former president. Consequentially, he has been described as "the most influential biographer of the last century."


title: Robert Caro

text: For his biographies, he has won two Pulitzer Prizes in Biography, two National Book Awards (including one for Lifetime Achievement), the Francis Parkman Prize (awarded by the Society of American Historians to the book that "best exemplifies the union of the historian and the artist"), three National Book Critics Circle Awards, the Mencken Award for Best Book, the Carr P. Collins Award from the Texas Institute of Letters, the D. B. Hardeman Prize, and a Gold Medal in Biography from the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In 2010 President Barack Obama awarded Caro the National Humanities Medal.


title: Robert Caro

text: Due to Caro's reputation for exhaustive research and detail, he is sometimes invoked by reviewers of other writers who are called "Caro-esque" for their own extensive research.


title: Robert Caro

text: Caro was born in New York City, the son of Jewish parents Celia (née Mendelow), also born in New York, and Benjamin Caro, born in Warsaw, Poland. He grew up on Central Park West at 94th Street. His father, a businessman, spoke Yiddish as well as English, but he didn't speak either very often. He was 'very silent,' Caro said, and became more so after Caro's mother died, after a long illness, when Robert was 12. It was his mother's deathbed wish that he should go to the Horace Mann School, an exclusive private school in the Riverdale section of The Bronx. As a student there, Caro translated an edition of his school newspaper into Russian and mailed 10,000 copies to students in the USSR. Graduated in 1953, he went on to Princeton University, where he majored in English. He became managing editor of "The Daily Princetonian", second to Johnny Apple, later a prominent editor at "The New York Times".


title: Robert Caro

text: His writings, both in class and out, had been lengthy since his years at Horace Mann. A short story he wrote for "The Princeton Tiger", the school's humor magazine, took up almost an entire issue. His 235-page long senior thesis on existentialism in Hemingway, titled "Heading Out: A Study of the Development of Ernest Hemingway's Thought", was so long, Caro claims, that the university's English department subsequently established a maximum length for senior theses by its students. He graduated "cum laude" in 1957.


title: Robert Caro

text: According to a 2012 "The New York Times Magazine" profile, "Caro said he now thinks that Princeton, which he chose because of its parties, was one of his mistakes, and that he should have gone to Harvard. Princeton in the mid-1950s was hardly known for being hospitable towards the Jewish community, and though Caro says he did not personally suffer from anti-Semitism, he saw plenty of students who did." He had a sports column in the "Princetonian" and also wrote for the "Princeton Tiger" humor magazine.


title: Robert Caro

text: Caro began his professional career as a reporter with the "New Brunswick Daily Home News" (now merged into the "Home News Tribune") in New Jersey. He took a brief leave to work as a publicist for the Middlesex County Democratic Party. He left politics after an incident where he was accompanying the party chair to polling places on election day. A police officer reported to the party chair that some African Americans Caro saw being loaded into a police van, under arrest, were poll watchers who "had been giving them some trouble." Caro left politics right there. "I still think about it," he recalled in the 2012 "Times Magazine" profile. "It wasn't the roughness of the police that made such an impression. It was themeekness isn't the right wordthe acceptance of those people of what was happening."


title: Robert Caro

text: After briefly enrolling in the English doctoral program at Rutgers University (where he served as a teaching assistant), he went on to six years as an investigative reporter with the Long Island newspaper "Newsday". One of the articles he wrote was a long series about why a proposed bridge across Long Island Sound from Rye to Oyster Bay, championed by Robert Moses, would have been inadvisable, requiring piers so large it would disrupt tidal flows in the sound, among other problems. Caro believed that his work had influenced even the state's powerful governor Nelson Rockefeller to reconsider the idea, until he saw the state's Assembly vote overwhelmingly to pass a preliminary measure for the bridge.


title: Robert Caro

text: "That was one of the transformational moments of my life," Caro said years later. It led him to think about Moses for the first time. "I got in the car and drove home to Long Island, and I kept thinking to myself: 'Everything you've been doing is baloney. You've been writing under the belief that power in a democracy comes from the ballot box. But here's a guy who has never been elected to anything, who has enough power to turn the entire state around, and you don't have the slightest idea how he got it.'"


title: Robert Caro

text: Caro gave a speech to introduce Senator Ted Kennedy on the second day of the 2004 Democratic National Convention.


title: Robert Caro

text: Caro spent the academic year of 1965–1966 as a Nieman Fellow at Harvard University. During a class on urban planning and land use, the experience of watching Moses returned to him.


title: Robert Caro

text: To do so, Caro began work on a biography of Moses, "The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York", also a study of Caro's favorite theme: the acquisition and use of power. He expected it would take nine months to complete, but instead it took him until 1974. The work was based on extensive research and 522 interviews, including seven interviews with Moses himself, several with Michael Madigan (who worked for Moses for 35 years); and numerous interviews with Sidney Shapiro (Moses's general manager for forty years); as well as interviews with men who worked for and knew Moses's mentor, New York Governor Al Smith. During the 1967–1968 academic year, Caro worked on the book as a Carnegie Fellow at the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism.


title: Robert Caro

text: His wife, Ina, functioned as his research assistant. Her master's thesis on the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge stemmed from this work. At one point she sold the family home and took a teaching job so Robert would be financially able to finish the book.


title: Robert Caro

text: "The Power Broker" is widely viewed as a seminal work because it combined painstaking historical research with a smoothly flowing narrative writing style. The success of this approach was evident in his chapter on the construction of the Cross-Bronx Expressway, where Caro reported the controversy from all perspectives, including that of neighborhood residents. The result was a work of powerful literary as well as academic interest. Upon its publication, Moses responded to the biography in a 23-page statement.


title: Robert Caro

text: Following "The Power Broker", Caro turned his attention to President Lyndon B. Johnson. Caro retraced Johnson's life by temporarily moving to rural Texas and Washington, D.C., in order to better understand Johnson's upbringing and to interview anyone who had known Johnson. The work, entitled "The Years of Lyndon Johnson", was originally intended as a trilogy, but is projected to encompass five volumes:


title: Robert Caro

text: In November 2011, Caro announced that the full project had expanded to five volumes with the fifth requiring another two to three years to write. It will cover Johnson and Vietnam, the Great Society and civil rights era, his decision not to run in 1968, and eventual retirement. As of January 2020, Caro had completed 600 typed manuscript pages and was working on a section relating to the passage of Medicare in 1965. In a 2017 interview, Caro expressed his intent to embark shortly on a research trip to Vietnam. In an interview with "The New York Review of Books" in January 2018, Caro indicated he did not know when the book would be finished, mentioning anywhere from two to ten years.


title: Robert Caro

text: Caro's books portray Johnson as a complex and contradictory character: at the same time a scheming opportunist and visionary progressive. Caro argues, for example, that Johnson's victory in the 1948 runoff for the Democratic nomination for the U.S. Senate was only achieved through extensive fraud and ballot box stuffing, although this is set in the practices of the time and in the context of Johnson's previous defeat in his 1941 race for the Senate, the victim of exactly similar chicanery. Caro also highlighted some of Johnson's campaign contributions, such as those from the Texas construction firm Brown and Root; in 1962 the company was acquired by another Texas firm, Halliburton, which became a major contractor in the Vietnam War. In addition, Caro argued that Johnson was awarded the Silver Star in World War II for political as well as military reasons, and that he later lied to journalists and the public about the circumstances for which it was awarded. Caro's portrayal of Johnson also notes his struggles on behalf of progressive causes such as the Voting Rights Act, and his consummate skill in getting this enacted in spite of intense opposition from Southern Democrats.


title: Robert Caro

text: Among sources close to the late president, Johnson's widow Lady Bird Johnson "spoke to [Caro] several times and then abruptly stopped without giving a reason, and Bill Moyers, Johnson's press secretary, has never consented to be interviewed, but most of Johnson's closest friends, including John Connally and George Christian, Johnson's last press secretary, who spoke to Caro practically on his deathbed, have gone on the record".


title: Robert Caro

text: While writing the book, Caro read the works of the novelist Leo Tolstoy and the historian Edward Gibbon, alternating between the two. "There's almost a view that if it's well written it can't be good history," he told Mark Rozzo of the "Los Angeles Times" in 2002. "In my view, it's not good history unless it is well written. History is a narrative. History is a story. If you're not telling a story, you're not being faithful to history."


title: Robert Caro

text: Caro's books have been published by Alfred A. Knopf, first under editor in chief Robert Gottlieb and then by Sonny Mehta, "who took over the Johnson project – enthusiastically – after Gottlieb's departure in 1987." Gottlieb continued as editor of Caro's books after leaving Knopf and excerpted Volume 2 of the Johnson biography at "The New Yorker" when he was editor in chief there. Gottlieb, five years Caro's senior, initially suggested the Johnson project to Caro in 1974 in preference to the planned follow-up to the Moses volume, a biography of Fiorello LaGuardia that was then abandoned. The ex-president had recently died and Caro had already decided, before meeting with Gottlieb on the subject, to undertake the Texan's biography; he "wanted to write about power". "We have these unbelievable angry exchanges, but it's always worth it to me," Caro said of his relationship with Gottlieb. "Sometimes we can spend two hours discussing whether to combine two paragraphs."


title: Robert Caro

text: Caro has expressed hope of writing a "full-scale memoir" after completing "The Years of Lyndon Johnson". His 2019 book "Working" has been described as a "semi-memoir" focused on "Caro's selection of observations...on the arts of researching, interviewing and writing."


title: Robert Caro

text: When asked about other works he would have pursued, Caro replied a biography on Al Smith, commenting "the more you realize he is probably the most forgotten consequential figure in American history."


title: Robert Caro

text: After conducting his years-long research, Caro attempts to "see the whole book right down to the last line," by putting up an outline on a twenty-two-foot corkboard before writing the first manuscript as a way to prevent writer's block. He writes several successive drafts in longhand on discontinued "legal pads, white with narrow lines," which Caro has mass ordered and keeps in East Hampton. Subsequently, Caro types his books on Smith Corona Electra 210 typewriters, which "The New Republic" called "a model practically synonymous with him." Upon the publication of "The Passage of Power" in 2012, Caro owned fourteen Smith Coronas, which came down to eleven in 2019, one of which, the one used when writing "The Power Broker", was on display in the 2021 New-York Historical Society's ""Turn Every Page": Inside the Robert A. Caro Archive" exhibition. Since production of these was discontinued, Caro uses his reserve to supply parts when these become defective. The typewriters are supplied to him from individuals who, upon knowing his use of the Smith Coronas, send theirs to him. Other individuals have attempted to sell Caro theirs, however he only answers to letters offering them as gifts. Since Caro retypes several versions of his manuscripts before submitting for publication, he prefers a bolder text, which he achieves by using cotton ribbon, instead of the now-common nylon. As the former were discontinued, his wife Ina found a supplier that would manufacture them on the condition that Caro order a dozen gross, or 1728 units. He edits with the use of red 314 Berol Draughting pencils and keeps "a ledger tracking how many words he has written against his stringent 1,000-word daily goal." Though he now works in an office, at one point he wrote "in the woods ... in a shack, a 12x15 ... put on cinderblocks."


title: Robert Caro

text: For his biographies of Robert Moses and Lyndon Johnson, Robert A. Caro has twice won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography, three times won the National Book Critics Circle Award for the Best Nonfiction Book of the Year, and has won virtually every other major literary honor, including two National Book Awards (one for Lifetime Achievement), the Gold Medal in Biography from the American Academy of Art and Letters, and the Francis Parkman Prize.


title: Robert Caro

text: In October 2007, Caro was named a "Holtzbrinck Distinguished Visitor" at the American Academy in Berlin, Germany but then was unable to attend.


title: Robert Caro

text: In 2010, he received the National Humanities Medal from President Obama, the highest award in the humanities given in the United States. Delivering remarks at the end of the ceremony, the President said, "I think about Robert Caro and reading "The Power Broker" back when I was 22 years old and just being mesmerized, and I'm sure it helped to shape how I think about politics." In 2011, Robert Caro was the recipient of the 2011 BIO Award given each year by members of Biographers International "to a colleague who had made a major contribution in the advancement of the art and craft of real life depiction."


title: Robert Caro

text: After graduation from Princeton, Caro married Ina Joan Sloshberg, who was then still a student at Connecticut College. The Caros have a son, Chase Arthur, and three grandchildren, who live in White Plains.


title: Robert Caro

text: Caro has described his wife as "the whole team" on all five of his books. She sold their house and took a job teaching school to fund work on "The Power Broker" and is the only other person who conducted research for his books.


title: Robert Caro

text: Ina is the author of "The Road from the Past: Traveling through History in France" (1996), a book which Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. called, at the presentation of her honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from The City University of New York in 2011, "the essential traveling companion ... for all who love France and its history." "Newsweek" reviewer Peter Prescott commented, "I'd rather go to France with Ina Caro than with Henry Adams or Henry James. The unique premise of her intelligent and discerning book is so startling that it's a wonder no one has thought of it before." Ina frequently writes about her travels through France in her blog, Paris to the Past. In June 2011, W. W. Norton published her second book, "Paris to the Past: Traveling through French History by Train".


title: Robert Caro

text: Caro's son, Chase, was disbarred automatically in November 2007 after pleading guilty "to second-degree grand larceny for stealing [over $750,000] from three former clients in the course of real estate transactions." In April 2008, he was sentenced "to 2 1/2 to 7 1/2 years in prison" after admitting to stealing $310,000 meant for his grandparents' trust fund. Additionally, Caro "agreed to pay restitution of $1.1 million, which also includes funds from a third theft." All his sentences ran concurrently. As of 2012, Chase works "in the information-technology business".


title: Robert Caro

text: Due to Caro's work ethic and voluminous work several authors have been compared to him and labelled as "Caro-esque", "Caro-like" or "in the Caro mold" for their own extensive research, such as Renata Adler, Taylor Branch, Douglas Brinkley, David Garrow, Garrett Graff, Gerard Henderson, Jason Horowitz, Francis Jennings, Robert G. Kaiser, David Paul Kuhn, Roland Lazenby, David Maraniss, David McCullough, Charles Moore, Edmund Morris, Roger Morris, David Nasaw, Richard Neustadt, Les and Tamara Payne, Rick Perlstein, Steven Pressfield, Michael Shnayerson, Lytton Strachey, Julia E. Sweig, William T. Vollmann, and the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee's Research Department.


title: Robert Caro

text: In 2011, his alma mater, Horace Mann School, commenced awarding the Robert Caro '53 Prize for Literary Excellence in the Writing of History at a ceremony held annually at the head of school's home. In 2017 the school named a classroom at Tillinghast Hall "Robert A. Caro '53 History Classroom" to which Caro reacted by stating that it would be "hard for [him] to think of anything that would make [him] happier."


title: Robert Caro

text: "Motherless Brooklyn", the 2019 film directed by Edward Norton, loosely based on the 1999 novel of the same name by Jonathan Lethem, was inspired by Caro's biography of Robert Moses, "The Power Broker". León Krauze wrote in "Slate" comparing Norton's character in that film to Caro himself.


title: Robert Caro

text: In January 2020, the New-York Historical Society acquired Caro's complete archive, consisting of "200 linear feet of material", part of which will be digitized and made wholly available to researchers in a Robert A. Caro Study Space. Additionally, a permanent exhibition, named "Robert Caro Working" after his 2019 book "Working", will be set up at the Society's library. Caro stated that he was "just plain delighted" since his "favorite aunt often took" him there as well as having spoken there and "been a recipients of its awards." An exhibition called ""Turn Every Page": Inside the Robert A. Caro Archive" opened on October 22, 2021, becoming "the first permanent public exhibition of an archive devoted to a living author in the country." The title comes from an advice from then-editor of "Newsday", Alan Hathway, had given to Caro as a young reporter on "his first investigative assignment, Hathway "looked at me for what I remember as a very long time … 'Just remember,' he said. 'Turn every page. Never assume anything. Turn every goddamn page.'"" The advice is also the title of the 2022 documentary on Caro and editor Robert Gottlieb's collaborations, directed by the latter's daughter, Lizzie Gottlieb.


title: Robert Prosinečki

text: Robert Prosinečki (; born 12 January 1969) is a Croatian professional football manager and former player who played as a midfielder.


title: Robert Prosinečki

text: Early in his career, he was part of the Red Star Belgrade team that won three Yugoslav First League titles and the European Cup in 1991. Prosinečki spent several years in Spain with rivals Real Madrid and Barcelona, as well as Oviedo and Sevilla. Later in his career, he won three Croatian league titles with Dinamo Zagreb, and also played in Belgium, England and Slovenia.


title: Robert Prosinečki

text: Internationally, Prosinečki was voted best player as Yugoslavia won the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship, and came runner-up with the under-21 team at the 1990 European Championship. He was also voted Best Young Player at the 1990 FIFA World Cup. He earned 49 caps for Croatia between 1994 and 2002, playing at UEFA Euro 1996 and the World Cups of 1998 and 2002, helping the team to third place in 1998.


title: Robert Prosinečki

text: After retiring from active football, Prosinečki worked as assistant manager of the Croatia national team between 2006 and 2010, before being appointed manager of Red Star Belgrade in December 2010. He left in 2012 for Turkish club Kayserispor two months later. Internationally, Prosinečki worked as head coach of the Azerbaijan national team from 2014 to 2017 and of Bosnia and Herzegovina from 2018 to 2019. He then once again managed Kayserispor, Denizlispor and Olimpija Ljubljana.


title: Robert Prosinečki

text: Prosinečki was born in Schwenningen, West Germany, into a family of Yugoslav gastarbeiters of mixed ethnicity. His father Đuro was a Croat, hailing from the Gornji Čemehovec village near Kraljevec na Sutli, and his mother Emilija Đoković is a Serb, originally from the Ježevica village near Čačak.


title: Robert Prosinečki

text: He spent his childhood in West Germany before moving back to SR Croatia with his family in 1979, at the age of ten. By that time he had already been playing in the Stuttgarter Kickers youth system. Once in Croatia, he continued in the youth setup of Dinamo Zagreb.


title: Robert Prosinečki

text: After moving up the youth ranks for years, Prosinečki started getting occasional first team appearances during the 1986–87 league season under head coach Miroslav Blažević. On his league debut versus Željezničar on 2 November 1986, the seventeen-year-old managed to score in a 2–1 home win. By the end of the season, he recorded one more league appearance: playing the second half versus Sloboda Tuzla on 12 April 1987, a goalless home draw.


title: Robert Prosinečki

text: Wanting to secure his son's financial future, Prosinečki's father Đuro started pushing within the club hierarchy for a professional contract to be given to his eighteen-year-old son. However, coach Miroslav Blažević sent him away, famously claiming that he would eat his coaching diploma if Prosinečki ever became a real football player.


title: Robert Prosinečki

text: In the summer of 1987, Đuro Prosinečki took Robert over to Belgrade and got the professional contract they were after. Dragan Džajić, Red Star's then technical director, remembers how the transfer got initiated: