title: Sheet music

text: Outside modern eurocentric cultures exists a wide variety of systems of musical notation, each adapted to the peculiar needs of the musical cultures in question, and some highly evolved classical musics do not use notation at all (or only in rudimentary forms as mnemonic aids) such as the khyal and dhrupad forms of Northern India. Western musical notation systems describe only music adapted to the needs of musical forms and instruments based on equal temperament, but are ill-equipped to describe musics of other types, such as the courtly forms of Japanese gagaku, Indian dhrupad, or the percussive music of ewe drumming. The infiltration of Western staff notation into these cultures has been described by the musicologist Alain Daniélou and others as a process of cultural imperialism.


title: Sheet music

text: Musical notation was developed before parchment or paper were used for writing. The earliest form of musical notation can be found in a cuneiform tablet that was created at Nippur, in Sumer (today's Iraq) in about 2000 BC. The tablet represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in harmonies of thirds, and that it was written using a diatonic scale.


title: Sheet music

text: A tablet from about 1250 BC shows a more developed form of notation. Although the interpretation of the notation system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a lyre, the tuning of which is described in other tablets. Although they are fragmentary, these tablets represent the earliest notated melodies found anywhere in the world.


title: Sheet music

text: Ancient Greek musical notation was in use from at least the 6th century BC until approximately the 4th century AD; several complete compositions and fragments of compositions using this notation survive. The notation consists of symbols placed above text syllables. An example of a complete composition is the Seikilos epitaph, which has been variously dated between the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD.


title: Sheet music

text: In ancient Greek music, three hymns by Mesomedes of Crete exist in manuscript. One of the oldest known examples of music notation is a papyrus fragment of the Hellenic era play "Orestes" (408 BC), which contains musical notation for a choral ode. Ancient Greek notation appears to have fallen out of use around the time of the Decline of the Roman Empire.


title: Sheet music

text: Before the 15th century, Western music was written by hand and preserved in manuscripts, usually bound in large volumes. The best-known examples of Middle Ages music notation are medieval manuscripts of monophonic chant. Chant notation indicated the notes of the chant melody, but without any indication of the rhythm. In the case of Medieval polyphony, such as the motet, the parts were written in separate portions of facing pages. This process was aided by the advent of mensural notation, which also indicated the rhythm and was paralleled by the medieval practice of composing parts of polyphony sequentially, rather than simultaneously (as in later times). Manuscripts showing parts together in score format were rare and limited mostly to organum, especially that of the Notre Dame school. During the Middle Ages, if an Abbess wanted to have a copy of an existing composition, such as a composition owned by an Abbess in another town, she would have to hire a copyist to do the task by hand, which would be a lengthy process and one that could lead to transcription errors.


title: Sheet music

text: Even after the advent of music printing in the mid-1400s, much music continued to exist solely in composers' hand-written manuscripts well into the 18th century.


title: Sheet music

text: There were several difficulties in translating the new printing press technology to music. In the first printed book to include music, the "Mainz Psalter" (1457), the music notation (both staff lines and notes) was added in by hand. This is similar to the room left in other incunabula for capitals. The psalter was printed in Mainz, Germany by Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, and one now resides in Windsor Castle and another at the British Library. Later, staff lines were printed, but scribes still added in the rest of the music by hand. The greatest difficulty in using movable type to print music is that all the elements must line up – the note head must be properly aligned with the staff. In vocal music, text must be aligned with the proper notes (although at this time, even in manuscripts, this was not a high priority).


title: Sheet music

text: Music engraving is the art of drawing music notation at high quality for the purpose of mechanical reproduction. The first machine-printed music appeared around 1473, approximately 20 years after Gutenberg introduced the printing press. In 1501, Ottaviano Petrucci published "Harmonice Musices Odhecaton A", which contained 96 pieces of printed music. Petrucci's printing method produced clean, readable, elegant music, but it was a long, difficult process that required three separate passes through the printing press. Petrucci later developed a process which required only two passes through the press. But it was still taxing since each pass required very precise alignment for the result to be legible (i.e., so that the note heads would be correctly lined up with the staff lines). This was the first well-distributed printed polyphonic music. Petrucci also printed the first tablature with movable type. Single impression printing, in which the staff lines and notes could be printed in one pass, first appeared in London around 1520. Pierre Attaingnant brought the technique into wide use in 1528, and it remained little changed for 200 years.


title: Sheet music

text: A common format for issuing multi-part, polyphonic music during the Renaissance was "partbooks". In this format, each voice-part for a collection of five-part madrigals, for instance, would be printed separately in its own book, such that all five part-books would be needed to perform the music. The same partbooks could be used by singers or instrumentalists. Scores for multi-part music were rarely printed in the Renaissance, although the use of score format as a means to compose parts simultaneously (rather than successively, as in the late Middle Ages) is credited to Josquin des Prez.


title: Sheet music

text: The effect of printed music was similar to the effect of the printed word, in that information spread faster, more efficiently, at a lower cost, and to more people than it could through laboriously hand-copied manuscripts. It had the additional effect of encouraging amateur musicians of sufficient means, who could now afford sheet music, to perform. This in many ways affected the entire music industry. Composers could now write more music for amateur performers, knowing that it could be distributed and sold to the middle class.


title: Sheet music

text: This meant that composers did not have to depend solely on the patronage of wealthy aristocrats. Professional players could have more music at their disposal and they could access music from different countries. It increased the number of amateurs, from whom professional players could then earn money by teaching them. Nevertheless, in the early years, the cost of printed music limited its distribution. Another factor that limited the impact of printed music was that in many places, the right to print music was granted by the monarch, and only those with a special dispensation were allowed to do so, giving them a monopoly. This was often an honour (and economic boon) granted to favoured court musicians or composers.


title: Sheet music

text: Mechanical plate engraving was developed in the late sixteenth century. Although plate engraving had been used since the early fifteenth century for creating visual art and maps, it was not applied to music until 1581. In this method, a mirror image of a complete page of music was engraved onto a metal plate. Ink was then applied to the grooves, and the music print was transferred onto paper. Metal plates could be stored and reused, which made this method an attractive option for music engravers. Copper was the initial metal of choice for early plates, but by the eighteenth century, pewter became the standard material due to its malleability and lower cost.


title: Sheet music

text: Plate engraving was the methodology of choice for music printing until the late nineteenth century, at which point its decline was hastened by the development of photographic technology. Nevertheless, the technique has survived to the present day and is still occasionally used by select publishers such as G. Henle Verlag in Germany.


title: Sheet music

text: As musical composition increased in complexity, so too did the technology required to produce accurate musical scores. Unlike literary printing, which mainly contains printed words, music engraving communicates several different types of information simultaneously. To be clear to musicians, it is imperative that engraving techniques allow absolute precision. Notes of chords, dynamic markings, and other notation line up with vertical accuracy. If text is included, each syllable matches vertically with its assigned melody. Horizontally, subdivisions of beats are marked not only by their flags and beams, but also by the relative space between them on the page. The logistics of creating such precise copies posed several problems for early music engravers, and have resulted in the development of several music engraving technologies.


title: Sheet music

text: In the 19th century, the music industry was dominated by sheet music publishers. In the United States, the sheet music industry rose in tandem with blackface minstrelsy. The group of New York City-based music publishers, songwriters and composers dominating the industry was known as "Tin Pan Alley". In the mid-19th century, copyright control of melodies was not as strict, and publishers would often print their own versions of the songs popular at the time. With stronger copyright protection laws late in the century, songwriters, composers, lyricists, and publishers started working together for their mutual financial benefit. New York City publishers concentrated on vocal music. The biggest music houses established themselves in New York City, but small local publishers – often connected with commercial printers or music stores – continued to flourish throughout the country. An extraordinary number of East European immigrants became the music publishers and songwriters on Tin Pan Alley-the most famous being Irving Berlin. Songwriters who became established producers of successful songs were hired to be on the staff of the music houses.


title: Sheet music

text: The late-19th century saw a massive explosion of parlor music, with ownership of, and skill at playing the piano becoming "de rigueur" for the middle-class family. In the late-19th century, if a middle-class family wanted to hear a popular new song or piece, they would buy the sheet music and then perform the song or piece in an amateur fashion in their home. But in the early 20th century the phonograph and recorded music grew greatly in importance. This, joined by the growth in popularity of radio broadcasting from the 1920s on, lessened the importance of the sheet music publishers. The record industry eventually replaced the sheet music publishers as the music industry's largest force.


title: Sheet music

text: In the late 20th and into the 21st century, significant interest has developed in representing sheet music in a computer-readable format (see music notation software), as well as downloadable files. Music OCR, software to "read" scanned sheet music so that the results can be manipulated, has been available since 1991.


title: Sheet music

text: In 1998, virtual sheet music evolved further into what was to be termed digital sheet music, which for the first time allowed publishers to make copyright sheet music available for purchase online. Unlike their hard copy counterparts, these files allowed for manipulation such as instrument changes, transposition and MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) playback. The popularity of this instant delivery system among musicians appears to be acting as a catalyst of new growth for the industry well into the foreseeable future.


title: Sheet music

text: An early computer notation program available for home computers was Music Construction Set, developed in 1984 and released for several different platforms. Introducing concepts largely unknown to the home user of the time, it allowed manipulation of notes and symbols with a pointing device such as a mouse; the user would "grab" a note or symbol from a palette and "drop" it onto the staff in the correct location. The program allowed playback of the produced music through various early sound cards, and could print the musical score on a graphics printer.


title: Sheet music

text: Many software products for modern digital audio workstation and scorewriters for general personal computers support generation of sheet music from MIDI files, by a performer playing the notes on a MIDI-equipped keyboard or other MIDI controller or by manual entry using a mouse or other computer device.


title: Sheet music

text: By 1999, a system and method for coordinating music display among players in an orchestra was patented by Harry Connick Jr. It is a device with a computer screen which is used to show the sheet music for the musicians in an orchestra instead of the more commonly used paper. Connick uses this system when touring with his big band, for instance. With the proliferation of wireless networks and iPads similar systems have been developed. In the classical music world, some string quartet groups use computer screen-based parts. There are several advantages to computer-based parts. Since the score is on a computer screen, the user can adjust the contrast, brightness and even the size of the notes, to make reading easier. In addition, some systems will do "page turns" using a foot pedal, which means that the performer does not have to miss playing music during a page turn, as often occurs with paper parts.


title: Sheet music

text: Of special practical interest for the general public is the Mutopia project, an effort to create a library of public domain sheet music, comparable to Project Gutenberg's library of public domain books. The International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) is also attempting to create a virtual library containing all public domain musical scores, as well as scores from composers who are willing to share their music with the world free of charge.


title: Sheet music

text: Some scorewriter computer programs have a feature that is very useful for composers and arrangers: the ability to "play back" the notated music using synthesizer sounds or virtual instruments. Due to the high cost of hiring a full symphony orchestra to play a new composition, before the development of these computer programs, many composers and arrangers were only able to hear their orchestral works by arranging them for piano, organ or string quartet. While a scorewiter program's playback will not contain the nuances of a professional orchestra recording, it still conveys a sense of the tone colors created by the piece and of the interplay of the different parts.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: Hedda Gabler () is a play written by Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen. The world premiere was staged on 31 January 1891 at the Residenztheater in Munich. Ibsen himself was in attendance, although he remained back-stage. The play has been canonized as a masterpiece within the genres of literary realism, nineteenth century theatre, and world drama. Ibsen mainly wrote realistic plays until his forays into modern drama. "Hedda Gabler" dramatizes the experiences of the title character, Hedda, the daughter of a general, who is trapped in a marriage and a house that she does not want. Overall, the title character for "Hedda Gabler" is considered one of the great dramatic roles in theater. The year following its publication, the play received negative feedback and reviews. Hedda Gabler has been described as a female variation of Hamlet.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: Hedda's married name is Hedda Tesman; Gabler is her maiden name. On the subject of the title, Ibsen wrote: "My intention in giving it this name was to indicate that Hedda as a personality is to be regarded rather as her father's daughter than her husband's wife."


title: Hedda Gabler

text: Hedda, the daughter of a general, has just returned to her villa in Kristiania (now Oslo) from her honeymoon. Her husband is George Tesman, a young, aspiring, and reliable academic who continued his research during their honeymoon. It becomes clear in the course of the play that she never loved him, but married him because she thinks her years of youthful abandon are over.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The reappearance of George's academic rival, Eilert Løvborg, throws their lives into disarray. Eilert, a writer, is also a recovered alcoholic who has wasted his talent until now. Thanks to a relationship with Hedda's old schoolmate, Thea Elvsted (who has left her husband for him), Eilert shows signs of rehabilitation and has just published a bestseller in the same field as George's. When Hedda and Eilert talk privately together, it becomes apparent that they are former lovers.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The critical success of his recently published work makes Eilert a threat to George, as Eilert is now a competitor for the university professorship George had been anticipating. George and Hedda are financially overstretched, and George tells Hedda that he will not be able to finance the regular entertaining or luxurious housekeeping that she had been expecting. Upon meeting Eilert, however, the couple discovers that he has no intention of competing for the professorship, but rather has spent the last few years working on what he considers to be his masterpiece, the "sequel" to his recently published work.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: Apparently jealous of Thea's influence over Eilert, Hedda hopes to come between them. Despite his drinking problem, she encourages Eilert to accompany George and his associate, Judge Brack, to a party. George returns home from the party and reveals that he found the complete manuscript (the only copy) of Eilert's great work, which the latter lost while drunk. George is then called away to his aunt's house, leaving the manuscript in Hedda's possession. When Eilert next sees Hedda and Thea, he tells them that he has deliberately destroyed the manuscript. Thea is mortified, and it is revealed that it was the joint work of Eilert and herself. Hedda says nothing to contradict Eilert or to reassure Thea. After Thea has left, Hedda encourages Eilert to commit suicide, giving him a pistol that had belonged to her father. She then burns the manuscript and tells George she has destroyed it to secure their future.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: When the news comes that Eilert did indeed kill himself, George and Thea are determined to try to reconstruct his book from Eilert's notes, which Thea has kept. Hedda is shocked to discover from Judge Brack that Eilert's death, in a brothel, was messy and probably accidental; this "ridiculous and vile" death contrasts with the "beautiful and free" one that Hedda had imagined for him. Worse, Brack knows the origins of the pistol. He tells Hedda that if he reveals what he knows, a scandal will likely arise around her. Hedda realizes that this places Brack in a position of power over her. Leaving the others, she goes into her smaller room and shoots herself in the head. The others in the room assume that Hedda is simply firing shots, and they follow the sound to investigate. The play ends with George, Brack, and Thea discovering her body.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: Joseph Wood Krutch makes a connection between "Hedda Gabler" and Freud, whose first work on psychoanalysis was published almost a decade later. In Krutch's analysis, Gabler is one of the first fully developed neurotic female protagonists of literature. By that, Krutch means that Hedda is neither logical nor insane in the old sense of being random and unaccountable. Her aims and her motives have a secret personal logic of their own. She gets what she wants, but what she wants is not anything that normal people would acknowledge (at least, not publicly) to be desirable. One of the significant things that such a character implies is the premise that there is a secret, sometimes unconscious, world of aims and methods — one might almost say a secret system of values — that is often much more important than the rational one. It is regarded as a deep and emotional play, due to Ibsen's portrayal of an anti-heroine .


title: Hedda Gabler

text: Ibsen was interested in the then-embryonic science of mental illness and had a poor understanding of it by present-day standards. His "Ghosts" is another example of this. Examples of the troubled 19th-century female might include oppressed, but "normal", willful characters; women in abusive or loveless relationships; and those with some type of organic brain disease. Ibsen is content to leave such explanations unsettled. Bernard Paris interprets Gabler's actions as stemming from her "need for freedom [which is] as compensatory as her craving for power... her desire to shape a man's destiny."


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The play was performed in Munich at the Königliches Residenz-Theater on 31 January 1891, with Clara Heese as Hedda, though Ibsen was said to be displeased with the declamatory style of her performance. Ibsen's work had an international following so that translations and productions in various countries appeared very soon after the publication in Copenhagen and the premiere in Munich. In February 1891 there were two productions: Berlin and Copenhagen. The first British performance was at the Vaudeville Theatre, London, on 20 April 1891, starring Elizabeth Robins, who directed it with Marion Lea, who played Thea. Robins also played Hedda in the first US production, which opened on 30 March 1898 at the Fifth Avenue Theatre, New York City. A 1902 production starring Minnie Maddern Fiske was a major sensation on Broadway, and following its initial limited run was revived with the same actress the next year. In February 1899 it was produced as part of The Moscow Art Theatre's first season with Maria F. Andreeva as Hedda.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: Many prominent actresses have played the role of Hedda: Vera Komissarzhevskaya, Eleonora Duse, Alla Nazimova, Asta Nielsen, Johanne Louise Schmidt, Mrs. Patrick Campbell, Eva Le Gallienne, Elizabeth Robins, Anne Meacham, Ingrid Bergman, Peggy Ashcroft, Fenella Fielding, Jill Bennett, Janet Suzman, Diana Rigg, Isabelle Huppert, Claire Bloom, June Brown, Kate Burton, Geraldine James, Kate Mulgrew, Kelly McGillis, Fiona Shaw, Maggie Smith, Jane Fonda, Annette Bening, Amanda Donohoe, Judy Davis, Emmanuelle Seigner, Mary-Louise Parker, Harriet Walter, Rosamund Pike and Cate Blanchett.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: In 1970 the Royal National Theatre in London staged a production of the play directed by Ingmar Bergman, starring Maggie Smith, who gained much critical acclaim and won a Best Actress Evening Standard Theatre Award for her performance. Also in the early 1970s, Irene Worth played Hedda at Stratford, Ontario, prompting "New York Times" critic Walter Kerr to write, "Miss Worth is just possibly the best actress in the world." Glenda Jackson returned to the RSC to play Hedda Gabler. A later film version directed by Nunn was released as "Hedda" (1975) for which Jackson was nominated for an Oscar.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: On 26/2/1972 Hedda Gabler was played at the Theatre in the Round, New Vic, Hartshill, Stoke on Trent.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: In 2005, a production by Richard Eyre, starring Eve Best, at the Almeida Theatre in London was well-received and later transferred for an 11½ week run at the Duke of York's on St Martin's Lane. The play was staged at Chicago's Steppenwolf Theater starring actress Martha Plimpton.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: British playwright John Osborne prepared an adaptation in 1972, and in 1991 the Canadian playwright Judith Thompson presented her version at the Shaw Festival. Thompson adapted the play a second time in 2005 at Buddies in Bad Times Theatre in Toronto, setting the first half of the play in the nineteenth century, and the second half during the present day. Early in 2006, the play gained critical success at the West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds and the Liverpool Playhouse, directed by Matthew Lloyd with Gillian Kearney in the lead role. A revival opened in January 2009 on Broadway, starring Mary-Louise Parker as the title character and Michael Cerveris as Jørgen Tesman, at the American Airlines Theatre, to mixed critical reviews.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The performance of a production of the play, as translated and directed by Vahid Rahbani, was stopped in Tehran, Iran in 2011. Vahid Rahbani was summoned to court for inquiry after an Iranian news agency blasted the classic drama in a review and described it as "vulgar" and "hedonistic" with symbols of "sexual slavery cult." A modernized New Zealand adaptation by The Wild Duck starring Clare Kerrison in the title role, and opening at BATS Theatre in Wellington in April 2009, was referred to as "extraordinarily accessible without compromising Ibsen's genius at all."


title: Hedda Gabler

text: A 2012 Brian Friel adaptation of the play staged at London's The Old Vic theatre received mixed reviews, especially for Sheridan Smith in the lead role.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The play was staged in 2015 at Madrid's María Guerrero. The production, which received mixed reviews, was directed by Eduardo Vasco and presented a text that was adapted by the Spanish playwright Yolanda Pallín with Cayetana Guillén Cuervo playing the lead role.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: Tony Award-winning director Ivo van Hove made his National Theatre debut in London with a period-less production of Ibsen's masterpiece. This new version by Patrick Marber featured Ruth Wilson in the title role and Rafe Spall as Brack.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: A ballet interpretation is set to premiere at the Norwegian National Opera and Ballet in autumn 2017 under the direction of Marit Moum Aune.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: In January 2019, Richmond Shakespeare Society will stage the third production of Hedda Gabler in the Society's history. Hedda will be portrayed by Amanda Adams and Judge Brack by Nigel Cole.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The 1973/4 RSC world tour was directed and translated by Trevor Nunn, and starred Pam St Clement as Bertha, Patrick Stewart as Eilert Lovborg, Peter Eyre as George Tesman, Glenda Jackson as Hedda Tesman, Timothy West as Judge Brack, Constance Chapman as Juliana Tesman, and Jennie Linden as Mrs. Elvsted.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The play has been adapted for the screen several times, from the silent film era onwards, in several languages. The BBC screened a television production of the play in 1962, with Ingrid Bergman, Michael Redgrave, Ralph Richardson, and Trevor Howard, while the Corporation's "Play of the Month" in 1972 featured Janet Suzman and Ian McKellen in the two main leads. A version shown on Britain's commercial ITV network in 1980 featured Diana Rigg in the title role. Glenda Jackson was nominated for an Academy Award as leading actress for her role in the British film adaptation "Hedda" (1975) directed by Trevor Nunn. A version was produced for Australian television in 1961.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: An eponymous American film version released in 2004 relocated the story to a community of young academics in Washington state.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: An adaptation (by Brian Friel) of the 2012 Old Vic production was the first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Radio 4 on 9 March 2013.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: In 2014, Matthew John also adapted Hedda Gabler starring Rita Ramnani, David R. Butler, and Samantha E. Hunt.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: German director Andreas Kleinert adapted the story to early 21st century Germany in his 2016 film "Hedda", starring Susanne Wolff and Godehard Giese.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The 1998 play "The Summer in Gossensass" by María Irene Fornés presents a fictionalized account of Elizabeth Robins and Marion Lea's efforts to stage the first London production of "Hedda Gabler" in 1891.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: In the Netflix animated show, "Bojack Horseman", an episode features the main character putting on a stage production while in prison with inmates playing the roles.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: An operatic adaptation of the play has been produced by Shanghai's Hangzhou XiaoBaiHua Yue Opera House.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: An adaptation with a lesbian relationship was staged in Philadelphia in 2009 by the Mauckingbird Theatre Company.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: A production at Princeton University's Lewis Center for the Arts featured a male actor, Sean Peter Drohan, in the title role.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The 2009 album "Until the Earth Begins to Part" by Scottish folk indie-rock band Broken Records features a song, "If Eilert Løvborg Wrote A Song, It Would Sound Like This".


title: Hedda Gabler

text: John Cale, Welsh musician and founder of American rock band The Velvet Underground, recorded a song "Hedda Gabler" in 1976, included originally on the 1977 EP "Animal Justice" (now a bonus track on the CD of the album "Sabotage"). He performed the song live in 1998, with Siouxsie Sioux, and also in London (5 March 2010) with a band and a 19 piece orchestra in his Paris 1919 tour. The song was covered by the British neofolk band Sol Invictus for the 1995 compilation "Im Blutfeuer" (Cthulhu Records) and later included as a bonus track on the 2011 reissue of the Sol Invictus album "In the Rain".


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The Norwegian hard-rock band Black Debbath recorded the song "Motörhedda Gabler" on their Ibsen-inspired album "Naar Vi Døde Rocker" ("When We Dead Rock"). As the title suggests, the song is also influenced by the British heavy metal band Motörhead.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: The original play "Heddatron" by Elizabeth Meriwether (b. 1981) melds "Hedda Gabler" with a modern family's search for love despite the invasion of technology into everyday life.


title: Hedda Gabler

text: In the 2013 novel "Bridget Jones: Mad About The Boy" by Helen Fielding, Bridget tries and fails to write a modernized version of "Hedda Gabler", which she mistakenly calls "Hedda Gabbler" and believes to have been written by Anton Chekhov. Bridget intends to call her version "The Leaves In His Hair" and set it in Queen's Park, London. Bridget claims to have studied the original play as an undergraduate at Bangor University.


title: Rizal Park

text: Rizal Park (, ), also known as Luneta Park or simply Luneta, is a historic urban park located in Ermita, Manila. It is considered one of the largest urban parks in the Philippines, covering an area of 58 hectares (140 acres). The site on where the park is situated was originally known as Bagumbayan during the Spanish colonial period. It is adjacent to the historic Walled City of Intramuros.


title: Rizal Park

text: Situated on the eastern shore of Manila Bay, the park plays a significant role in shaping the history of the Philippines. The execution of Filipino patriot José Rizal on December 30, 1896 in the same area fanned the flames of the 1896 Philippine Revolution against the Kingdom of Spain. The park was officially named in his honor, and the monument enshrining his remains serves as the park's symbolic focal point. The declaration of Philippine independence from the United States was held here on July 4, 1946, as well as later political rallies, including those of Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquino, the latter having culminated in the EDSA Revolution in 1986.


title: Rizal Park

text: Rizal Park's history began in 1820 when the Paseo de Luneta was completed just south of the walls of Manila on a marshy patch of land next to the beach during the Spanish rule. Prior to the park, the marshy land was the location of a small town called Nuevo Barrio ("New Town" or "Bagumbayan" in Tagalog) that dates back to 1601. The town and its churches, being close to the walled city, were strategically used as cover by the British during their attack. The Spanish authorities anticipated the danger posed by the settlements that immediately surrounded Intramuros in terms of external attacks, yet Church officials advocated for these villages to remain. Because of the part they played during the British Invasion, they were cleared after the short rule of the British from 1762 to 1764. The church of Bagumbayan originally enshrined the Black Nazarene. Because of the order to destroy the village and its church, the image was then transferred to San Nicolas de Tolentino inside Intramuros, with a copy then translated to Quiapo Church. This has since been commemorated by the "Traslación" of the relic every January 9, which is more commonly known as the Feast of the Black Nazarene. This is why the processions of January 9 have begun there in the park beginning in 2007. After the clearing of the Bagumbayan settlement, the area later became known as Bagumbayan Field where the Cuartel la Luneta (Luneta Barracks), a Spanish Military Hospital (which was destroyed by one of the earthquakes of Manila), and a moat-surrounded outwork of the walled city of Manila, known as the Luneta (lunette) because of its crescent shape.


title: Rizal Park

text: West of Bagumbayan Field was the Paseo de la Luneta (Plaza of the Lunette) named after the fortification, not because of the shape of the plaza which was a long rectangle ended by two semicircles. It was also named Paseo de Alfonso XII (Plaza of Alfonso XII), after Alfonso XII, King of Spain during his reign from 1874 to 1885. Paseo de la Luneta was the center of social activity for the people of Manila in the early evening hours. This plaza was arranged with paths and lawns and surrounded by a wide driveway called "La Calzada" (The Road) where carriages circulate.


title: Rizal Park

text: During the Spanish period from 1823 to 1897 most especially in the latter part, the place became notorious for public executions. A total of 158 political enemies of Spain were executed in the park. On February 17, 1872, three Filipino priests, Mariano Gomez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, collectively known as Gomburza, were executed by garrote, accused of subversion arising from the 1872 Cavite mutiny.


title: Rizal Park

text: It was during the American colonial period in the Philippines, when the Rizal Park's main landmark, the Rizal Monument was built. On September 28, 1901, the United States Philippine Commission approved Act No. 243, which would erect a monument in Luneta to commemorate the memory of José Rizal, Filipino patriot, writer and poet. The shrine was inaugurated on December 30, 1913, coinciding with Rizal's 17th death anniversary.


title: Rizal Park

text: The park was also chosen as the site of a national government center by Daniel Burnham, architect and city planner, who was commissioned by William Taft to do the city plan of Manila in 1902. According to Burnham's plan, government buildings to be built in the park will have Neo-classical edifices with Greco-Roman columns. A large Capitol building, which was envisioned to be the Philippine version of the United States Capitol, was to become its core. It was to be surrounded by other government buildings, but only two of those buildings were built around Agrifina Circle, facing each other. They are the Department of Agriculture (now the National Museum of Anthropology) and the Department of Finance (later became the Department of Tourism and now the National Museum of Natural History). These two buildings were completed before the Second World War. The park was also intended to become a Philippine version of the National Mall in Washington, D.C., with the planned building of the government offices.


title: Rizal Park

text: The site also served as a venue of the Manila Carnival and various expositions prior to the outbreak of World War II.


title: Rizal Park

text: In August 1954, President Ramon Magsaysay created the Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission to organize and manage the celebrations for the centennial of José Rizal's birth. Its plans include building a grand monument of José Rizal and the Rizal Memorial Cultural Center that would contain a national theater, a national museum, and a national library at the Luneta. The site was declared a national park on December 19, 1955, by virtue of Proclamation No. 234 signed by President Magsaysay. The Luneta National Park spans an area of approximately covering the area surrounding the Rizal Monument. The Commission of Parks and Wildlife (now Biodiversity Management Bureau) managed the site upon its establishment as a protected area.


title: Rizal Park

text: In 1957, President Carlos P. Garcia issued Proclamation No. 470 transferring the administration of the national park to the Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission. In 1961, in commemoration of Rizal's birth centennial, the National Library was inaugurated at the park. Its management was then handed over to the National Parks Development Committee, an attached agency of the Department of Tourism, created in 1963 by President Diosdado Macapagal.


title: Rizal Park

text: In 1967, the Luneta National Park was renamed to Rizal Park with the signing of Proclamation No. 299 by President Ferdinand Marcos. Through donations by the Taiwanese and Japanese governments, the Chinese and Japanese Gardens were set up during Marcos' administration. The Rizal Park under NPDC executive director Teodoro Valencia was expanded. Valencia introduced the "Concert at the Park" event series during his management.


title: Rizal Park

text: On June 12, 1998, the park hosted many festivities which capped the 1998 Philippine Centennial, the event commemorating a hundred years since the Declaration of Independence from Spain and the establishment of the First Philippine Republic. The celebrations were led by then President Fidel V. Ramos.


title: Rizal Park

text: Rizal Park was renovated by the National Parks Development Committee in 2011. The German-Filipino William Schaare, who built the old musical dancing fountain at the pool in the 1960s, handled its restoration. Among the other things that were restored were the Flower Clock (now known as the World-Class Filipino Bloom), the "Noli Me Tangere" Garden and the Luzviminda Boardwalk, which were opened just in time for the 150th birthday celebration of Jose Rizal.


title: Rizal Park

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Rizal Park was temporarily closed to the public in March 2020. The COVID-19 community quarantine measures allowed the NDPC to rehabilitate the park. Select sites within the park were later opened. The Manila COVID-19 Field Hospital was also built in the park's Burnham Green, as a temporary facility.


title: Rizal Park

text: Northeastern Section: This section is designated as the National Museum Complex which includes the Agrifina Circle, and where the National Museum of Natural History and the National Museum of Anthropology are located.


title: Rizal Park

text: Central Section: Located south of Maria Orosa Street is the park proper that extends down up to Roxas Boulevard. This is where the Rizal Monument and several attractions such as the Open-Air Auditorium, Independence Flagpole, Central Musical and Dancing Fountain are located.


title: Rizal Park

text: Southwestern Section: Includes the Burnham Green, a open field, the Quirino Grandstand and the Manila Ocean Park along Manila Bay.


title: Rizal Park

text: The bronze-and-granite Rizal monument is among the most famous sculptural landmarks in the country. It is almost protocol for visiting dignitaries to lay a wreath at the monument. Located on the monument is not merely the statue of Rizal, but also his remains.


title: Rizal Park

text: On September 28, 1901, the United States Philippine Commission approved Act No. 243, which would erect a monument in Luneta to commemorate the memory of José Rizal, Filipino patriot, writer and poet. The committee formed by the act held an international design competition between 1905 and 1907 and invited sculptors from Europe and the United States to submit entries with an estimated cost of ₱100,000 using local materials.


title: Rizal Park

text: The first-prize winner was Carlos Nicoli of Carrara, Italy for his scaled plaster model titled ""Al Martir de Bagumbayan"" (To the Martyr of Bagumbayan), besting 40 other accepted entries. The contract though, was awarded to second-placer Swiss sculptor named Richard Kissling for his ""Motto Stella"" (Guiding Star).


title: Rizal Park

text: After more than twelve years of its approval, the shrine was finally unveiled on December 30, 1913, during Rizal's 17th death anniversary. His poem "Mi último adiós" ("My Last Farewell") is inscribed on the memorial plaque. The site is continuously guarded by ceremonial soldiers of Philippine Marine Corps’ Marine Security and Escort Group


title: Rizal Park

text: According to the inventory made by the National Parks Development Committee, there are 3,497 trees in Rizal Park belonging to 112 species as of 2015. 527 of the individual trees are narra.


title: Rizal Park

text: In 2012, 30 high-definition closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras were installed to make the area safer for local and foreign tourists. The National Parks Development Committee have stationed police and security officers in the key places in the park for added security.


title: Rizal Park

text: Like Rizal Avenues, most Philippine towns and cities have a Rizal Park (or a Plaza Rizal), usually its central square. This is also where its Rizal monument is located. Seattle also has its own Rizal Park. Additionally, a statue and monument of Jose Rizal was erected in Luneta Park, located along Rizal Ave in the city of Markham, ON Canada in 2019.


title: Mustang, Texas

text: Mustang is a town in Navarro County, Texas, United States. The population was zero at the 2020 census. In December 2021, Mark Cuban, entrepreneur and owner of the Dallas Mavericks, purchased the 77-acre town for roughly $2 million.


title: Mustang, Texas

text: Mustang is located at (32.012629, –96.431178). It is situated at the northeast corner of the junction of Interstate 45 and FM 739 in central Navarro County.


title: Mustang, Texas

text: Mustang was incorporated in 1973 for the purpose of selling alcohol in what was then a dry Navarro County. The incorporation effort was led by partners William "Bill" McKie, a former Corsicana city attorney, and Harold "Mack" McElhenney, a businessman. On October 30, 1973, the town approved beer sales. In a March 25, 1975, election, residents voted 20–0 in favor of selling hard liquor, as well as mixed beverages. Mustang had a population of 12 in the 1980 Census, which grew to 35 in 1990. By the mid-1990s, the town lost its status as the primary alcohol stop in the county, as other nearby communities began to repeal their blue laws. The population of Mustang rose to 47 in 2000. Town founder Bill McKie negotiated a deal to sell Mustang to Tommy Sinclair, who leased a club in the community, on June 5, 2005, for $600,000. The transaction was not completed, however, and Sinclair filed a lawsuit in October 2005 for the right to buy the property. McKie died on November 11, 2005, and his wife Marsha took over legal proceedings on her late husband's behalf. Since McKie's death, legal wrangling over ownership of the town and financial issues have plagued Mustang. In November 2006, the city of Angus threatened to cut off water service to the community over an unpaid bill that totaled $3,400. Mrs. McKie, acting on the town's behalf, personally paid the bill. The case over ownership went back to court in April 2007. Four months later, Sinclair was given possession of Mustang, but not the deed. He promptly evicted many of the town council, as well as the city secretary and fire chief. The evictions went to court in November 2007 and a majority of the council left town, but refused to resign their posts. In February 2008, the two council members living in residence called for an election to be held that coming May. The town's disputed ownership status led to the holding of two separate council elections on May 10, 2008. The first election, endorsed by Tommy Sinclair, elected a mayor and five aldermen. The vote was canvassed on May 17. In the second called election, three aldermen positions were left open. Those results were canvassed on May 14. Eight votes were cast; six votes in one election and two in the other. Both governments claimed legitimacy.


title: Mustang, Texas

text: Tommy Sinclair and two others were indicted on June 25, 2009, by a Navarro County grand jury in connection with the October 1, 2008, death of a Houston man after an alleged altercation at his cabaret in Mustang.


title: Mustang, Texas

text: "The Dallas Morning News" reported in December 2021 that billionaire Mark Cuban purchased the entire town for around $2 million. The report indicated that a previous attempt to sell the town for $4 million failed to attract any buyers. Cuban stated that he had made the purchase to help a friend who needed to sell, and that he did not have any immediate plans for the property.


title: Mustang, Texas

text: As of the census of 2000, 47 people, 20 households, and 12 families were residing in the town. The population density was 372.6 people per square mile (139.6/km). The 23 housing units averaged 182.3 per square mile (68.3/km). The racial makeup of the town was 89.36% White, 8.51% African American, and 2.13% from two or more races.


title: Mustang, Texas

text: Of the 20 households, 40.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.0% were married couples living together, 25.0% had a female householder with no spouse present, and 40.0% were not families. About 40.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35, and the average family size was 3.08.


title: Mustang, Texas

text: In the town, the population was distributed as 36.2% under the age of 18, 12.8% from 18 to 24, 27.7% from 25 to 44, 21.3% from 45 to 64, and 2.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 114.3 males.


title: Mustang, Texas

text: The median income for a household in the town was $46,250, and for a family was $46,667. Males had a median income of $31,250 versus $0 for females. The per capita income for the town was $75,692. About 3.8% of the population lived below the poverty line, all of whom were over 64.


title: Captain America's shield

text: Captain America's shield is a fictional item appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. It is the primary defensive and offensive piece of equipment used by Captain America, and is intended to be an emblem of American culture.


title: Captain America's shield

text: Over the years, Captain America has used several shields of varying composition and design. His original heater shield first appeared in "Captain America Comics" #1 (March 1941), published by Marvel's 1940s predecessor, Timely Comics. The circular shield best associated with the character debuted in the next issue, "Captain America Comics" #2.


title: Captain America's shield

text: In his debut, Captain America (secretly U.S. Army Private Steve Rogers) is equipped with a heater-style shield made from steel. After complaints by rival comic-book publisher MLJ that the design was too similar to that of its own patriotic hero the Shield, Timely Comics replaced the triangular shield with a disc-shaped one.


title: Captain America's shield

text: While the origin and fate of the original shield were not described in the original comics from the 1940s, the shield's fate was revealed decades later in 2001 through a retconned story. According to the tale, King T'Chaka of Wakanda met Captain America in early 1941 and gave him a sample of vibranium, an alien metal with unique vibration-absorption properties and found only in Wakanda and the Savage Land. The vibranium was used to make Captain America's circular shield, and his triangular one was retired.


title: Captain America's shield

text: Captain America received a second triangular shield that he used until given his disc-shaped shield, presented to him by President Franklin Roosevelt. This second triangular shield was kept in storage with Rogers' other personal effects after the war. It was recovered at some point after Rogers joined the superhero team the Avengers in "The Avengers" #4, and was kept at Avengers Mansion. It was destroyed by the supervillain Mr. Hyde during a raid on the mansion by Baron Zemo's Masters of Evil, and later "plucked from time" and restored by Zemo in "Thunderbolts" #105 (October 2006). The shield (along with other sentimental items thought destroyed) was returned to Captain America. A third triangular shield is kept in the Smithsonian Institution. It was used by Captain America when he foiled a terrorist attack on the museum itself after the loss of his usual shield; it was then given to him in gratitude. This shield is destroyed several issues later by a Kree alien warrior.


title: Captain America's shield

text: The shield destroyed by Hyde and restored by Zemo was eventually passed on to Elijah Bradley, the teenage hero known as the Patriot and leader of the Young Avengers.


title: Captain America's shield

text: In 2010, the history of the original shield was revised. In the limited series "Captain America/Black Panther: Flags of Our Fathers", Captain America, Sergeant Nick Fury and the Howling Commandos meet Azzari (grandfather of T'Challa)—the Black Panther and king of Wakanda during World War II. Aided by Wakandan military forces, they repel a series of Nazi attacks led by the Red Skull and Baron Strucker. During the battle, the Red Skull (wearing a battle-suit) crushes the triangular shield, and Captain America uses a circular vibranium shield provided by T'Chaka to incapacitate the Skull. The weapon serves as the inspiration for the circular shield that the super-soldier begins using upon his return to America, and the encounter marks the beginning of friendly relations between the United States and Wakanda.


title: Captain America's shield

text: The round shield most associated with Captain America made its debut in "Captain America Comics" #2 (April 1941). An indestructible concavo-convex metal disc approximately in diameter, weighing , it has remained Captain America's most constant shield over the decades.


title: Captain America's shield

text: In "Captain America" #255 (March 1981), it is established that the shield was presented to Rogers by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The shield is created by fictional American metallurgist Myron MacLain, who had been commissioned by the US government to create an indestructible armor material to aid the war effort. MacLain experiments with vibranium.


title: Captain America's shield

text: During one of his experiments to fuse vibranium with an experimental steel alloy, MacLain falls asleep and awakens to find that the resulting alloy had set in a tank hatch mold. However, he was not able to duplicate it, because as MacLain described it, "some unknown factor" was present during the experiment that he could not identify. The shield was then painted to become Captain America's weapon and symbol. MacLain would later attempt to recreate the shield's metal to no avail, his experiments instead eventually yielding the super-metal adamantium. While adamantium has been portrayed as practically indestructable, MacLain said was "no match" for the mysterious Vibranium/Proto-Adamantium shield.


title: Captain America's shield

text: Rogers' shield is more durable than regular adamantium and is essentially indestructible. The vibranium grants the shield unusual properties, allowing it to absorb all of the kinetic impact and vibrations from any blows that the shield receives without injuring Rogers in the process. The vibranium is also a factor in the way Rogers throws his shield: he often uses it to ricochet and strike multiple opponents or stationary objects with little loss of speed after each impact.


title: Captain America's shield

text: Soon after his revival from suspended animation and rescue by the Avengers, Rogers briefly experimented with Stark's modification of the shield which included a magnetic mechanism that enabled Rogers to hold the shield through a corresponding magnetic mechanism attached to his left glove, as well as communications equipment. These modifications allowed Rogers to launch the shield from his glove and control it mid-flight. However, Rogers decided to have those modifications removed and restored the holding straps since he found that he preferred to physically throw the shield himself and the electronic equipment spoiled the shield's balance to enable him to do that effectively.


title: Captain America's shield

text: After Rogers' death, S.H.I.E.L.D. takes over custody of the shield, with one replica on display in a museum, and another replica buried with Rogers. The real one is kept by S.H.I.E.L.D. to be used by the new Captain America, whenever they deem it appropriate to train a new one. After failing to find a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent capable of throwing it properly, Stark offers the shield to Clint Barton (known at that time as Ronin), who does manage to throw it. During his first outing as Captain America, Barton encounters the Young Avengers and scolds Kate Bishop for using the Hawkeye name. She tells him that the "Real Cap" gave her that name in honor of his at the time dead friend. This leads Barton to refuse to be Captain America. The shield is subsequently stolen by the Winter Soldier, who did not want anyone else to carry the shield. Inevitably, in an effort to honor Rogers' last wishes, Stark offers to let the Winter Soldier (Bucky Barnes) keep the shield, and to serve as the new Captain America. Bucky accepts. This offer is made "off the books", and only the two of them, the Black Widow, and the Falcon, are aware of the situation.


title: Captain America's shield

text: Although Bucky attempted to return the shield to Rogers after his resurrection, Rogers let Bucky keep it as he felt that he could do more good in his new role as Commander Steve Rogers rather than Captain America. Rogers used a photonic shield in its place when circumstances called for him to go into combat. He reclaimed the shield for good after Bucky was apparently killed during the "Fear Itself" event— Bucky really going underground after his past as the Winter Soldier was exposed— that also resulted in the shield being broken and reassembled by Asgardian blacksmiths, who add some of the mystical metal Uru to the reconstructed shield, making it even stronger than before, although it is left with a noticeable scar that Rogers decided to keep to give the shield character. This premise was not observed in subsequent storylines, or considered canon, as artists have not continued depicting the shield with the scar.


title: Captain America's shield

text: In the 2003-2004 Marvel Comics/DC Comics inter-company crossover limited series "JLA/Avengers", Superman is given the shield by Captain America to wield in battle in the final confrontation with Krona, and is impressed with its might. When he asks where he could get one just like it while battling foes, Thor replies, "Enjoy it while thou canst, Superman. There is none other like it in "all" the worlds". Throughout the final battle, the shield changes forms between the pointed shield and the circular shield due to various temporal ripples caused by Krona's equipment, and Superman even loses the shield altogether at one point when he morphs into his energy form while Cap reacquires the photonic shield, although the metal shield reappears on Superman's arm after he morphs back into his regular form.


title: Captain America's shield

text: Over time the shield has been damaged or destroyed several times within the confines of the Earth-616 continuity:


title: Captain America's shield

text: Captain America's shield is a recurring item throughout the Marvel Cinematic Universe franchise. Like its comic book counterpart, it is circular, relatively lightweight, and made of the nearly indestructible Wakandan metal, vibranium. It is created by Howard Stark and given to Steve Rogers during World War II. Within the MCU, the shield is seen as a symbol of Captain America's strength and legacy.


title: Captain America's shield

text: In production for "Captain America: The First Avenger", the shield, which is depicted as both a defensive tool and a weapon, came in four types: metal, fiberglass, rubber, and computer graphics (CG). Prop master Barry Gibbs specified that "We had the 'hero shield,' which was made of aluminum, for our beauty shots [and] close-up work. We then created a lighter shield that was aluminum-faced with a fiberglass back, for use on a daily basis. ... And then we had a stunt shield made of polyurethane, which is sort of a synthetic rubber ... and we made an ultrasoft one we put on [Evans'] back, so that if there were an accident, it wouldn't hurt him." Visual effects supervisor Christopher Townsend said Evans "would practice swinging the practical shield so he knew the arc and the speed at which he should move. We would take the shield from him and shoot the scene with him miming it. Then we would add in a CG shield".


title: Captain America's shield

text: The premise of "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" revolves around a moment in the film "Avengers: Endgame" (2019) which depicts Steve Rogers bequeathing the shield and the mantle of Captain America to his friend Sam Wilson. Marvel Studios chief executive Kevin Feige said this was intended to be a "classic passing of the torch from one hero to another", but when Marvel Studios got the opportunity to make television series for Disney+ they decided to expand this into an entire story about Wilson, who is a Black man, becoming Captain America, with the shield serving as a symbol for the superhero title. Mackie said the series would explore Wilson's backstory and treat him as a "regular guy" in a world of superheroes, while "walk[ing] the line of who is going to take up the [Captain America] shield" after "Endgame".


title: Captain America's shield

text: The shield has been used as a promotional symbol associated with the Marvel Cinematic Universe. A model of the shield was sent as a gift by Chris Evans, who plays the role of Steve Rogers in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, to a 6-year-old boy who had sustained injuries when defending his sister from a dog attack. Before the premiere of "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier", an image of the shield was projected onto landmarks such as the London Eye and the Singapore Flyer. Students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, meanwhile, also paid homage to the shield by covering the university's 'Great Dome' with a design of the shield, drawing approval from Chris Evans on Twitter. The shield has also been included by Epic Games as an in-game accessory in the popular video game "Fortnite".


title: Captain America's shield

text: A model of the shield was also held in a swearing-in by San Jose, California Republican councilman Lan Diep, with various speculation that the shield was a metaphor to symbolise opposition to Republican President Donald Trump. The use of the shield as a symbol of American nationalism by Trump supporters in the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, meanwhile, drew criticism from Neil Kirby, the son of the shield's comics creator, Jack Kirby, who said that the shield symbolized "the absolute antithesis of Donald Trump".


title: Big Diomede

text: Big Diomede Island (; Ratmanov Island, ; ; or Tomorrow Island, due to the International Date Line) is the western island of the two Diomede Islands in the middle of the Bering Strait. The island is a part of the Chukotsky District of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug of Russia. The border separating Russia and the United States runs north–south between the Diomede Islands.


title: Big Diomede

text: Big Diomede Island is located about southeast of Cape Dezhnev on the Chukchi Peninsula and is Russia's easternmost point according to the International Date Line (if measuring by longtitude, it is the Westernmost point of Russia). The coordinates are . The rocky tuya-type island has an area of about The International Date Line is about east of the island. The highest point of the island is at 65°46'24.64" N, 169°04'06.61" W where the elevation reaches .


title: Big Diomede

text: The island was originally inhabited by Iñupiat. The First Alaskans Institute says: "The people of the Diomede and King Islands are Inupiat [...]".


title: Big Diomede

text: The first European to reach the islands was the Russian explorer Semyon Dezhnyov in 1648. Vitus Bering landed on the Diomede Islands on August 16, 1728, the day on which the Russian Orthodox Church celebrates the memory of the martyr St. Diomede.


title: Big Diomede

text: In 1867, during the Alaska Purchase, the new border between the nations was drawn between the Big Diomede and Little Diomede islands.


title: Big Diomede

text: During World War II, Big Diomede became a military base, and remained so for some time into the Cold War.


title: Big Diomede

text: After World War II, the native population was forced off Big Diomede Island to the mainland in order to avoid contacts across the border. Today, unlike Alaska's neighboring Little Diomede Island, it has no permanent native population, but it is the site of a Russian weather station and a base of Border Service of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation troops (FSB).


title: Big Diomede

text: During the Cold War, the section of the border between the U.S. and the USSR separating Big and Little Diomede became known as the "Ice Curtain". On 7 August 1987, however, Lynne Cox, an American long-distance swimmer, swam from Little Diomede to Big Diomede (approximately ) in ice-cold waters. She was congratulated jointly by Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan four months later at the signing of the INF Missile Treaty at the White House, when Gorbachev made a toast. He and President Reagan lifted their glasses and Gorbachev said: "Last summer it took one brave American by the name of Lynne Cox just two hours to swim from one of our countries to the other. We saw on television how sincere and friendly the meeting was between our people and the Americans when she stepped onto the Soviet shore. She proved by her courage how close to each other our peoples live".


title: Big Diomede

text: There is no airstrip on the island, but being flat on the top, some landings were carried out in order to deliver supplies. On 13 June 1971 a Lisunov Li-2 belonging to the Soviet Border Troops crashed in the centre of the island. All crew members were injured and the green hull remains at .


title: Big Diomede

text: Eleven species of birds including such as puffins and guillemots have been found on Big Diomede. In 1976 a rufous hummingbird was identified on the island. This finding, unique so far in Russia, was very likely due to a dispersed specimen. For mammals, pinnipeds (e.g. ringed and bearded seals, walruses) and cetaceans (e.g. gray and rarer bowhead whales) inhabit the waters around the island.


title: Porchetta

text: Porchetta () is a savory, fatty, and moist boneless pork roast of Italian culinary tradition. The carcass is deboned and spitted or roasted traditionally over wood for at least eight hours, fat and skin still on. In some traditions, porchetta is stuffed with liver and wild fennel, though many versions do not involve stuffing. Porchetta is usually heavily salted and can be stuffed with garlic, rosemary, fennel, or other herbs, often wild. Porchetta has been selected by the Italian Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policy as a "prodotto agroalimentare tradizionale" ("traditional agricultural-food product"), one of a list of traditional Italian foods held to have cultural relevance.


title: Porchetta

text: Although popular in the whole country, porchetta originated in central Italy, with Ariccia (in the Province of Rome) being the town most closely associated with it. Elsewhere, it is considered a celebratory dish. Across Italy, porchetta is usually sold by pitchmen with their typically white-painted vans, especially during public displays or holidays, and it can be served in a panino. It's a common street food in Rome, and Lazio served as a filling for pizza bianca. It is also eaten as a meat dish in many households or as part of a picnic.


title: Porchetta

text: Porchetta is one of the two iconic culinary products of the Lazio region, the other being sheep cheese pecorino romano. Porchetta is also common in Abruzzo. "Porchetta abruzzese" is generally slow roasted with rosemary, garlic, and pepper. Porchetta from Umbria is stuffed with the pig's chopped entrails mixed with lard, garlic, salt and plenty of pepper and wild fennel.


title: Porchetta

text: Porchetta "trevigiana" (from Treviso) was developed in 1919. In it, a pig is slaughtered at one year old, and its meat is stuffed with salt, pepper, wild fennel, garlic and white wine. It is then roasted inside an oven for seven hours at . The porchetta is today a popular dish in Venetian cuisine.


title: Porchetta

text: The dish is also a staple of Sardinian cuisine. There it is known as "porceddu" and is roasted over juniper and myrtle wood fires.


title: Porchetta

text: Porchetta was introduced to the United States by Italian immigrants of the early 20th century, especially immigrants from Abruzzo, and is sometimes referred to as "Italian pulled pork," "roast pork," or "Italian roast pork." It is, in many places, served on a sandwich with greens (rapini or spinach) and provolone cheese.


title: Porchetta

text: In Philadelphia and the surrounding area, the dish is usually referred to as simply "roast pork," "roast pork sandwich," "Italian roast pork," "roast pork Italian," "roasted pork," or "porchetta." Philadelphia cuisine is noted for its sandwich form of porchetta, usually served on an Italian roll and often with broccoli rabe and most traditionally with locally made sharp provolone. "Roast pork" is a staple of Philadelphia Italian-American and South Philadelphia cuisine, with restaurants such as DiNic's Roast Pork in the Reading Terminal Market and John's Roast Pork, Esposito's Porchetta, and Tony Luke's in South Philadelphia being well known for their porchetta or "roast pork" sandwiches.


title: Porchetta

text: Bridgeport, Connecticut, has a Saturday afternoon lunch tradition of porchetta sandwiches served at community restaurants and taverns that dates back to the first wave of Italian immigration in the early 20th century. The dish is served with pepperoncini.


title: Porchetta

text: The porchetta and roast beef sandwich traditions are celebrated in the form of an annual bus tour every first Saturday in March in Bridgeport, Connecticut, organized by The Porchetta Project.


title: Porchetta

text: Metro West Massachusetts has a fierce following of porchettas. Local organizations often hold Porchetta Dinners as very popular and well-attended fundraisers. Many local shops make a roast for purchase, cooked or uncooked. Notable areas are Milford and Framingham, Massachusetts, as they both have large Italian populations. The spices used vary greatly within this area; some will go full bore with garlic, black pepper, salt, fennel, rosemary, and sage, and others will use only garlic, salt, pepper, and fennel. The stem of the fennel plant is often substituted for the fennel seed. These local roasts are made from the Boston butt or shoulder of the pig.


title: Porchetta

text: Porchetta is also very popular in Northern Ontario (notably Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie) and Southern Ontario (in areas such as Hamilton and St. Catharines), and the term "porchetta" is widely used by Italian-Canadians, instead of simply "roast pork". Italian settlers in Sudbury passed their love for porchetta to their children and friends in this region. Old family secrets of spicing, rolling and roasting are passed on, extending commercially into butcher shops and in the form of fast-food sandwiches offered in various locally owned shops. "Porketta Bingo", a variation on the traditional Canadian meat draw, is a popular Saturday afternoon activity in Sudbury. Game winners receive one pound of porchetta and a sourdough bun. There are usually between four and seven rounds of six games each, depending on the establishment. Proceeds of Porketta Bingo usually go to a local charity or are donated to local hockey associations.


title: Porchetta

text: In the Upper Midwest porchetta, more often spelled "porketta", was also introduced by Italian immigrants to the iron ranges of Minnesota and Michigan. Porketta remains a popular local dish in towns such as Hibbing, Minnesota with distributors such as Fraboni Sausage.


title: Third Doctor

text: The Third Doctor is an incarnation of the Doctor, the protagonist of the BBC science fiction television series "Doctor Who". He was portrayed by actor Jon Pertwee. Within the series' narrative, the Doctor is a centuries-old alien Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey who travels in time and space in the TARDIS, frequently with companions. At the end of life, the Doctor regenerates. Consequently, both the physical appearance and personality of the Doctor changes.


title: Third Doctor

text: Pertwee portrays the Third Doctor as a dapper man of action in stark contrast to his wily but less action-orientated predecessors. While previous Doctors' stories had all involved time and space travel, for production reasons Pertwee's stories initially depicted the Doctor stranded on Earth in exile, where he worked as a scientific advisor to the international military group UNIT. Within the story, the Third Doctor came into existence as part of a punishment from his own race, the Time Lords, who forced him to regenerate and also disabled his TARDIS. Eventually, this restriction is lifted and the Third Doctor embarks on more traditional time travel and space exploration stories.


title: Third Doctor

text: His initial companion is UNIT scientist Liz Shaw (Caroline John), who unceremoniously leaves the Doctor's company between episodes to be replaced by the more wide-eyed Jo Grant (Katy Manning), who then continues to accompany the Doctor after he regains use of his TARDIS. His final companion is intrepid journalist Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen).


title: Third Doctor

text: The Third Doctor was a suave, dapper, technologically orientated and authoritative man of action who practised Venusian Aikido. A keen scientist, he maintained a laboratory at UNIT where he enjoyed working on gadgets in his TARDIS. In his spare time, he was fond of motoring, handling all manner of vehicles. His favourite car was a canary-yellow vintage roadster that he nicknamed "Bessie", a machine which featured such modifications as a remote control, dramatically increased speed capabilities and inertial dampers. He also maintained a hovercraft-like vessel that fans nicknamed the Whomobile. The First Doctor, upon meeting the Third, described him indignantly as a "dandy", while the Second Doctor, with whom the Third had something of an antagonistic relationship on the occasions they encountered each other, referred to him as "Fancy Pants".


title: Third Doctor

text: While this incarnation spent most of his time exiled on Earth—grudgingly working as UNIT's scientific advisor—he was occasionally sent on covert missions by the Time Lords, where he would often act as a reluctant mediator. Even though he developed a fondness for Earthlings with whom he worked (such as Liz Shaw and Jo Grant), he jumped at any chance to return to the stars. Though he had a somewhat patrician and authoritarian air, he was quick to criticise authority, and often exclaimed "Now "listen" to me!" when dealing with people seeking to obstruct him.


title: Third Doctor

text: Despite his occasional arrogance, the Third Doctor genuinely cared for his companions in a paternal fashion, and even held a thinly veiled but grudging admiration for his nemesis, the Master, and for UNIT's leader, Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart, with whom he eventually became friends. In fact, even when his much-resented exile was lifted, the moral and dashing Third Doctor continued to help UNIT protect the Earth from all manner of alien threats, a role that continued into his future incarnations.


title: Third Doctor

text: In general, this incarnation of the Doctor was more physically daring than the previous two and was the first to confront an enemy physically if cornered (both of his previous incarnations nearly always attempted to dodge, flee or negotiate rather than attack). This often took the form of quick strikes, with the occasional joint lock or throw — usually enough to get himself and anyone accompanying him out of immediate danger, but usually not to the extent of a brawl, in keeping with the Doctor's non-violent nature. He only used his fighting skills if he had no alternative, and even then generally disarmed his opponents rather than knocking them unconscious. Indeed, his martial prowess was such that a single, sudden strike was usually enough to halt whatever threatened him, and at one point he reminded Captain Yates of UNIT (physically as well as verbally) that Yates would have a difficult time removing him from somewhere when he did not want to be removed ("The Mind of Evil").


title: Third Doctor

text: The Third Doctor was a skilled diplomat (keeping talks going in "The Curse of Peladon," for example) and linguist, as well as having a penchant for disguises.


title: Third Doctor

text: When asked to attend a "Radio Times" photo-call in 1969, Jon Pertwee arrived in what he thought was "a suitably eccentric outfit" from his family wardrobe, and the flamboyant image stuck with producer Barry Letts. Through the first two seasons, he wore a flowing, crimson-lined cape over a black velvet smoking jacket and a ruffled shirt with a variety of neckties such as jabots, bow ties or cravats. Beginning in the 1971 season, when the look was refashioned by Ken Trew, Pertwee wore a red jacket and a cloak with purple lining. In the final two seasons, the colour scheme changed from story to story, though the basic look was maintained.


title: Third Doctor

text: In his first episode, when the Doctor evades capture by taking a shower, a tattoo of a serpent can be seen on his arm. Whereas Pertwee obtained it during his service in the Royal Navy, an in-universe reason for it was eventually provided in the New Adventures novel "Christmas on a Rational Planet" as being a Time Lord symbol signifying exile, removed once the Doctor's exile was formally ended following the events of "The Three Doctors".


title: Third Doctor

text: The Third Doctor stories were the first to be broadcast in colour. The early ones were set on Earth because he had been exiled there when the Second Doctor was banished to Earth by his people, the Time Lords, and forced to regenerate. On Earth, he worked with the Brigadier and the rest of the UNIT team. However, as his tenure progressed he had reasons to leave Earth, on occasion being sent on missions by the Time Lords. Eventually, after his defeat of the renegade Omega in "The Three Doctors", he was granted complete freedom by the Time Lords in gratitude for saving Gallifrey.


title: Third Doctor

text: The Third Doctor's era introduced adversaries including the Autons, the Master, Omega, the Sontarans, the Silurians and the Sea Devils. The Daleks returned after a five-year absence about halfway through Pertwee's run. The Third Doctor was the only one from the classic series not to have a story featuring the Cybermen (although they were seen briefly in "The Mind of Evil" and "Carnival of Monsters"), but he did eventually encounter them during "The Five Doctors".


title: Third Doctor

text: A catchphrase used during the Third Doctor's era was "reverse the polarity of the neutron flow". The phrase was Pertwee's way of dealing with the technobabble that he was required to speak as the Doctor. Terrance Dicks recalls that he had used the line in a script, and Pertwee approached him about the line. Dicks had feared that he would have to remove it, but Pertwee stated that he liked it, and wanted to see it more often. Dicks obliged.


title: Third Doctor

text: The Third Doctor only said the full phrase "reverse the polarity of the neutron flow" twice on screen – in "The Sea Devils" (1972) and the 20th Anniversary special "The Five Doctors" (1983). Pertwee used the phrase when he acted in the stage play "Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure" in 1989. When Colin Baker took over the role in the play he amended the line to "Reverse the linearity of the proton flow." In the radio play "The Paradise of Death", the Brigadier asks "Reverse the polarity of the neutron flow?" and the Doctor proceeds to explain that the phrase is meaningless (though in reality neutrons can be polarized by a magnetic field, such that reversing the magnetic field’s direction reverses the polarity of the neutrons). On other occasions on screen, the Third Doctor "reversed the polarity" but not of neutrons.


title: Third Doctor

text: The full phrase was used in several Target novelisations. It was subsequently used by the Fourth Doctor (in "City of Death") and the Fifth Doctor (in "Castrovalva" and "Mawdryn Undead"). Together with "The Five Doctors", this resulted in the phrase being used as a nostalgic reference. In the Tenth Doctor episode "The Lazarus Experiment", the Doctor, while hiding in Lazarus' machine, comments that it had taken him too long to reverse the polarity due to being out of practice. The Tenth Doctor uses the full phrase in "Music of the Spheres".


title: Third Doctor

text: During the episode "The Almost People", a clone of the Eleventh Doctor speaks the phrase while reliving the memories of all his predecessors. He goes on to conflate it with his regeneration-spanning love of jelly babies, remarking that they need to "reverse the jelly baby of the neutron flow". In "The Day of the Doctor", the Eleventh Doctor invokes the phrase when confronting a time portal with the Tenth Doctor, suggesting that they both "reverse the polarity" with their sonic screwdrivers (which merely neutralizes each other’s efforts). In "The Girl Who Died", the Twelfth Doctor tells Clara Oswald he is "Reversing the polarity of the neutron flow", followed by "I bet that means something. It sounds great." Clara herself uses the phrase, saying she "reversed the polarity" of a mind-wiping device to prevent the Doctor from erasing her memories of him from her mind ("Hell Bent"). In "It Takes You Away", Yasmin Khan suggests that the Thirteenth Doctor reverse the polarity on the sonic screwdriver in order to (successfully) open a locked inter-universe portal.


title: Third Doctor

text: The original title sequence for the Third Doctor's seasons introduced colour and was an extension of the "howlround" kaleidoscopic patterns used for the previous Doctors. It features red, black then green flaming hands, then shows Jon Pertwee's face followed by a series of swirling lines to represent the time vortex. As the vortex turns red it speeds up only to start reversing, and in some cases it is seen turning pink and yellow. In the Third Doctor's final season, a new title sequence was introduced using a full-body picture of Pertwee, designed by Bernard Lodge. Partially inspired by the slit-scan hyperspace sequence in Stanley Kubrick's "", one portion of this sequence is the prototype for the time tunnel sequence of the Fourth Doctor's seasons. The Third Doctor's final season also introduced the diamond logo which would remain in use until 1980 and be revived in 2022..


title: Third Doctor

text: The series logo introduced in 1970 and used for the first four seasons of Pertwee's tenure would later be used again, in modified form, as the logo for the 1996 Doctor Who TV movie. This version subsequently became the official "Doctor Who" logo, most notably with regards to products connected to the Eighth Doctor. With the introduction of a new official series logo in 2005, the 1996 logo continued to be used by Big Finish Productions as the logo for all pre-2005 series material including books and audio dramas, and by the BBC on DVD releases of episodes from the 1963–89 series, books and audio.


title: Third Doctor

text: The Third Doctor appeared again in the 20th anniversary special "The Five Doctors", broadcast in 1983. A stage play, "Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure", was produced in 1989, starring Jon Pertwee (occasionally replaced by an understudy then later, until the end of the production run, by Colin Baker as the Sixth Doctor). In 1993, he played the role again for the 30th Anniversary charity special "Dimensions in Time", and in the audio drama "The Paradise of Death". Months before his death, he played the Doctor for the final time in the audio drama "The Ghosts of N-Space".


title: Third Doctor

text: From 2015, Big Finish had produced a new series of audio drama adventures featuring the Third Doctor titled "", with Tim Treloar voicing the role.


title: Third Doctor

text: Visions of the Third Doctor appear in "The Brain of Morbius", "Mawdryn Undead", and "Resurrection of the Daleks". A portrait of him is seen in "Timelash". A brief clip of the Third Doctor taken from "Terror of the Autons" appears in "The Next Doctor", another appears in "The Sarah Jane Adventures" serial "The Mad Woman in the Attic" as a flashback, and visions appear in "The Eleventh Hour", "The Lodger", "Nightmare in Silver", and "The Sarah Jane Adventures" serial "Death of the Doctor". He was also seen in the episode "The Name of the Doctor" driving Bessie (taken from "The Five Doctors"), and archival footage was used for his appearance in "The Day of the Doctor".


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Hans Wilsdorf (22 March 1881 – 6 July 1960) was a German businessman, best known as the founder of Rolex and Tudor. Wilsdorf's philosophy for the companies was 'Only great marketing is needed to make a company successful'


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Hans Wilsdorf was born in Kulmbach, Germany, to Protestant parents, Anna and Johan Daniel Ferdinand Wilsdorf and was the second son of a family of three children.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: His mother died when he was a boy and he became an orphan when his father died soon after when Hans was twelve years old.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Wilsdorf's fate was placed in the hands of his uncles who sold the prosperous family iron tools business which had belonged to his grandfather, and later to his father. Hans and his brother and sister were sent to excellent boarding schools where they received superb educations.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Wilsdorf published his autobiography in 1946 as part of a four volume set of books named "Rolex Jubilee Vade Mecum". In his autobiography Hans said "Our uncles were not indifferent to our fate; nevertheless, the way in which they made me become self-reliant very early in life made me acquire the habit of looking after my possessions and, looking back, I believe that it is to this that much of my success is due".


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Wilsdorf excelled in mathematics and languages, which inspired him to travel and work in foreign countries. Hans began his career as an apprentice with an influential international pearl exporting company. The experience Hans gained played a crucial role in of his future dealings.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1900 Wilsdorf began his career in Swiss watchmaking when he moved to La Chaux-de-Fonds to work as an English correspondent and clerk with the watch firm of Messrs. Cuno Korten, at the 49, rue Leoppold Robert, where he was paid a salary of 80 Swiss Francs. At the time, Cuno Korten exported around one million francs worth of pocket watches annually. Cuno Korten worked with all grades of watches, and manufactured a small number of watches from the ground up.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Wilsdorf was responsible for winding hundreds of pocket watches daily in his role with Cuno Korten, as well as verifying that all watches were accurate. Wilsdorf gained tremendous insight into watchmaking during his time with Cuno Korten, where he gained valuable knowledge about how all types of watches were produced.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Wilsdorf had children whose identities are unclear. The further descending family tree now maintains in Salzburg, Austria.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1903 Hans Wilsdorf moved to London, England where he went to work for another high-quality watchmaking company. In 1905—with a modest amount of money—Hans set up a business with Alfred Davis named Wilsdorf & Davis, located at 83 Hatton Garden in London. The goal of Wilsdorf & Davis was to provide high-quality timepieces at affordable prices.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: On Rolex's 50th anniversary, in 1958, Wilsdorf shared the story of how he originally conceived the 'Rolex' name in 1908:


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: "I tried combining the letters of the alphabet in every possible way. This gave some hundred names, but none of them felt quite right. It was one morning when I was sitting on the upper level of a double-decker powered at that time by horses, driving along Cheapside in London, that a good genie whispered in my ear: "Rolex." A few days after this fruitful journey, the Rolex brand was filed, and then officially registered in Switzerland by Wilsdorf & Davis."


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: During the first decade of the 1900s pocket watches were ubiquitous, and wrist watches, referred to at the time as a "wristlet" were frowned upon. Hans Wilsdorf was an early believer in the potential of the wrist watch, and made it his mission in life to popularize them.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1902, during his stay at La Chaux-de-Fonds, Hans Wilsdorf heard of one Hermann Aegler, based in Bienne, Switzerland, who had begun producing 'ebauches', which are the rough movements for high-quality, small lever escapement watch movements.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1905, Wilsdorf traveled to Bienne, Switzerland and placed an order with Hermann Aegler, resulting in the largest order ever made for wristlet watches. This was the beginning of a long-standing partnership between Aegler and Rolex, until a century later when Rolex bought Aegler.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1914, a decade after Wilsdorf moved to London, World War I broke out, at which time Wilsdorf changed the name of Wilsdorf & Davis to The Rolex Watch Company Ltd. Fourteen days before World War I began, On July 14, 1914, Rolex was the first wristwatch in history to be awarded a Class "A" certificate from the Kew Observatory. Rolex had grown quickly; in 1914 they had more than 40 employees.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1914, Wilsdorf wrote: "My personal opinion ... is that pocket watches will almost completely disappear and that wrist watches will replace them definitively! I am not mistaken in this opinion and you will see that I am right".


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1915 the British government implemented a 33% customs duty that prompted Rolex to move its international headquarters from London to Bienne, Switzerland. In 1919 Rolex moved its headquarters to Geneva, Switzerland, where it remains to this day.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1927 Rolex patented and launched a commercially viable waterproof watch, "The Rolex Oyster". Rolex also selected watch dealers in each town to act as exclusive dealers, and provided them with window displays that consisted of an aquarium with plants and goldfish, along with a Rolex Oyster wristwatch. The same strategy was used during the 'Great Exhibition' in London by another brand several decades before.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Wilsdorf realized the advent of the Rolex Oyster was a major potential of growing income, and invested heavily in advertising. His first Rolex brand ambassador was female swimmer Mercedes Gleitze who swam the English Channel wearing a Rolex Oyster around her neck.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: After Mercedes Gleitze, Wilsdorf turned to land speed king Sir Malcolm Campbell to represent Rolex as a brand ambassador. Malcolm Campbell set new land-speed records nine times between 1924 and 1935.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1931 Rolex launched an automatic wristwatch : "The Rolex Perpetual". The Rolex Perpetual automatically wound itself by harnessing energy captured from the rotation of an internal bi-directional rotor.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: By the start of World War II, Royal Air Force pilots were buying Rolex watches to replace their inferior standard-issue watches. When captured and sent to POW camps, their watches were confiscated. When Wilsdorf heard of this, he offered to replace all watches that had been confiscated and not require payment until the end of the war, if the officers would write to Rolex and explain the circumstances of their loss and where they were being held. Wilsdorf personally oversaw this effort.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Wilsdorf and his first wife, Florence Frances May Wilsdorf-Crotty, had no children, and she died from an illness in 1944. In 1945 Wilsdorf established the Hans Wilsdorf Foundation. In 1960 he gave his 100% ownership stake in Rolex to the foundation. The Hans Wilsdorf Foundation owns and controls Rolex to this day, and donates much of its income to charity and social causes in Geneva, Switzerland. There is no requirement to disclose financial or charitable donations under law, and the company pays no corporate taxes as a result of being owned by the Foundation.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1945 Rolex introduced a wristwatch with an aperture window that automatically displayed the date via a date wheel, and was seen on the wrists of world leaders including Sir Winston Churchill and U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Wilsdorf established the high-quality lower-priced watch brand "Tudor", a subsidiary company of Rolex, in 1946. While the Tudor name had appeared on previous watches made under the auspices of Rolex, at this time Tudor expanded into an affordable alternative to Rolex-branded offerings. On March 6, 1946, Wilsdorf made the following statement regarding Tudor:


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: "For some years now I have been considering the idea of making a watch that our agents could sell at a more modest price than our Rolex watches, and yet one that could attain the standards of dependability for which Rolex is famous, I decided to form a separate company, with the object of making and marketing this new watch. It is called the Tudor Watch Company."


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1954 Rolex launched their first specialized diving watch: "The Rolex Submariner". The Submariner became commercially available after introduction at the Basel Fair Show in 1954.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: In 1954 Rolex introduced a "tool watch" known as the GMT-Master. The GMT-Master had all the usual Rolex features including a watertight Oyster case, Perpetual movement, and luminous hands and markers, but added a 24-hour hand designed to keep time in a second time zone. The GMT-Master was designed for Pan American Airways pilots, navigators and world travelers.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Rolex introduced the Day-Date model in 1955, featuring both a day-of-the-week aperture window and a date aperture window. The Day-Date was somewhat similar to the Rolex Datejust at 36mm in diameter, with a slightly thicker case.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: The Rolex Milgauss was introduced in 1956 with a Reference Number of 6541. This watch was designed with special anti-magnetic featuring 1000 gauss for scientists who worked in research labs, power plants, or medical facilities whose watches could be affected by magnetism. The original Rolex Milgauss had a second hand similar to a lightning bolt, and resembled the Rolex Submariner.


title: Hans Wilsdorf

text: Wilsdorf died in Geneva, Switzerland on July 6, 1960. He was buried in Kings Cemetery in Geneva beside his first and second wives. The Hans Wilsdorf Foundation, established in 1945, still owns and controls Rolex.


title: Red Summer

text: Red Summer was a period in mid-1919 during which white supremacist terrorism and racial riots occurred in more than three dozen cities across the United States, and in one rural county in Arkansas. The term "Red Summer" was coined by civil rights activist and author James Weldon Johnson, who had been employed as a field secretary by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) since 1916. In 1919, he organized peaceful protests against the racial violence.


title: Red Summer

text: In most instances, attacks consisted of white-on-black violence. Numerous African Americans fought back, notably in the Chicago and Washington, D.C. race riots, which resulted in 38 and 15 deaths, respectively, along with even more injuries, and extensive property damage in Chicago. Still, the highest number of fatalities occurred in the rural area around Elaine, Arkansas, where an estimated 100–240 black people and five white people were killed—an event now known as the Elaine massacre.


title: Red Summer

text: The anti-black riots developed from a variety of post-World War I social tensions, generally related to the demobilization of both black and white members of the United States Armed Forces following World War I; an economic slump; and increased competition in the job and housing markets between ethnic European Americans and African Americans. The time would also be marked by labor unrest, for which certain industrialists used black people as strikebreakers, further inflaming the resentment of white workers.


title: Red Summer

text: The riots and killings were extensively documented by the press, which, along with the federal government, feared socialist and communist influence on the black civil rights movement of the time following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. They also feared foreign anarchists, who had bombed the homes and businesses of prominent figures and government leaders.


title: Red Summer

text: With the mobilization of troops for World War I, and with immigration from Europe cut off, the industrial cities of the American Northeast and Midwest experienced severe labor shortages. As a result, northern manufacturers recruited throughout the South, from which an exodus of workers ensued.


title: Red Summer

text: By 1919, an estimated 500,000 African Americans had emigrated from the Southern United States to the industrial cities of the Northeast and Midwest in the first wave of the Great Migration (which continued until 1940). African-American workers filled new positions in expanding industries, such as the railroads, as well as many existing jobs formerly held by whites. In some cities, they were hired as strikebreakers, especially during the strikes of 1917. This increased resentment against blacks among many working-class whites, immigrants, and first-generation Americans.


title: Red Summer

text: In the summer of 1917, violent racial riots against blacks due to labor tensions broke out in East St. Louis, Illinois and Houston, Texas. Following the war, rapid demobilization of the military without a plan for absorbing veterans into the job market, and the removal of price controls, led to unemployment and inflation that increased competition for jobs. Jobs were very difficult for African Americans to get in the South due to racism and segregation.


title: Red Summer

text: During the First Red Scare of 1919–20, following the 1917 Russian Revolution, anti-Bolshevik sentiment in the United States quickly followed on the anti-German sentiment arising in the war years. Many politicians and government officials, together with much of the press and the public, feared an imminent attempt to overthrow the U.S. government to create a new regime modeled on that of the Soviets. Authorities viewed with alarm African-Americans' advocacy of racial equality, labor rights, and the rights of victims of mobs to defend themselves. In a private conversation in March 1919, President Woodrow Wilson said that "the American Negro returning from abroad would be our greatest medium in conveying Bolshevism to America." Other whites expressed a wide range of opinions, some anticipating unsettled times and others seeing no signs of tension.


title: Red Summer

text: Early in 1919, Dr. George Edmund Haynes, an educator employed as director of Negro Economics for the U.S. Department of Labor, wrote: "The return of the Negro soldier to civil life is one of the most delicate and difficult questions confronting the Nation, north and south." One black veteran wrote a letter to the editor of the "Chicago Daily News" saying the returning black veterans "are now new men and world men…and their possibilities for direction, guidance, honest use, and power are limitless, only they must be instructed and led. They have awakened, but they have not yet the complete conception of what they have awakened to." W. E. B. Du Bois, an official of the NAACP and editor of its monthly magazine, saw an opportunity:By the God of Heaven, we are cowards and jackasses if now that the war is over, we do not marshal every ounce of our brain and brawn to fight a sterner, longer, more unbending battle against the forces of hell in our own land.


title: Red Summer

text: In the autumn of 1919, following the violence-filled summer, George Edmund Haynes reported on the events as a prelude to an investigation by the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary. He identified 38 separate racial riots against blacks in widely scattered cities, in which whites attacked black people. Unlike earlier racial riots against blacks in U.S. history, the 1919 events were among the first in which black people in number resisted white attacks and fought back. A. Philip Randolph, a civil rights activist and leader of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, publicly defended the right of black people to self-defense.


title: Red Summer

text: In addition, Haynes reported that between January 1 and September 14, 1919, white mobs lynched at least 43 African Americans, with 16 hanged and others shot; and another 8 men were burned at the stake. The states were unwilling to interfere or prosecute such mob murders. In May, following the first serious racial incidents, W. E. B. Du Bois published his essay "Returning Soldiers":