title: Alameda, California

text: The city was founded on June 6, 1853, after the United States acquired California following the Mexican-American War of 1848. The town originally contained three small settlements. "Alameda" referred to the village at Encinal and High streets, Hibbardsville was located at the North Shore ferry and shipping terminal, and Woodstock was on the west near the ferry piers of the South Pacific Coast Railroad and the Central Pacific. Eventually, the Central Pacific's ferry pier became the Alameda Mole. The borders of Alameda were made coextensive with the island in 1872, incorporating Woodstock into Alameda. In his autobiography, writer Mark Twain described Alameda as "The Garden of California."


title: Alameda, California

text: The first post office opened in 1854. The first school, Schermerhorn School, was opened in 1855 (and eventually renamed as Lincoln School). The San Francisco and Alameda Railroad opened the Encinal station in 1864. Encinal's own post office opened in 1876, was renamed West End in 1877, and closed in 1891. On September 6, 1869, the Alameda Terminal made history; it was the site of the arrival of the first train via the First transcontinental railroad to reach the shores of San Francisco Bay, thus achieving the first coast to coast transcontinental railroad in North America.


title: Alameda, California

text: The Croll Building, on the corner of Webster Street and Central Avenue, was the site of Croll's Gardens and Hotel, used as training quarters for some of the most popular fighters in boxing from 1883 to 1914. Jack Johnson and several other champions all stayed and trained here.]


title: Alameda, California

text: The need for expanded shipping facilities and increased flow of current through the estuary led to the dredging of a tidal canal through the marshland between Oakland and Alameda. Construction started in 1874, but it was not completed until 1902, resulting in Alameda becoming an island.


title: Alameda, California

text: In 1917, a private entertainment park called Neptune Beach was built in the area now known as Crab Cove, which became a major recreation destination in the 1920s and 1930s. Both the American snow cone and the popsicle were first sold at Neptune Beach. The Kewpie doll became the original prize for winning games of chance at the beach – another Neptune Beach innovation. The park closed down in 1939.


title: Alameda, California

text: The Alameda Works Shipyard was one of the largest and best-equipped shipyards in the country. Together with other industrial facilities, it became part of the defense industry buildup before and during World War II, which attracted many migrants from other parts of the United States for the high-paying jobs. In the 1950s, Alameda's industrial and shipbuilding industries thrived along the Alameda Estuary.


title: Alameda, California

text: In the early 21st century, the Port of Oakland, across the estuary, has become one of the largest ports on the West Coast. Its operators use shipping technologies originally experimented within Alameda. As of March 21, 2006, Alameda is a "Coast Guard City", one of seven then designated in the country. As of 2018, it is one of twenty-one within the country.


title: Alameda, California

text: In addition to the regular trains running to the Alameda Mole, Alameda was also served by local steam commuter lines of the Southern Pacific (initially, the Central Pacific). Alameda was the site of the Southern Pacific's West Alameda Shops, where all the electric trains were maintained and repaired. These were later adapted as the East Bay Electric Lines. The trains ran to both the Oakland Mole and the Alameda Mole.


title: Alameda, California

text: In the 1930s Pan American Airways established a seaplane port along with the fill that led to the Alameda Mole, the original home base for the China Clipper flying boat. In 1929, the University of California established the San Francisco Airdrome located near the current Webster Street tube as a public airport. The Bay Airdrome had its gala christening party in 1930. The Airdrome was closed in 1941 when its air traffic interfered with the newly built Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda).


title: Alameda, California

text: In the late 1950s, the Utah Construction Company began a landfill beyond the "Old Sea Wall" and created "South Shore".


title: Alameda, California

text: On February 7, 1973, a USN Vought A-7E Corsair II fighter jet on a routine training mission from Lemoore Naval Air Station suddenly caught fire above the San Francisco Bay, crashing into the Tahoe Apartments in Alameda. Eleven people, including pilot Lieutenant Robert Lee Ward, died in the crash and fire.


title: Alameda, California

text: Alameda's nickname is "The Island City" (or simply "the island"). The current city occupies three islands as well as a small section of the mainland. Today, the city consists of the main original section, with the former Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda) at the west end of Alameda Island, Southshore along the southern side of Alameda Island, and Bay Farm Island, which is part of the mainland proper.


title: Alameda, California

text: The area of the former NAS is now known as "Alameda Point." The Southshore area is separated from the main part of Alameda Island by a lagoon; the north shore of the lagoon is located approximately where the original south shore of the island was. Alameda Point and Southshore are built on bay fill.


title: Alameda, California

text: Not all of Alameda Island is part of the City of Alameda; a small portion of a dump site west of the former runway at Alameda Naval Air Station extends far enough into San Francisco Bay that it is over the county line and therefore part of the City and County of San Francisco.


title: Alameda, California

text: Coast Guard Island, a small island between Alameda Island and Oakland, is also part of Alameda and is the home of Integrated Support Command Alameda.


title: Alameda, California

text: This region experiences warm (but not hot), dry summers, and cool (but not cold), wet winters. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Alameda has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps. Annual precipitation is about , all rain (snow is extremely rare at sea level in the San Francisco Bay Area).


title: Alameda, California

text: The low-lying island has seen sea-level and groundwater level rise threaten its infrastructure and people not just through flooding events, but through the increased liquefaction risk from more saturated soils. The locations of increasing groundwater-induced risks and flooding risks (such as from another megaflood) may be most precise in private insurance company maps.


title: Alameda, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Alameda had a population of 73,812. (2015 census estimates place the population at 78,630)


title: Alameda, California

text: The population density was . The racial makeup of Alameda was 37,460 (50.8%) White, 23,058 (31.2%) Asian, 4,759 (6.4%) African American, 426 (0.6%) Native American, 381 (0.5%) Pacific Islander, 2,463 (3.3%) from other races, and 5,265 (7.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8,092 persons (11.0%).


title: Alameda, California

text: The Census reported that 72,316 people (98.0% of the population) lived in households, 857 (1.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 639 (0.9%) were institutionalized.


title: Alameda, California

text: There were 30,123 households, out of which 9,144 (30.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,440 (44.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,623 (12.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,228 (4.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,681 (5.6%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 459 (1.5%) same-sex married couples or same-sex partnerships. 9,347 households (31.0%) were made up of individuals, and 2,874 (9.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40. There were 18,291 families (60.7% of all households); the average family size was 3.06.


title: Alameda, California

text: The age distribution of the population shows 15,304 people (20.7%) under the age of 18, 5,489 people (7.4%) aged 18 to 24, 21,000 people (28.5%) aged 25 to 44, 22,044 people (29.9%) aged 45 to 64, and 9,975 people (13.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.5 males.


title: Alameda, California

text: Per capita annual income (in 2013 dollars) in 2009–2013 was $41,340 per the US Census. Median household income in 2009–2013 was $74,606 per the US Census.


title: Alameda, California

text: There were 32,351 housing units at an average density of , of which 30,123 were occupied, of which 14,488 (48.1%) were owner-occupied, and 15,635 (51.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.1%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.7%. 37,042 people (50.2% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 35,274 people (47.8%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Alameda, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 72,259 people, 30,226 households, and 17,863 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,583.3/km (6,693.4/mi). There were 31,644 housing units at an average density of 1,131.3/km (2,931.2/mi). The racial makeup of the city was 56.95% White, 6.21% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 26.15% Asian, 0.60% Pacific Islander, 3.29% from other races, and 6.13% from two or more races. 9.31% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Alameda, California

text: There were 30,226 households, out of which 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% were non-families. Of all households, 32.2% were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.04.


title: Alameda, California

text: In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 21.5% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males.


title: Alameda, California

text: The median income for a household in the city was $56,285, and the median income for a family was $68,625. Males had a median income of $49,174 versus $40,165 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,982. About 6.0% of families and 8.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.4% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over.


title: Alameda, California

text: There is a large Filipino community; and also a major Portuguese community, from which Tom Hanks' mother came and where Lyndsy Fonseca was raised for some time. Alameda also has a historic Japanese American community and had a small Japanese business district on a portion of Park Street before World War II, when the city's Japanese population was interned. A Japanese Buddhist church is one of the few remaining buildings left of Alameda's pre-war Japanese American community.


title: Alameda, California

text: Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS) which was decommissioned in 1997, has been turned over to the City of Alameda for civilian development, today known as Alameda Point.


title: Alameda, California

text: Following the exit of the former Oakland Raiders, the Oakland Roots of the USL Championship have a license agreement for the former Raiders performance center with the City of Oakland and the County of Alameda.


title: Alameda, California

text: A cluster of artisan distilleries, wineries, breweries and tasting rooms along Monarch Street at Alameda Point is now referred to by the City of Alameda as "Spirits Alley". These business include Rock Wall Winery, Building 43 Winery, Hangar 1, St. George Spirits and Faction Brewing. In 2017, Admiral Maltings opened at Alameda Point. Designed to supply craft brewers and whisky producers, it is the first craft malting house in California.


title: Alameda, California

text: The aircraft carrier , a museum ship, has been moored at the former Naval Air Station as the USS "Hornet" Museum since 1998.


title: Alameda, California

text: According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Alameda, California

text: The Alameda Arts Council (AAC) serves as the local Alameda City arts council. The Alameda Civic Ballet is the ballet troupe of the city. The Alameda Museum features displays on the history of Alameda. The Alameda Art Association has about 80 members as of January 2011, and has a gallery space at South Shore Center mall. The Association began in 1944. An annual benefit, Circus for Arts in the Schools, was started by clown artist Jeff Raz in 2004. Photo-realist Robert Bechtle has painted numerous Alameda subjects, including "Alameda Gran Torino", which was acquired by SFMOMA in 1974 and remains one of Bechtle's most famous works.


title: Alameda, California

text: The city restored the historic Art Deco city landmark Alameda Theatre, expanding it to include a theater multiplex. The public opening was May 21, 2008.


title: Alameda, California

text: The Altarena Playhouse, which performs comedies, dramas, and musicals, was founded in 1938 and is the longest continuously operating community theater in the San Francisco Bay Area.


title: Alameda, California

text: The Fourth of July parade is advertised as the second oldest and second-longest Fourth of July parade in the United States. It features homemade floats, classic cars, motorized living room furniture, fire-breathing dragons, and marching bands.


title: Alameda, California

text: There are three major events when the street in Alameda's historic downtown district is closed to vehicular traffic. The "Park Street Spring Festival" takes place every May during the weekend of Mother's Day and attracts over 50,000 visitors. The "Park Street Art & Wine Faire" takes place the last weekend of every July and attracts over 100,000 visitors. The "Park Street Classic Car Show" is held on the second Saturday every October and displays over 400 vintage vehicles.


title: Alameda, California

text: The annual Sand Castle and Sculpture Contest takes place in June at the Robert Crown Memorial State Beach. The first contest was held in 1967.


title: Alameda, California

text: According to the California Secretary of State, as of February 10, 2019, Alameda has 48,609 registered voters. Of those, 27,323 (56.2%) are registered Democrats, 5,240 (10.8%) are registered Republicans, and 13,950 (28.7%) have declined to state a political party.


title: Alameda, California

text: After two previous failures, voters in the city passed a ballot measure in 2000 authorizing a bond measure for construction of a new main library to replace the city's Carnegie Library, damaged during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The city also received state funds for the new main library and opened the doors to the new facility in November 2006.


title: Alameda, California

text: There are three library locations: the Main Library in downtown Alameda and two library branches; the Bay Farm Island Library serving the Bay Farm and Harbor Bay communities and the West End Library serving the West End of Alameda.


title: Alameda, California

text: Public primary and secondary education in Alameda is the responsibility of the Alameda Unified School District, which is legally separate from the City of Alameda government (as is common throughout California). The College of Alameda, a two-year community college in the West End is part of the Peralta Community College District. The city has numerous private primary schools, and one private high school, St. Joseph Notre Dame High School, a Catholic school.


title: Alameda, California

text: Alameda's first newspaper, the "Encinal", appeared in the early 1850s. Following the "Encinal", several other papers appeared along geographic lines, and the "Daily Argus" eventually rose to prominence. Around 1900, the "Daily Argus" began to fade in importance and east and west papers "The Times" and "The Star" combined to take the leading role as the "Alameda Times-Star" in the 1930s. The "Times-Star" was sold to the Alameda Newspaper Group in the 1970s. In 1997, the Hills Newspaper chain was bought by Knight Ridder. In 2001, a new locally based newspaper, the "Alameda Sun", was founded.


title: Alameda, California

text: The Alameda community is currently served by two weekly newspapers, the Alameda Journal and the Alameda Sun, and an non-profit online news outlet called the Alameda Post.


title: Alameda, California

text: Vehicle access to Alameda Island is via three bridges from Oakland (Park Street, Fruitvale Avenue, and High Street Bridges), as well as the two one-way Posey and Webster Street Tubes leading into Oakland's Chinatown. Connections from Alameda to Bay Farm Island are provided via the Bay Farm Island Bridge for vehicular traffic as well as the Bay Farm Island Bicycle Bridge (the only pedestrian/bicycle-only drawbridge in the United States).


title: Alameda, California

text: California State Route 61 runs down city streets from the Posey and Webster Street Tubes, across the Bay Farm Island Bridge, and south to the Oakland Airport. The island is just minutes off Interstate 880 in Oakland. The speed limit for the city is 25 mph (40 km/h) on almost every road.


title: Alameda, California

text: Alameda's relationships with Wuxi and Jiangyin were initiated in 2005, in part, by Stewart Chen, who then served on the City of Alameda Social Service and Human Relations board, and who went on to be elected to Alameda City Council in November 2012.


title: Alameda, California

text: Wuxi, China, is a so-called friendship city, because the diplomacy organization Sister Cities International does not recognize the relationship.


title: Max Burkholder

text: Maxwell Henry Wolf Burkholder (born November 1, 1997) is an American actor most notable for his role as Max Braverman in the comedic television drama on NBC, "Parenthood". Prior to that, he became known as a voice actor for his roles as Chomper in "The Land Before Time", Roo on "My Friends Tigger & Pooh" and World in the television movie of "Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends", "". In 2013, Burkholder appeared in the film "The Purge". He is currently a member of the comedy account on Instagram, "Max 'n' the Jakey Boys".


title: Max Burkholder

text: Burkholder’s parents are former actors. He attended Campbell Hall School. Burkholder was accepted into Harvard University as a member of the Class of 2021. There he began his theatrical career appearing in the premier production of "columbinus" at Harvard portraying Dylan Klebold/Loner. Burkholder is Jewish.


title: Max Burkholder

text: Burkholder has appeared on "Parenthood" as Max Braverman and as young Mitch on "Crumbs". He guest starred on an episode of "", “Death Pool 100” and in an episode of "". In addition, he played Billy in one episode of "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" on Disney Channel and was the voice of Samsquatch in "Random! Cartoons". He also appeared in the television series "In Treatment" and "Love for Rent" and played the role of Duncan in the episode of "Grey's Anatomy", “Brave New World”. He also played one child in an airport in an episode of "The O.C.".


title: Max Burkholder

text: Burkholder has lent his voice for several shows. He voiced Chomper in the television series "The Land Before Time", based on film series of the same name. He also provided the voice of Roo on "My Friends Tigger & Pooh" (taking over the role from Jimmy Bennett) and played “World” the imaginary friend inside a toybox in the movie of "Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends", "".


title: Max Burkholder

text: For Burkholder’s role as Max Braverman on "Parenthood", executive producer Jason Katims said consultant Wayne Tashjian, a behavioral psychologist, looked at the script and met with Burkholder and his mother about those scenes involving the character of Max. Burkholder and his mother then practised the scenes by themselves. For special scenes, the show employed a second consultant to ensure accuracy.


title: Max Burkholder

text: Burkholder played Max in "Daddy Day Care" (2003) and also appeared in "Friends with Money" (2006). He played the son of James Sandin in the horror film "The Purge" in the summer of 2013.


title: Eridu

text: Eridu (Sumerian: , NUN.KI/eridug; Akkadian: "irîtu"; modern Arabic: Tell Abu Shahrain) is an archaeological site in southern Mesopotamia (modern Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq). Eridu was long considered the earliest city in southern Mesopotamia. Located 12 kilometers southwest of Ur, Eridu was the southernmost of a conglomeration of Sumerian cities that grew around temples, almost in sight of one another. These buildings were made of mud brick and built on top of one another. With the temples growing upward and the village growing outward, a larger city was built. In Sumerian mythology, Eridu was originally the home of Enki, later known by the Akkadians as Ea, who was considered to have founded the city. His temple was called E-Abzu, as Enki was believed to live in Abzu, an aquifer from which all life was believed to stem.


title: Eridu

text: The site at Tel Abu Shahrain, near Basra, has been excavated four times. It was initially excavated by John George Taylor in 1855, R. Campbell Thompson in 1918, and H. R. Hall in 1919. An interesting find by Hall was a piece of manufactured blue glass which he dated to around 2000 BC. The blue color was achieved with cobalt, long before this technique emerged in Egypt. Excavation there resumed from 1946 to 1949 under and Seton Lloyd of the Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities and Heritage. They found a sequence of 14 superseding temples and an Ubaid Period graveyard with 1000 graves of mud-brick boxes oriented to the southeast. These archaeological investigations showed that, according to A. Leo Oppenheim, "eventually the entire south lapsed into stagnation, abandoning the political initiative to the rulers of the northern cities", probably as a result of increasing salinity produced by continuous irrigation, and the city was abandoned in 600 BC. In 1990 the site was visited by A. M. T. Moore who found two areas of surface pottery kilns not noted by the earlier excavators. In October 2014 Franco D’Agostino visited the site in preparation for the coming resumption of excavation, noting a number of inscribed Amar-Sin brick fragments on the surface. In 2019, excavations at Eridu were resumed by a joint Italian, French, and Iraqi effort.


title: Eridu

text: In March 2006, Giovanni Pettinato and S. Chiod from Rome's La Sapienza University claimed to have discovered 500 Early Dynastic cuneiform tablets on the surface at Eridu. The tablets were said to be from 2600 to 2100 BC and be part of a library. A team was sent to the site by Iraq's State Board of Antiquities and Heritage which found no tablets. Nor was there a permit to excavate at the site issued to anyone.


title: Eridu

text: In some, but not all, versions of the Sumerian King List, Eridu is the first of five cities where kingship was received before a flood came over the land. The Sumerian King List mentions two kings of Eridu: Alulim, who ruled for 28,800 years, and Alalngar, who ruled for 36,000 years. Adapa, a man of Eridu, is depicted as an early culture hero. He was considered to have brought civilization to the city as the sage of King Alulim.


title: Eridu

text: In Sumerian mythology, Eridu was the home of the Abzu temple of the god Enki, the Sumerian counterpart of the Akkadian god Ea, god of deep waters, wisdom and magic. Like all the Sumerian and Babylonian gods, Enki/Ea began as a local god who, according to the later cosmology, came to share the rule of the cosmos with Anu and Enlil. His kingdom was the sweet waters that lay below earth (Sumerian "ab"=water; "zu"=far).


title: Eridu

text: The stories of Inanna, goddess of Uruk, describe how she had to go to Eridu in order to receive the gifts of civilization. At first Enki, the god of Eridu, attempted to retrieve these sources of his power but later willingly accepted that Uruk now was the centre of the land. This seems to be a mythical reference to the transfer of power northward.


title: Eridu

text: Babylonian texts talk of the foundation of Eridu by the god Marduk as the first city, "the holy city, the dwelling of their [the other gods] delight".


title: Eridu

text: In the court of Assyria, special physicians trained in the ancient lore of Eridu, far to the south, foretold the course of sickness from signs and portents on the patient's body and offered the appropriate incantations and magical resources as cures.


title: Eridu

text: The fall of early Mesopotamia cities and empires was typically believed to be the result of falling out of favor with the gods. A genre called City Laments developed during the Isin-Larsa period, of which the Lament for Ur is the most famous. These laments had a number of sections (kirugu) of which only fragments have been recovered. Unlike Ur or Akkad we don't have a good idea of how Eridu actually fell, or when other than in the Early Dynastic period. The Sumerian King List simply says "Then Eridug fell and the kingship was taken to Bad-tibira".


title: Eridu

text: Eridu appears to be one of the earliest settlements in the region, founded c. 5400 BC, close to the Persian Gulf near the mouth of the Euphrates River. Because of accumulation of silt at the shoreline over the millennia, the remains of Eridu are now some distance from the gulf at Abu Shahrain in Iraq. Excavation has shown that the city was founded on a virgin sand-dune site with no previous occupation. Piotr Steinkeller has hypothesised that the earliest divinity at Eridu was a Goddess, who later emerged as the Earth Goddess Ninhursag (Nin = Lady, Hur = Mountain, Sag = Sacred), with the later growth in Enki as a male divinity the result of a hieros gamos, with a male divinity or functionary of the temple.


title: Eridu

text: According to Gwendolyn Leick, Eridu was formed at the confluence of three separate ecosystems, supporting three distinct lifestyles, that came to an agreement about access to fresh water in a desert environment. The oldest agrarian settlement seems to have been based upon intensive subsistence irrigation agriculture derived from the Samarra culture to the north, characterised by the building of canals, and mud-brick buildings. The fisher-hunter cultures of the Arabian littoral were responsible for the extensive middens along the Arabian shoreline, and may have been the original Sumerians. They seem to have dwelt in reed huts. The third culture that contributed to the building of Eridu were the Semitic-speaking nomadic herders of herds of sheep and goats living in tents in semi-desert areas. All three cultures seem implicated in the earliest levels of the city. The urban settlement was centered on a large temple complex built of mudbrick, within a small depression that allowed water to accumulate.


title: Eridu

text: Kate Fielden reports "The earliest village settlement (c. 5000 BC) had grown into a substantial city of mudbrick and reed houses by c. 2900 BC, covering ". Mallowan writes that by the Ubaid period, it was as an "unusually large city" of an area of approx. 20–25 acres, with a population of "not less than 4000 souls". Jacobsen describes that "Eridu was for all practical purposes abandoned after the Ubaid period", although it had recovered by Early Dynastic II as there was a Massive Early Dynastic II palace (100 m in each direction) partially excavated there. Ruth Whitehouse called it "a Major Early Dynastic City". By c. 2050 BC the city had declined; there is little evidence of occupation after that date. Eighteen superimposed mudbrick temples at the site underlie the unfinished Ziggurat of Amar-Sin (c. 2047–2039 BC). The ziggurat was dated to Amar-Sin based on an inscribed brick. It has since been suggested that the brick was re-used by Nur-Adad (1801 - 1785 BC) one of whose year names was "Year the temple of Enki in Eridu was built". The finding of extensive deposits of fishbones associated with the earliest levels also shows a continuity of the Abzu cult associated later with Enki and Ea.


title: Eridu

text: Eridu was abandoned for long periods, before it was finally deserted and allowed to fall into ruin in the 6th century BC. The encroachment of neighbouring sand dunes, and the rise of a saline water table, set early limits to its agricultural base so in its later Neo-Babylonian development, Eridu was rebuilt as a purely temple site, in honour of its earliest history.


title: Eridu

text: The urban nucleus of Eridu was Enki's temple, called House of the Aquifer (Cuneiform: , E.ZU.AB; Sumerian: e-abzu; Akkadian: "bītu apsû"), which in later history was called House of the Waters (Cuneiform: , E.LAGAB×HAL; Sumerian: e-engur; Akkadian: "bītu engurru"). The name refers to Enki's realm. His consort Ninhursag had a nearby temple at Ubaid.


title: Eridu

text: Aside from Enmerkar of Uruk (as mentioned in the "Aratta" epics), several later historical Sumerian kings are said in inscriptions found here to have worked on or renewed the "e-abzu" temple, including Elili of Ur; Ur-Nammu, Shulgi and Amar-Sin of Ur-III, and Nur-Adad of Larsa.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: The Kingdom of Laos was a landlocked country in Southeast Asia at the heart of the Indochinese Peninsula. It was bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, North Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and southwest. The country was governed as a constitutional monarchy that ruled Laos beginning with its independence on 9 November 1953. It survived until December 1975, when its last king, Sisavang Vatthana, surrendered the throne to the Pathet Lao during the civil war in Laos, who abolished the monarchy in favour of a Marxist–Leninist state called the Lao People's Democratic Republic, which has controlled Laos ever since.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: Given self-rule with the new Constitution in 1947 as part of the French Union and a federation with the rest of French Indochina, the 1953 Franco-Lao Treaty finally established a sovereign, independent Laos, but did not stipulate who would rule the country. In the years that followed, three groups led by the so-called Three Princes, contended for power: the neutralists under Prince Souvanna Phouma, the right-wing party under Prince Boun Oum of Champassak, and the left-wing, North Vietnamese-backed Pathet Lao under Prince Souphanouvong and future Prime Minister Kaysone Phomvihane.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: The Pathet Lao would eventually emerge victorious in the Laotian Civil War and establish the Lao People's Democratic Republic in 1975.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: The Kingdom of Laos was officially proclaimed when the new Constitution was promulgated in 1947, as part of the colonial French Union, and obtained full independence in 1953. The monarchy lasted until 2 December 1975, when the last king Sisavang Vatthana abdicated the throne to the Pathet Lao who abolished the kingdom and proclaimed Laos as a communist state.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: Following the Franco-Lao Treaty of 1953, which gave Laos independence, the Royal Lao Government took control of the country. This treaty established a constitutional monarchy, with Sisavang Vong as King and Prince Souvanna Phouma as Prime Minister.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: Many attempts were made by the Three Princes and King Sisavang Vatthana to establish a coalition government. The First Government of National Unity was established in 1958 under Prince Souvanna Phouma, but collapsed after two months. The Prime Minister, who under the constitution appointed his ministers and received advice from the King, made a deal with his brother Prince Souphanouvong.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: Souvanna Phouma gave the Communists two seats in the Cabinet, and in return Souphanouvong would integrate 1,500 of his 6,000 Communist troops into the royal army. Prince Souphanouvong was given the post of Minister of Planning, Reconstruction and Urbanization, while another member of the Communist Party was named Minister of Religion and Fine Arts.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: The Kingdom of Laos was divided into five military regions. The Royal Lao Armed Forces were responsible for the defense of the country, comprising three branches of service: the Royal Lao Army, the Royal Lao Navy, and the Royal Lao Air Force, which was under the control of the Ministry of Defence in Vientiane.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: The United States supplied the Royal Lao Navy with twenty river patrol boats and sixteen amphibious landing craft. Between 1962 and 1971, the United States provided Laos with an estimated US$500 million in military assistance.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: The Royal Lao Government had close relations with the United States, which gave the country aid and assisted it in the campaign against the Pathet Lao and the North Vietnamese Communist movement. During 1957, the United States spent more per capita on foreign aid for Laos than it had on any other nation. That worked out as US$150 per Laotian, twice the average person's annual income. Some of the money went to support pro-American candidates in an election, while other money went to a program to support the local currency, the kip.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: In 1960, amidst a series of rebellions, fighting broke out between the Royal Lao Army and the Soviet Union-backed, communist Pathet Lao, a second Provisional Government of National Unity formed by Prince Souvanna Phouma in 1962 proved to be unsuccessful, and the situation steadily deteriorated thereafter as the conflict in Laos became a focus for superpower rivalry. During the North Vietnamese invasion of Laos, the Pathet Lao were backed militarily by the NVA and Vietcong.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: Laos was also dragged into the Vietnam War after parts of Laos were invaded and occupied by North Vietnam for use as a supply route for its war against the South. In response, the United States initiated a bombing campaign against the North Vietnamese positions, supported regular and irregular anticommunist forces in Laos, including those led by Hmong General Vang Pao, and supported South Vietnamese incursions into Laos. It also provided supplies, training and funding for the central government.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: In 1968, the North Vietnamese Army launched a multi-division attack to help the Pathet Lao fight the Royal Lao Army. The attack resulted in the army largely demobilizing, leaving the conflict to irregular forces raised by the United States and Thailand.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: Massive aerial bombardment against Pathet Lao and NVA forces was carried out by the United States. It has been reported that Laos was hit by an average of one B-52 bombload every eight minutes, 24 hours a day, between 1964 and 1973. US bombers dropped more ordnance on Laos in this period than was dropped during the whole of the Second World War. Of the 260 million bombs that rained down, particularly on Xiangkhouang Province on the Plain of Jars, some 80 million failed to explode and continue to injure and kill residents to this day.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: Laos is the most heavily bombed country, per capita, in the world. Because it was particularly heavily affected by cluster bombs during this war, Laos was a strong advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons and assist victims, and hosted the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: In 1975, the Pathet Lao, along with Vietnam People's Army and backed by the Soviet Union, overthrew the royalist Lao government, forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate on 2 December 1975. He later died in captivity.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: A ceasefire was finally attained in February 1973, following the Paris Peace Accords between the United States and North Vietnam. In April 1974, another Provisional Government of National Unity was established, with Prince Souvanna Phouma as Prime Minister. However, by this time, Pathet Lao forces controlled large areas of the country, and following the fall of Saigon and Phnom Penh to communist forces in April 1975, removed any chances of a coalition government forming in Laos. Following the communist victories in both countries, they advanced on to Vientiane.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: On 2 December 1975 in Vientiane, Prince Vong Savang submitted the letter of abdication of King Savang Vatthana to the Pathet Lao. The Lao People's Democratic Republic was established with Prince Souphanouvong as President. Kaysone Phomvihane acted as Prime Minister and Secretary-General of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party.


title: Kingdom of Laos

text: About 30,000 to 40,000 citizens and members of the old government, including the royal family, were taken to re-education camps in remote areas of Laos after the coup.


title: 19-inch rack

text: A 19-inch rack is a standardized frame or enclosure for mounting multiple electronic equipment modules. Each module has a front panel that is wide. The 19 inch dimension includes the edges or "ears" that protrude from each side of the equipment, allowing the module to be fastened to the rack frame with screws or bolts. Common uses include computer servers, telecommunications equipment and networking hardware, audiovisual production gear, music production equipment, and scientific equipment.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Equipment designed to be placed in a rack is typically described as rack-mount, rack-mount instrument, a rack-mounted system, a rack-mount chassis, subrack, rack cabinet, rack-mountable, or occasionally simply shelf. The height of the electronic modules is also standardized as multiples of or one rack unit or U (less commonly RU). The industry-standard rack cabinet is 42U tall; however, 45U racks are also common.


title: 19-inch rack

text: By 1911, the term was also being used in railroad signaling. There is little evidence that the dimensions of these early racks were standardized.


title: 19-inch rack

text: The 19-inch rack format with rack-units of was established as a standard by AT&T around 1922 in order to reduce the space required for repeater and termination equipment in a telephone company central office. The earliest repeaters from 1914 were installed in ad hoc fashion on shelves, in wooden boxes and cabinets. Once serial production started, they were built into custom-made racks, one per repeater. But in light of the rapid growth of the toll network, the engineering department of AT&T undertook a systematic redesign, resulting in a family of modular factory-assembled panels all "designed to mount on vertical supports spaced 19 inches between centers. The height of the different panels will vary, ... but ... in all cases to be a whole multiple of 1 inches".


title: 19-inch rack

text: By 1934, it was an established standard with holes tapped for 12-24 screws with alternating spacings of and The EIA standard was revised again in 1992 to comply with the 1988 public law 100-418, setting the standard U as + + , making each "U" .


title: 19-inch rack

text: The 19-inch rack format has remained constant while the technology that is mounted within it has changed considerably and the set of fields to which racks are applied has greatly expanded. The standard rack arrangement is widely used throughout the telecommunication, computing, audio, video, entertainment and other industries, though the Western Electric 23-inch standard, with holes on centers, is still used in legacy ILEC/CLEC facilities.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Nineteen-inch racks in two-post or four-post form hold most equipment in modern data centers, ISP facilities, and professionally designed corporate server rooms. They allow for dense hardware configurations without occupying excessive floorspace or requiring shelving.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Nineteen-inch racks are also often used to house professional audio and video equipment, including amplifiers, effects units, interfaces, headphone amplifiers, and even small scale audio mixers. A third common use for rack-mounted equipment is industrial power, control, and automation hardware.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Typically, a piece of equipment being installed has a front panel height inch () less than the allotted number of Us. Thus, a 1U rackmount computer is not tall but is tall. If "n" is number of rack units, the ideal formula for panel height is h = (1.75"n" − 0.031) for calculating in inches, and h = (44.45"n" − 0.794) for calculating in millimetres. This gap allows a bit of room above and below an installed piece of equipment so it may be removed without binding on the adjacent equipment.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Originally, the mounting holes were tapped with a particular screw thread. When rack rails are too thin to tap, rivnuts or other threaded inserts can be used, and when the particular class of equipment to be mounted is known in advance, some of the holes can be omitted from the mounting rails.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Threaded mounting holes in racks where the equipment is frequently changed are problematic because the threads can be damaged or the mounting screws can break off; both problems render the mounting hole unusable. Tapping large numbers of holes that may never be used is expensive; nonetheless tapped-hole racks are still in use, generally for hardware that rarely changes. Examples include telephone exchanges, network cabling panels, broadcast studios and some government and military applications.


title: 19-inch rack

text: The tapped-hole rack was first replaced by clearance-hole (Round Hole, Round Unthreaded Holes, and Versa Rail) racks. The holes are large enough to permit a bolt to be freely inserted through without binding, and bolts are fastened in place using cage nuts. In the event of a nut being stripped out or a bolt breaking, the nut can be easily removed and replaced with a new one. Production of clearance-hole racks is less expensive because tapping the holes is eliminated and replaced with fewer, less expensive, cage nuts.


title: 19-inch rack

text: The next innovation in rack design has been the square-hole rack. Square-hole racks allow boltless mounting, such that the rack-mount equipment only needs to insert through and hook down into the lip of the square hole. Installation and removal of hardware in a square hole rack is very easy and boltless, where the weight of the equipment and small retention clips are all that is necessary to hold the equipment in place. Older equipment meant for round-hole or tapped-hole racks can still be used, with the use of cage nuts made for square-hole racks.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Rack-mountable equipment is traditionally mounted by bolting or clipping its front panel to the rack. Within the IT industry, it is common for network/communications equipment to have multiple mounting positions, including table-top and wall mounting, so rack-mountable equipment will often feature L-brackets that must be screwed or bolted to the equipment prior to mounting in a 19-inch rack. With the prevalence of 23-inch racks in the Telecoms industry, the same practice is also common, but with equipment having 19-inch and 23-inch brackets available, enabling them to be mounted in existing racks.


title: 19-inch rack

text: A key structural weakness of front-mounted support is the bending stress placed on the mounting brackets of the equipment, and the rack itself. As a result, 4-post racks have become common, featuring a mirrored pair of rear mounting posts. Since the spacing between the front and rear mounting posts may differ between rack vendors and/or the configuration of the rack (some racks may incorporate front and rear rails that may be moved forwards and backwards, e.g. APC SX-range racks), it is common for equipment that features 4-post mounting brackets to have an adjustable rear bracket.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Servers and deep pieces of equipment are often mounted using rails that are bolted to the front and rear posts (as above, it is common for such rails to have an adjustable depth), allowing the equipment to be supported by four posts, while also enabling it to be easily installed and removed.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Although there is no standard for the depth of equipment, nor specifying the outer width and depth of the rack enclosure itself (incorporating the structure, doors and panels that contain the mounting rails), there is a tendency for 4-post racks to be or wide, and for them to be , or deep. This of course varies by manufacturer, the design of the rack and its purpose, but through common constraining factors (such as raised floor tile dimensions), these dimensions have become quite common. The extra width and depth enables cabling to be routed with ease (also helping to maintain bend-radius for fibre and copper cables) and deeper equipment to be utilised. A common feature in IT racks are mounting positions for "Zero-U" accessories, such as PDUs (power distribution units) and vertical cable managers/ducts, that utilise the space between the rear rails and the side of the rack enclosure.


title: 19-inch rack

text: The strength required of the mounting posts means they are invariably not merely flat strips but actually a wider folded strip arranged around the corner of the rack. The posts are usually made of steel of around 2 mm thickness (the official standard recommends a minimum of 1.9 mm), or of slightly thicker aluminum.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Racks, especially two-post racks, are often secured to the floor or adjacent building structure so as not to fall over. This is usually required by local building codes in seismic zones. According to Telcordia Technologies Generic Requirements document GR-63-CORE, during an earthquake, telecommunications equipment is subjected to motions that can over-stress equipment framework, circuit boards, and connectors. The amount of motion and resulting stress depends on the structural characteristics of the building and framework in which the equipment is contained, and the severity of the earthquake. Seismic racks rated according to GR-63, "NEBS Requirements: Physical Protection," are available, with Zone 4 representing the most demanding environment.


title: 19-inch rack

text: GR-3108, "Generic Requirements for Network Equipment in the Outside Plant (OSP)," specifies the usable opening of seismic-compliant 19-inch racks.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Heavy equipment or equipment which is commonly accessed for servicing, for which attaching or detaching at all four corners simultaneously would pose a problem, is often not mounted directly onto the rack but instead is mounted via rails (or slides). A pair of rails is mounted directly onto the rack, and the equipment then slides into the rack along the rails, which support it. When in place, the equipment may also then be bolted to the rack. The rails may also be able to fully support the equipment in a position where it has been slid clear of the rack; this is useful for inspection or maintenance of equipment which will then be slid back into the rack. Some rack slides even include a tilt mechanism allowing easy access to the top or bottom of rack-mounted equipment when it is fully extended from the rack.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Slides or rails for computers and other data processing equipment such as disk arrays or routers often need to be purchased directly from the equipment manufacturer, as there is no standardization on such equipment's thickness (measurement from the side of the rack to the equipment) or means for mounting to the rail.


title: 19-inch rack

text: A rails kit may include a cable management arm (or CMA), which folds the cables attached to the server and allows them to expand neatly when the server is slid out, without being disconnected.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Computer servers designed for rack-mounting can include a number of extra features to make the server easy to use in the rack:


title: 19-inch rack

text: When there is a large number of computers in a single rack, it is impractical for each one to have its own separate keyboard, mouse, and monitor. Instead, a KVM switch or LOM software is used to share a single keyboard/video/mouse set amongst many different computers.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Since the mounting hole arrangement is vertically symmetric, it is possible to mount rack-mountable equipment upside-down. However, not all equipment is suitable for this type of mounting. For instance, most optical disc players will not work upside-down because the driving motor mechanism does not grip the disc.


title: 19-inch rack

text: 19-inch server racks can vary in qualities. A standard 19-inch server rack cabinet is typically 42u in height, wide, and deep. Newer server rack cabinets come with adjustable mounting rails allowing the user to place the rails at a shorter depth if needed. There are a multitude of specialty server racks including soundproof server racks, air conditioned server racks, NEMA rated, seismic rated, open frame, narrow, and even miniature 19-inch racks for smaller applications. Cabinets are generally sized to be no wider than the standard floor tiles used in most data centers.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Racks carrying telecom equipment like routers and switches often have extra width to accommodate the many cables on the sides.


title: 19-inch rack

text: "Four-post racks" allow for mounting rails to support the equipment at the front and rear. These racks may be open in construction without sides or doors, or may be enclosed by front and/or rear doors, side panels, and tops. Most data centers use four-post racks.


title: 19-inch rack

text: "Two-post racks" provide two vertical posts. These posts are typically heavy gauge metal or extruded aluminum. A top bar and wide foot connect the posts and allow the rack to be securely attached to the floor and/or roof for seismic safety. Equipment can be mounted either close to its center of gravity (to minimize load on its front panel), or via the equipment's front panel holes.


title: 19-inch rack

text: The "Relay Racks" name comes from early two-post racks which housed telephone relay and switching equipment. Two-post racks are most often used for telecommunication installations.


title: 19-inch rack

text: 19-inch equipment that needs to be moved often or protected from harsh treatment can be housed in an Air Transport Association of America (ATA) approved road case sometimes also referred to as flight case. Road cases typically have plywood sides laminated with polyvinyl chloride (PVC), extruded aluminum edges, steel corners, handles, and latches. Larger cases typically have wheels for easy transport. Road case racks come in different heights based on the 1U standard and different depths. Non-isolated cases simply mount 19-inch mounting posts inside the case. To protect equipment from shock and vibration road rack cases use an inner and outer case. These cases can be isolated by thick layers of foam or may use spring-loaded shock mounting. Touring musicians, theatrical productions and sound and light companies use road case racks.


title: 19-inch rack

text: In 1965, a durable fiber reinforced plastic 19-inch rackmount case was patented by ECS Composites and became widely used in military and commercial applications for electronic deployment and operation. State-of-the-art rackmount cases are now also constructed of thermo stamped composite, carbon fiber, and DuPont's Kevlar for demanding military and commercial uses.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Portable rack cases using a rotary-molded polyethylene outer shell are a lower-cost alternative to the more durable ATA-approved case. These cases are marketed to musicians and entertainers for equipment not subject to frequent transportation and rough handling. The polyethylene shell is not fiberglass reinforced and is not rigid. The shape of small cases is maintained by the rack rails and the cover seal extrusions alone. Larger cases are further reinforced with additional plywood or sheet metal. The outer shell is frequently embossed in a self-mating pattern to combat the tendency for stacked cases to deform slightly creating a slope that encourages the upper case to slide off. The cases typically use extruded aluminum bands at the ends of the body with tongue-and-groove mating to like bands for the covers. End covers are typically secured with either a simple draw latch or a rotary cam "butterfly" latch, named for the shape of the twist handle.


title: 19-inch rack

text: There is no standard for airflow and cooling of rack-mounted equipment. A variety of airflow patterns can be found, including front intakes and rear exhausts, as well as side intakes and exhausts. Low-wattage devices may not employ active cooling, but use only passive thermal radiation and convection to dissipate heat.


title: 19-inch rack

text: For rack-mounted computer servers, devices generally intake air on the front and exhaust on the rear. This prevents circular airflows where hot exhaust air is recirculated through an adjacent device and causes overheating.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Although open-frame racks are the least expensive, they also expose air-cooled equipment to dust, lint, and other environmental contamination. An enclosed sealed cabinet with forced air fans permits air filtration to protect equipment from dust.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Large server rooms will often group rack cabinets together so that racks on both sides of an aisle are either front-facing or rear-facing, which simplifies cooling by supplying cool air to the front of the racks and collecting hot air from the rear of the racks. These aisles may themselves be enclosed into a cold air containment tunnel so that cooling air does not travel to other parts of the building where it is not needed or mixes with hot air, making it less efficient. Raised or false floor cooling in server rooms can serve a similar purpose; they permit cooling airflow to equipment through the underfloor space to the underside of enclosed rack cabinets.


title: 19-inch rack

text: A difficulty with forced air fan cooling in rack equipment is that fans can fail due to age or dust. The fans themselves can be difficult to replace. In the case of network equipment, it may be necessary to unplug 50 or more cables from the device, remove the device from the rack, and then disassemble the device chassis to replace the fans.


title: 19-inch rack

text: However, some rack equipment has been designed to make fan replacement easy, using quick-change fan trays that can be accessed without removing the cabling or the device from the rack, and in some cases without turning off the device so that operation is uninterrupted during replacement.


title: 19-inch rack

text: A rack's mounting fixture consists of two parallel metal strips (also referred to as "posts" or "panel mounts") standing vertically. The posts are each wide, and are separated by a gap of , giving an overall rack width of . The posts have holes in them at regular intervals, with both posts matching, so that each hole is part of a horizontal pair with a center-to-center distance of .


title: 19-inch rack

text: The holes in the posts are arranged vertically in repeating sets of three, with center-to-center separations of , , . The hole pattern thus repeats every .


title: 19-inch rack

text: Holes so arranged can either be tapped (usually 10-32 UNF thread, or, less often, 6mm metric) or have square holes for cage nuts.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Racks are vertically divided into regions, in height. Each region has three complete hole pairs on each side. The holes are centered at , , and from the top or bottom of the region. Such a region is commonly known as a U, for "unit", RU for "rack unit" or, in German, HE, for "". Heights within racks are measured by this unit. Rack-mountable equipment is usually designed to occupy some integer number of U. For example, an oscilloscope might be 4U high. Rack-mountable computers and servers are mostly between 1U and 4U high. A blade server enclosure might require 10U.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Occasionally, one may see fractional U devices such as a 1.5U server or devices that are just 22.5 or 15 cm in width, allowing for 2 or 3 such devices to be installed side by side, but these are much less common.


title: 19-inch rack

text: The height of a rack can vary from a few inches, such as in a broadcast console, to a floor mounted rack whose interior is 45 rack units () high. 42U is a common configuration. Many wall-mounted enclosures for industrial equipment use 19-inch racks.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Some telecommunications and networking equipment is available in a narrower 10" format with the same unit-height as a standard 19"-rack.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Frames for holding rotary-dial telephone equipment were generally high. A series of studies led to the adoption of frames high, with modular widths in multiples of —most often wide.


title: 19-inch rack

text: The ETSI rack is defined by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETS 300 119). The distance of the right edge of the right mounting rail to the left edge of the left mounting rail is . As 535 mm is very close to 21 inches, these racks are sometimes called 21-inch racks. The gap between the posts is . As 19-inch equipment has a maximum width of , they can easily be mounted in an ETSI rack by means of an ETSI bracket or adapter plate.


title: 19-inch rack

text: In contrast to the "19-inch world", ETSI also defined the size of the rack enclosure: the four allowed widths are and two allowed depths are . Hole spacing is .


title: 19-inch rack

text: A rack is used for housing telephone (primarily), computer, audio, and other equipment though is less common than the 19-inch rack. The size denotes the width of the faceplate for the installed equipment. The rack unit is a measure of vertical spacing and is common to both the 19 and 23 inch racks.


title: 19-inch rack

text: Open Rack is a mounting system designed by Facebook's Open Compute Project that has the same outside dimensions as typical 19-inch racks (e.g. 600 mm width), but supports wider equipment modules of .


title: Donna Pescow

text: Donna Gail Pescow is an American film and television actress and director. She is known for her roles as Annette in the 1977 film "Saturday Night Fever", Angie Falco-Benson in the 1979-1980 sitcom "Angie", Donna Garland in the sitcom "Out of This World" and Eileen Stevens in the Disney Channel sitcom "Even Stevens".


title: Donna Pescow

text: Pescow was born in Brooklyn, New York, on March 24, 1954, to a Jewish family. Her father Marty owned and ran a newsstand in downtown New York City at 17 Battery Place. Pescow attended Sheepshead Bay High School in Brooklyn and studied at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts. Around 1973, she had a leading role in an Off-off Broadway musical entitled "Poor Old Fool", though it closed after just a few weeks.


title: Donna Pescow

text: In 1977, Pescow played Annette in the John Travolta film "Saturday Night Fever". To prepare for the role, she had to relearn her Brooklyn accent, which she had significantly reduced for professional reasons. For this role, she was the New York Film Critics' third-place choice for their award for Best Supporting Actress.


title: Donna Pescow

text: Also in 1977, Pescow joined the cast of the ABC soap opera "One Life to Live", portraying Celena Arquette. The role proved to be brief, lasting less than a year, but it helped to launch her television career, including roles on two other ABC soap operas in later years.


title: Donna Pescow

text: In 1978, Pescow portrayed one of Judy Garland's older sisters in the television biographical film "Rainbow", directed by Jackie Cooper.


title: Donna Pescow

text: Pescow starred in her own television series, "Angie", which ran for two seasons from 1979 to 1980 on ABC. Her primary castmates were Robert Hays, Debralee Scott and fellow New Yorker Doris Roberts.


title: Donna Pescow

text: In 1982, Pescow was cast in the role of Dr. Lynn Carson, the first lesbian on a daytime serial, on the soap opera "All My Children", which she played until 1983. After her run on "All My Children" ended, Pescow landed the role of Donna Garland in the first-run syndication children's comedy series "Out of This World" in 1987, starring with Maureen Flannigan and Joe Alaskey. She stayed with the show until its cancellation in 1991.


title: Donna Pescow

text: After "Out of This World" ended, Pescow went on to a series of smaller roles before returning to prominent television roles. She made guest appearances on the shows "Clueless", "NYPD Blue", "Pauly" and "Ivory Tower", and in the 1998 television film "Dead Husbands".


title: Donna Pescow

text: Pescow appeared on the ABC soap opera "General Hospital" from 1999 to 2001 as the villainous Gertrude Morgan, the evil aunt of Chloe Morgan (Tava Smiley). In 2001, Smiley was released from her "General Hospital" contract and Pescow's character was written out. During her run on "General Hospital", Pescow also had a small role in the television film "Partners" and guest starred on the television series "Philly".


title: Donna Pescow

text: In 1999, Disney contacted Pescow about appearing in a half-hour youth sitcom for the network. A pilot was filmed in 2000, and the series went on to become "Even Stevens". It aired for three seasons on Disney Channel, from 2000 to 2003. She also directed three episodes of the series, which became a flagship for the network. After the series ended in 2003, Pescow and the rest of the cast returned for the finale film "The Even Stevens Movie".


title: Donna Pescow

text: After taking several years off following "Even Stevens", Pescow appeared in the film "One Sung Hero" alongside Nicole Sullivan. She then took another brief break from acting, but she did appear in a 2006 episode of "Crossing Jordan". In 2007, Pescow appeared in the series finale of "The Sopranos" as Donna Parisi, the wife of mobster Patsy Parisi.


The United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit (in case citations, 11th Cir.) is a federal court with appellate jurisdiction over the following U.S. district courts:


title: United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit

text: These districts were originally part of the Fifth Circuit, but were split off to form the Eleventh Circuit on October 1, 1981. For this reason, Fifth Circuit decisions from before this split are considered binding precedent in the Eleventh Circuit.


text: The court is based at the Elbert P. Tuttle U.S. Court of Appeals Building in Atlanta, Georgia. The building is named for Elbert Tuttle, who served as Chief Judge of the Fifth Circuit in the 1960s and was known for issuing decisions which advanced the civil rights of African-Americans.


title: Typha

text: Typha is a genus of about 30 species of monocotyledonous flowering plants in the family Typhaceae. These plants have a variety of common names, in British English as bulrush or reedmace, in American English as reed, cattail, or punks, in Australia as cumbungi or bulrush, in Canada as bulrush or cattail, and in New Zealand as raupo. Other taxa of plants may be known as bulrush, including some sedges in "Scirpus" and related genera.


title: Typha

text: The genus is largely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, where it is found in a variety of wetland habitats.


title: Typha

text: The rhizomes are edible. Evidence of preserved starch grains on grinding stones suggests they were already eaten in Europe 30,000 years ago.


title: Typha

text: "Typha" are aquatic or semi-aquatic, rhizomatous, herbaceous perennial plants. The leaves are glabrous (hairless), linear, alternate and mostly basal on a simple, jointless stem that bears the flowering spikes. The plants are monoecious, with unisexual flowers that develop in dense racemes. The numerous male flowers form a narrow spike at the top of the vertical stem. Each male (staminate) flower is reduced to a pair of stamens and hairs, and withers once the pollen is shed. Large numbers of tiny female flowers form a dense, sausage-shaped spike on the stem below the male spike. In larger species this can be up to long and thick. The seeds are minute, long, and attached to fine hairs. When ripe, the heads disintegrate into a cottony fluff from which the seeds disperse by wind.


title: Typha

text: "Typha" are often among the first wetland plants to colonize areas of newly exposed wet mud, with their abundant wind-dispersed seeds. Buried seeds can survive in the soil for long periods of time. They germinate best with sunlight and fluctuating temperatures, which is typical of many wetland plants that regenerate on mud flats. The plants also spread by rhizomes, forming large, interconnected stands.


title: Typha

text: "Typha" are considered to be dominant competitors in wetlands in many areas, and they often exclude other plants with their dense canopy. In the bays of the Great Lakes, for example, they are among the most abundant wetland plants. Different species of cattails are adapted to different water depths.


title: Typha

text: Well-developed aerenchyma make the plants tolerant of submersion. Even the dead stalks are capable of transmitting oxygen to the rooting zone.


title: Typha

text: Although "Typha" are native wetland plants, they can be aggressive in their competition with other native species. They have been problematic in many regions in North America, from the Great Lakes to the Everglades. Native sedges are displaced and wet meadows shrink, likely as a response to altered hydrology of the wetlands and increased nutrient levels. An introduced or hybrid species may be contributing to the problem. Control is difficult. The most successful strategy appears to be mowing or burning to remove the aerenchymous stalks, followed by prolonged flooding. It may be more important to prevent invasion by preserving water level fluctuations, including periods of drought, and to maintain infertile conditions.


title: Typha

text: "Typha" are frequently eaten by wetland mammals such as muskrats, which also use them to construct feeding platforms and dens, thereby also providing nesting and resting places for waterfowl.


title: Typha

text: The most widespread species is "Typha latifolia", which is distributed across the entire temperate northern hemisphere. It has also been introduced to Australia. "T. angustifolia" is nearly as widespread, but does not extend as far north; it may be introduced and invasive in North America. "T. domingensis" has a more southern American distribution, and it occurs in Australia. "T. orientalis" is widespread in Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. "T. laxmannii", "T. minima", and "T. shuttleworthii" are largely restricted to Asia and southern Europe.


title: Typha

text: Many parts of the "Typha" plant are edible to humans. Before the plant flowers, the tender inside of the shoots can be squeezed out and eaten raw or cooked. The starchy rhizomes are nutritious with a protein content comparable to that of maize or rice. They can be processed into a flour with 266 kcal per 100 grams, and are most often harvested from late autumn to early spring. They are fibrous, and the starch must be scraped or sucked from the tough fibers. Baby shoots emerging from the rhizomes, which are sometimes subterranean, can be picked and eaten raw. Also underground is a carbohydrate lump which can be peeled and eaten raw or cooked like a potato. The plant is one championed by survival experts because various parts can be eaten throughout the year. Plants growing in polluted water can accumulate lead and pesticide residues in their rhizomes, and these should not be eaten.


title: Typha

text: The rind of young stems can be peeled off, and the tender white heart inside can be eaten raw or boiled and eaten like asparagus. This food has been popular among the Cossacks in Russia, and has been called "Cossack asparagus". The leaf bases can be eaten raw or cooked, especially in late spring when they are young and tender. In early summer the sheath can be removed from the developing green flower spike, which can then be boiled and eaten like corn on the cob. In mid-summer when the male flowers are mature, the pollen can be collected and used as a flour supplement or thickener.


title: Typha

text: Harvesting cattail removes nutrients from the wetland that would otherwise return via the decomposition of decaying plant matter. Floating mats of cattails remove nutrients from eutrophied bodies of freshwater.


title: Typha

text: For local native tribes around Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia, "Typha" were among the most important plants and every part of the plant had multiple uses. For example, they were used to construct rafts and other boats.


title: Typha

text: During World War II, the United States Navy used the down of "Typha" as a substitute for kapok in life vests and aviation jackets. Tests showed that even after 100 hours of submersion, the buoyancy was still effective.


title: Typha

text: "Typha" are used as thermal insulation in buildings as an organic alternative to conventional insulating materials such as glass wool or stone wool.


title: Typha

text: "Typha" stems and leaves can be used to make paper. It is strong with a heavy texture and it is hard to bleach, so it is not suitable for industrial production of graphical paper. In 1853, considerable amounts of cattail paper were produced in New York, due to a shortage of raw materials. In 1948, French scientists tested methods for annual harvesting of the leaves. Because of the high cost, these methods were abandoned and no further research was done. Today "Typha" is used to make decorative paper.


title: Typha

text: Fibers up to 4 meters long can be obtained from the stems when they are treated mechanically or chemically with sodium hydroxide. The stem fibers resemble jute and can be used to produce raw textiles. The leaf fibers can be used as an alternative to cotton and linen in clothing. The yield of leaf fiber is 30 to 40 percent and "Typha glauca" can produce 7 to 10 tons per hectare annually.


title: Typha

text: "Typha" can be used as a source of starch to produce ethanol. Because of their high productivity in northern latitudes, "Typha" are considered to be a bioenergy crop.


title: Typha

text: The seed hairs were used by some indigenous peoples of the Americas as tinder for starting fires. Some tribes also used "Typha" down to line moccasins, and for bedding, diapers, baby powder, and cradleboards. One Native American word for "Typha" meant "fruit for papoose's bed". "Typha" down is still used in some areas to stuff clothing items and pillows. "Typha" can be dipped in wax or fat and then lit as a candle, the stem serving as a wick. Without the use of wax or fat it will smolder slowly, somewhat like incense, and may repel insects.


title: Typha

text: The flower stalks can be made into chopsticks. The leaves can be treated to weave into baskets, mats, or sandals. The rushes are harvested and the leaves often dried for later use in chair seats. Re-wetted, the leaves are twisted and wrapped around the chair rungs to form a densely woven seat that is then stuffed (usually with the left over rush).


title: Typha

text: The boiled rootstocks have been used as a diuretic for increasing urination, or mashed to make a jelly-like paste for sores, boils, wounds, burns, scabs, and smallpox pustules.


title: Typha

text: Cattail pollen is used as a banker source of food for predatory insects and mites (such as "Amblyseius swirskii") in greenhouses.


title: Typha

text: The cattail, or, as it is commonly referred to in the American Midwest, the sausage tail, has been the subject of multiple artist renditions, gaining popularity in the mid-twentieth century. The term, sausage tail, derives from the similarity that cattails have with sausages, a name given to the plant by the Midwest Polish community who had noticed a striking similarity between the plant and a common Polish dish, kiełbasa.


title: Carus

text: Marcus Aurelius Carus (c. 222 – July or August 283) was Roman emperor from 282 to 283. During his short reign, Carus fought the Germanic tribes and Sarmatians along the Danube frontier with success.


title: Carus

text: He died while campaigning against the Sassanid Empire and is believed to have died of unnatural causes. It was reported that he had been struck by lightning. He was succeeded by his sons Carinus and Numerian, creating a dynasty which, though short-lived, provided further stability to the resurgent empire.


title: Carus

text: Carus, whose name before the accession may have been Marcus Numerius Carus, was born, according to differing accounts, either in Gaul, Illyricum or Africa. Modern scholarship inclines to the former view, placing his birth at Narbo (modern Narbonne) in Gallia Narbonensis, though he was educated in Rome. Little can be said with certainty of his life and rule. Due to the decline of literature, the arts, and the want of any good historians of that age, what is known is almost invariably involved in contradiction and doubt. He was apparently a senator and filled various posts, both civil and military, before being appointed praetorian prefect by the emperor Probus in 282.


title: Carus

text: Two traditions surround his accession to the throne in August or September of 282. According to some mostly Latin sources, he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers after the murder of Probus by a mutiny at Sirmium. Greek sources however claim that he rose against Probus in Raetia in a usurpation and had him killed. The often unreliable Historia Augusta is aware of both traditions, although it prefers the former. He does not seem to have returned to Rome after his accession, contenting himself with an announcement to the Senate. This was a marked departure from the constitutionalism of his immediate predecessors, Tacitus and Probus, who at least outwardly respected the authority of the senate, and was the precursor to the even more despotic military autocracy of Diocletian.


title: Carus

text: Bestowing the title of Caesar upon his sons Carinus and Numerian, he left Carinus in charge of the western portion of the empire to look after some disturbances in Gaul and took Numerian with him on an expedition against the Persians, which had been contemplated by Probus. Having inflicted a severe defeat on the Quadi and Sarmatians on the Danube, for which he was given the title "Germanicus Maximus", Carus proceeded through Thrace and Asia Minor, annexed Mesopotamia, pressed on to Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and marched his soldiers beyond the Tigris.


title: Carus

text: The Sassanid King Bahram II, limited by internal opposition and his troops occupied with a campaign in modern-day Afghanistan, could not effectively defend his territory. The Sasanians, faced with severe internal problems, could not mount an effective coordinated defense at the time; Carus and his army may have captured the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. The victories of Carus avenged all the previous defeats suffered by the Romans against the Sassanids, and he received the title of "Persicus Maximus". Rome's hopes of further conquest, however, were cut short by his death; Carus died in Sasanian territory, probably of unnatural causes, as he was reportedly struck by lightning.


title: Carus

text: Like the conquests of Trajan, 160 years before, Carus' gains were immediately relinquished by his successor. His son Numerian, naturally of an unwarlike disposition, was forced by the army to retreat back over the Tigris. The report of the lightning strike was evidently widely accepted in the camp, and the superstitious awe of the troops inclined them to ascribe Carus' death to the wrath of the Gods. Rumors had been spread of dark oracles, affixing the limits of the Empire on the Tigris, and threatening destruction against the Roman who should presume beyond the river in arms. Persia was abandoned to her rightful possessors, and not till Diocletian, a decade later, was the Persian contest decided in Rome's favor, by that emperor's decisive victory.


title: Carus

text: In the sphere of civil affairs, Carus is remembered principally for the final suppression of the authority of the senate, which had been partially restored under Tacitus and Probus. He declined to accept their ratification of his election, informing them of the fact by a haughty and distant dispatch. He was the last emperor to have united a civil with a military education, in that age when the two were increasingly detached; Diocletian (Imp. 284–305), who succeeded Carus after the brief reign of the latter's sons, was to confirm and formalize the separation of professions, and the autocratic foundation of the imperial rule.


title: Carus

text: Though Carus was known throughout his life for his austere and virtuous manners, the suspicion of his complicity in Probus' death, along with his haughty conduct towards the senate, tarnished his reputation before his death, and Julian, as Gibbon observes, conspicuously places him among the tyrants of Rome, in his catalogue of "The Caesars".


title: Pastel (color)

text: Pastels or pastel colors belong to a pale family of colors, which, when described in the HSV color space, have high value and low saturation.


title: Pastel (color)

text: They are named after an artistic medium made from pigment and solid binding agents, similar to crayons. Pastel sticks historically tended to have lower saturation than paints of the same pigment, hence the name of the color family.


title: Pastel (color)

text: The colors of this family are usually described as "soothing." Pastel colors are common in the kawaii aesthetic.


title: Pastel (color)

text: Pink, mauve, and baby blue are commonly used pastel colors, as well as mint green, peach, periwinkle, and lavender.


title: Pastel (color)

text: A form of goth style called "pastel goth" adds pastel colors to the usually monochrome palette of gothic fashion.


title: Sana Saeed

text: Sana Saeed (born 22 September 1988) is an Indian actress and model, who appears in Bollywood films and Indian television. Her first appearance was as a child artist in "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai" (1998) and continued to do so in films like "Har Dil Jo Pyar Karega" (2000) and "Badal" (2000). She also appeared in television shows such as "Babul Ka Aangann Chootey Na" (2008) and "Lo Ho Gayi Pooja Iss Ghar Ki" (2008).


title: Sana Saeed

text: In 2012, Saeed made her big screen debut as an adult in a supporting role in Karan Johar's "Student Of The Year", which emerged as a box-office commercial success. She participated in the reality shows "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa 6" (2013), "Nach Baliye 7" (2015) and "" (2016).


title: Sana Saeed

text: She has appeared as a child artist in critically and commercially successful films such as "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai" (1998), "Badal" (2000) and "Har Dil Jo Pyar Karega" (2000). Saeed also hosted the famous kids program Fox Kids telecasted on Star Plus in which she played the role of Chatur Chachi. She also appeared in television shows such as "Babul Ka Aangann Chootey Na" on Sony TV and "Lo Ho Gayi Pooja Iss Ghar Ki" on SAB TV.


title: Sana Saeed

text: She came sixth in the dance reality show and was praised for her energy levels in dancing. "Jhalak Dikhla Jaa".


title: Sana Saeed

text: In 2012, She made her screen debut in a supporting role in Karan Johar's "Student Of The Year" along with the main leads Sidharth Malhotra, Varun Dhawan and Alia Bhatt.


title: Sana Saeed

text: She got noticed due to her child star memory in spite of her small role. Film critic Taran Adarsh from Bollywood Hungama wrote, "Sana Saaed looks glamorous and does well". film critic Komal Nahta commented, "Sana Saeed only gets to pout and flaunt her body as Tanya.".


title: Sana Saeed

text: The film was released on 19 October 2012 in over 1400 screens across the country and garnered positive to mixed reviews from critics and good box office collections. Boxofficeindia declared the film as a "semihit" after three weeks. She placed 5th in Nach Baliye 7.


title: Sana Saeed

text: In May 2018, Sana appeared in Zee TV's talk show Juzz Baatt as a guest along with Adnan Khan, Arjit Taneja and Karan Jotwani.


title: Danny Dietz

text: Danny Phillip Dietz Jr. (January 26, 1980 – June 28, 2005) was a Navy SEAL who was awarded the U.S. Navy's second highest decoration, the Navy Cross, along with the Purple Heart, for his actions during the War in Afghanistan.


title: Danny Dietz

text: Dietz was born on January 26, 1980, in Aurora, Colorado to parents Cindy and Daniel P. Dietz Sr. He was of Apache ancestry. He graduated from Heritage High School in Littleton in 1999.


title: Danny Dietz

text: Dietz joined the Navy on August 31, 1999, and following his graduation from basic training at the Recruit Training Command, Great Lakes, Illinois, he finished Gunner's Mate "A" School also at Great Lakes. From that point on, he enrolled in Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL training (BUD/S) and graduated with Class 232 in 2001. Dietz proceeded to the Basic Airborne Course at Fort Benning in Georgia, after which he completed SEAL Qualification Training and SEAL Delivery Vehicle Training.


title: Danny Dietz

text: Shortly after checking in at SEAL Delivery Vehicle Team 2 in Virginia Beach, Virginia, on November 8, 2001, he was appointed to Task Unit Bravo as the optional SDV pilot and the ordnance and engineering department head. In April 2005, Dietz was deployed with his Special Reconnaissance component to Afghanistan to help Naval Special Warfare Squadron TEN in the indictment of the Global War on Terrorism.


title: Danny Dietz

text: Operation Red Wings was a counter-insurgency operation by the United States Armed Forces to kill or capture Ahmad Shah, (code name Ben Sharmak), a known terrorist and head of the militia, "Mountain Tigers". The operation was carried out, on 27 June 2005, by Navy SEAL Team TEN; the four-man team was made up of 2nd Class Matthew G. Axelson and 2nd Class Marcus Luttrell supporting the role of snipers while 2nd Class Danny P. Dietz and team leader Navy Lieutenant Michael P. Murphy were spotters.


title: Danny Dietz

text: The mission was compromised after goat herders stumbled upon the SEALs and reported them to the Taliban after the SEALs let them go free. An intense firefight ensued after the SEALs were ambushed by Taliban insurgents who outnumbered them twenty-five to one. Murphy went into an open clearing to get reception and call for support, he managed to reach the base, giving them the SEALs location as well as the number of enemies. Exposed to enemy fire, he was shot in the back while making the call, it was this act that awarded Murphy the Medal Of Honor posthumously. Murphy then returned to his team to continue the battle. Low on ammunitions, Murphy, Axelson and Danny Dietz were killed while Luttrell was knocked unconscious by an RPG.


title: Danny Dietz

text: The support dispatched was a team of eight Navy SEALs and eight 160th SOAR Army Night Stalkers. However, all sixteen special forces soldiers aboard the helicopter perished, when the CH-47 Chinook was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade that ignited the fuel tanks just as the soldiers were about to fast rope. Among the dead aboard the helicopter were Lieutenant Commander Erik S. Kristensen, the highest-ranking officer to die in the operation, and Kip A. Jacoby, the youngest soldier to die in the operation, at the age of 21.


title: Danny Dietz

text: SEAL Marcus Luttrell was the sole survivor of SEAL Team TEN, aided by an Afghan villager who sheltered him, he was rescued by green berets six days later. Danny Dietz, Matthew Axelson and Michael Murphy were declared killed in action after their bodies were recovered on 4 July.


title: Danny Dietz

text: Dietz was mortally wounded after taking the brunt of the initial attack and while evading he stumbled and injured his ankle. This led him to lose his ability to walk and as a result, Luttrell carried him on their way down the mountain, as Dietz fired back. This rigorous activity was repeated several times until Luttrell accidentally swung him into a bullet, when Luttrell was about to fall. The bullet penetrated the back of his head and instantly killed him, Dietz's dead weight came as a surprise to Luttrell and as a result, he fell down the edge of the mountain with Dietz's body and was severely injured.


title: Danny Dietz

text: Dietz's body was found by a group of U.S. Air Force pararescuemen during a search and rescue operation, on 4 July 2005, and returned to the United States. Dietz was buried with full military honors at Fort Logan National Cemetery in Denver, Colorado.


title: Danny Dietz

text: Dietz was known to show appreciation towards the outdoors and he enjoyed fishing and rock climbing. He had a black belt in Taekwondo from the Korean Academy of Taekwondo.


title: Danny Dietz

text: On September 13, 2006, Dietz was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross by Navy Secretary Donald C. Winter.


title: Danny Dietz

text: For extraordinary heroism in actions against the enemy while serving in a four-man Special Reconnaissance element with SEAL Delivery Vehicle Team ONE, Naval Special Warfare Task unit, Afghanistan from 27 to 28 June 2005. Petty Officer Dietz demonstrated extraordinary heroism in the face of grave danger in the vicinity of Asadabad, Kunar Province, Afghanistan. Operating in the middle of an enemy-controlled area, in extremely rugged terrain, his Special Reconnaissance element was tasked with locating a high-level Anti-Coalition Militia leader, in support of a follow-on direct action mission to disrupt enemy activity. On 28 June 2005, the element was spotted by Anti-Coalition Militia sympathizers, who immediately revealed their position to the militia fighters. As a result, the element directly encountered the enemy. Demonstrating exceptional resolve and fully understanding the gravity of the situation and his responsibility to his teammates, Petty Officer Dietz fought valiantly against the numerically superior and positionally advantaged enemy force. Remaining behind in a hailstorm of enemy fire, Petty Officer Dietz was wounded by enemy fire. Despite his injuries, he bravely fought on, valiantly defending his teammates and himself in a harrowing gunfight, until he was mortally wounded. By his undaunted courage in the face of heavy enemy fire, and absolute devotion to his teammates, Petty Officer Dietz will long be remembered for the role he played in the Global War on Terrorism. Petty Officer Dietz' courageous and selfless heroism, exceptional professional skill, and utmost devotion to duty reflected great credit upon him and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service. He gallantly gave his life for the cause of freedom.


title: Danny Dietz

text: On July 4, 2007, the town of Littleton, Colorado erected a bronze lifesize statue of Dietz holding his rifle in a 'parade-rest' position on one knee. It contained the same statement on the Navy Cross citation.


title: Danny Dietz

text: On August 18, 2009, the span of South Santa Fe Drive between Interstate 25 and Colorado State Highway 470 was named Navy SEAL Danny Dietz Memorial Highway in his honour.


title: Danny Dietz

text: Starting in 2010, the Danny Dietz Memorial Day Classic is a fundraiser / rodeo event held the weekend of Memorial Day at the Fort Bend County Fairgrounds in Rosenberg, Texas.


title: Danny Dietz

text: For the 2013 film "Lone Survivor", which covered the events of Operation Red Wings, Dietz was portrayed by actor Emile Hirsch.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: Strathclyde (lit. "Strath of the River Clyde", and Strað-Clota in Old English), was a Brittonic successor state of the Roman Empire and one of the early medieval kingdoms of the Britons, located in the region the Welsh tribes referred to as Yr Hen Ogledd (“the Old North"), which comprised the Brythonic-speaking parts of what is now southern Scotland and northern England. The kingdom developed during Britain's post-Roman period. It is also known as Alt Clut, a Brittonic term for Dumbarton Castle, the medieval capital of the region. It may have had its origins with the Damnonii people of Ptolemy's "Geography".


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: The language of Strathclyde is known as Cumbric, a language that is closely related to Old Welsh, and, among modern languages, is most closely related to Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. Scottish toponymy and archaeology points to some later settlement by Vikings or Norse–Gaels (see Scandinavian Scotland), although to a lesser degree than in neighbouring Galloway. A small number of Anglian place-names show some limited settlement by Anglo-Saxon incomers from Northumbria prior to the Norse settlement. Owing to the series of language changes in the area, it is not possible to say whether any Goidelic settlement took place before Gaelic was introduced in the High Middle Ages during the 11th century.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: After the sack of Dumbarton Rock by a Viking army from Dublin in 870, the name Strathclyde came into use, perhaps reflecting a move of the centre of the kingdom to Govan. In the same period, it was also referred to as Cumbria, and its inhabitants as Cumbrians. During the High Middle Ages, the area was conquered by the Goidelic-speaking Kingdom of Alba in the 11th century, becoming part of the new Kingdom of Scotland.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: Ptolemy's "Geographia" – a sailors' chart, not an ethnographical survey – lists a number of tribes, or groups of tribes, in southern Scotland at around the time of the Roman invasion and the establishment of Roman Britain in the 1st century AD. As well as the Damnonii, Ptolemy lists the Otalini, whose capital appears to have been Traprain Law; to their west, the Selgovae in the Southern Uplands and, further west in Galloway, the Novantae. In addition, a group known as the Maeatae, probably in the area around Stirling, appear in later Roman records. The capital of the Damnonii is believed to have been at Carman, near Dumbarton, but around five miles inland from the River Clyde.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: Although the northern frontier appears to have been Hadrian's Wall for most of the history of Roman Britain, the extent of Roman influence north of the Wall is obscure. Certainly, Roman forts existed north of the wall, and forts as far north as Cramond may have been in long-term occupation. Moreover, the formal frontier was three times moved further north. Twice it was advanced to the line of the Antonine Wall, at about the time when Hadrian's Wall was built and again under Septimius Severus, and once further north, beyond the river Tay, during Agricola's campaigns, although, each time, it was soon withdrawn. In addition to these contacts, Roman armies undertook punitive expeditions north of the frontiers. Northern natives also travelled south of the wall, to trade, to raid and to serve in the Roman army. Roman traders may have travelled north, and Roman subsidies, or bribes, were sent to useful tribes and leaders. The extent to which Roman Britain was romanised is debated, and if there are doubts about the areas under close Roman control, then there must be even more doubts over the degree to which the Damnonii were romanised.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: The final period of Roman Britain saw an apparent increase in attacks by land and sea, the raiders including the Picts, Scotti and the mysterious Attacotti whose origins are not certain. These raids will have also targeted the tribes of southern Scotland. The supposed final withdrawal of Roman forces around 410 is unlikely to have been of military impact on the Damnonii, although the withdrawal of pay from the residual Wall garrison will have had a very considerable economic effect.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: No historical source gives any firm information on the boundaries of the Kingdom of Strathclyde, but suggestions have been offered on the basis of place-names and topography. Near the north end of Loch Lomond, which can be reached by boat from the Clyde, lies Clach nam Breatann, the Rock of the Britains, which is thought to have gained its name as a marker at the northern limit of Alt Clut. The Campsie Fells and the marshes between Loch Lomond and Stirling may have represented another boundary. To the south, the kingdom extended some distance up the strath of the Clyde, and along the coast probably extended south towards Ayr.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: The written sources available for the period are largely Irish and Welsh, and very few indeed are contemporary with the period between 400 and 600. Irish sources report events in the kingdom of Dumbarton only when they have an Irish link. Excepting the 6th-century jeremiad by Gildas and the poetry attributed to Taliesin and Aneirin—in particular "y Gododdin", thought to have been composed in Scotland in the 6th century—Welsh sources generally date from a much later period. Some are informed by the political attitudes prevalent in Wales in the 9th century and after. Bede, whose prejudice is apparent, rarely mentions Britons, and then usually in uncomplimentary terms.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: Two kings are known from near contemporary sources in this early period. The first is Coroticus or Ceretic Guletic (), known as the recipient of a letter from Saint Patrick, and stated by a 7th-century biographer to have been king of the Height of the Clyde, Dumbarton Rock, placing him in the second half of the 5th century. From Patrick's letter it is clear that Ceretic was a Christian, and it is likely that the ruling class of the area were also Christians, at least in name. His descendant Rhydderch Hael is named in Adomnán's "Life of Saint Columba". Rhydderch was a contemporary of Áedán mac Gabráin of Dál Riata and Urien of Rheged, to whom he is linked by various traditions and tales, and also of Æthelfrith of Bernicia.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: The Christianisation of southern Scotland, if Patrick's letter to Coroticus was indeed to a king in Strathclyde, had therefore made considerable progress when the first historical sources appear. Further south, at Whithorn, a Christian inscription is known from the second half of the 5th century, perhaps commemorating a new church. How this came about is unknown. Unlike Columba, Kentigern (), the supposed apostle to the Britons of the Clyde, is a shadowy figure and Jocelyn of Furness's 12th century "Life" is late and of doubtful authenticity though Jackson believed that Jocelyn's version might have been based on an earlier Cumbric-language original.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: After 600, information on the Britons of Alt Clut becomes slightly more common in the sources. However, historians have disagreed as to how these should be interpreted. Broadly speaking, they have tended to produce theories which place their subject at the centre of the history of north Britain in the Early Historic period. The result is a series of narratives which cannot be reconciled. More recent historiography may have gone some way to addressing this problem.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: At the beginning of the 7th century, Áedán mac Gabráin may have been the most powerful king in northern Britain, and Dál Riata was at its height. Áedán's byname in later Welsh poetry, Aeddan Fradawg (Áedán the Treacherous) does not speak to a favourable reputation among the Britons of Alt Clut, and it may be that he seized control of Alt Clut. Áedán's dominance came to an end around 604, when his army, including Irish kings and Bernician exiles, was defeated by Æthelfrith at the battle of Degsastan.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: It is supposed, on rather weak evidence, that Æthelfrith, his successor Edwin and Bernician and Northumbrian kings after them expanded into southern Scotland. Such evidence as there is, such as the conquest of Elmet, the wars in north Wales and with Mercia, would argue for a more southerly focus of Northumbrian activity in the first half of the 7th century. The report in the Annals of Ulster for 638, "the battle of Glenn Muiresan and the besieging of Eten" (Eidyn, later Edinburgh), has been taken to represent the capture of Eidyn by the Northumbrian king Oswald, son of Æthelfrith, but the Annals mention neither capture, nor Northumbrians, so this is rather a tenuous identification.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: In 642, the Annals of Ulster report that the Britons of Alt Clut led by Eugein son of Beli defeated the men of Dál Riata and killed Domnall Brecc, grandson of Áedán, at Strathcarron, and this victory is also recorded in an addition to "Y Gododdin". The site of this battle lies in the area known in later Welsh sources as Bannawg—the name Bannockburn is presumed to be related—which is thought to have meant the very extensive marshes and bogs between Loch Lomond and the river Forth, and the hills and lochs to the north, which separated the lands of the Britons from those of Dál Riata and the Picts, and this land was not worth fighting over. However, the lands to the south and east of this waste were controlled by smaller, nameless British kingdoms. Powerful neighbouring kings, whether in Alt Clut, Dál Riata, Pictland or Bernicia, would have imposed tribute on these petty kings, and wars for the overlordship of this area seem to have been regular events in the 6th to 8th centuries.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: There are few definite reports of Alt Clut in the remainder of the 7th century, although it is possible that the Irish annals contain entries which may be related to Alt Clut. In the last quarter of the 7th century, a number of battles in Ireland, largely in areas along the Irish Sea coast, are reported where Britons take part. It is usually assumed that these Britons are mercenaries, or exiles dispossessed by some Anglo-Saxon conquest in northern Britain. However, it may be that these represent campaigns by kings of Alt Clut, whose kingdom was certainly part of the region linked by the Irish Sea. All of Alt Clut's neighbours, Northumbria, Pictland and Dál Riata, are known to have sent armies to Ireland on occasions.