text: A PlayStation Vita version of the game was confirmed on the PlayStation Blog on October 11 and released on November 19, 2013.


title: The Amazing Spider-Man (2012 video game)

text: "The Amazing Spider-Man" received mixed to positive reviews with the PS3 version being the best received game. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 71/100, the Xbox 360 version 69/100, the Wii U version 66/100, the Wii version 58/100, and the 3DS version 55/100.


text: "GameSpot" gave it a 7.5/10, praising its controls while criticizing its easiness. "Game Informer" had a more critical view of the game, scoring it 6.75/10, citing failure to live up to potential due to its generic story and repetitive side missions. "IGN" gave the game a 7.0/10 with Greg Miller saying "the visuals aren't stunning, the story isn't crazy exciting but "The Amazing Spider-Man" is fun to play". ABC's "Good Game" were positive with the game with Hex giving a 7 and Bajo an 8 saying, "I was just so happy to have an open world Spider-Man game again, and it's just so much fun swinging around." "1Up.com" gave the game a C- and criticized the subpar open world that made the in-game New York City feel like a "post-apocalyptic nightmare-scape."


text: A narrative sequel taking place in the same universe as in the video game and it based on the movie sequel, was released on April 29, 2014, for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Wii U, Xbox 360, Xbox One, iOS and Android


title: History of the battery

text: Batteries provided the primary source of electricity before the development of electric generators and electrical grids around the end of the 19th century. Successive improvements in battery technology facilitated major electrical advances, from early scientific studies to the rise of telegraphs and telephones, eventually leading to portable computers, mobile phones, electric cars, and many other electrical devices.


title: History of the battery

text: Students and engineers developed several commercially important types of battery. "Wet cells" were open containers that held liquid electrolyte and metallic electrodes. When the electrodes were completely consumed, the wet cell was renewed by replacing the electrodes and electrolyte. Open containers are unsuitable for mobile or portable use. Wet cells were used commercially in the telegraph and telephone systems. Early electric cars used semi-sealed wet cells.


title: History of the battery

text: One important classification for batteries is by their life cycle. "Primary" batteries can produce current as soon as assembled, but once the active elements are consumed, they cannot be electrically recharged. The development of the lead-acid battery and subsequent "secondary" or "chargeable" types allowed energy to be restored to the cell, extending the life of permanently assembled cells. The introduction of nickel and lithium based batteries in the latter half of the 20th century made the development of innumerable portable electronic devices feasible, from powerful flashlights to mobile phones. Very large stationary batteries find some applications in grid energy storage, helping to stabilize electric power distribution networks.


title: History of the battery

text: From the mid 18th century on, before there were batteries, experimenters used Leyden jars to store electrical charge. As an early form of capacitor, Leyden jars, unlike batteries, stored their charge physically and would release it all at once. Many experimenters took to hooking several Leyden jars together to create a stronger charge and one of them, the colonial America inventor Benjamin Franklin, may have been the first to call his grouping an ""electrical battery"", a play on the military term for weapons functioning together.


title: History of the battery

text: Based on some findings by Luigi Galvani, Alessandro Volta, a friend and fellow scientist, believed observed electrical phenomena were caused by two different metals joined together by a moist intermediary. He verified this hypothesis through experiments and published the results in 1791. In 1800, Volta invented the first true battery, storing and releasing a charge through a chemical reaction instead of physically, which came to be known as the voltaic pile. The voltaic pile consisted of pairs of copper and zinc discs piled on top of each other, separated by a layer of cloth or cardboard soaked in brine (i.e., the electrolyte). Unlike the Leyden jar, the voltaic pile produced continuous electricity and stable current, and lost little charge over time when not in use, though his early models could not produce a voltage strong enough to produce sparks. He experimented with various metals and found that zinc and silver gave the best results.


title: History of the battery

text: Volta believed the current was the result of two different materials simply touching each other – an obsolete scientific theory known as contact tension – and not the result of chemical reactions. As a consequence, he regarded the corrosion of the zinc plates as an unrelated flaw that could perhaps be fixed by changing the materials somehow. However, no scientist ever succeeded in preventing this corrosion. In fact, it was observed that the corrosion was faster when a higher current was drawn. This suggested that the corrosion was actually integral to the battery's ability to produce a current. This, in part, led to the rejection of Volta's contact tension theory in favor of the electrochemical theory. Volta's illustrations of his Crown of Cups and voltaic pile have extra metal disks, now known to be unnecessary, on both the top and bottom. The figure associated with this section, of the zinc-copper voltaic pile, has the modern design, an indication that "contact tension" is not the source of electromotive force for the voltaic pile.


title: History of the battery

text: Volta's original pile models had some technical flaws, one of them involving the electrolyte leaking and causing short-circuits due to the weight of the discs compressing the brine-soaked cloth. A Scotsman named William Cruickshank solved this problem by laying the elements in a box instead of piling them in a stack. This was known as the trough battery. Volta himself invented a variant that consisted of a chain of cups filled with a salt solution, linked together by metallic arcs dipped into the liquid. This was known as the Crown of Cups. These arcs were made of two different metals (e.g., zinc and copper) soldered together. This model also proved to be more efficient than his original piles, though it did not prove as popular.


title: History of the battery

text: Another problem with Volta's batteries was short battery life (an hour's worth at best), which was caused by two phenomena. The first was that the current produced electrolyzed the electrolyte solution, resulting in a film of hydrogen bubbles forming on the copper, which steadily increased the internal resistance of the battery (this effect, called "polarization", is counteracted in modern cells by additional measures). The other was a phenomenon called "local action", wherein minute short-circuits would form around impurities in the zinc, causing the zinc to degrade. The latter problem was solved in 1835 by the English inventor William Sturgeon, who found that amalgamated zinc, whose surface had been treated with some mercury, didn't suffer from local action.


title: History of the battery

text: Despite its flaws, Volta's batteries provide a steadier current than Leyden jars, and made possible many new experiments and discoveries, such as the first electrolysis of water by the English surgeon Anthony Carlisle and the English chemist William Nicholson.


title: History of the battery

text: An English professor of chemistry named John Frederic Daniell found a way to solve the hydrogen bubble problem in the Voltaic Pile by using a second electrolyte to consume the hydrogen produced by the first. In 1836, he invented the Daniell cell, which consists of a copper pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which is immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode. The earthenware barrier is porous, which allows ions to pass through but keeps the solutions from mixing.


title: History of the battery

text: The Daniell cell was a great improvement over the existing technology used in the early days of battery development and was the first practical source of electricity. It provides a longer and more reliable current than the Voltaic cell. It is also safer and less corrosive. It has an operating voltage of roughly 1.1 volts. It soon became the industry standard for use, especially with the new telegraph networks.


title: History of the battery

text: The Daniell cell was also used as the first working standard for definition of the volt, which is the unit of electromotive force.


title: History of the battery

text: A version of the Daniell cell was invented in 1837 by the Guy's hospital physician Golding Bird who used a plaster of Paris barrier to keep the solutions separate. Bird's experiments with this cell were of some importance to the new discipline of electrometallurgy.


title: History of the battery

text: The porous pot version of the Daniell cell was invented by John Dancer, a Liverpool instrument maker, in 1838. It consists of a central zinc anode dipped into a porous earthenware pot containing a zinc sulfate solution. The porous pot is, in turn, immersed in a solution of copper sulfate contained in a copper can, which acts as the cell's cathode. The use of a porous barrier allows ions to pass through but keeps the solutions from mixing.


title: History of the battery

text: In the 1860s, a Frenchman named Callaud invented a variant of the Daniell cell called the gravity cell. This simpler version dispensed with the porous barrier. This reduces the internal resistance of the system and, thus, the battery yields a stronger current. It quickly became the battery of choice for the American and British telegraph networks, and was widely used until the 1950s.


title: History of the battery

text: The gravity cell consists of a glass jar, in which a copper cathode sits on the bottom and a zinc anode is suspended beneath the rim. Copper sulfate crystals are scattered around the cathode and then the jar is filled with distilled water. As the current is drawn, a layer of zinc sulfate solution forms at the top around the anode. This top layer is kept separate from the bottom copper sulfate layer by its lower density and by the polarity of the cell.


title: History of the battery

text: The zinc sulfate layer is clear in contrast to the deep blue copper sulfate layer, which allows a technician to measure the battery life with a glance. On the other hand, this setup means the battery can be used only in a stationary appliance, or else the solutions mix or spill. Another disadvantage is that a current has to be continually drawn to keep the two solutions from mixing by diffusion, so it is unsuitable for intermittent use.


title: History of the battery

text: The German scientist Johann Christian Poggendorff overcame the problems with separating the electrolyte and the depolariser using a porous earthenware pot in 1842. In the Poggendorff cell, sometimes called Grenet Cell due to the works of Eugene Grenet around 1859, the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid and the depolariser is chromic acid. The two acids are physically mixed together, eliminating the porous pot. The positive electrode (cathode) is two carbon plates, with a zinc plate (negative or anode) positioned between them. Because of the tendency of the acid mixture to react with the zinc, a mechanism is provided to raise the zinc electrode clear of the acids.


title: History of the battery

text: The cell provides 1.9 volts. It was popular with experimenters for many years due to its relatively high voltage; greater ability to produce a consistent current and lack of any fumes, but the relative fragility of its thin glass enclosure and the necessity of having to raise the zinc plate when the cell is not in use eventually saw it fall out of favour. The cell was also known as the 'chromic acid cell', but principally as the 'bichromate cell'. This latter name came from the practice of producing the chromic acid by adding sulphuric acid to potassium dichromate, even though the cell itself contains no dichromate.


title: History of the battery

text: The Fuller cell was developed from the Poggendorff cell. Although the chemistry is principally the same, the two acids are once again separated by a porous container and the zinc is treated with mercury to form an amalgam.


title: History of the battery

text: The Welshman William Robert Grove invented the Grove cell in 1839. It consists of a zinc anode dipped in sulfuric acid and a platinum cathode dipped in nitric acid, separated by porous earthenware. The Grove cell provides a high current and nearly twice the voltage of the Daniell cell, which made it the favoured cell of the American telegraph networks for a time. However, it gives off poisonous nitric oxide fumes when operated. The voltage also drops sharply as the charge diminishes, which became a liability as telegraph networks grew more complex. Platinum was and still is very expensive.


title: History of the battery

text: In the new element there can be used advantageously as exciting-liquid in the first case such solutions as have in a concentrated condition great depolarizing-power, which effect the whole depolarization chemically without necessitating the mechanical expedient of increased carbon surface. It is preferred to use iron as the positive electrode, and as exciting-liquid nitro muriatic acid (), the mixture consisting of muriatic and nitric acids. The nitro-muriatic acid, as explained above, serves for filling both cells. For the carbon-cells it is used strong or very slightly diluted, but for the other cells very diluted, (about one-twentieth, or at the most one-tenth). The element containing in one cell carbon and concentrated nitro-muriatic acid and in the other cell iron and dilute nitro-muriatic acid remains constant for at least twenty hours when employed for electric incandescent lighting.


title: History of the battery

text: Up to this point, all existing batteries would be permanently drained when all their chemical reactants were spent. In 1859, Gaston Planté invented the lead–acid battery, the first-ever battery that could be recharged by passing a reverse current through it. A lead-acid cell consists of a lead anode and a lead dioxide cathode immersed in sulfuric acid. Both electrodes react with the acid to produce lead sulfate, but the reaction at the lead anode releases electrons whilst the reaction at the lead dioxide consumes them, thus producing a current. These chemical reactions can be reversed by passing a reverse current through the battery, thereby recharging it.


title: History of the battery

text: Planté's first model consisted of two lead sheets separated by rubber strips and rolled into a spiral. His batteries were first used to power the lights in train carriages while stopped at a station. In 1881, Camille Alphonse Faure invented an improved version that consists of a lead grid lattice into which is pressed a lead oxide paste, forming a plate. Multiple plates can be stacked for greater performance. This design is easier to mass-produce.


title: History of the battery

text: Compared to other batteries, Planté's is rather heavy and bulky for the amount of energy it can hold. However, it can produce remarkably large currents in surges, because it has very low internal resistance, meaning that a single battery can be used to power multiple circuits.


title: History of the battery

text: The lead-acid battery is still used today in automobiles and other applications where weight is not a big factor. The basic principle has not changed since 1859. In the early 1930s, a gel electrolyte (instead of a liquid) produced by adding silica to a charged cell was used in the LT battery of portable vacuum-tube radios. In the 1970s, "sealed" versions became common (commonly known as a "gel cell" or "SLA"), allowing the battery to be used in different positions without failure or leakage.


title: History of the battery

text: Today cells are classified as "primary" if they produce a current only until their chemical reactants are exhausted, and "secondary" if the chemical reactions can be reversed by recharging the cell. The lead-acid cell was the first "secondary" cell.


title: History of the battery

text: In 1866, Georges Leclanché invented a battery that consists of a zinc anode and a manganese dioxide cathode wrapped in a porous material, dipped in a jar of ammonium chloride solution. The manganese dioxide cathode has a little carbon mixed into it as well, which improves conductivity and absorption. It provided a voltage of 1.4 volts. This cell achieved very quick success in telegraphy, signaling, and electric bell work.


title: History of the battery

text: The dry cell form was used to power early telephones—usually from an adjacent wooden box affixed to fit batteries before telephones could draw power from the telephone line itself. The Leclanché cell can not provide a sustained current for very long. In lengthy conversations, the battery would run down, rendering the conversation inaudible. This is because certain chemical reactions in the cell increase the internal resistance and, thus, lower the voltage.


title: History of the battery

text: Many experimenters tried to immobilize the electrolyte of an electrochemical cell to make it more convenient to use. The Zamboni pile of 1812 is a high-voltage dry battery but capable of delivering only minute currents. Various experiments were made with cellulose, sawdust, spun glass, asbestos fibers, and gelatine.


title: History of the battery

text: In 1886, Carl Gassner obtained a German patent on a variant of the Leclanché cell, which came to be known as the dry cell because it does not have a free liquid electrolyte. Instead, the ammonium chloride is mixed with plaster of Paris to create a paste, with a small amount of zinc chloride added in to extend the shelf life. The manganese dioxide cathode is dipped in this paste, and both are sealed in a zinc shell, which also acts as the anode. In November 1887, he obtained for the same device.


title: History of the battery

text: Unlike previous wet cells, Gassner's dry cell is more solid, does not require maintenance, does not spill, and can be used in any orientation. It provides a potential of 1.5 volts. The first mass-produced model was the Columbia dry cell, first marketed by the National Carbon Company in 1896. The NCC improved Gassner's model by replacing the plaster of Paris with coiled cardboard, an innovation that left more space for the cathode and made the battery easier to assemble. It was the first convenient battery for the masses and made portable electrical devices practical, and led directly to the invention of the flashlight.


title: History of the battery

text: In parallel, in 1887 Wilhelm Hellesen developed his own dry cell design. It has been claimed that Hellesen's design preceded that of Gassner.


title: History of the battery

text: In 1887, a dry-battery was developed by Sakizō Yai () of Japan, then patented in 1892. In 1893, Sakizō Yai's dry-battery was exhibited in World's Columbian Exposition and commanded considerable international attention.


title: History of the battery

text: In 1899, a Swedish scientist named Waldemar Jungner invented the nickel–cadmium battery, a rechargeable battery that has nickel and cadmium electrodes in a potassium hydroxide solution; the first battery to use an alkaline electrolyte. It was commercialized in Sweden in 1910 and reached the United States in 1946. The first models were robust and had significantly better energy density than lead-acid batteries, but were much more expensive.


title: History of the battery

text: Waldemar Jungner patented a nickel–iron battery in 1899, the same year as his Ni-Cad battery patent, but found it to be inferior to its cadmium counterpart and, as a consequence, never bothered developing it. It produced a lot more hydrogen gas when being charged, meaning it could not be sealed, and the charging process was less efficient (it was, however, cheaper).


title: History of the battery

text: Seeing a way to make a profit in the already competitive lead-acid battery market, Thomas Edison worked in the 1890s on developing an alkaline based battery that he could get a patent on. Edison thought if he produced lightweight and durable battery electric cars would become the standard, with his firm as its main battery vendor. After many experiments, and probably borrowing from Jungner's design, he patented an alkaline based nickel–iron battery in 1901. However, customers found his first model of the alkaline nickel–iron battery to be prone to leakage leading to short battery life, and it did not outperform the lead-acid cell by much either. Although Edison was able to produce a more reliable and powerful model seven years later, by this time the inexpensive and reliable Model T Ford had made gasoline engine cars the standard. Nevertheless, Edison's battery achieved great success in other applications such as electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles, providing backup power for railroad crossing signals, or to provide power for the lamps used in mines.


title: History of the battery

text: Until the late 1950s, the zinc–carbon battery continued to be a popular primary cell battery, but its relatively low battery life hampered sales. The Canadian engineer Lewis Urry, working for the Union Carbide, first at the National Carbon Co. in Ontario and, by 1955, at the National Carbon Company Parma Research Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio, was tasked with finding a way to extend the life of zinc-carbon batteries. Building on earlier work by Edison, Urry decided instead that alkaline batteries held more promise. Until then, longer-lasting alkaline batteries were unfeasibly expensive. Urry's battery consists of a manganese dioxide cathode and a powdered zinc anode with an alkaline electrolyte. Using powdered zinc gives the anode a greater surface area. These batteries were put on the market in 1959.


title: History of the battery

text: The nickel–hydrogen battery entered the market as an energy-storage subsystem for commercial communication satellites.


title: History of the battery

text: The first consumer grade nickel–metal hydride batteries (NiMH) for smaller applications appeared on the market in 1989 as a variation of the 1970s nickel–hydrogen battery. NiMH batteries tend to have longer lifespans than NiCd batteries (and their lifespans continue to increase as manufacturers experiment with new alloys) and, since cadmium is toxic, NiMH batteries are less damaging to the environment.


title: History of the battery

text: Lithium is the metal with lowest density and with the greatest electrochemical potential and energy-to-weight ratio. The low atomic weight and small size of its ions also speeds its diffusion, suggesting that it would make an ideal material for batteries. Experimentation with lithium batteries began in 1912 under American physical chemist Gilbert N. Lewis, but commercial lithium batteries did not come to market until the 1970s in the form of the lithium-ion battery. Three volt lithium primary cells such as the CR123A type and three volt button cells are still widely used, especially in cameras and very small devices.


title: History of the battery

text: Three important developments regarding lithium batteries occurred in the 1980s. In 1980, an American chemist, John B. Goodenough, discovered the LiCoO (Lithium cobalt oxide) cathode (positive lead) and a Moroccan research scientist, Rachid Yazami, discovered the graphite anode (negative lead) with the solid electrolyte. In 1981, Japanese chemists Tokio Yamabe and Shizukuni Yata discovered a novel nano-carbonacious-PAS (polyacene) and found that it was very effective for the anode in the conventional liquid electrolyte. This led a research team managed by Akira Yoshino of Asahi Chemical, Japan, to build the first lithium-ion battery prototype in 1985, a rechargeable and more stable version of the lithium battery; Sony commercialized the lithium-ion battery in 1991.


title: History of the battery

text: In 1997, the lithium polymer battery was released by Sony and Asahi Kasei. These batteries hold their electrolyte in a solid polymer composite instead of in a liquid solvent, and the electrodes and separators are laminated to each other. The latter difference allows the battery to be encased in a flexible wrapping instead of in a rigid metal casing, which means such batteries can be specifically shaped to fit a particular device. This advantage has favored lithium polymer batteries in the design of portable electronic devices such as mobile phones and personal digital assistants, and of radio-controlled aircraft, as such batteries allow for a more flexible and compact design. They generally have a lower energy density than normal lithium-ion batteries.


title: History of the battery

text: In 2019, John B. Goodenough, M. Stanley Whittingham, and Akira Yoshino, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, for their development of lithium-ion batteries.


title: Nerve

text: A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibers (called axons) in the peripheral nervous system.


title: Nerve

text: A nerve transmits electrical impulses. It is the basic unit of the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses called action potentials that are transmitted along each of the axons to peripheral organs or, in the case of sensory nerves, from the periphery back to the central nervous system. Each axon, within the nerve, is an extension of an individual neuron, along with other supportive cells such as some Schwann cells that coat the axons in myelin.


title: Nerve

text: Within a nerve, each axon is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the endoneurium. The axons are bundled together into groups called fascicles, and each fascicle is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the perineurium. Finally, the entire nerve is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the epineurium. Nerve cells (often called neurons) are further classified as sensory, motor, or mixed nerves.


title: Nerve

text: Each nerve is covered on the outside by a dense sheath of connective tissue, the epineurium. Beneath this is a layer of fat cells, the perineurium, which forms a complete sleeve around a bundle of axons. Perineurial septae extend into the nerve and subdivide it into several bundles of fibres. Surrounding each such fibre is the endoneurium. This forms an unbroken tube from the surface of the spinal cord to the level where the axon synapses with its muscle fibres, or ends in sensory receptors. The endoneurium consists of an inner sleeve of material called the glycocalyx and an outer, delicate, meshwork of collagen fibres. Nerves are bundled and often travel along with blood vessels, since the neurons of a nerve have fairly high energy requirements.


title: Nerve

text: Within the endoneurium, the individual nerve fibres are surrounded by a low-protein liquid called endoneurial fluid. This acts in a similar way to the cerebrospinal fluid in the central nervous system and constitutes a blood-nerve barrier similar to the blood–brain barrier. Molecules are thereby prevented from crossing the blood into the endoneurial fluid. During the development of nerve edema from nerve irritation (or injury), the amount of endoneurial fluid may increase at the site of irritation. This increase in fluid can be visualized using magnetic resonance neurography, and thus MR neurography can identify nerve irritation and/or injury.


title: Nerve

text: Specific terms are used to describe nerves and their actions. A nerve that supplies information to the brain from an area of the body, or controls an action of the body is said to "innervate" that section of the body or organ. Other terms relate to whether the nerve affects the same side ("ipsilateral") or opposite side ("contralateral") of the body, to the part of the brain that supplies it.


title: Nerve

text: Nerve growth normally ends in adolescence, but can be re-stimulated with a molecular mechanism known as "Notch signaling".


title: Nerve

text: If the axons of a neuron are damaged, as long as the cell body of the neuron is not damaged, the axons can regenerate and remake the synaptic connections with neurons with the help of guidepost cells. This is also referred to as neuroregeneration.


title: Nerve

text: The nerve begins the process by destroying the nerve distal to the site of injury allowing Schwann cells, basal lamina, and the neurilemma near the injury to begin producing a regeneration tube. Nerve growth factors are produced causing many nerve sprouts to bud. When one of the growth processes finds the regeneration tube, it begins to grow rapidly towards its original destination guided the entire time by the regeneration tube. Nerve regeneration is very slow and can take up to several months to complete. While this process does repair some nerves, there will still be some functional deficit as the repairs are not perfect.


title: Nerve

text: A nerve conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (as nerve impulses known as action potentials) carried by the individual neurons that make up the nerve. These impulses are extremely fast, with some myelinated neurons conducting at speeds up to 120 m/s. The impulses travel from one neuron to another by crossing a synapse, where the message is converted from electrical to chemical and then back to electrical.


title: Nerve

text: The nervous system is the part of an animal that coordinates its actions by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. In vertebrates it consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain, brainstem and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers or axons, that connect the CNS to all remaining body parts.


title: Nerve

text: Nerves that transmit signals from the CNS are called "motor" or "efferent" nerves, while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called "sensory" or "afferent". Spinal nerves serve both functions and are called "mixed" nerves. The PNS is divided into three separate subsystems, the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems. Somatic nerves mediate voluntary movement.


title: Nerve

text: The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state. The enteric nervous system functions to control the gastrointestinal system. Both autonomic and enteric nervous systems function involuntarily. Nerves that exit from the cranium are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.


title: Nerve

text: Cancer can spread by invading the spaces around nerves. This is particularly common in head and neck cancer, prostate cancer and colorectal cancer.


title: Nerve

text: Nerves can be damaged by physical injury as well as conditions like carpal tunnel syndrome and repetitive strain injury. Autoimmune diseases such as Guillain–Barré syndrome, neurodegenerative diseases, polyneuropathy, infection, neuritis, diabetes, or failure of the blood vessels surrounding the nerve all cause nerve damage, which can vary in severity.


title: Nerve

text: Multiple sclerosis is a disease associated with extensive nerve damage. It occurs when the macrophages of an individual's own immune system damage the myelin sheaths that insulate the axon of the nerve.


title: Nerve

text: A pinched nerve occurs when pressure is placed on a nerve, usually from swelling due to an injury, or pregnancy and can result in pain, weakness, numbness or paralysis, an example being carpal tunnel syndrome. Symptoms can be felt in areas far from the actual site of damage, a phenomenon called referred pain. Referred pain can happen when the damage causes altered signalling to other areas.


title: Nerve

text: Neurologists usually diagnose disorders of nerves by a physical examination, including the testing of reflexes, walking and other directed movements, muscle weakness, proprioception, and the sense of touch. This initial exam can be followed with tests such as nerve conduction study, electromyography (EMG), and computed tomography (CT).


title: Nerve

text: A neuron is called "identified" if it has properties that distinguish it from every other neuron in the same animal—properties such as location, neurotransmitter, gene expression pattern, and connectivity—and if every individual organism belonging to the same species has exactly one neuron with the same set of properties. In vertebrate nervous systems, very few neurons are "identified" in this sense. Researchers believe humans have none—but in simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique.


title: Nerve

text: In vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic Mauthner cells of fish. Every fish has two Mauthner cells, located in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right. Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating (stimulating) neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it goes. The synapses generated by a Mauthner cell are so powerful that a single action potential gives rise to a major behavioral response: within milliseconds the fish curves its body into a C-shape, then straightens, thereby propelling itself rapidly forward. Functionally this is a fast escape response, triggered most easily by a strong sound wave or pressure wave impinging on the lateral line organ of the fish. Mauthner cells are not the only identified neurons in fish—there are about 20 more types, including pairs of "Mauthner cell analogs" in each spinal segmental nucleus. Although a Mauthner cell is capable of bringing about an escape response all by itself, in the context of ordinary behavior other types of cells usually contribute to shaping the amplitude and direction of the response.


title: Nerve

text: Mauthner cells have been described as command neurons. A command neuron is a special type of identified neuron, defined as a neuron that is capable of driving a specific behavior all by itself. Such neurons appear most commonly in the fast escape systems of various species—the squid giant axon and squid giant synapse, used for pioneering experiments in neurophysiology because of their enormous size, both participate in the fast escape circuit of the squid. The concept of a command neuron has, however, become controversial, because of studies showing that some neurons that initially appeared to fit the description were really only capable of evoking a response in a limited set of circumstances.


title: Nerve

text: In organisms of radial symmetry, nerve nets serve for the nervous system. There is no brain or centralised head region, and instead there are interconnected neurons spread out in nerve nets. These are found in Cnidaria, Ctenophora and Echinodermata.


title: Nerve

text: Herophilos 335–280 BC, described the optic nerve and the oculomotor nerve for sight and eye movement. Analysis of the nerves in the cranium allowed him to differentiate between blood vessels and nerves i.e. , "“string (plant fiber), nerve”".


title: Cargo aircraft

text: A cargo aircraft (also known as freight aircraft, freighter, airlifter or cargo jet) is a fixed-wing aircraft that is designed or converted for the carriage of cargo rather than passengers. Such aircraft usually do not incorporate passenger amenities and generally feature one or more large doors for loading cargo. Freighters may be operated by civil passenger or cargo airlines, by private individuals or by the armed forces of individual countries.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Aircraft designed for cargo flight usually have features that distinguish them from conventional passenger aircraft: a wide/tall fuselage cross-section, a high-wing to allow the cargo area to sit near the ground, numerous wheels to allow it to land at unprepared locations, and a high-mounted tail to allow cargo to be driven directly into and off the aircraft.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: By 2015, dedicated freighters represent 43% of the 700 billion ATK (available tonne-kilometer) capacity, while 57% is carried in airliner's cargo holds. Also in 2015, Boeing forecast belly freight to rise to 63% while specialised cargoes would represent 37% of a 1,200 billion ATKs in 2035.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: The Cargo Facts Consulting firm forecasts that the global freighter fleet will rise from 1,782 to 2,920 cargo aircraft from 2019 to 2039.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Aircraft were put to use carrying cargo in the form of "air mail" as early as 1911. Although the earliest aircraft were not designed primarily as cargo carriers, by the mid-1920s aircraft manufacturers were designing and building dedicated cargo aircraft.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: In the UK during the early 1920s, the need was recognized for a freighter aircraft to transport troops and material quickly to pacify tribal revolts in the newly occupied territories of the Middle East. The Vickers Vernon, a development of the Vickers Vimy Commercial, entered service with the Royal Air Force as the first dedicated troop transport in 1921. In February 1923 this was put to use by the RAF's Iraq Command who flew nearly 500 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first ever strategic airlift of troops. Vickers Victorias played an important part in the Kabul Airlift of November 1928 – February 1929, when they evacuated diplomatic staff and their dependents together with members of the Afghan royal family endangered by a civil war. The Victorias also helped to pioneer air routes for Imperial Airways' Handley Page HP.42 airliners.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: The World War II German design, the Arado Ar 232 was the first purpose-built cargo aircraft. The Ar 232 was intended to supplant the earlier Junkers Ju 52 freighter conversions, but only a few were built. Most other forces used freighter versions of airliners in the cargo role as well, most notably the C-47 Skytrain version of the Douglas DC-3, which served with practically every Allied nation. One important innovation for future cargo aircraft design was introduced in 1939, with the fifth and sixth prototypes of the Junkers Ju 90 four-engined military transport aircraft, with the earliest known example of a rear loading ramp. This aircraft, like most of its era, used tail-dragger landing gear which caused the aircraft to have a decided rearward tilt when landed. These aircraft introduced the "Trapoklappe", a powerful ramp/hydraulic lift with a personnel stairway centered between the vehicle trackway ramps, that raised the rear of the aircraft into the air and allowed easy loading. A similar rear loading ramp even appeared in a somewhat different form on the nosewheel gear-equipped, late WW II era American Budd RB-1 Conestoga twin-engined cargo aircraft.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Postwar Europe also served to play a major role in the development of the modern air cargo and air freight industry. It is during the Berlin Airlift at the height of the Cold War, when a massive mobilization of aircraft was undertaken by the West to supply West Berlin with food and supplies, in a virtual around the clock air bridge, after the Soviet Union closed and blockaded Berlin's land links to the west. To rapidly supply the needed numbers of aircraft, many older types, especially the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, were pressed into service. In operation it was found that it took as long or longer to unload these older designs as the much larger tricycle landing gear Douglas C-54 Skymaster which was easier to move about in when landed. The C-47s were quickly removed from service, and from then on flat-decks were a requirement of all new cargo designs.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: In the years following the war era a number of new custom-built cargo aircraft were introduced, often including some "experimental" features. For instance, the US's C-82 Packet featured a removable cargo area, while the C-123 Provider introduced the now-common rear fuselage/upswept tail shaping to allow for a much larger rear loading ramp. But it was the introduction of the turboprop that allowed the class to mature, and even one of its earliest examples, the C-130 Hercules, in the 21st century as the Lockheed Martin C-130J, is still the yardstick against which newer military transport aircraft designs are measured. Although larger, smaller and faster designs have been proposed for many years, the C-130 continues to improve at a rate that keeps it in production.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: "Strategic" cargo aircraft became an important class of their own starting with the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy in the 1960s and a number of similar Soviet designs from the 70s and 80s, and culminating in the Antonov An-225, the world's largest aircraft. These designs offer the ability to carry the heaviest loads, even main battle tanks, at global ranges. The Boeing 747 was originally designed to the same specification as the C-5, but later modified as a design that could be offered as either passenger or all-freight versions. The "bump" on the top of the fuselage allows the crew area to be clear of the cargo containers sliding out of the front in the event of an accident.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: When the Airbus A380 was announced, the maker originally accepted orders for the freighter version A380F, offering the second largest payload capacity of any cargo aircraft, exceeded only by the An-225. An aerospace consultant has estimated that the A380F would have 7% better payload and better range than the 747-8F, but also higher trip costs.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Starting May 2020 Portuguese Hi Fly started charting cargo flights with an A380, carrying medical supplies from China to different parts of the world in the response to the Covid-19 outbreak. It allows almost of cargo between the three decks. In November 2020 Emirates started offering an A380 mini-freighter, which allows for 50 tons of cargo in the belly of the plane.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Nearly all commercial cargo aircraft presently in the fleet are derivatives or transformations of passenger aircraft. However, there are three other methods to the development of cargo aircraft.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Many types can be converted from airliner to freighter by installing a main deck cargo door with its control systems; upgrading floor beams for cargo loads and replacing passenger equipment and furnishings with new linings, ceilings, lighting, floors, drains and smoke detectors.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Specialized engineering teams rival Airbus and Boeing, giving the aircraft another 15–20 years of life.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Israel Aerospace Industries’ Bedek Aviation converts the 737-300/400/700/800 in about 90 days, 767-200/300s in about four months and 747-400s in five months, and is looking at the Boeing 777, Airbus A330 and A321. Voyageur Aviation Corp located in North Bay, Ontario converts the DHC-8-100 into the DHC-8-100 Package Freighter Conversion.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: An A300B4-200F conversion cost $5M in 1996, an A300-600F $8M in 2001, an MD-11F $9M in 1994, a B767-300ERF $13M in 2007, a B747-400 PSF $22M in 2006, an A330-300 P2F was estimated at $20M in 2016 and a B777-200ER BCF at $40M in 2017.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: By avoiding the main deck door installation and relying on lighter elevators between decks, LCF Conversions wants to convert A330/A340s or B777s for $6.5M to $7.5M.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: In the mid 2000s, passenger 747-400s cost $30–50 million before a $25 million conversion, a B757 had to cost $15 million before conversion, falling to below $10 million by 2018, and $5 million for a 737 Classic, falling to $2–3 million for a B737-400 by 2018.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Derivative freighters have most of their development costs already amortized, and lead time before production is shorter than all new aircraft. Converted cargo aircraft use older technology; their direct operating costs are higher than what might be achieved with current technology. Since they have not been designed specifically for air cargo, loading and unloading is not optimized; the aircraft may be pressurized more than necessary, and there may be unnecessary apparatus for passenger safety.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: A dedicated commercial air freighter is an airplane which has been designed from the beginning as a freighter, with no restrictions caused by either passenger or military requirements. Over the years, there has been a dispute concerning the cost effectiveness of such an airplane, with some cargo carriers stating that they could consistently earn a profit if they had such an aircraft. To help resolve this disagreement, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) selected two contractors, Douglas Aircraft Co. and Lockheed-Georgia Co., to independently evaluate the possibility of producing such a freighter by 1990. This was done as part of the Cargo/Logistics Airlift Systems Study (CLASS). At comparable payloads, dedicated cargo aircraft was said to provide a 20 percent reduction in trip cost and a 15 percent decrease in aircraft price compared to other cargo aircraft. These findings, however, are extremely sensitive to assumptions about fuel and labor costs and, most particularly, to growth in demand for air cargo services. Further, it ignores the competitive situation brought about by the lower capital costs of future derivative air cargo aircraft.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: The main advantage of the dedicated air freighter is that it can be designed specifically for air freight demand, providing the type of loading and unloading, flooring, fuselage configuration, and pressurization which are optimized for its mission. Moreover, it can make full use of NASA's ACEE results, with the potential of significantly lowering operating costs and fuel usage. Such a high overhead raises the price of the airplane and its direct operating cost (because of depreciation and insurance costs) and increases the financial risks to investors, especially since it would be competing with derivatives which have much smaller development costs per unit and which themselves have incorporated some of the cost-reducing technology.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: One benefit of a combined development is that the development costs would be shared by the civil and military sectors, and the number of airplanes required by the military could be decreased by the number of civil reserve airplanes purchased by air carriers and available to the military in case of emergency.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: There are some possible drawbacks, as the restrictions executed by joint development, the punishments that would be suffered by both civil and military airplanes, and the difficulty in discovering an organizational structure that authorizes their compromise. Some features appropriate to a military aircraft would have to be rejected, because they are not suitable for a civil freighter. Moreover, each airplane would have to carry some weight which it would not carry if it were independently designed. This additional weight lessens the payload and the profitability of the commercial version. This could either be compensated by a transfer payment at acquisition, or an operating penalty compensation payment. Most important, it is not clear that there will be an adequate market for the civil version or that it will be cost competitive with derivatives of passenger aircraft.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Carpinteria, California-startup Dorsal Aircraft wants to make light standard ISO containers part of its unpiloted freighter structure where the wing, engines and tail are attached to a dorsal spine fuselage.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Interconnecting long aluminum containers carry the flight loads, aiming to lower overseas airfreight costs by 60%, and plan to convert C-130H with the help of


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Beijing-based Beihang UAS Technology developed its BKZ-005 high-altitude, long-range UAV for cargo transport, capable of carrying over at .


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Garuda Indonesia will test three of them initially from September 2019, before operations in the fourth quarter.


title: Cargo aircraft

text: Garuda plans up to 100 cargo UAVs to connect remote regions with limited airports in Maluku, Papua, and Sulawesi.


The Russian occupation of Zaporizhzhia Oblast is an ongoing military occupation, which began on 24 February 2022, as Russian forces invaded Ukraine and began capturing the southern portion of Zaporizhzhia Oblast. On 26 February, the city of Berdiansk came under Russian control, followed by the Russian victory at Melitopol on 1 March. Russian forces also laid siege and captured the city of Enerhodar, home to the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, which came under Russian control on 4 March. The capital of Zaporizhzhia Oblast, Zaporizhzhia, has not been taken by the Russian army and remains under Ukrainian control.


title: Russian occupation of Zaporizhzhia Oblast

text: In May, Russia started offering passports in those regions. In July, Russia issued a decree which extends Russian 2022 war censorship laws to Zaporizhzhia Oblast, and included deportation to Russia as punishment. In September, the occupation forces held largely disputed referendums in the occupied areas of Zaporizhzhia Oblast and Kherson Oblast for the oblasts to join the Russian Federation. On 27 September, Russian officials claimed that Zaporizhzhia Oblast's referendum passed, with 93.11% of voters in favour of joining the Russian Federation. Russia signed an accession treaty with the Russian administration of the region on September 30, 2022. Russia annexed Kherson Oblast on 30 September 2022, including parts of the oblast that it did not control at the time. The United Nations General Assembly subsequently passed a resolution calling on countries not to recognise what it described as an "attempted illegal annexation" and demanded that Russia "immediately, completely and unconditionally withdraw".


text: The Russian-installed occupation force was initially called ""Zaporozhye military-civilian administration"". Its name was changed to ""Zaporozhye Oblast"" after the Russian annexation. ""Zaporozhye"" is the Russian equivalent of ""Zaporizhzhia"". Melitopol serves as the "de facto" capital city of the Russian administration due to Russia's lack of control over Zaporizhzhia City, which is the "de jure" capital.


text: On 26 February 2022, Russian troops captured the Port of Berdiansk and the Berdiansk Airport. By the following day, the Russian military had taken full control of the city.


text: Beginning on 14 March, the port was used as a logistics hub by the Russians to support their offensive in southern Ukraine and in particular the siege of Mariupol. On 21 March, Russian media Zvezda reported on the arrival of amphibious transports in Berdiansk. A Russian navy officer described it as "a landmark event that will open logistical possibilities to the Black Sea Navy".


text: On 24 March, Ukrainian forces launched an airstrike against the "Saratov", which was destroyed and sunk, and one of the two s took damage but was able to leave the port. At the time, it was the heaviest naval loss suffered by Russia during the invasion, and one of Ukraine's most significant successes.


text: On 1 March 2022, shortly after the city's capture, citizens of Melitopol held a street protest against the military occupation of the city. The protestors marched and used their bodies to block a convoy of Russian military vehicles.


text: On 10 March, the director of the Melitopol Museum of Local History, Leila Ibragimova, was arrested at her home by Russian forces, and was detained in an unknown location. One day later, Melitopol's mayor, Ivan Fedorov, was abducted by Russian troops for refusing to cooperate with them and continuing to fly a Ukrainian flag in his office. Russian authorities did not comment on Fedorov's disappearance, but the prosecutor's office of the Russian-backed self-proclaimed breakaway state (located within Ukraine) Luhansk People's Republic accused him of "terrorist activities".


text: On 12 March, the Zaporizhzhia Oblast regional administration stated that former councillor and member of Opposition Bloc, Halyna Danylchenko, was appointed as acting mayor. Former People's Deputy of Ukraine Yevhen Balytskyi was alleged to be "de facto" in control of the city's government by the Security Service of Ukraine. Meanwhile, hundreds of people took part in a protest outside Melitopol city hall to demand the release of Fedorov. Olga Gaysumova, head of the non-governmental organization "Conscientious Society of Melitopol" and the organizer of local protests against Russian forces, was arrested. On 13 March, the Melitopol City Council declared that, "The occupying troops of the Russian Federation are trying to illegally create an occupation administration of the city of Melitopol." It appealed to the Prosecutor General of Ukraine, Iryna Venediktova, to launch a pre-trial investigation into Danylchenko and her party Opposition Bloc for treason. "Ukrayinska Pravda" reported that the Russian military had abducted Melitopol's District Council Chairman Serhiy Priyma and had tried to abduct City Council Secretary Roman Romanov. Meanwhile, Russian military vehicles were seen announcing via loudspeakers that rallies and demonstrations had been prohibited and that a curfew was imposed from 6:00 pm to 6:00 am. On 14 March "Ukrayinska Pravda" reported that Russian forces had prevented new protests by blocking of the central square of Melitopol. It also said "Two activists were abducted and taken away in an unknown direction."


text: On 16 March, Fedorov was freed from captivity. Some Ukrainian officials said he was freed in a "special operation". Zelenskyy's press aide Daria Zarivna however later said he was exchanged for nine Russian conscripts captured by Ukrainian forces.


text: On 23 March 2022, Mayor Fedorov reported that the city was experiencing problems with food, medications, and fuel supplies, while the Russian military was seizing businesses, intimidating the local population, and holding several journalists in custody. On 22 April, Fedorov said that over 100 Russian soldiers had been killed by partisans during the occupation of the city.


text: On 4 March, the city of Enerhodar and the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant came under a Russian military occupation.


text: Oleksandr Starukh, the governor of Zaporizhzhia Oblast, stated on 5 March that Russian forces had left the city after looting it and the situation in the city was completely under the control of local authorities. However, Orlov denied the report and stated that Russian forces still occupied the perimeter of the city and the power plant, with local authorities still managing the city. The Ukrainian military administration for the southeast confirmed on 7 March that Enerhodar was under control of Russian forces.


text: On 6 March, the IAEA released a statement saying that Russian forces were interfering in the operations of the power plant, stating that "any action of plant management—including measures related to the technical operation of the six reactor units—requires prior approval by the Russian commander," and further stating that "Russian forces at the site have switched off some mobile networks and the internet so that reliable information from the site cannot be obtained through the normal channels of communication". On 9 March, Herman Galushchenko, Energy Minister of Ukraine, claimed that Russian forces were holding the workers at the power plant hostage and had forced several to make propaganda videos.


text: On August 24, 2022, the Russian-appointed head of Mykhailivka in Zaporizhzhia Oblast, Ivan Sushko, was assassinated in a car bombing.


text: According to the occupation administration, the Zaporizhzhia Military-Civilian Administration is divided into 5 districts including Berdiansk Raion, Melitopol Raion, Polohy Raion, Vasylivka Raion and Zaporizhzhia Raion.


text: On 4 March 2022, the former leader of the Anti-Maidan of Zaporizhzhia, Volodymyr Rogov, who calls himself “a member of the Main Council of the Zaporizhzhia Oblast Military-Civilian administration of the Zaporozhye”, published in his telegram channel part of the provisions of the program of “comprehensive financial and economic measures for the economic development of the regions of Ukraine controlled by the Russian Federation”. This program was written in its entirety in the newspapers published by the occupying authorities, as well as on March 9 in the public “Military-Civilian Administration of Melitopol”. According to the BBC, the program was written in a complex bureaucratic style and was similar to other similar documents of the Russian authorities.


text: On 12 March, Halyna Danylchenko was proclaimed by the Russians as the acting mayor of the city of Melitopol, but Ukrainian sources stated that Yevhen Balytskyi became the unofficial head of the city.


text: On 18 May 2022, Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation Marat Khusnullin, during a visit to the region, stated that “the region's prospect is to work in our friendly Russian family,” and announced the imminent implementation of plans to launch the maximum turnover of the ruble. According to him, pensions and salaries will be paid to residents of the Zaporizhzhia Oblast in Russian currency already within a calendar month.


text: On 25 May, Vladimir Rogov announced that after the complete capture of the region, it would be annexed by Russia. He also said that a dual-currency zone was introduced in the occupied territory and the coat of arms of Aleksandrovsk from the times of the Russian Empire was installed, with which they began to issue new license plates with the signature “TVR” (a reference to the Taurida Governorate; old numbers are used, but with a “TVR” sticker over the Ukrainian flag). Later a report revealed that Balitsky still used Ukrainian coat of arms of Zaporizhzhia Oblast sometimes on documentations. On the same day, Russian President Vladimir Putin issued a decree on the simplified provision of Russian passports to residents of the Zaporizhzhia Oblast. They will be able to obtain Russian passports under the same procedure as the population of Donetsk and Luhansk Oblasts.


text: On 28 July, Meduza reported that temporary departments of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation had been set up in the Kherson and Zaporizhzhia Oblastss of Ukraine.


text: On 8 August, Balitsky announced at the forum that a referendum on “reunification” with Russia would be held in the region, and signed the corresponding order of the CEC. The election commission, according to the statement, began to form as early as July 23. The referendum is expected to be held in September.


text: On 8 September, it was announced that referendums would be held in all the occupied territories of Ukraine from 23 to 27 September, the purpose of which is the annexation of these territories.


text: According to the results of the referendum, according to the MCA, 93.11% of voters voted for the region to become part of Russia. After the announcement of the results of the referendum, Balitsky said that "Zaporizhzhia Oblast de facto separated from Ukraine".


text: The composition of the administration is published on its website, however, not all members of the administration are listed there, but only the Head, the commandant of Berdiansk, and the deputy for housing and communal services.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Stripped is the fourth studio album by American singer Christina Aguilera. It was released on October 22, 2002, by RCA Records. Looking to transition from the teen pop styles of her self-titled debut album (1999), Aguilera took creative control over her next album project, both musically and lyrically. She also changed her public image and established her alter ego Xtina. Musically, it incorporates pop and R&B with influences from many different genres, including soul, rock, hip hop, and Latin music. Lyrically, most of the songs from the album discuss the theme of self-respect, while a few other songs talk about sex and feminism. As an executive producer, Aguilera enlisted numerous new collaborators for the album.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Upon its release, "Stripped" received generally mixed reviews from music critics; many criticized its lack of musical focus, while some of them called it "almost" an album for grown-ups, with comparisons made to Mariah Carey and Janet Jackson. Commercially, "Stripped" debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200, with first-week sales of 330,000 copies. It was certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping over five million copies in the United States. The album also charted within the top five of charts in Canada, the Netherlands, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. It was Aguilera's best-performing album in the United Kingdom, becoming the 29th and 40th bestselling album of the decade and millennium there, respectively, with two million copies sold. Despite its initial critical reception, "Stripped" received multiple Grammy Award nominations, including one win, and has since gone on to be called one of the most influential albums of all time, inspiring a generation of artists. The album has sold over 12 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling albums of the 21st century.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Five singles were released from the album. The lead single "Dirrty" was met with criticism and controversy due to its sexual music video but was an international hit on the charts. The follow-up "Beautiful" was praised by critics and garnered chart success worldwide. The last three singles,"Fighter", "Can't Hold Us Down" and "The Voice Within", became top-ten hits in various countries. Aguilera performed several songs from "Stripped" live during a number of shows, notably during the 2002 MTV Europe Music Awards, the American Music Awards of 2003 (January), and the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards. Two concert tours were held in 2003 to promote the album, The Justified & Stripped Tour (co-headlined with Justin Timberlake) and The Stripped Tour.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Following the release of her self-titled debut album in 1999, Aguilera had achieved major success with four worldwide hits, including "Genie in a Bottle" and "What a Girl Wants". Following that, she continued to garner major success with "Lady Marmalade" (2001) – a cover of Labelle's song of the same title – which features Lil' Kim, Pink and Mýa. Despite the international success, Aguilera was unsatisfied with the music and image that her former manager Steve Kurtz, had created for her, having been marketed as a bubblegum pop singer because of the genre's financial lure. She mentioned plans for her next album to have more musical and lyrical depth.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: By late 2000, Aguilera decided not to continue the contact with Kurtz. After terminating Kurtz's services, Irving Azoff was hired as her new manager. Following the managerial shakeup, Aguilera decided to create her new style of music on the following album. She also used her new alter ego Xtina. She also changed her public appearance and persona, with her hair dyed black and nude photographs on magazine covers. Aguilera further commented about the event with "USA Today": "When you're part of a pop phenomenon, you have so many opinions shoved down your throat. People try to tell you what you should do, how you should act, what you should wear, who you should be with. At the time things started happening for me, it was popular to be the squeaky-clean, cookie-cutter pop singer. But that role didn't speak to me, because it's so boring and superficial".


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: In late 2001, Aguilera started recording material for her fourth studio album. The recording sessions took place in studios around California and New York City, including Electric Lady Studios and The Hit Factory in New York City, The Enterprise Studios in Burbank, and Conway Recording Studios, Record Plant and NRG Recording Studios in Los Angeles. According to Aguilera, the recording sessions were much longer than she thought they would be. She further explained that many issues arose during that time, including her first breakup with her first boyfriend Jorge Santos. Aguilera also believed that the lyrics of "Stripped" were so personal, and her vocals "represent a rawer, more bare-bones approach as well, with less of the ostentatious riffing that has miffed critics in the past". She stated, "I did the vocal gymnastics thing because it was fun. That's why I like blues, too, because you can experiment more with that side of your voice. But I thought the lyrics on this record are so personal, deep and good that I wanted to make them stand out more than what I could do with my voice technically".


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: On "Stripped", Aguilera enlisted a wide range of songwriters and producers, including Alicia Keys, Scott Storch, and Linda Perry. Perry was one of the biggest influences to Aguilera during the making of the album. The singer stated, "She taught me that imperfections are good and should be kept because it comes from the heart. It makes things more believable and it's brave to share them with the world." Keys was featured on the track "Impossible", which was recorded at Electric Lady Studios in New York City. Another notable producer is Storch; he wrote and produced a total of seven songs from "Stripped", including two singles. He stated that during the making of "Stripped", Aguilera was one of his friends that he cared most. However, Storch did not produce her fifth studio album "Back to Basics" (2006), which started a feud between the two artists, which was stated by Aguilera in one of the track from "Back to Basics", "F.U.S.S. (Interlude)".


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Musically, "Stripped" is a pop and R&B record which incorporates elements of many different genres, including soul, hip hop, heavy metal, rock, rock and roll, gospel, and Latin. The album broke her teen pop root from her self-titled debut studio album (1999). According to Aguilera, she wanted to be "real" in her next records because she was "overworked" at the time she was "a part of the big craze pop phenomenon". Multiple critics criticized its musical style, calling it a lack of musical concentration. On "Stripped", Aguilera became the writer of most of the songs. She also revealed that Perry's songwriting on Pink's second studio album "Missundaztood" (2001) inspired Aguilera a lot. She further commented: "I wasn't a big fan of the Dallas Austin songs, but I really, really loved the Linda Perry song".


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: The album's opening track "Stripped Intro" describes her musical changes as she sings: "Sorry that I speak my mind / Sorry don't do what I'm told". The follow-up "Can't Hold Us Down" featuring Lil' Kim is an R&B and hip hop song which incorporates elements from dancehall toward its end. Lyrically, it talks about the theme of feminism, and was suggested that it is toward rapper Eminem and Fred Durst. The third track "Walk Away" is a piano ballad where she uses a "clever" metaphor to talk about an abusive relationship. It is followed by the fourth track and third single from "Stripped", "Fighter", which incorporates strong elements from heavy metal and arena rock. It talks about a woman wants to thank a man who has done something wrong to her, and was inspired by Aguilera's unhappy childhood. It is followed-up by the interlude "Primer Amor Interlude", the Latin pop and flamenco track "Infatuation", and the interlude "Loves Embrace Interlude", respectively.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: "Loving Me 4 Me" is a "sultry" classic R&B and neo soul ballad. The follow-ups "Impossible" and "Underappreciated" explore jazz and funk. The first of these, featuring Keys, incorporates a piano theme, while the second talks about the pain of a breakup. The piano ballad "Beautiful", which talks about the theme of self-respect, was deemed as the album's highlight by many critics, who praised its overall production. The next track "Make Over" is a salsa and dance-rock song that features a garage-rock beat. It was sued in the United Kingdom for illegally sampling the Sugababes' song "Overload" (2000), "The Guardian" also noted similarities between the two songs. Later, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) added the songwriting credits of Sugababes to the song. "Cruz" is a rock ballad that is musically similar to works of Michael Bolton. "Soar" is one of two tracks written for "Stripped" by Rob Hoffman and Heather Holley centered around themes of self-empowerment. The second track "I Will Be" is the B-side to "Dirrty" in the UK. The two next tracks, "Get Mine, Get Yours", a pop song with rock and soul influences, and "Dirrty", a dance-pop/urban anthem that talks about the theme of sexual intercourse, and have been described as "majestically filthy". The latter is the remake of Redman's "Let's Get Dirty (I Can't Get in da Club)" (2001), and also features the rapper. The follow-up is the interlude "Stripped Pt. 2". The empowering ballad "The Voice Within" talks about trusting oneself. "I'm OK" is a ballad which incorporates strings and discusses Aguilera's abusive childhood with her father, and the final song from the album "Keep on Singin' My Song" incorporates elements from drum and bass with a gospel choir.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: "Stripped" was first released internationally on October 22, 2002 and in the United States a week later by RCA Records. Promotion for "Stripped" started on October 28, when Aguilera appeared at a Chicago radio station B96's Halloween Bash and performed four songs from the album–"Dirrty", "Get Mine, Get Yours", "Beautiful" and "Impossible". The same day, Aguilera performed "Beautiful" on the "Late Show with David Letterman", wearing a black gown, a black fedora, and black heels. She also performed "Dirrty" and "Beautiful" on "Top of the Pops"; the show aired in October. On November 1, Aguilera appeared on "Today" and performed "Beautiful" and "Impossible". On November 4, Aguilera was invited as a guest on "The Daily Show" to promote "Stripped". At the 2002 MTV Europe Music Awards on November 14, Aguilera performed "Dirrty" with rapper Redman, recreating the stage as a boxing ring while entering the stage riding a motorcycle and wearing chaps during the performance, as seen in the music video for the song. On December 15, she performed "Dirrty" at the 2002 VH1 Awards. On January 13, 2003, Aguilera performed "Beautiful" and "Impossible" at the American Music Awards of 2003 (January). Aguilera gave a performance of "Beautiful" on "Saturday Night Live" on March 15, where she also sang "Fighter". At the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards on August 23, Aguilera performed with Madonna, Britney Spears and Missy Elliott a medley of Madonna's songs "Like a Virgin" and "Hollywood", and Elliott's "Work It". Towards the end of "Hollywood", Madonna kissed both Aguilera and Spears during the performance, making huge tabloid stories and fuss from the public, and marking it as one of the most iconic performances from the MTV Video Music Awards history. Later that night, she also performed "Dirrty" and "Fighter" with Redman and guitarist Dave Navarro. On January 16, 2004, she performed "Walk Away" on the "Late Show with David Letterman". On February 8, Aguilera performed "Beautiful" at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards, where she also won a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the song.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Aguilera also supported "Stripped" by embarking on two separate tours. In summer 2003, Justin Timberlake and Aguilera embarked on The Justified & Stripped Tour, which took place in North America. Talking about the tour, Timberlake said "[Aguilera]'s got one of the most amazing voices I've ever heard. That homegirl can sing ... this is why I am standing here". Several tour dates were canceled and rescheduled due to the collapse of lighting systems. An extended play entitled "Justin & Christina" was released exclusively at Target in July 2003 to promote the tour. The EP contains four remixes of Aguilera and Timberlake's songs from their respective albums, and two new tracks. In late 2003, Aguilera embarked on The Stripped Tour, the former's extension without Timberlake's acts. The tour took place in Europe, Japan and Australia. The former grossed a total of US$30,261,670, becoming the 16th highest-grossing tour of 2003. In May 2004, Aguilera was expected to return to North America during the second leg of The Stripped Tour. However, the 29 tour dates were canceled last-minute due to the singer's vocal strain. On January 13, an accompanying live video album of the tour, titled "Stripped Live in the UK", was released worldwide. On December 8, a compilation album including both "Stripped" and "Stripped Live in the UK" was released in the United Kingdom.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: On October 21, 2022, for the album's twentieth anniversary, Aguilera released a deluxe edition of the album with two new tracks: "I Will Be" (the b-side to "Dirrty") and the Benny Benassi remix of "Beautiful". This was announced alongside new vinyl releases, HD remasters for music videos and a new music video for "Beautiful" which premiered on October 19, 2022.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: "Dirrty" was serviced as the lead single from the album on September 3, 2002. Perry and Aguilera's management wanted to release "Beautiful" as the lead single. However, Aguilera wanted to release a seriously "down and dirty" song to announce her comeback, so RCA Records decided to release it as the first single. Upon its release, the song received mixed to negative reviews from critics; some of whom criticized its sound and negatively compared it to Britney Spears' song "I'm a Slave 4 U" (2001), while the others chose it as a standout track from "Stripped". Its accompanying music video, directed by David LaChapelle, was criticized due to its sexual content, and sparked protests in Thailand. However, it was an international hit, achieving certifications in Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: The album's second single "Beautiful" was written solely by Perry. Rush-released following the commercial underperformance and controversy surrounding previous single "Dirrty", "Beautiful" received universal acclaim from music critics. Commercially, the single gained impact on charts worldwide, peaking within the top five in many countries, as well as achieving certifications in the United States, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Its music video, directed by Jonas Åkerlund, garnered critical acclaim from media outlets by touching on anorexia nervosa, homosexuality, bullying, self-esteem, and transgender issues. The video was honored at the 14th GLAAD Media Awards (2003) due to its positive portrayal of the LGBT community. "Beautiful" was listed as one of the greatest songs throughout the 2000s decade by "Rolling Stone" and VH1.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: "Fighter" was released as the third single from "Stripped" on March 10, 2003. The single was well received by most critics, as well as achieving chart success in several countries and certifications in the United States, United Kingdom and Australia. Its accompanying music video, directed by Floria Sigismondi, was inspired by the director's dark theatrics and moths.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: The album's fourth single "Can't Hold Us Down", featuring Lil' Kim, was released on July 8, 2003. It garnered mixed reviews from music critics, and gained moderate success commercially, receiving a gold certification in Australia. Its accompanying music video was directed by LaChapelle.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: "The Voice Within" was released on October 27, 2003 as the fifth and final single. Critics complimented the simple piano ballad, which talks about the theme of self-respect. Its accompanying music video was directed by LaChapelle.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: "Infatuation" was released as a promotional single in Spain on September 22, 2003. "Walk Away" peaked at number 35 in Denmark on March 14, 2008, despite never being released as a single.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: "Stripped" received generally mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 55, based on 14 reviews. "Billboard" was positive toward the album, writing that the album is "a must-heard recording rich with pleasantly surprising depth". In a mixed review, E! Online wrote, "If she had just shown up and sang her ass off, Stripped would've been a better show". Josh Kun from "Spin" commented, "As an artistic statement, "Stripped" is all over the place;it's a move toward hip-hop, it's a move toward rock, it's ghetto, it's Disney". Jancee Dunn of "Rolling Stone" provided a three-out-of-five-stars rating for the album, calling it "almost" an album for grown-ups, yet criticized its lack of musical concentration. "Blender" wrote a mixed review, yet commenting that it is better than Britney Spears' works. Writing for BBC Music, Jacqueline Hodges said that the album "is as full-on bold and over the top as most of Christina's outfits ... much of this seems to be an exercise in stretching the vocal chords ["sic"] to weak backing tracks". Jim Wirth for "NME" commented that "Stripped" is a "Mariah Carey album" comparing it to Carey's 1999 "Rainbow". Sal Cinquemani from "Slant Magazine" commented that the album is "so overproduced and overwrought that it could easily pass for a Janet album".


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: In a negative review, "The Village Voice" criticized the album as a "nü-Mariah on mood stabilizers, extended with pseudo-pastiches of semi-popular songs". Todd Burns for "Stylus Magazine" was also negative toward the album, giving it an "F" score and wrote: "in between ten to twelve mediocre/good songs, we have eight to ten songs that would be better served as B-sides". "Q" provided a two-out-of-five-stars rating and commented that "Sadly, bra-burning rhetoric and gospel warbling make poor substitutes for addictive songs". AllMusic's editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine also wrote a negative review, commenting that the album is "the sound of an artist who was given too much freedom too early and has no idea what to do with it". Writing for "The New York Times", Jon Pareles also provided a negative review, commenting that "Stripped" "is a blast of excess that risks alienating Ms. Aguilera's old fans without luring new ones, and it's bursting with misguided energy".


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: "Stripped" debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200 with first-week sales of 330,000 copies, only behind Eminem's "", which debuted at number one with first-week sales of 702,000 copies. The album stayed on the chart until 2004, and was certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). By December 2009, Nielsen SoundScan reported that "Stripped" had sold 4,234,000 copies in the country, becoming her second highest-selling album in the United States, only behind her self-titled debut studio album (1999), which had sold 8,207,000 copies. As of 2018, the album has sold over 4,423,000 copies in the country alone. In Canada, "Stripped" debuted at number three on the Canadian Albums Chart with first-week sales of 14,000 copies, and was eventually certified triple platinum by Music Canada.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Elsewhere, "Stripped" was a sleeper hit, debuting low in many countries and eventually turning into a commercial success. In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at number 19 on the UK Albums Chart, peaking at number two. It became Aguilera's best-performing album in the country, spending 102 weeks within the top 100 of the chart, and was certified sextuple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). The album became the 29th bestselling album there throughout the 2000s decade in the United Kingdom, also becoming the second highest-selling album by an American female artist in the country during the decade, only behind Norah Jones' "Come Away with Me" (2002). As of 2006, the album had sold 1,850,852 copies in the United Kingdom, and was ranked at number 73 on the list of 100 bestselling albums in the United Kingdom during the same time. As of April 2021, "Stripped" has sold a total of 2,050,000 copies in the United Kingdom. In March 2015, the Official Charts Company (OCC) revealed that "Stripped" had become the 40th bestselling album of the millennium in the country.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Throughout Europe, "Stripped" also peaked within the top ten in several countries, including Denmark, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Scotland, and Switzerland. It was one of the bestselling albums in Poland in the first half of 2003. "Stripped" was certified triple platinum in Europe by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) for shipping over three millions copies in the continent and was the bestselling pop album by a female artist of 2003. In Oceania, "Stripped" debuted at number thirty-three on the Australian ARIA Albums chart on November 10, 2002 before falling off the chart the following week. It re-entered on January 19, 2003 at number 41 due to the promotion and success of the album's second single "Beautiful", and reached the top ten on the chart eight week later, it peaked at number seven in October 2003 and spent a total of 67 weeks on the chart. The success of the album was aimed by its five singles that reached the Australian ARIA Singles chart's top ten, as "Beautiful" reached number-one, and became her second number-one single there, "Dirrty" peaked at number four, while "Fighter" and "Can't Hold Us Down" both reached number 5, and "The Voice Within" reached number eight. In New Zealand, "Stripped" entered the albums chart at number 48 on February 23, 2003 but exited the chart the following week before its re-entry at number 26 on March 16, 2003 due the success of "Beautiful", and reached number five which became its peak position four week later. It spent 46 weeks on the chart and became Aguilera's longest-charting album there. It was certified quadruple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 280,000 copies in the country, and was certified double platinum by the Recorded Music NZ (RMNZ), shipping over 30,000 copies in the country. According to the RIAA, "Stripped" sold over 12 million copies worldwide.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Following its release and five successful singles, "Stripped" became one of Aguilera's strongest charting albums. In the United States, the album became the tenth bestselling album of 2003, and Aguilera was ranked as the most successful female pop artist of the year with six chart entries. Likewise, Aguilera was the fourth most successful female musical act on the US "Billboard" 200, and the thirteenth overall. Due to the successful single releases, the magazine ranked Aguilera as the second bestselling female singles artist on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, only behind Beyoncé, and the top female Mainstream Top 40 artist. In 2017, "Billboard" named "Stripped" as one of the most important albums of the 2000s, noting the cultural and sonic influence the album had on an array of artists including Rihanna, Demi Lovato, Miley Cyrus and Ariana Grande. They added that,Ultimately, Christina defining herself as "Stripped" was not an ode to her sexually empowered image, but representative of her peeling back layers and getting to the music and emotions that make up the vocal powerhouse as a human, including all her darkness, fears and insecurities.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Selena Gomez cited "Stripped" as an inspiration for her second studio album "Revival" (2015), saying: "That's one of my favorite albums and that was kind of what I started off "Revival" as, some sort of story. I mean, that album for her was incredible — 'Beautiful', 'Can't Hold Us Down', all of that — that's the stuff that I love". She added: "That was an album, that was complete on my record. I have 'Rise', 'Survivors', 'Revival', 'Kill Em with Kindness'. My stuff is full on, it's an album, it's a piece, it's something that I'm proud of." In an interview with "People", Demi Lovato said that their album "Tell Me You Love Me" (2017) was inspired by "Stripped". They stated that they "grew up listening to Christina Aguilera" and explained that they were "inspired by the black and white artwork". Sabrina Carpenter has also stated that after she heard the album, she "knew that [she] wanted to sing" and she began to see "songs as a part of what [she] could do to showcase and develop [her] own voice". The album was included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". Justin Myers of the Official Charts Company called the album "a phenomenon".


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Despite the heavy criticism received upon release, "Stripped" has gone on to earn widespread acclaim, years after its release. The album's fifteenth anniversary in 2017 saw many critics reevaluate the album in their articles, praising the album's longevity, musicality, cohesion, and its lasting impact and influence in contemporary music. "Vice" writer Sophie Wilkinson stated in a retrospective review, "Say what you like about the flailing 'Dirrty' dance routines it spawned, but Christina Aguilera's sophomore album "Stripped" still has merits beyond the cliché of a former teen star removing her saccharine casing to reveal her womanhood". She added that the album relayed feministic messages and that "15 years on, the album still gives any woman the confidence to speak up and be heard, to take charge of her sexuality and ownership of her body, or even just sing along loud enough to amplify its messages".


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: In a "Billboard" article, Jeff Benjamin praised the album's ability to shift between genres and the personal content featured. He went on to say that Aguilera was continuing the legacy that "Aguilera helped build after the likes of Donna Summer, Madonna and Cher". Benjamin also praised Aguilera for her feminist sentiment on the album's second track and fourth single "Can't Hold Us Down", while maintaining an openly sexual image, noting that it was not expected of feminists to be sexual at the time of the album's release."" "Idolator" praised "Stripped" for remaining a "cohesive and forward-thinking collection of songs" 15 years after its release and noted its impact in contemporary music, while also stating that "Stripped" became "the blueprint for divas making the transition from teen idol to adult pop star". That same year, "The Fader" named it one of the greatest, most "crucial" albums recorded by women.


title: Stripped (Christina Aguilera album)

text: Later that year, "HuffPost" noted that with "Stripped", Aguilera led the charge at the beginning of the 21st century in influencing and introducing the next generation feminist rhetoric into pop culture. In 2018, the enduring impact of "Stripped" was noted by the "Los Angeles Times" and several other pop media outlets including Fuse, Genius and Vinyl with consensus; ""Stripped" proves as the blueprint for honest and raw female pop". "Crack" writer Emma Garland called the album a "re-introduction to Christina Aguilera on her own terms". She added that the album "is best measured by its cultural impact on those it was always intended for – a mass audience of young people who [...] had spent much of the late 90's and early 00's being patronised by an industry that served them dynamic but spiritually void bubblegum pop washed down with empowerment slogans from the Spice Girls".


title: Claire Coffee

text: Claire Elizabeth Coffee (born April 14, 1980) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Adalind Schade in the NBC fantasy drama "Grimm".


title: Claire Coffee

text: Coffee grew up in Monterey, California. She attended the Santa Catalina School for girls and has a degree in Theatre from Northwestern University.


title: Claire Coffee

text: She had a recurring role on "The West Wing" as Cassie Tatum in 2003. Between 2007 and 2009, Coffee played nurse Nadine Crowell on "General Hospital". Most recently, she played attorney Janie Ross on the TNT series "Franklin & Bash" and appeared for six seasons on the NBC series "Grimm" as the Hexenbiest Adalind Schade.


title: Claire Coffee

text: Coffee married musician Chris Thile on December 23, 2013, at Blackberry Farm, Walland, Tennessee. On May 19, 2015, Coffee announced the birth of their son, Calvin Eugene Thile. Coffee resided with her son and husband in Portland, Oregon, where the show "Grimm" was filmed, until 2016. The family now resides in Brooklyn, New York.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: The Million Dollar Homepage is a website conceived in 2005 by Alex Tew, a student from Wiltshire, England, to raise money for his university education. The home page consists of a million pixels arranged in a pixel grid; the image-based links on it were sold for $1 per pixel in blocks. The purchasers of these pixel blocks provided tiny images to be displayed on them, a URL to which the images were linked, and a slogan to be displayed when hovering a cursor over the link. The aim of the website was to sell all of the pixels in the image, thus generating a million dollars of income for the creator. "The Wall Street Journal" has commented that the site inspired other websites that sell pixels.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: Launched on 26 August 2005, the website became an Internet phenomenon, with copycat websites emerging in response. The Alexa ranking of web traffic peaked at around 127; , it was 40,044. On 1 January 2006, the final 1,000 pixels were put up for auction on eBay. The auction closed on 11 January with a winning bid of $38,100 that brought the final tally to $1,037,100 in gross.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: During the January 2006 auction, the website was subject to a distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS) and ransom demand, which left it inaccessible to visitors for a week while its security system was upgraded. The Federal Bureau of Investigation and Wiltshire Constabulary investigated the attack and extortion attempt.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: Tew dropped out of the business degree the site was set up to fund after one term. The Million Dollar Homepage was still receiving thousands of daily viewers in 2019, although by 2017, many of the website's links suffered from link rot, which has caused the URLs to no longer function as originally intended.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: Alex Tew, a student from Cricklade in Wiltshire, England, conceived The Million Dollar Homepage in August 2005 when he was 21 years old. He was about to begin a three-year Business Management course at the University of Nottingham, and was concerned that he would be left with a student loan that could take years to repay. As a money-raising idea, Tew decided to sell a million pixels on a website for $1 each; purchasers would add their own image, logo or advertisement, and have the option of including a hyperlink to their website. Pixels were sold for US dollars rather than UK pounds; the US has a larger online population than the UK, and Tew believed more people would relate to the concept if the pixels were sold in US currency. In 2005, the pound was strong against the dollar: £1 was worth approximately $1.80, and that cost per pixel may have been too expensive for many potential buyers. Tew's setup costs were €50, which paid for the registration of the domain name and a basic web-hosting package. The website went live on 26 August 2005.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: The homepage featured a Web banner with the site's name and a pixel counter displaying the number of pixels sold, a navigation bar containing nine small links to the site's internal web pages, and an empty square grid of 1,000,000 pixels divided into 10,000 100-pixel blocks. Tew promised customers that the site would remain online for at least five years – that is, until at least 26 August 2010.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: Because individual pixels are too small to be seen easily, pixels were sold in 100-pixel "blocks" measuring pixels; the minimum price was thus $100. The first sale, three days after the site began operating, was to an online music website operated by a friend of Tew's. He bought 400 pixels in a block. After two weeks, Tew's friends and family members had purchased a total of 4,700 pixels. The site was initially marketed only through word of mouth; however, after the site had made $1,000, a press release was sent out that was picked up by the BBC. The technology news website The Register featured two articles on The Million Dollar Homepage in September. By the end of the month, The Million Dollar Homepage had received $250,000 and was ranked Number 3 on Alexa Internet's list of "Movers and Shakers" behind the websites for Britney Spears and "Photo District News". On 6 October, Tew reported the site received 65,000 unique visitors; it received 1465 Diggs, becoming one of the most Dugg links that week. Eleven days later, the number had increased to 100,000 unique visitors. On 26 October, two months after The Million Dollar Homepage was launched, more than 500,900 pixels had been sold to 1,400 customers. By New Year's Eve, Tew reported that the site was receiving hits from 25,000 unique visitors every hour and had an Alexa Rank of 127, and that 999,000 of the 1,000,000 pixels had been sold.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: On 1 January 2006, Tew announced that because the demand was so great for the last 1,000 pixels, "the most fair and logical thing" to do was auction them on eBay rather than lose "the integrity and degree of exclusivity intrinsic to the million-pixel concept" by launching a second Million Dollar Homepage. The auction lasted ten days and received 99 legitimate bids. Although bids were received for amounts as high as $160,109.99, many were either retracted by the bidders or cancelled as hoaxes. "I actually contacted the people by phone and turns out they weren't serious, which is fairly frustrating, so I removed those bidders at the last minute", said Tew. The winning bid was $38,100, placed by MillionDollarWeightLoss.com, an online store selling diet-related products. Tew remarked that he had expected the final bid amount to be higher due to the media attention. The Million Dollar Homepage made a gross total of $1,037,100 in five months. After costs, taxes and a donation to The Prince's Trust, a charity for young people, Tew expected his net income to be $650,000–$700,000.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: Pixel purchasers included Bonanza Gift Shop, Panda Software, the producers of "", British Schools Karting Championship, Book of Cool, Orange, "The Times", Cheapflights.com, Schiffer Publishing, Rhapsody, Tenacious D, GoldenPalace.com, 888.com and other online casinos, Independiente Records, Yahoo!, small privately owned businesses, and companies offering get-rich-quick schemes, online dating services, personal loans, free samples, website designs and holidays.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: On 7 January 2006, three days before the auction of the final 1,000 pixels was due to end, Tew received an e-mail from an organisation called "The Dark Group", and was told The Million Dollar Homepage would become the victim of a distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS) if a ransom of $5,000 was not paid by 10 January. Believing the threat to be a hoax, he ignored it, but a week later received a second e-mail threat: "Hello u website is under us to stop the DDoS send us 50000$." Again, he ignored the threat, and the website was flooded with extra traffic and e-mails, causing it to crash. "I haven't replied to any of them as I don't want to give them the satisfaction and I certainly don't intend to pay them any money. What is happening to my website is like terrorism. If you pay them, new attacks will start," Tew said.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: The website was inaccessible to visitors for a week until the host server upgraded the security system, and filtered traffic through anti-DDoS software. Wiltshire Constabulary's Hi-Tech Crime Unit and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) were called to investigate the extortion and attack; they believed it originated in Russia.


title: The Million Dollar Homepage

text: Following the September press release that first brought attention to the site, The Million Dollar Homepage was featured in numerous British media articles and programmes. By November 2005, the website had received attention from "The Wall Street Journal" and media around the world. During a week-long trip to the US, Tew gave several media interviews.