title: Temple (anatomy)

text: The word "templar" as used in anatomy has a separate etymology from the other meaning of word "temple", meaning "place of worship". Both come from Latin, but the word for the place of worship comes from ', whereas the word for the part of the head comes from Vulgar Latin *', modified from ', plural form ("both temples") of ', a word that meant both "time" and the part of the head. Due to the common source with the word for time, the adjective for both is "temporal" (both "pertaining to time" and "pertaining to the anatomical temple").


title: Temple (anatomy)

text: Regarding the temporalis muscle: in English, this muscle’s name is the time muscle. As above, the word "temporalis" comes from the Latin word "" meaning "time". The muscle covers the temporal bone, or time bone, which received its name because the hair of the head covering this bone is often the first hair to turn gray during the aging process. Therefore, this region is the first to show the effects of aging.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is an independent U.S. government investigative agency responsible for civil transportation accident investigation. In this role, the NTSB investigates and reports on aviation accidents and incidents, certain types of highway crashes, ship and marine accidents, pipeline incidents, bridge failures, and railroad accidents. The NTSB is also in charge of investigating cases of hazardous materials releases that occur during transportation. The agency is based in Washington, D.C. It has four regional offices, located in Anchorage, Alaska; Denver, Colorado; Ashburn, Virginia; and Seattle, Washington. The agency also operates a national training center at its Ashburn facility.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: The origin of the NTSB was in the Air Commerce Act of 1926, which assigned the United States Department of Commerce responsibility for investigating domestic aviation accidents. Before the NTSB, the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA; at the time the CAA) independence was questioned as it was investigating itself and would be biased to find external faults, coalescing with the 1931 crash killing Notre Dame coach Knute Rockne. The USA's first "independent" "Air Safety Board" was established in 1938: it lasted only fourteen months. In 1940, this authority was transferred to the Civil Aeronautics Board's newly formed Bureau of Aviation Safety.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: In 1967, Congress created a separate cabinet-level Department of Transportation, which among other things established the Federal Aviation Administration as an agency under the DOT. At the same time, the NTSB was established as an independent agency which absorbed the Bureau of Aviation Safety's responsibilities. However, from 1967 to 1975, the NTSB reported to the DOT for administrative purposes, while conducting investigations into the Federal Aviation Administration, also a DOT agency.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: To avoid any conflict, Congress passed the Independent Safety Board Act, and on April 1, 1975, the NTSB became a fully independent agency. , the NTSB has investigated over 140,000 aviation incidents and several thousand surface transportation incidents.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: Formally, the "National Transportation Safety Board" refers to a five-manager investigative board whose five members are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate for five-year terms. No more than three of the five members may be from the same political party. One of the five board members is nominated as the Chairman by the President and then approved by the Senate for a fixed 2-year term; another is designated as vice-chairman and becomes acting chairman when there is no formal chairman. This board is authorized by Congress under Chapter 11, Title 49 of the United States Code to investigate civil aviation, highway, marine, pipeline, and railroad accidents and incidents. This five-member board is authorized to establish and manage separate sub-offices for highway, marine, aviation, railroad, pipeline, and hazardous materials investigations.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: Since its creation, the NTSB's primary mission has been "to determine the probable cause of transportation accidents and incidents and to formulate safety recommendations to improve transportation safety (in the USA)". Based on the results of investigations within its jurisdiction, the NTSB issues formal safety recommendations to agencies and institutions with the power to implement those recommendations. The NTSB considers safety recommendations to be its primary tool for preventing future civil transportation accidents. However, the NTSB does not have the authority to enforce its safety recommendations.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: President Joe Biden nominated board member Jennifer Homendy to serve as the next Senate-confirmed chair on the retirement of Robert Sumwalt in 2021. She was sworn in as Chairwoman on August 13, 2021. On August 3, 2022, President Joe Biden nominated former Jacksonville Mayor Alvin Brown to the board for a term expiring December 31, 2026.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: The NTSB is the lead agency in the investigation of a civil transportation accident or incident within its sphere. An investigation of a major accident within the United States typically starts with the creation of a "go team," composed of specialists in fields relating to the incident who are rapidly deployed to the incident location. The "go team" can have as few as three people or as many as a dozen, depending on the nature of the incident. Following the investigation, the agency may then choose to hold public hearings on the issue. Ultimately, it will publish a final report which may include safety recommendations based on its findings. The NTSB has no legal authority to implement or impose its recommendations. Its recommendations are often implemented by regulators at the federal or state level, or individual transportation companies.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: In order to conduct its investigations, the NTSB operates under the "party system", which utilizes the support and participation of industry and labor representatives with expertise or technical knowledge specifically useful to its investigation. These individuals or organizations may be invited by the NTSB to become parties to the investigation, and participate under the supervision of the NTSB. The NTSB has discretion over which organizations it allows to participate. Only individuals with relevant technical expertise are allowed to represent an organization in an investigation, and attorneys and insurance investigators are prohibited by law from participating.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: The NTSB considers the party system crucial to the investigative process, as it provides the NTSB with access to individuals with specialized expertise or knowledge relevant to a particular investigation. However, use of the party system is not without controversy. The NTSB invited Boeing to participate as a party to the investigation of the crash of TWA Flight 800, a Boeing 747, in 1996. While the NTSB relied on Boeing's sharing of expertise, it was later determined that Boeing had withheld a study of military versions of the 747 that investigated flammable vapor combustion in the center fuel tank. Boeing had told the NTSB that it had no studies proving or disproving the vapor combustion theory. In response to political pressure after the Boeing incident, the NTSB commissioned the nonprofit Rand Corporation to conduct an independent study of the NTSB's aircraft investigation process.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: In 2000, Rand published its report, which concluded that the party system is "a key component of the NTSB investigative process" and that participant parties "are uniquely able to provide essential information about aircraft design and manufacture, airline operations, or functioning of [the National Airspace System] that simply cannot be obtained elsewhere". However, Rand also found conflicts of interest inherent in the party system, "may, in some instances, threaten the integrity of the NTSB investigative process". The Rand study recommended that the NTSB reduce its reliance on party representatives and make greater use of independent investigators, including from NASA, the Department of Defense, government research laboratories, and universities. , the NTSB has not adopted these recommendations and instead continues to rely on the party system.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: , the NTSB has issued about 14,000 safety recommendations in its history, 73 percent of which have been adopted in whole or in part by the entities to which they were directed. Starting in 1990, the NTSB has annually published a "Most Wanted List" which highlights safety recommendations that the NTSB believes would provide the most significant — and sometimes immediate — benefit to the traveling public.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: A less well-known responsibility of the NTSB is that it serves as a court of appeals for airmen, aircraft mechanics, certificated aviation-related companies and mariners who have their licenses suspended or revoked by the FAA or the Coast Guard. The NTSB employs administrative law judges which initially hear all appeals, and the administrative law judge's ruling may be appealed to the five-member Board. The Board's determinations may be appealed to the federal court system by the losing party, whether it is the individual or company, on the one hand, or the FAA or the Coast Guard, on the other. However, from "Ferguson v. NTSB", the NTSB's determinations are not overturned by the federal courts unless the NTSB abused its discretion, or its determination is wholly unsupported by the evidence.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: The Safety Board maintains a training academy in Ashburn, Virginia, where it conducts courses for its employees and professionals in other government agencies, foreign governments or private companies, in areas such as general accident investigation, specific elements of investigations like survival factors or human performance, or related matters like family affairs or media relations. The facility houses for training purposes the reconstruction of more than 90 feet of the TWA Flight 800 Boeing 747, which was recovered from the Atlantic Ocean after it crashed on July 17, 1996, following a fuel tank explosion.


title: National Transportation Safety Board

text: On February 22, 2021, the NTSB announced that the TWA Flight 800 recreation would be decommissioned on July 7, 2021. This decision comes as the lease for the Ashburn training center is due to expire in the near future. The NTSB indicated is moving away from large-scale reconstructions like was done with TWA Flight 800, and towards the use of 3D scans to reconstruct accidents. Under an agreement made with the families of the victims, when the reconstruction was retained as a training tool, the reconstruction was not allowed to be used as a public exhibit or put on display. For this reason, the NTSB is planning to dismantle and destroy the reconstruction.


title: T-44

text: The T-44 is a medium tank first developed and produced near the end of World War II by the Soviet Union. It was the successor to the T-34, offering an improved ride and cross-country performance, along with much greater armor. Designed to be equipped with an 85 mm main gun, by the time it was fully tested the T-34 had also moved to this weapon. Both tanks offered similar performance, so introducing the T-44 was not considered as important as increasing T-34 production. Fewer than 2,000 T-44s were built, compared to about 58,000 T-34s. Although the T-44 was available by the end of the war, it was not used in any battle. It was 1 ton lighter than the T-34-85 and slightly faster. The T-44 was heavily influential on the design of the T-54/55 main battle tank, most notably the removal of side sloping, thick frontal armor, and a low profile. Also notable was the T-44-100, a 100 mm D-10T-armed prototype, which would be the same 100 mm gun mounted on the T-54/55, bar some minor changes.


title: T-44

text: Attempts were made to improve the T-44's armament with a new 122 mm gun, but the turret proved to be very cramped and the rate of fire was poor, on the order of three rounds per minute. Design work on a slightly enlarged version of the T-44 began during the war and a prototype was produced in 1945. This newer design entered production in 1947 as the T-54/55 series of medium tanks, the most-produced tank series of all time.


title: T-44

text: By the end of 1940, when production of the T-34 started, there were already plans to improve the vehicle's reliability and operational capabilities by adopting more modern technology.


title: T-44

text: This design project was designated T-34M. It had enhanced armour protection, a three-man hexagonal turret, torsion bar suspension instead of Christie suspension, road wheels with internal shock absorption, increased fuel capacity, and more main gun ammunition (100 rounds instead of 77 in standard T-34). The bow machine gun and driver's hatch switched positions on the glacis plate. In addition to six smaller wheels, the suspension of the T-34M had four return rollers. The original model V-2 12-cylinder diesel engine developing 500 hp (373 kW) was replaced by a new 12-cylinder diesel engine which produced . It had a new 8-speed transmission system. It was the first tank design to feature transverse engine placement, which made it smaller than a standard T-34 and gave the crew more space.


title: T-44

text: The Zhdanov Metallurgical Factory manufactured five sets of armour plates for the hull of the T-34M and delivered them to Factory No. 183. However, early in 1941 work on the T-34M ceased as the production facilities were extremely busy with the mass production of the T-34. When the war with Nazi Germany broke out the only sensible solution was to gradually improve the existing design.


title: T-44

text: During the battles on the Eastern Front it became apparent that the Red Army needed a new medium tank. They requested that it should have better protection at a minimal increase of weight. In 1942 the T-43 tank design project began. It featured a new turret and shorter suspension which reduced the clearance between the roadwheels. However, it concentrated on increasing armour at a time when maintaining production and increasing firepower were more important. The T-43 was cancelled, but its new turret design was adapted to carry a larger 85 mm D-5T and later ZiS-S-53 gun in a new variant called the T-34-85. It marked the end of T-34 improvements as fitting 100 mm guns in T-34-100 prototypes proved unfeasible. (See T-34 variants article for details).


title: T-44

text: In the autumn of 1943 the design bureau of the Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183, located in Nizhny Tagil (in the Ural Mountains, where most of the Soviet tank industry had been evacuated after Operation Barbarossa in 1941), started working on a vehicle that would have improvement opportunities in the future, under a direct order from Joseph Stalin. The intention was to retain the high mobility of the T-34 and provide it with heavier armour protection against modern tank guns. In November 1943, the chief designer, A. A. Morozov, presented the overall design of the vehicle and a model of the tank, which received the designation T-44 (Ob'yekt 136). The first prototype was completed by January 1944 and two more were completed in February. The first two prototypes were armed with 85 mm D-5T guns and received the designation T-44-85, while the third prototype was armed with the 122 mm D-25-44T tank gun and received the designation T-44-122. The D-25-44T tank gun was very similar to the basic D-25 field gun, but differed in some minor details including fixed single-piece ammunition to increase the rate of fire and a double-baffle muzzle brake. What allowed fitting such powerful armament in a medium tank weighing 30 tonnes was the construction of the hull with an innovative placement of the engine. Unlike most tanks, in the T-44 the engine was placed perpendicular to the axis of the tank. The hull was designed without sponsons. It was also much wider which made the crew compartment bigger and allowed the turret to be placed over the center part of the vehicle. This reduced the overall length of the vehicle. The thickness of the armour was 75 mm on the front of the hull and 90 mm on the front of the turret. The side armour was 45 mm thick and could be reinforced by 30 mm thick additional armour plate. All three prototypes were powered by the V-2IS diesel engine which developed 500 hp (373 kW). This first generation of prototypes featured a raised cast driver's hatch with an opening vision flap as well as mounting bolts in a ring around the base of the gun tube.


title: T-44

text: Morozov's new medium tank design received a skeptical response. It was believed that putting a high-speed 12-cylinder engine with a working displacement of almost 40 liters perpendicular to the direction of travel would cause problems, including breaking the connecting rods. It was believed that decreasing the displacement of the engine compartment for the purpose of enlarging the fighting compartment was unnecessary and that moving the turret rearwards would limit the elevation angle of the main gun. However, it turned out that even though rotating the engine complicated the transmission by introducing an additional reduction gear - gear-train and fan drive, it also solved many problems. The cover of the engine and transmission compartment turned along with the radiator; this allowed easier access to the engine, transmission and batteries. The significant decrease in the length of the engine compartment allowed the turret to be moved rearwards, which in turn moved its rotation axis and the center of mass to the center of the hull, increased the accuracy of the main gun and decreased a chance that the turret could get stuck after getting hit in the turret ring with a projectile that ricocheted. The thickness of the frontal armor protection more than doubled without disturbing the center of mass or drastically increasing the weight of the tank. At the beginning of World War II the thickness of T-34 armor was considered enough. Improvements made to the T-34 during World War II included increasing the caliber of the gun (from 76.2 mm to 85 mm) and thickening the armor of the turret. No significant improvements were made to the hull. Increasing the size of the fighting compartment allowed the removal of floor ammunition stowage. The height of the tank was decreased by 300 mm, even though the turret remained almost the same. Removal of the conical pair in the transmission permitted fitting a more compact gear box and improved the control of the brakes and the steering clutch. Visibility from the driver's position was improved. The driver was protected from being splashed by water while the vehicle was fording. The new torsion bar suspension allowed easier crossing of rough ground.


title: T-44

text: The first trials of the T-44-122 prototype took place in February and March 1944, but were unsuccessful due to gun failure, and the gun was returned to the No. 9 factory for repair. In April and May 1944 the trials were resumed. Aside from standard trials, the T-44-122 was put in competitive trials against a captured German Panzerkampfwagen V Panther medium tank and the second of two first generation T-44-85 prototypes. The practical rate of fire was two to three rounds per minute due to the cramped turret and long, heavy ammunition. The vehicle had a very limited storage of only 24 rounds and this was considered insufficient for a medium tank. As a result, all further development of the T-44-122 prototype was cancelled.


title: T-44

text: Like the T-44-122 prototype, one of the two first-generation T-44-85 prototypes went through competitive trials against a captured German Panzerkampfwagen V Panther medium tank. The second of the two first-generation T-44-85 prototypes was put in competitive trials against the T-44-122 prototype. The second prototype uncovered additional faults in the design. By May 1944 two second-generation prototypes were being built. These featured the driver's position moved rearwards so that his hatch was partially on the hull roof. The driver's vision flap was reduced to a plain square flap with rounded lower corners, in line with the glacis plate. These prototypes had prominent collars at the base of the gun tube, without the mounting bolts which were present in the first generation prototypes. The two prototypes also have differences between each other. One prototype had a splashboard on the glacis plate while the other had a smooth uncluttered glacis plate. One of these prototypes passed trials at the NIBT proving grounds near Kubinka in June and July 1944. This prototype weighed 31.3 tonnes and was armed with an 85 mm ZiS-S-53 gun. The turret front armour thickness was increased to 115 mm. Hulls side armour thickness was increased to 75 mm.


title: T-44

text: The third generation prototype, which received the designation T-44A, was completed after the Morozov Design Bureau had moved back to Kharkiv in Ukraine. The hull upper front armour (glacis plate) thickness was increased to 90 mm and the turret front armour thickness was increased to 120 mm. Even though it was more heavily armoured, the weight went down to 30.7 tonnes. This vehicle had a new V-44 12-cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine of 520 hp (388 kW) at 1,800 rpm, which allowed the tank to travel at a speed of 60.5 km/h. This prototype had the splashboard on the glacis plate like one of the second generation T-44-85 prototypes. This prototype featured some other differences from the earlier prototypes, including the fact that drivers hatch was moved entirely to the roof of the hull and the vision flap was deleted from the design and replaced by a vision slot in the glacis plate. After trials conducted in August and September 1944 and after it received several upgrades (which increased the weight of the vehicle to 32 tonnes), the T-44A officially entered service with the Red Army on the 23 November 1944, but did not see combat during World War II.


title: T-44

text: Even with its innovative technology and better armor protection the T-44A still used the same 85 mm ZiS-S-53 tank gun as fitted on the T-34-85 medium tank. The army needed a new tank armed with a more powerful 100 mm gun. At the end of 1944 the designers had three types of 100 mm guns at their disposal - the D-10 (which had already proved itself in combat use in the SU-100 tank destroyer) as well as prototypes of the ZiS-100 and LB-1 (LB stands for Lavrenty Beria). The T-44 tank armed with the 100 mm tank gun originally received the designation T-44B. Two projects were started, both based on the T-44A. The development of the first one started in October 1944 at the design bureau of the Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183, located in Nizhny Tagil. The design stage was completed in December and the prototype was ready in February 1945. The trials conducted between March and April gave positive results and the vehicle eventually entered service with the Red Army as the T-54. The tank had almost the same hull and drive train as the T-44A. Differences included thickened front armour (120 mm on the upper section and 90 mm on the lower section) and a different hatch and vision slot for the driver. The turret had increased diameter to 1800 mm. There was thicker armour (180 mm on the front, between 90 mm and 150 mm on the sides and 30 mm on the roof). The armament included the 100 mm D-10TK tank gun as well as two 7.62 mm GWT machine guns. The tank was powered by a new V-54 12-cylinder 38.88 liter water-cooled diesel engine developing 520 hp (388 kW) at 2,000 rpm. The fuel capacity was increased (530 liters in the internal fuel tank and 165 liters in the external fuel tank). The external fuel tanks were connected to the fuel system. The rubber rollers on the roadwheels were widened. The weight was increased to 35.5 tonnes, which reduced the maximal road speed to 43.5 km/h. The maximal road operational range increased to 360 km. Because of positive results seen in trials, it was decided to modernize the tank before starting production (for more details about it see the T-54/55 article) as well as to put the new tank's turret onto two modified serial T-44A tanks. This was done in 1945 and the two prototype tanks received the designation T-44-100. One of the prototypes was armed with a D-10TK tank gun while the other one was armed with a LB-1 tank gun. Like the second generation T-44-85 prototypes, the two T-44-100 prototypes had differences between each other. One prototype had a splashboard on the glacis plate while the other did not. They both had the 12.7 mm DShK anti-aircraft heavy machine gun fitted to the loader's hatch, 6 mm thick anti-HEAT sideskirts protecting the sides and two cylindrical fuel tanks in the back which increased the fuel capacity to 1035 liters. These cylindrical fuel tanks were later used on Soviet main battle tanks as additional fuel tanks. Further development of the T-44 was canceled and all the attention was directed towards the development of the new T-54 main battle tank.


title: T-44

text: The T-44 had a typical tank layout: the driving compartment at the front, the fighting compartment in the middle and the engine compartment in the rear. The original intention was to retain the high mobility and speed of a T-34 and to provide the T-44 with heavier armour protection against large-caliber tank guns. This was accomplished by adding thicker armour but reducing the internal volume of the hull. The T-44 had a lower profile than the T-34, and was potentially simpler to manufacture. Although the T-44 used many components of the T-34, it had a new hull, and a modified model V-2 diesel engine, suspension and transmission.


title: T-44

text: Reflecting trends in other designs in this period, the T-44 was designed without the hull radio operator/machine gunner position present in many older designs. This was done for a number of reasons. The extensive machine gun firing port in the glacis plate (which was present in the T-34 medium tank) was a weak spot in the armour. In the T-34, this firing port and the driver's hatch were exploited during World War II by the Germans fighting the T-34s. Shooting the machine gun was ineffective as it was inaccurate due to obscured vision. It was considered inefficient to transfer reports through an additional member of the crew and therefore these duties were transferred to the commander. The space saved was used for a fuel tank and to increase the ammunition load. The driver's hatch was on the left side of the hull roof. The tank had an improved hull design, longer and wider than the T-34 but slightly lower thanks to the relocation of the air filter, with thicker armour, and was simpler to construct. The hull had a sloped glacis plate, vertical sides, and a slightly beveled rear. Most tanks had a splashboard on the glacis plate although there are pictures of T-44A tanks without them. It protected the upper part of the vehicle from splashes of mud or water. There were three mounts for rectangular stowage bins on the fenders (two on the right fender and one on the left fender). There were four mountings for cylindrical fuel tanks on the fenders (two per side). This was changed in the T-44M which used rectangular fuel cells.


title: T-44

text: During its service the tank proved to be not entirely adapted to winter conditions, due to an incomplete draining of the cooling system, caused by a water pump system that had been modified to reduce engine height. A small shaft would break after the impeller pump froze. The repair of the shaft, considering the field conditions, proved very impractical and required three people. Two people had to hold a third person by the legs and lower him into the engine bay, where he had to loosen the fastening and remove the broken shaft. Then, he was pulled out and lowered back down to install the new shaft. He was repeatedly lowered until the new part was secured. Another serious problem discovered during the winter conditions was that the crews of the T-44A suffered from frostbite because of the complete lack of a heating system. The driver was supposed to be protected from rain and snow by a removable Tarpaulin cover with a small glass window. However, this was not successful and its use was deemed impractical.


title: T-44

text: The T-44 had a compact torsion-bar suspension instead of the T-34's Christie coil springs, although it retained the Christie method of engagement between the slotted drive wheel and track lugs. The suspension had five large spoked road wheels and 'dead' 500 mm wide track from the T-34. The hull and wheels were virtually identical to the early T-54 main battle tanks although the original T-44 had the T-34's 'spider' road wheels and a narrow, inset drive wheel at the rear. The T-44 was the last Soviet medium tank with paddle-type tracks. The mechanism for tensioning them was significantly better on the T-44 than it was on the T-34. On the T-34, the first two lug-nuts on the crank had to be loosened and then the crank pounded with a sledge hammer in order to separate it from the hull. After the track was tensioned, the crank had to be set back in place with a sledge hammer. The whole process required up to three people. On the T-44, the same task could be carried out by one person, without the help of a sledge-hammer. The roadwheels were spaced evenly from each other except for a prominent gap between two of the roadwheels. The T-44-85 and T-44-122 prototypes had a gap between the second and third roadwheels like in the T-34 but the T-44A had a gap between the first and second roadwheels. This arrangement of wheels was continued in the T-54 and T-55 main battle tanks. The roadwheels sometimes started to 'fall home' after 2,500 km. To increase the service life of the road wheel, a slight camber of the paired road wheels was tried. However, this resulted in greater stress on the outer rollers. When the tank crosses 20 km of rough ground it can pick up about a ton of dirt along the way.


title: T-44

text: The new V-44 12-cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine, developing 520 hp (388 kW) at 1,800 rpm, was a more powerful version of the T-34's model V-2 with a new planetary manual 5-speed transmission system, filtration system, improved cooling system, horizontally placed water and oil pumps and an improved fuel system which increased its power output, although the tank retained the side clutches from the T-34. The new engine gave the T-44 a maximal road speed of 53 km/h and maximal cross country speed of 20 km/h to 25 km/h as well as maximal road range of 350 km. The engine could become worn out after the tank traveled 3,000 km. When that happened, the oil pressure would drop to 2-3 atmospheres and under heavy loads, the engine would start smoking, spewing out black smog out of the side of the tank. The engine deck had two transverse ventilation grilles at the rear. The exhaust port was on the rear left hand side of the hull. The tank could cross 1 m high vertical obstacles, 2.5 m wide trenches, 32° side slopes and 60° gradients and ford 1.3 m deep water obstacles without preparation.


title: T-44

text: Because driver's hatch was moved from the glacis plate and positioned so that he exited the vehicle perpendicularly instead of crawling out of the hatch, his seat received an elevating mechanism. While in a relatively safe area the driver could elevate his seat to look outside of the tank, providing greater visibility and easier access to the controls. While in combat the driver lowered his seat back into the tank and had to rely on the vision slot protected by triplex (three-layer glass). While in this position the pedals of the main clutch, the fuel supply, and incline brake were positioned much higher and the levers of the steering clutch and gear shifting became inconvenient to operate. Early examples had transmission problems. While the driver was switching gears, two gears could engage simultaneously, which caused a broken gear pinion. This and other gearbox related problems were solved in a 1961 T-44M modernization with the introduction of a gearbox from the T-54 main battle tank.


title: T-44

text: T-44A was armed with an 85 mm ZiS-S-53 tank gun as well as two 7.62 mm DTM light machine guns. One of these machine guns was mounted to fire through a tiny hole in the center of the glacis plate. Because the tank's crew did not include a radio operator/machine gunner, the driver operated this light machine gun. The gun was mounted in a fixed position and could only be aimed by turning the tank. The main gun was placed in a centrally placed turret along with a coaxially mounted 7.62 mm DTM light machine gun. The ZiS-S-53 tank gun could penetrate around 100 mm of armour at range of 1000 m. The gun could be elevated or depressed between -5° and +25°. It wasn't stabilized. Like in the T-34 and SU-76 SPG, hot cartridge-cases were rolling under the feet of the crew. The crew was also subjected to gases from the main gun every time after it was fired. The tank carried 58 rounds for the 85 mm ZiS-S-53 tank gun and 1890 rounds for 7.62 mm DTM light machine guns.


title: T-44

text: The turret was cast, with a prominent horizontal casting seam, shaped like an elongated hexagon, with sloped sides and overhang all around. It resembled a longer, better armoured T-34-85 turret. It had a cast gun mantlet with a small but prominent ring/collar around the base of the tank gun tube. The turret roof had a raised commander's cupola on the left and loader's hatch on the right with a low dome-shaped ventilator behind it. The turret was moved with an electric motor. The front armour of the turret was 120 mm thick while the side armour was 75 mm thick.


title: T-44

text: The hull was made of rolled welded steel. The glacis plate was 90 mm thick while the side armour was 75 mm and the bottom armour was 20 mm thick. T-44 tanks could be fitted with additional 30 mm thick armour plates on the sides of the hull and the turret. Additional spaced armour panels could be fitted to the sides of the hull.


title: T-44

text: The T-44A could be fitted with the PT-3 mine clearing device. It had a radio in the back of the turret with an antenna at the center of the left side of the turret. The vehicle was equipped with a submachine gun. The vehicle lacked an NBC (nuclear, biological and chemical) protection system and a night vision device.


title: T-44

text: The T-44A officially entered service with the Red Army on 23 November 1944, the production having started in October. Production took place at the new Factory No. 75 (Zavod 75) in Kharkiv which used the buildings of the old KhPZ Factory No. 183 which were recaptured from Germans on 23 August 1943. To restore the factories to working order, engineers, workers, machines and tools were sent from Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183, located in Nizhny Tagil. The original plans were that the factory would produce 300 T-44As a month. However, only 25 were built by the end of 1944. In 1945, 940 were built, making a total of 965 (190 tanks built in 1944 and 1945 were completed by the end of the war). An additional 858 T-44As were made in 1946-1947. The T-34 continued to account for 85% of medium tank production through 1950, and development of a more advanced medium tank with a more powerful 100 mm gun proceeded. The relatively brief production run ended in 1947 with a total of 1,823 T-44A tanks built. The reasons for such a brief production run included mechanical teething problems, the end of the war which reduced the Red Army's need for a new tank, and the design's inability to successfully fit a 100 mm tank gun. It was replaced on the production lines by the T-54-1 main battle tank, which was more mechanically reliable and could mount a 100 mm gun. The superior T-54-2 would replace T-34 production at the Omsk Factory No. 183 in 1950, and the T-54/55 main battle tank series would remain in production until 1981.


title: T-44

text: The T-44 was issued to three tank brigades mustered on 15 September 1944 for training purposes, but these formations (6th Guards, 33rd Guards, and 63rd Guards Tank Brigades) were re-equipped with T-34-85 tanks prior to entering the Battle of Berlin and Prague Offensive. The T-44A was not used operationally during World War II in Europe for several reasons, including the fact that the Red Army was not ready to accept a new tank because of lack of sufficient spares and technical specialists who could repair and maintain the new tanks as well as the fact that many of the tank crews would have to be retrained. However, three tanks were sent to the 100th Special Tank Company, which tested them on the Eastern Front. Many T-44As were immediately sent, after production, to the Far East of the Soviet Union. The first tanks arrived there before the end of the war and were used operationally during the last three days of fighting. They continued to arrive after the war and eventually around 600 T-44As were stationed there.


title: T-44

text: Due to the Cold War, the USSR decided to keep the tank secret. It was never shown publicly during military parades and pictures were never shown publicly until the secrecy was dropped. There is almost no photographic evidence of T-44s stationed in East Germany or while being used briefly in Poland and Romania for training respective tank crews in 1952 nor during the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956, although it is factually known that T-44 tanks were sent to these various places (there are only a small number of known photographs of T-44A tanks in Hungary in existence).


title: T-44

text: In 1961, a number of T-44As were modernized with parts from the T-54 main battle tank and other upgrades and received the designation T-44M. In 1963, some T-44Ms were converted into T-44MK command tanks. In 1965 some T-44Ms were converted into BTS-4A armoured recovery vehicles. In 1966, a number of T-44As and T-44Ms received the "Cyclone" gun stabilizer and the designations T-44S and T-44MS, respectively. According to most sources T-44S, T-44M and T-44MS tanks remained in service with the Soviet Army until the end of the 1970s, when their usefulness as tanks had ended. It is possible that they remained in storage until the beginning of the 1990s. Many T-44Ms were converted into artillery tractors, tank tractors and engineer tanks. A number of T-44A, T-44S, T-44M, T-44MK and T-44MS tanks were converted into fixed defensive positions; some of which are known to have been positioned on the border with the People's Republic of China. Unlike most Soviet-made weapons, the T-44 wasn't exported.


title: T-44

text: After the cloak of secrecy was lifted in the 1960s, when the tank was already becoming obsolete, it was used in the war movies: "Father of a Soldier", "Liberation", "Battle of Moscow", "Red Cherry", "The Star", and "Downfall". In the first, it was used to portray a T-34. In "Liberation", "Red Cherry", "The Star", and "Downfall" it was visually modified with additional plates to resemble the Tiger I heavy tank. Some T-44 and T-34 tanks were visually modified to represent German Panzerkampfwagen IVs. They were made for Soviet-era film studios and were used in a number of movies about battles on the Eastern Front. They were also used during a 2004 re-enactment of the Battle of Moscow.


title: T-44

text: Some T-44As were given to military museums including one in Brest in today's Belarus, and one in the Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Moscow, Poklonnaya Hill Victory Park. One of two T-44-100 prototypes are in the Kubinka Tank Museum near Moscow.


title: T-44

text: In conjunction with the video game company Gaijin Entertainment, creators of the World War II multiplayer combat game "War Thunder", and Kubinka Tank Museum, the T-44 tank number "721" was restored to full operating condition over the course of nearly six months, and given a parade paint scheme in the style of the T-44 "Znamenskiy" tank from the 29th Tank Corps of the 5th Guards Mechanized Army.


title: Barolo

text: Barolo ( , , ; ) is a red (DOCG) wine produced in the northern Italian region of Piedmont. It is made from the nebbiolo grape and is often described as one of Italy's greatest wines.


title: Barolo

text: The zone of production extends into the communes of Barolo, Castiglione Falletto, Serralunga d'Alba and parts of the communes of Cherasco, Diano d'Alba, Grinzane Cavour, La Morra, Monforte d'Alba, Novello, Roddi, Verduno, all in the province of Cuneo, south-west of Alba. Although production codes have always stipulated that vineyards must be located on hillsides, the most recent revision of the production code released in 2010 goes further, categorically excluding valley floors, humid and flat areas, areas without sufficient sunlight, and areas with full-on northern exposures.


title: Barolo

text: Barolo is often described as having the aromas of tar and roses, and the wines are noted for their ability to age and usually take on a rust red tinge as they mature. Barolo needs to be aged for at least 36 months after the harvest before release, of which at least 18 months must be in wood. When subjected to aging of at least five years before release, the wine can be labeled as "Riserva".


title: Barolo

text: In the past, Barolo wines tended to be rich in tannin. It can take more than 10 years for the wine to soften and become ready for drinking. Fermenting wine sits on the grape skins for at least three weeks, extracting huge amounts of tannins and is then aged in large, wooden casks for years. In order to appeal to more modern international tastes, those that prefer fruitier, earlier-drinking wine styles, several producers began to cut fermentation times to a maximum of ten days and age the wine in new French oak barriques (small barrels). "Traditionalists" have argued that the wines produced in this way are not recognizable as Barolo and taste more of new oak than of wine. The controversies between traditionalists and modernists have been called the "Barolo wars".


title: Barolo

text: Until recently it was believed that up to the mid-19th century, Barolo was a sweet wine. This was attributed to the fact that the nebbiolo grape ripens late in October meant that temperatures would be steadily dropping by harvest. By November and December, temperatures in the Piedmont region would be cold enough to halt fermentation, leaving a significant amount of residual sugar left in the wine. Another popular credence was that in the mid-19th century, Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour, the mayor of Grinzane Cavour invited the French enologist Louis Oudart to the Barolo region to improve the winemaking techniques of the local producers. Using techniques focusing on improving the hygiene of the cellar, Oudart was able to ferment the nebbiolo must completely dry, making the first modern Barolo. This new, "dry" red wine soon became a favourite among the nobility of Turin and the ruling House of Savoy, giving rise to the popular description of Barolo as "the wine of kings, the king of wines".


title: Barolo

text: The idea that Barolo was once a sweet wine and that it took a French oenologist to turn it into a dry wine has been recently challenged, based on new research, by Kerin O'Keefe. According to this revision of Barolo's history, Paolo Francesco Staglieno was responsible for the modern dry version. He was the author of a winemaking manual, "Istruzione intorno al miglior metodo di fare e conservare i vini in Piemonte", published in 1835. It was Staglieno who was called upon by Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour, who appointed him to the position of oenologist at his Grinzane estate between 1836 and 1841. Staglieno's task was to produce quality wines geared towards ageing and stable enough to be exported. Staglieno fermented the wines dry, something that at the time was referred to as "the Staglieno method". Oudart was a grape and wine merchant, not an oenologist, who in the early 1800s moved to Genoa and set up a winery, Maison Oudard et Bruché. By the time Oudart turned up in Alba, King Carlo Alberto and Cavour were already following Staglieno's guidelines and both were producing dry wines. This revised version of the history of Barolo was positively accepted by other experts.


title: Barolo

text: By the mid-20th century, wine production in the Barolo zone was dominated by large "negociants" who purchased grapes and wines from across the zone and blended them into a house style. In the 1960s, individual proprietors began estate bottling and producing single vineyard wines from their holdings. By the 1980s, a wide range of single-vineyard bottlings was available, which led to a discussion among the region's producers about the prospect of developing a Cru classification for the area's vineyards. The cataloguing of Barolo's vineyards has a long history dating back to the work of Lorenzo Fantini in the late 19th century and Renato Ratti and Luigi Veronelli in the late 20th century, but as of 2009 there is still no official classification within the region. However, in 1980 the region as a whole was elevated to DOCG status. Along with Barbaresco and Brunello di Montalcino, Barolo was one of the first Italian wine regions to attain this designation.


title: Barolo

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, trends in the worldwide market favoured fruitier, less tannic wines that could be consumed at a younger age. A group of Barolo producers, led by the house of Ceretto, Paolo Cordero di Montezemolo, Elio Altare, and Renato Ratti, started making more modern, international styles of Barolos by using shorter periods for maceration (days as opposed to weeks) and fermentation (usually 4872 hours or at most 810 days), less time ageing in new small oak barrels and an extended period of bottle ageing prior to release. By using modern technology, including specialized tanks that allow the wine to be pumped out from underneath the cap of skins and then pumped over, they found ways to maximize colour extraction and minimize harsh tannins. Prior to this "modernist" movement, nebbiolo was often harvested slightly unripe and at high yields, which left the grapes with harsh green tannins that had not had time to fully polymerize. To maximize colour extraction, producers subjected the wine to extended periods of maceration, taking up to several weeks, and then several years ageing in large oak casks to soften the wine. Through the long slow process of oxidation, the perception of tannins lessened (such as occurs when decanting wine), but the fruit would also fade and become oxidized. The decline in fruit would no longer be able to balance the remaining harsh tannins, leaving a bitter, astringent wine with withered fruit. To counter this change, some producers would blend in other grape varieties such as Arneis and Barbera to add colour, fruit or softness to the wine.


title: Barolo

text: Advances in viticulture have helped to bridge the gap between modern and traditional producers. Better canopy management and yield control have led to riper grapes being harvested earlier with more developed tannins in the grape skins. , winemaking for both traditionalist and modernist Barolo producers includes strict hygiene controls and the use of some modern winemaking equipment such as temperature-control fermentation vessels. Rather than fall into one hardline camp or the other, many producers take a middle-ground approach that utilizes some modernist techniques along with traditional winemaking. In general, the traditional approach to nebbiolo involves long maceration periods of 20 to 30 days and the use of older large "botti"-size barrels. The modern approach to nebbiolo utilizes shorter maceration periods of 7 to 10 days and cooler fermentation temperatures between that preserve fruit flavours and aromas. Towards the end of the fermentation period, winemakers often heat the cellars to encourage the start of malolactic fermentation, which softens some of nebbiolo's harsh acidity. Modern winemakers tend to favour smaller barrels of new oak that need only a couple of years to soften the tannic grip of the wines. While new oak imparts notes of vanilla, it has the potential to cover up the characteristic rose notes of nebbiolo.


title: Barolo

text: The Barolo zone is located southwest of the Barbaresco zone with only the vineyards of Diano d'Alba planted with Dolcetto between the two nebbiolo strongholds. Compared to the Barbaresco zone, the Barolo zone is cooler and located on higher elevations, rising nearly above Barbaresco. The harvest of the late-ripening nebbiolo grape usually takes place in early to mid-October though some producers are experimenting with viticultural techniques that allow for an earlier harvest in late September. At harvest time, rains and downy mildew are two of the main hazards to worry about, along with early spring hail damage earlier in the growing season. Like most of south-central and southeastern Piedmont, the zone experiences a continental climate tempered by the Tanaro river and its tributaries - the Tallòria dell'Annunziata and Tallòria di Castiglione - that split the region into three main zones. To the west of the Tallòria dell'Annunziata is the commune of Barolo and La Morra. To the east of the Tallòria di Castiglione is the commune of Serralunga d'Alba located on one of the highest hilltops in the Barolo zone. Separated by a narrow valley to the west is the commune Monforte d'Alba located in the Monforte hills. Further upstream north, located in the v-shape spur between the two tributaries is the commune of Castiglione Falletto.


title: Barolo

text: Located among the Langhe hills, the Barolo zone is a collection of different mesoclimate, soil types, altitudes and expositions that can have a pronounced effect on the development of the nebbiolo grape and the resulting Barolo wine. Within the Barolo zone there are two major soil types separated by the Alba-Barolo road. Within the communes of Serralunga d'Alba and Monforte d'Alba is a compact, sandstone-based soil dating from the Helvetian epoch. In the Barolo and La Morra zone, the soils are similar to those found in the Barbaresco zone, dating from the Tortonian period, being composed of calcareous marl that is more compact and fertile. Throughout the Barolo zone there are clay deposits and soil with enough alkalinity to tame nebbiolo's naturally high acidity. In Jan 2007 Filippo Bartolotta indicated how a vertical tasting of Barolo, from 1985 to the present "showcased Barolo's longevity, intense aromatics, freshness, silk-and-cashmere tannins and also highlighted the considerable contrast between production zones".


title: Barolo

text: Being dependent on a grape that is slow to ripen, global warming has had a beneficial influence on the Barolo zone. Theoretically, the increased temperatures of summer followed by mild autumns that promote misty fog that keeps the grapes from burning has helped to increase sugar levels and led to riper phenolic compounds such as tannins. To empirically link this to anthropogenic global warming is speculative. More likely, better vineyard management and winemaking techniques have contributed to a string of successful vintages for Barolo in the last 20 years.


title: Barolo

text: The present-day Barolo zone is located a little over southwest of Alba. While it is nearly 3 times the size of the nearby Barbaresco zone, it is still relatively small and is only wide at its widest point. In 1896, the Italian Ministry of Agriculture demarcated the Barolo production zone to include the communes of Barolo, La Morra, Castiglione Falletto, Serralunga d'Alba and the northern half of Monforte d'Alba. In 1909, the Agricultural Commission of Alba added the commune of Grinzane Cavour and parts of Novello and Verduno to the zone. When the region was designated as a "Denominazione di origine controllata" (DOC) in 1966, parts of Cherasco, Diano d'Alba and Roddi were included with this delimitation of the Barolo zone staying unchanged through the zones promotion to DOCG in 1980. Despite these additions, over 87% of Barolo is produced in the original five communes of Barolo, La Morra, Castiglione Falletto, Serralunga d'Alba and Monforte d'Alba with Barolo and Castiglione Falletto considered the "heart" or unofficial "classico" areas of the zone. In addition to restrictions on yield and alcohol levels, to be labelled DOCG, a Barolo must be aged at least three years (a minimum of 38 months from November 1 the year of harvest), of which a minimum 18 months in wooden barrels. For wines labelled Barolo "Riserva", five years of total ageing is required (a minimum of 62 months from November 1 the year of harvest), again with a minimum of 18 months in barrel.


title: Barolo

text: The Barolo zone can be broadly divided into two valleys. The Serralunga Valley to the east includes the communes of Castiglione Falletto, Monforte d'Alba and Serralunga d'Alba. Planted with soils higher in sand, limestone, iron, phosphorus and potassium, the wines of Serralunga Valley tend to be austere and powerful and require significant ageing (at least 12–15 years) to develop. The Central Valley to the west includes the communes of Barolo and La Morra with soils higher in clay, manganese and magnesium oxide. This region tends to produce wines with more perfumed aromas and velvety textures. These wines tend to be less tannic and full-bodied than those from the Serralunga Valley and can require less ageing (8 to 10 years). The most widely planted and productive region of the Barolo zone is La Morra, which is responsible for nearly a third of all wine labelled as Barolo and produces twice as much wine as the next leading zone of Serralunga d'Alba.


title: Barolo

text: Since the late 19th century, efforts have been made to identify which vineyards in the Barolo zones produce the highest quality wine. Inspired by the prestige and high prices charged for Grand cru bottlings of Burgundy wine, Barolo producers began separating their holdings into individual vineyard lots and labelling the wines with these single-vineyard designations. The practice became so extensive that some producers were doing single-vineyard bottlings and charging high prices on all their holdings, regardless of whether the particular vineyard quality merited such a practice.


title: Barolo

text: Led by prominent wine critic Luigi Veronelli, there was a push to have the vineyards of Barolo classified according to the quality of their produce. Winemaker Renato Ratti conducted an extensive study of the soils, geography and produce of vineyards throughout the area and mapped out individual plots based on their quality potential. The "Ratti Map" is still widely used by producers and negociants today. While there is no official designation of cru vineyard in the Barolo zone, both oral tradition and the history of high prices paid by negociants have elevated some vineyards to "cru" status in Barolo. In the commune of Barolo, the "Cannubi" and "Sarmassa" are considered "cru" class as well as the "Brunate" vineyard shared with the commune of La Morra. Also in La Morra is the highly esteemed "Cerequio" and "Rocche" vineyards. In Castiglione Falletto is the "Monprivato" and "Villero" vineyards. The commune of Serralunga d'Alba is home to the esteemed vineyards of "Lazzarito" and "Vigna Rionda" while the commune of Monforte d'Alba is home to the "Bussia, Ginestra" and "Santo Stefano di Perno" vineyards.


title: Barolo

text: In 2010 the Barolo Consorzio introduced the "Menzioni Geografiche Aggiuntive" (additional geographic mentions) also known as "MGA" or "subzones", after the Barbaresco Consorzio introduced them in 2007. 181 MGA were officially delimited, of which 170 were vineyard areas and 11 were village designations. Following the introductions of MGA for Barolo (and Barbaresco) the term Vigna (Italian for vineyard) can be used on labels after its respective MGA and only if the vineyard is within one of the approved official geographic mentions.


title: Barolo

text: Barolo wine is produced from the nebbiolo grape variety with the Lampia, Michet and Rosé clones authorized. The clusters are dark blue and greyish with the abundant wax that dresses the grapes. Their form is lengthened and pyramidal, with small, spherical grapes and substantial peel. The leaves are of average size with three or five nevertheless voluptuous lobes. Compared to the annual growth cycle of other Piedmontese grape varieties, nebbiolo is one of the first varieties to bud and later varieties to ripen with harvest taking place in mid to late October. In some vintages, other Piedmontese producers are able to pick and complete fermentation of their Barbera and Dolcetto plantings before Barolo producers have even begun their harvest. According to DOCG regulations, Barolos are to be composed of 100% nebbiolo. Historically producers would blend other grapes such as Barbera and today there is speculation that modern Barolo producers may be blending in Barbera, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah but there has been no conclusive proof of this practice. In the 1990s producers in the Barolo zone petitioned that the required nebbiolo content be lowered from 100% to 90% but this petition was eventually defeated.


title: Barolo

text: Barolos tend to be rich, deeply concentrated full bodied wines with pronounced tannins and acidity. The wines are almost always lightly colored varying from ruby to garnet in their youth to more brick and orange hues as they age. Like Pinot noir, Barolos are never opaque. Barolos have the potential for a wide range of complex and exotic aromas with tar and roses being common notes. Other aromas associated with Barolos include camphor, chocolate, dried fruit, damsons, eucalyptus, leather, licorice, mint, mulberries, plum, spice, strawberries, tobacco, white truffles as well as dried and fresh herbs. The tannins of the wine add texture and serve to balance Barolo's moderate to high alcohol levels (Minimum 13% but most often above 15% ABV). Excessive extraction from prolonged maceration periods and oak aging can give the wines an over-extracted bitterness.


title: Barolo

text: Within the different communes of the Barolo zone, stylistic differences emerge due to differences in soil type. The calcareous marl soils of Barolo and La Morra are relatively fertile and tend to produce softer, more aromatic and fruity wines that age relatively sooner than Barolos from other parts of the zone. The less fertile, sandstone soils of the Monforte d'Alba and Serralunga d'Alba commune produce more intense, structured wines that need more time to mature. Castiglione Falletto is located on a spur between the two valleys with overlapping soil types. This region tends to produce wines with the elegance and aromatics of the Barolo commune and the structure of wines from Serralunga d'Alba.


title: Barolo

text: In the Piedmont region, old Barolo wine is used to make an after-dinner digestif known as Barolo Chinato. The bark from the South American cinchona tree is steeped in Barolo and then flavoured with a variety of ingredients, depending on the producer's unique recipe. Some common ingredients of Barolo Chinato include cinnamon, coriander, iris flowers, mint and vanilla. The resulting beverage is very aromatic and smooth.


title: Barolo

text: A string of favourable vintages in the late 1990s led to an increase of price for Barolos and, in turn, led to increased plantings. Between 1990 and 2004 there was a 47% increase in nebbiolo plantings in the Barolo zone with under vine. The production subsequently increased from 7 million bottles in the mid-1990s to 10.25 million bottles in the mid-2000s. In the rush to increase plantings some of the less ideal sites previously used by Barbera and Dolcetto were gobbled up. It remains to be seen if these sites will be able to adequately ripen nebbiolo enough to produce quality Barolo that justifies the high price of the wine. Some experts are predicting a market correction similar to what was seen in the 1980s when a backlog of vintages caused prices to stabilize.


title: Barolo

text: A big, powerful, tannic wine, Barolo needs to be matched with foods of similar weight. Paired with light dishes low in protein, such as steamed vegetables, a Barolo will overwhelm the food; its tannins will react with the proteins on the tongue and sides of the mouth, accentuating the bitterness and drying the palate. In Piedmont, the wines are often paired with meat dishes, heavy pastas and rich risotti; the tannins bind to the food proteins and come across as softer.


title: Gordon Murray

text: Ian Gordon Murray (born 18 June 1946 in Durban, Union of South Africa), is a South African-born British designer of Formula One racing cars and the McLaren F1 road car. He is the founder and CEO of Gordon Murray Automotive.


title: Gordon Murray

text: Born to Scottish immigrant parents, Murray was born and grew up in Durban, South Africa. His father was a motorcycle racer and later prepared racing cars. Murray studied mechanical engineering at Natal Technical College (now Durban University of Technology, which made Murray an Honorary Professor in 2002 and awarded him an honorary doctorate in 2011). He built and raced his own car, the IGM Ford, in the South African National Class during 1967 and 1968.


title: Gordon Murray

text: Murray moved to England in 1969, hoping to find a job at Lotus Cars. But Murray was offered a job at Brabham after coincidentally meeting then Brabham designer Ron Tauranac. When Bernie Ecclestone took over the Brabham team, he appointed Murray Chief Designer. There Murray designed many Grand Prix cars, some of which were World Championship Grand Prix winners. These designs include the extraordinary BT46B, also known as "the Brabham fan car", as well as the World Championship winning BT49 and BT52. Murray developed a reputation for an innovative approach to design, applied not only to car concepts and details but also to race strategy.


title: Gordon Murray

text: Between 1973 and 1985 Murray's Brabhams scored 22 Grand Prix wins, finished 2nd in the Constructors' Championship in 1975 and 1981, and gave Nelson Piquet Drivers' Championships in 1981 and 1983. For the season, Murray designed the radical and highly ambitious lowline Brabham BT55 in an effort to increase downforce without adding excessive drag by lowering overall ride height. The car however was not a success, and the year proved disastrous for Brabham, with the team's car, the Brabham BT54 called into use for the British Grand Prix in a desperate effort to get results.


title: Gordon Murray

text: Despite the BT55's problems and lack of results Murray remained convinced that his design was correct. During 1986 it was discovered the car's main problem was actually the BMW engine which in the lowline design had to be turned to an angle of 18° from horizontal. This caused oil surge when cornering and further harmed the engine's already poor throttle response. While the car had better downforce in the corners than its predecessor and was one of the fastest in a straight line thanks to its low drag, the engine problems saw to it that the car was only competitive on the fast circuits of the year such as Hockenheim, the Österreichring and Monza. In a late 1986 season interview, Murray stated that he believed the lowline concept would work better if mated to a more compact V6 such as the Honda or TAG-Porsche engines, rather than a taller Straight-4 like the BMW. A further noteworthy aspect was the inconsistent Pirelli race tyres which had also hampered the team's 1985 season.


title: Gordon Murray

text: After leaving Brabham, Murray had received an offer from Ron Dennis and joined McLaren as Technical Director on a three-year contract taking over the role formerly held by John Barnard. Learning from his low-line Brabham experience (he had also brought his BT55 drawings with him from Brabham), Murray played a part in the design team, headed by Steve Nichols, which produced not only 1987's McLaren MP4/3 which had won 3 races and had been much more streamlined than the previous McLaren MP4/2 series designed by Barnard, but also the Honda turbo powered McLaren MP4/4 which won 15 of the 16 Grands Prix, and gave Ayrton Senna his first Drivers' Championship. In the Constructors' Championship McLaren's points score of 199 was (at that time) an all-time high. Murray also played a small part in the design of the 1989 MP4/5 and 1990 MP4/5B along with Nichols and Neil Oatley. The MP4/5 and MP4/5B also won the driver's and constructor's championships in both years. Over the period 1988–91 the McLaren team won four consecutive Constructors' and Drivers' Championships: Alain Prost won the Drivers' Championship in 1989, Senna won further Drivers' Championships in 1990 and 1991.


title: Gordon Murray

text: The list of cars that were designed by (or associated with) Gordon Murray and actually raced in Formula One is:


title: Gordon Murray

text: From 1991 to 2004, Murray headed the offshoot McLaren Cars team to design road-going supercars such as the McLaren F1.


title: Gordon Murray

text: In July 2007 the Gordon Murray Design consultancy was established, and released initial details regarding its upcoming T.25 (Type 25) prototype city car along with mention of a future lightweight, economical supercar project. The T25 would be smaller than a Smart Fortwo.


title: Gordon Murray

text: On 17 November 2008 Gordon Murray won the 'Idea of the Year' accolade at Autocar magazine's annual awards ceremony for the manufacturing process for the T.25.


title: Gordon Murray

text: In November 2009 Gordon Murray Design and Zytek Automotive announced plans to develop an electric-powered version, the T.27. The car being a product of a partnership between Murray's company and British technology company Zytek, in charge of building the powertrain.


title: Gordon Murray

text: A celebration of 50 years of Murray's involvement in the car industry was held called "One Formula". Every one of Murray's F1 designs was on display along with the McLaren F1 roadcar and examples from his personal car collection, along with hundreds of rock band T-shirts that Murray had amassed over the years. The book "One Formula - 50 years of car design" details Murray's designs.


title: Gordon Murray

text: On 27 January 2022, Gordon Murray Automotive announced the T.33 super car. A twin-seater 'day to day' super car with the same engine from the T.50, but built on a new platform to be used by three other future cars.


title: Gordon Murray

text: Murray independently designed the "Rocket", an ultra-lightweight, open cockpit roadster powered by a 1-litre motorcycle engine, which has an appearance similar to that of a 60's era Grand Prix car. Looking like a single-seater, it could accommodate a passenger in tandem with the driver, the second seat located beneath a removable cover. The "Rocket" was built by former racing driver Chris Craft at the Light Car Company.


title: Gordon Murray

text: In September 2016 it was announced that Murray had been appointed to develop the OX truck, a flat pack low-cost vehicle, for the British charity Global Vehicle Trust (GVT). GVT founded OX Delivers to utilise the design to make last-mile transport more accessible and reliable in emerging markets. Murray created four experimental prototypes; XP1-XP4. XP2, XP3, and XP4 are owned by OX Delivers, with two of the vehicles having been converted to fully-electric trucks. XP1 is owned by Murray for his private collection.


title: Gordon Murray

text: From 2015, Murray collaborated with TVR to design the upcoming TVR models, with the TVR Griffith released in 2017.


title: Gordon Murray

text: On 28 December 2018, it was announced that Murray had been made a CBE in the 2019 New Year Honours, for services to motoring.


title: Epididymitis

text: Epididymitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the epididymis, a curved structure at the back of the testicle. Onset of pain is typically over a day or two. The pain may improve with raising the testicle. Other symptoms may include swelling of the testicle, burning with urination, or frequent urination. Inflammation of the testicle is commonly also present.


title: Epididymitis

text: In those who are young and sexually active gonorrhea and chlamydia are frequently the underlying cause. In older males and men who practice insertive anal sex, enteric bacteria are a common cause. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. Conditions that may result in similar symptoms include testicular torsion, inguinal hernia, and testicular cancer. Ultrasound can be useful if the diagnosis is unclear.


title: Epididymitis

text: Treatment may include pain medications, NSAIDs, and elevation. Recommended antibiotics in those who are young and sexually active are ceftriaxone and doxycycline. Among those who are older, ofloxacin may be used. Complications include infertility and chronic pain. People aged 15 to 35 are most commonly affected, with about 600,000 people within this age group affected per year in the United States.


title: Epididymitis

text: Those aged 15 to 35 are most commonly affected. The acute form usually develops over the course of several days, with pain and swelling frequently in only one testis, which will hang low in the scrotum. There will often be a recent history of dysuria or urethral discharge. Fever is also a common symptom. In the chronic version, the patient may have painful point tenderness but may or may not have an irregular epididymis upon palpation, though palpation may reveal an indurated epididymis. A scrotal ultrasound may reveal problems with the epididymis, but such an ultrasound may also show nothing unusual. The majority of patients who present with chronic epididymitis have had symptoms for over five years.


title: Epididymitis

text: Untreated, acute epididymitis's major complications are abscess formation and testicular infarction. Chronic epididymitis can lead to permanent damage or even destruction of the epididymis and testicle (resulting in infertility and/or hypogonadism), and infection may spread to any other organ or system of the body. Chronic pain is also an associated complication for untreated chronic epididymitis.


title: Epididymitis

text: Though urinary tract infections in men are rare, bacterial infection is the most common cause of acute epididymitis. The bacteria in the urethra back-track through the urinary and reproductive structures to the epididymis. In rare circumstances, the infection reaches the epididymis via the bloodstream.


title: Epididymitis

text: In sexually active men, "Chlamydia trachomatis" is responsible for two-thirds of acute cases, followed by "Neisseria gonorrhoeae" and "E. coli" (or other bacteria that cause urinary tract infection). Particularly among men over age 35 in whom the cause is "E. coli", epididymitis is commonly due to urinary tract obstruction. Less common microbes include "Ureaplasma", Mycobacterium, and "cytomegalovirus", or "Cryptococcus" in patients with HIV infection. "E. coli" is more common in boys before puberty, the elderly, and men who have sex with men. In the majority of cases in which bacteria are the cause, only one side of the scrotum or the other is the locus of pain.


title: Epididymitis

text: Non-infectious causes are also possible. Reflux of sterile urine (urine without bacteria) through the ejaculatory ducts may cause inflammation with obstruction. In children, it may be a response following an infection with enterovirus, adenovirus or "Mycoplasma pneumoniae". Rare non-infectious causes of chronic epididymitis include sarcoidosis (more prevalent in black men) and Behçet's disease.


title: Epididymitis

text: Any form of epididymitis can be caused by genito-urinary surgery, including prostatectomy and urinary catheterization. Congestive epididymitis is a long-term complication of vasectomy. Chemical epididymitis may also result from drugs such as amiodarone.


title: Epididymitis

text: Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. Conditions that may result in similar symptoms include testicular torsion, inguinal hernia, and testicular cancer. Ultrasound can be useful if the diagnosis is unclear.


title: Epididymitis

text: Epididymitis usually has a gradual onset. Typical findings are redness, warmth and swelling of the scrotum, with tenderness behind the testicle, away from the middle (this is the normal position of the epididymis relative to the testicle). The cremasteric reflex (elevation of the testicle in response to stroking the upper inner thigh) remains normal. This is a useful sign to distinguish it from testicular torsion. If there is pain relieved by elevation of the testicle, this is called Prehn's sign, which is, however, non-specific and is not useful for diagnosis.


title: Epididymitis

text: Before the advent of sophisticated medical imaging techniques, surgical exploration was the standard of care. Today, Doppler ultrasound is a common test: it can demonstrate areas of blood flow and can distinguish clearly between epididymitis and torsion. However, as torsion and other sources of testicular pain can often be determined by palpation alone, some studies have suggested that the only real benefit of an ultrasound is to assure the person that they do not have testicular cancer. Nuclear testicular blood flow testing is rarely used.


title: Epididymitis

text: Additional tests may be necessary to identify underlying causes. In younger children, a urinary tract anomaly is frequently found. In sexually active men, tests for sexually transmitted diseases may be done. These may include microscopy and culture of a first void urine sample, Gram stain and culture of fluid or a swab from the urethra, nucleic acid amplification tests (to amplify and detect microbial DNA or other nucleic acids) or tests for syphilis and HIV.


title: Epididymitis

text: Epididymitis can be classified as acute, subacute, and chronic, depending on the duration of symptoms.


title: Epididymitis

text: Chronic epididymitis is epididymitis that is present for more than 3 months. Chronic epididymitis is characterized by inflammation even when there is no infection present. Tests are needed to distinguish chronic epididymitis from a range of other disorders that can cause constant scrotal pain including testicular cancer (though this is often painless), enlarged scrotal veins (varicocele), calcifications, and a possible cyst within the epididymis. Some research has found that as much as 80% of visits to a urologist for scrotal pain are for chronic epididymitis. As a further complication, the nerves in the scrotal area are closely connected to those of the abdomen, sometimes causing abdominal pain similar to a hernia (see referred pain).


title: Epididymitis

text: Chronic epididymitis is most commonly associated with lower back pain, and the onset of pain often co-occurs with activity that stresses the low back (i.e., heavy lifting, long periods of car driving, poor posture while sitting, or any other activity that interferes with the normal curve of the lumbar lordosis region).


title: Epididymitis

text: In both the acute and chronic forms, antibiotics are used if an infection is suspected. The treatment of choice is often azithromycin and cefixime to cover both gonorrhoeae and chlamydia. Fluoroquinolones are no longer recommended due to widespread resistance of gonorrhoeae to this class. Doxycycline may be used as an alternative to azithromycin. In chronic epididymitis, a four- to six-week course of antibiotics may be prescribed to ensure the complete eradication of any possible bacterial cause, especially the various chlamydiae.


title: Epididymitis

text: For cases caused by enteric organisms (such as "E. coli"), ofloxacin or levofloxacin are recommended.


title: Epididymitis

text: In children, fluoroquinolones and doxycycline are best avoided. Since bacteria that cause urinary tract infections are often the cause of epididymitis in children, co-trimoxazole or suited penicillins (for example, cephalexin) can be used.


title: Epididymitis

text: Household remedies such as elevation of the scrotum and cold compresses applied regularly to the scrotum may relieve the pain in acute cases. Painkillers or anti-inflammatory drugs are often used for treatment of both chronic and acute forms. Hospitalisation is indicated for severe cases, and check-ups can ensure the infection has cleared up. Surgical removal of the epididymis is rarely necessary, causes sterility, and only gives relief from pain in approximately 50% of cases. However, in acute suppurating epididymitis (acute epididymitis with a discharge of pus), an epididymotomy may be recommended; in refractory cases, a full epididymectomy may be required. In cases with unrelenting testicular pain, removal of the entire testicle—orchiectomy—may also be warranted.


title: Epididymitis

text: It is generally believed that most cases of chronic epididymitis will eventually "burn out" of patient's system if left untreated, though this might take years or even decades. However, some prostate-related medications have proven effective in treating chronic epididymitis, including doxazosin.


title: Epididymitis

text: Epididymitis makes up 1 in 144 visits for medical care (0.69 percent) in men 18 to 50 years old or 600,000 cases in males between 18 and 35 in the United States.


title: Epididymitis

text: It occurs primarily in those 16 to 30 years of age and 51 to 70 years. As of 2008 there appears to be an increase in incidences in the United States that parallels an increase in reported cases of chlamydia and gonorrhea.


title: Reina Ueda

text: Ueda was born in Toyama Prefecture on January 17, 1994. From an early age, she had an interest in performing, joining her school's theater club in elementary. While a member of her junior high school's theater club, she became interested in becoming a voice actress after interacting with a club member who wanted to pursue that profession. She decided to become a voice actor because, among other reasons, she wanted to change her personality. During her third year of high school, she applied for a voice acting audition only three days before the deadline of it.


title: Reina Ueda

text: Ueda won the Second Class Grand Prix in an audition held by the agency 81 Produce in 2011, and formally joined the agency the following year. Her first role was in the anime series "". She also became part of the voice actor unit Anisoni∀ together with three other 81 Produce newcomers: Rie Takahashi, Chiyeri Hayashida, and Kayoto Tsumita. In 2013, she voiced 18 sisters in the anime series "Tesagure! Bukatsu-mono".


title: Reina Ueda

text: In 2014, Ueda was cast in her first main role as Naru Sekiya, the protagonist of the anime series "Hanayamata"; she and her co-stars performed the series' opening theme under the name Team Hanayamata. The following year, she was cast as Meika Katai in "Mikagura School Suite", Mikan Akemi in "My Monster Secret", and Elena Arshavina in "". She was also one of three recipients of the Best New Actress Award at the 9th Seiyu Awards.


title: Reina Ueda

text: In 2016, Ueda played the role of Hane Sakura, the protagonist of the anime series "Bakuon!!"; she and her co-stars performed the show's ending theme . She was also cast as Lily Shirogane in "Aikatsu Stars!", Mira Yurisaki in "Dimension W", Sophie Noelle in "Kuromukuro", and Mallow in "". That same year, she made her debut as a singer, releasing the mini-album "RefRain" on December 21.


title: Reina Ueda

text: In 2017, Ueda played the roles of Hiromi Maiharu in "Minami Kamakura High School Girls Cycling Club" and Shiori Shinomiya in "Sakura Quest". She also made an appearance at New Jersey's AnimeNEXT event in April.


title: Reina Ueda

text: In 2018, she played the roles of Arthur Pendragon in "Märchen Mädchen" and Akane Shinjō in "SSSS.Gridman". She also released her first solo single "Sleepland" on February 7, 2018; the title track is used as the ending theme to "Märchen Mädchen".


title: Reina Ueda

text: In 2019, she was cast as Miyako Hoshino in "Wataten!: An Angel Flew Down to Me" and Gray in "The Case Files of Lord El-Melloi II: Rail Zeppelin Grace Note".


title: Reina Ueda

text: In 2020, she voiced Shuka Karino in "Darwin's Game". She also released her second single on October 21, 2020; the title track was used as the opening theme to the anime series "".


title: Old Sparky

text: Old Sparky is the nickname of the electric chairs in Arkansas, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Kentucky, Nebraska, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. Old Smokey was the nickname of the electric chairs used in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. "Old Sparky" is sometimes used to refer to electric chairs in general, and not one of a specific state.


title: Old Sparky

text: Connecticut legislated lethal injection as its sole method of execution in 1995. The last person executed by electrocution was Joseph "Mad Dog" Taborsky in May 1960. Connecticut's "Old Sparky" has not been tested since it was moved from Wethersfield to the Northern Correctional Institution in Somers in 1962, and prison officials claim the prison's electrical system cannot handle it.


title: Old Sparky

text: The electric chair was the sole means of execution in Florida from 1924 until 2000, when the Florida State Legislature, under pressure from the U.S. Supreme Court, signed lethal injection into law. Although no one has been executed in this manner since 1999, prisoners awaiting execution on Florida's death row may still be electrocuted at their request. It is currently located in Florida State Prison on the outskirts of Starke. It was known for frequent malfunctions in the 1990s, namely in the cases of Jesse Tafero (executed May 4, 1990), Pedro Medina (executed March 25, 1997) and Allen Lee Davis (executed July 8, 1999). Reportedly, 6-inch flames shot out of Tafero's head and 12-inch flames shot out of Medina's head, raising the question whether use of the electric chair was "cruel and unusual punishment". After the Medina execution, Florida Attorney General Bob Butterworth commented, "People who wish to commit murder, they'd better not do it in the state of Florida because we may have a problem with the electric chair."


title: Old Sparky

text: Investigators have been unable to identify the cause of the problems. The wooden chair had been replaced in early 1999 to accommodate Davis's girth. The electrical components remained the same for the system.


title: Old Sparky

text: To ensure proper contact between the inmate's head and the electrode, a saline-soaked sponge stuffed between the two was necessary. In the Tafero incident, a natural sponge was replaced with a synthetic sponge that caught fire during the execution. In the Medina incident, prison officials apparently did not properly soak the sponge in saline and it caught fire as well. Photographs provided after Davis's execution showed that Davis suffered a bloody nose during the execution.


title: Old Sparky

text: The 1999 execution of Allen Lee Davis incited outrage after witnesses saw his white shirt rapidly turn red with blood during his execution. Prison officials later determined the blood came from an unusually profuse nosebleed most likely caused by an improperly fitted head strap. The source of the blood was not evident to witnesses during execution, because Davis's head was covered with a traditional hood. A prison inspector general took photographs of Davis's body, still bloody and strapped in the chair, shortly after execution. These photographs later became key evidence in several cases mounting yet another challenge to the constitutionality of the electric chair. These lawsuits ultimately came to the Florida Supreme Court in the fall of 1999, when a majority (4 of the 7 Justices) found that the electric chair was constitutional in a case brought by death row inmate Thomas Provenzano. One of the dissenting Justices, Leander J. Shaw, Jr., took the extraordinary step of attaching to his opinion three color photographs of Davis's bloody body strapped in the chair. This publication marked the first time those photographs had surfaced on the Internet or, for that matter, anywhere outside court and prison files.


title: Old Sparky

text: The effect was to create an immediate and sometimes macabre international debate over capital punishment in general and Florida's adherence to electrocution in particular. The Florida Supreme Court's web servers repeatedly crashed under the demand for access to the photographs, reputed to be the first actual photographs of an American state execution in decades. The images were used during a protest demonstration in Madrid in support of a Spaniard on Florida's death row. Some death penalty supporters in the United States viewed the photographs as a deterrent, apparently believing they had been posted on the website as a warning to all potentially dangerous criminals.


title: Old Sparky

text: Some Florida politicians vowed never to eliminate the electric chair despite the debate, but events rapidly changed after the U.S. Supreme Court agreed to hear an appeal from the Florida Supreme Court's split decision upholding electrocution. The nation's high court had declined to review appeals after the prior three malfunctions, so observers concluded that the nation's high court now had come to view Florida's death penalty problems more dimly. Partly on the advice of Attorney General Butterworth, Florida's Governor Jeb Bush summoned the legislature into special session and in early 2000 it quickly approved lethal injection as the means of execution that must be used unless the inmate requests electrocution. The Attorney General then notified the Federal court and it agreed to dismiss the case based on the change in law.


title: Old Sparky

text: Georgia's electric chair, known as "Old Sparky", located at Georgia State Prison was installed in 1924 following the state's abolition of hanging and was the sole method of execution in Georgia until October 25, 2001. The original chair, which was painted white, was replaced in 1980 and sent from the Georgia Diagnostic and Classification Center back to Reidsville, while a squat, varnished replacement was constructed to replace it. Between 1924 and 1998, Georgia electrocuted 441 prisoners. Today the original chair is on public display at Georgia State Prison, while its replacement is situated in a closet near the death chamber at the Georgia Diagnostic and Classification Center. It was used in the 1945 execution of Lena Baker. In 1996, Georgia State Representative Doug Teper unsuccessfully sponsored a bill to replace the state's electric chair with a guillotine in order to facilitate the use of the condemned prisoners' remains in organ donation.


title: Old Sparky

text: Kentucky's electric chair, known as "Old Sparky", is located at the Kentucky State Penitentiary in Eddyville, Kentucky. It was first used on July 8, 1911; the first inmate to die in the chair was James Buckner, convicted of killing a police officer several weeks earlier. On July 13, 1928, Kentucky set a record by electrocuting eight men in its chair, each immediately after the other, more than any other state has electrocuted in a single day. The state has decommissioned the electric chair except for those whose capital crimes were committed prior to March 31, 1998, and choose death by electrocution rather than death by lethal injection or if lethal injection is declared unconstitutional by a court. Prior to this legislated date, 163 deaths had occurred in Kentucky's electric chair. The last such execution by electric chair occurred on July 1, 1997, when convicted murderer Harold McQueen, Jr. was executed in it.


title: Old Sparky

text: In 1887, New York State established a committee to determine a new, more humane system of execution to replace hanging. Alfred P. Southwick, a member of the committee, developed the idea of putting electric current through a device after hearing about how relatively painlessly and quickly a drunken man died after touching exposed power lines. As Southwick was a dentist accustomed to performing procedures on sitting subjects, his electrical device appeared in the form of a chair.


title: Old Sparky

text: On June 4, 1888, Governor David B. Hill authorized the introduction of the electric chair. It was first used two years later when William Kemmler became the first person in the world to be executed by electricity at Auburn Prison, Auburn, New York on August 6, 1890.


title: Old Sparky

text: "Old Sparky" was first used at Sing Sing prison for a mass execution on July 7, 1891. The order of execution, which would start at 4:30 a.m., was listed as James J. Slocum, Harris Smiler, Shibuya Jugiro, and Joseph Wood.


title: Old Sparky

text: From 1914, all executions in New York state were conducted at Sing Sing prison using "Old Sparky". After a series of escapes from death row, the "Death House" at Sing Sing was built in 1920 and began executions in 1922. It was a prison within the Sing Sing prison. The Death House block, which had its own hospital, kitchen, visiting room, and exercise yard, had 24 single cells plus an additional three cells for condemned women. A chamber where a prisoner spent their last day was nicknamed the "Dance Hall". A corridor, known as the "Last Mile", connected the ante-room to the execution chamber in which the electric chair was situated.


title: Old Sparky

text: Executions at Sing Sing were traditionally carried out at 11 p.m. on Thursdays. Condemned prisoners would be brought into the execution room escorted by seven guards and the prison chaplain. Already waiting in the room would be the warden of Sing Sing, the state electrician, two doctors and twelve state appointed witnesses. After the condemned prisoner was strapped into the chair and the electrodes attached, the warden would step forward and read out the final decision on the sentence. The prisoner would be asked for any last words or for a benediction. With a signal, the execution would then begin. Witnesses would leave once both doctors had confirmed that death had occurred.


title: Old Sparky

text: In its 75 years of operation, a total of 695 people were executed by the electric chair in New York state (614 at Sing Sing). Eddie Lee Mays, electrocuted at Sing Sing on August 15, 1963, was the last person to be executed in New York state. Two years later New York state abolished capital punishment. The state would later reinstate the practice in 1995 using lethal injection, but the practice was abolished again in 2004, after the Court of Appeals ruled in "People v. LaValle" that it violated the state constitution. No inmates were executed during the nine years that capital punishment was reinstated in New York.


title: Old Sparky

text: Ohio was the second state to adopt the electric chair as a means of execution, executing 315 people between 1897 and its last use was in 1963. The state stopped using the electric chair in 2001, and now exclusively utilizes lethal injection in executions. Ohio's Old Sparky is now a museum exhibit in the Ohio State Reformatory.


title: Old Sparky

text: The state installed the "Old Sparky" in 1912 at the Central Correctional Institution (CCI) in Columbia. In 1944 it was used to execute 14-year-old George Stinney, the youngest person to be sentenced to death in the United States for more than a century. In 1990, the chair was relocated to the newly built Broad River Correctional Institution. It is managed by the South Carolina Department of Corrections.


title: Old Sparky

text: In 1997, all death row inmates were relocated from Broad River to the Lieber Correctional Institution. The move provided better management controls and ensured correctional staff who dealt with condemned prisoners on a daily basis were not the same officers given the responsibility of carrying out capital punishment.


title: Old Sparky

text: The most recent use of "Old Sparky" was on 21 June 2008 when convicted murderer James Earl Reed opted for this method of execution.


title: Old Sparky

text: Under Act 43 of 2021, the electric chair is now the secondary method of execution, although a firing squad is optional.


title: Old Sparky

text: The Texas electric chair to which the name "Old Sparky" is applied was in use from 1924 to 1964. During that time, it saw the deaths of 361 prisoners sentenced to die by judicial electrocution. It was built by incarcerated craftsmen in 1924. Following its decommissioning, it was originally relegated to a prison dump before being rescued. Today, it is on public display as part of a replica death chamber at the Texas Prison Museum in Huntsville, Texas, along with tubing and straps used in Texas's first execution by lethal injection.


title: Old Sparky

text: In 1971, the Greater Dallas Crime Commission, a business organization, circulated a petition to recommission Texas's "Old Sparky". The petition received 10,620 endorsements.


title: Old Sparky

text: The now-decommissioned electric chair known as "Old Sparky" at the now-closed West Virginia Penitentiary in Moundsville, West Virginia was installed in a facility originally used for hanging. It was in use from 1951 until 1959, during which time nine condemned prisoners were executed in the chair. The chair was bolted to a low platform which covered what had previously been the trapdoor of the gallows used in the state's judicial hangings. Its control apparatus was designed in such a way that three push-button switches were to be simultaneously pressed by three members of the execution team; only one of these switches actually completed the circuit, allowing each member of the execution team to reassure himself that perhaps he had not been the one who had actually initiated the death of the condemned.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: Morecambe Football Club is a professional football club in Morecambe, Lancashire, England. The team competes in League One, the third tier of the English football league system.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: Nicknamed the "Shrimps" due to the coastal town's local speciality food, the club have played home games at the Mazuma Stadium since moving from their original home at Christie Park in 2010. The club contests rivalries with nearby Accrington Stanley and formerly with non-league neighbours Lancaster City, along with other Lancashire clubs.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: The club was founded in 1920 and entered into the Lancashire Combination, where they would remain for the next 48 years, winning the league title on five occasions: 1924–25, 1961–62, 1962–63, 1966–67 and 1967–68. They joined the newly formed Northern Premier League in 1968 and went on to win the FA Trophy in 1974 and the Northern Premier League President's Cup in 1992. Under the stewardship of Jim Harvey, a second-place finish in the 1994–95 Northern Premier League Premier Division season saw them promoted into the Conference. Having been beaten in the 2003 and 2006 play-off semi-finals, Sammy McIlroy led the club to promotion into the Football League with victory in the 2007 play-off Final. They finished in the top ten of League Two twice, reaching the play-off semi-finals after fourth-place finishes in 2009–10 and 2020–21; in the latter season they reached the 2021 League Two play-off Final and achieved a first promotion to League One.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: Football in the town dates back to the turn of the 20th century; however, it was not until 7 May 1920 that Morecambe FC was formed after a meeting at the local West View Hotel. The club then took its place in the Lancashire Combination League for the 1920–21 season.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: Sharing grounds with Morecambe Cricket Club at Woodhill Lane during the first season, football proved popular, with crowds in excess of 3,000 for derby fixtures with Lancaster City and Fleetwood Town. Although success on the field was hard to come by, with the club languishing near the bottom of the table, at the end of the first season the club moved grounds to Roseberry Park. A few years later after the purchase of the ground by the then-President, J.B. Christie, the ground's name was changed to Christie Park in his honour. Those early seasons proved difficult, and it was not until 1924–25 that the club began to enjoy some success, claiming the league title for the first time; this was later followed by success in the Lancashire Junior Cup, beating old rivals Chorley after two replays, and in front of over 30,000 spectators.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: Christie bequeathed the ground to the club in 1927 and also helped incorporate the club into a Limited Company with a then share capital of £1,000. The rest of the 1920s and the whole of the 1930s saw a constant struggle to keep football alive on the North West coast, with poor results on the field and little or no revenue off the field.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: The post-war era saw an upturn in the Shrimps' fortunes with steady progress throughout the late 1940s and nearly all the 1950s, with a visible marked improvement when in 1956 Ken Horton was appointed player-manager. Whilst success was only just around the corner, the foundations for the future were being built. The Auxiliary Supporters club had been formed and with their help many ground improvements were undertaken, so that the on-field success dovetailed neatly with the off-field enterprise. The fourteen years from 1960 could justifiably be said to be Morecambe's Golden Era. This included an FA Cup third round appearance in 1961–62, a 1–0 defeat to Weymouth; a Lancashire Senior Cup Final victory in 1968, a 2–1 win over Burnley; and an FA Trophy success at Wembley in 1974, a 2–1 win over Dartford in the final.


title: Morecambe F.C.

text: The next 12 years were as barren as any previous period in the club's history. Attendances fell from a creditable 2,000 plus to a miserable 200 minus, with a visible decline in the club fortunes during that period. However, in 1985–86, signs of improvement appeared; the club's league position improved, and success in cups came as well over the next few years. It took ten years for the club to reach its ambition of promotion to the Football Conference after many further improvements, not only to the ground but also to the club's structure.