title: Bluegill

text: The bluegill, amongst a wide array of other fishes, exhibits the C-start escape response, which is generated by large neurons called Mauthner cells. Mauthner cells operate as a command center for the escape response and respond quickly once the neural pathway has been activated by an initial stimulus. The cells trigger a contraction of muscle that bends the fish body into a 'C' to then aid in the propulsion away from a predator. The C-start trajectory is highly variable, allowing the fish to alter its escape response each time. Because of this high variability, predators have a lower chance of learning a successful predation technique to capture the fish. The C-start escape response produces other advantages, including the ability to move quickly and unpredictably to capture prey.


title: Bluegill

text: Hydrodynamically, the bluegill exhibits specific flow patterns that accompany its C-start escape response. The caudal (tail) fin is a main source of momentum in typical kinematic models of the C-start escape response but the bluegill draws a majority of its momentum from the body bending associated with the response, as well as its dorsal and anal fins. The dorsal and anal fins' roles as propulsors during escape response suggest that the size of the fins could lead to an evolutionary advantage when escaping predators.


title: Bluegill

text: Spawning season for bluegills starts late in May and extends into August. The peak of the spawning season usually occurs in June in waters of . The male bluegills arrive first at the mating site. They will make a spawning bed of six to 12 inches in diameter in shallow water, clustering as many as 50 beds together. The males scoop out these beds in gravel or sand. Males tend to be very protective and chase everything away from their nests, especially other male bluegills. Some bluegills, regardless of their small size, will even attack snorkelers if they approach the edge of the nest. As a female approaches, the male will begin circling and making grunting noises. The motion and sound of the males seem to attract the females. Females are very choosy and will usually pick males with larger bodies and "ears", making larger size a desirable trait for males to have. If the female enters the nest, both the male and female will circle each other, with the male expressing very aggressive behavior toward the female. If the female stays, the pair will enter the nest and come to rest in the middle. With the male in an upright posture, the pair will touch bellies, quiver, and spawn. These actions are repeated at irregular intervals several times in a row. Once the spawning is done, the male will chase the female out of the nest and guard the eggs. The fertilization process is entirely external. The male's sperm combines with the female's eggs in the water. Smaller males will often hide in nearby weeds and dart into the nest as they attempt to fertilize the eggs. They then quickly dart away. The size of the female plays a large role in how many eggs will be produced. A small female can produce as few as 1,000 eggs, and a large, healthy female can produce up to 100,000 eggs. The male continues to watch over the nest until the larvae are able to hatch and swim away on their own. The bluegill generally begins its spawning career at one year of age, but has been found to spawn as early as four months of age under favorable conditions. Anglers find spawning season to be a very successful time to fish for bluegills, as they aggressively attack anything, including a hook, that comes near.


title: Bluegill

text: The growth of the bluegill is very rapid in the first three years, but slows considerably once the fish reaches maturity. Many fish reach five to eight years old, and in extreme cases, can live 11 years.


title: Bluegill

text: Occasionally a bluegill may spawn with another member of its genus, though this is rare. This tends to happen in bodies of water that are fairly isolated and have a decent population of bluegill in close proximity to another, smaller, population of lepomid species such as green sunfish. Limited nesting grounds can also factor in hybridization causing the females of one species to prefer the nest of another. Bluegill can theoretically hybridize with all other species in the genus lepomis, though the most common hybrid is the Greengill. The hybrid fish are aggressive and have larger mouths than their Bluegill parent. These fish also grow faster than other small mouth fish due to its bigger mouth. Greengills or hybrid Bluegills are the most efficient in growth and can reach approximately 2 lbs or 0.91 kg in one year.


title: Bluegill

text: Bluegills are popular panfish, caught with live bait such as worms, crickets, grasshoppers, flies, minnows, maggots or small frogs, as well as small shrimp bits, processed bait, bread, corn, other table scraps, small crankbaits, spinners, fake worms, or even a bare hook. They mostly bite on vibrant colors like orange, yellow, green, or red, chiefly at dawn and dusk. They are noted for seeking out underwater vegetation for cover; their natural diet consists largely of crickets, water bugs, larvae, and very small fish. The bluegill itself is also occasionally used as bait for larger game fish species, such as blue catfish, flathead catfish and largemouth bass.


title: Bluegill

text: Fishermen are sometimes able to use polarized sunglasses to see through water and find bluegills' spawning beds. Bluegill have a rather bold character; many have no fear of humans, eating food directly dropped into the water, and a population in Canada's Lake Scugog will even allow themselves to be stroked by human observers. Because of their size and the method of cooking them, bluegills are often called panfish.


title: Bluegill

text: The IGFA all tackle world record for the species stands at 2.15 kg (4 lb 12oz) caught from Ketona lake in Alabama in 1950.


title: Bluegill

text: Bluegill populations are notably vulnerable to effects of angling and harvest, particularly in size-structure. Large males appear to be especially vulnerable to effects of fishing because of their tendency to guard nests in the center of colonies. Populations with large males are increasingly difficult to find, and are usually only found in remote locations without angling pressure or in more southern regions where growth rates are high. Reduced bag limits appear to show potential for improving size-structure in over-fished populations.


title: Bluegill

text: Bluegills play an important role in pond and lake management to keep crustacean and insect populations low, as a single bluegill population may eat up to six times its own weight in just one summer.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Benj Pasek and Justin Paul, known together as Pasek and Paul, are an American songwriting duo and composing team for musical theater, films and television. Their works include "", "Dogfight", "Edges", "Dear Evan Hansen", and "James and the Giant Peach". Their original songs have been featured on NBC's "Smash" and in the films "La La Land", for which they won both the Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Original Song for the song "City of Stars", and "The Greatest Showman". Their work on the original musical "Dear Evan Hansen" has received widespread critical acclaim and earned them the 2017 Tony Award for Best Original Score. In 2022, they won the Tony Award for Best Musical for serving as producers for the Broadway production of Michael R. Jackson's Pulitzer Prize-winning musical "A Strange Loop".


title: Pasek and Paul

text: While Pasek usually writes lyrics and Paul usually writes music, they share credit for both elements. Both are graduates of the University of Michigan and winners of the American Theatre Wing's 2007 Jonathan Larson Grant, which honors achievement by composers, lyricists and librettists.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Pasek and Paul started working together as freshmen at the University of Michigan. Both got "background" roles in the school's musical theater production, which inspired them to write "Edges", a song cycle about the trials and tribulations of moving into adulthood and the search for meaning. "Edges" premiered in Ann Arbor, Michigan on April 3, 2005.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: On May 14, 2006, the duo made their New York City premiere: a benefit concert of original songs titled "Become: The Music of Pasek & Paul". Presented by Jamie McGonnigal, performers included Gavin Creel, Cheyenne Jackson, Celia Keenan-Bolger, Jesse Tyler Ferguson, and Steven Pasquale. They also contributed to the 2006 off-Broadway musical "," which won Talkin' Broadway's 2006 Summer Theatre Festival Citation for Outstanding Original Score.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: "Edges" proved popular on social media and within several years it had over 200 productions worldwide, with countries including Australia, South Africa, Denmark, France, South Korea, the United Kingdom, Canada, the Philippines, and the United States.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Pasek and Paul wrote the score to the musical adaptation of Roald Dahl's "James and the Giant Peach", which premiered in 2010 through Goodspeed Musicals. Other early works include "If You Give A Pig A Pancake" (2010) and "Duck For President" for Theatreworks USA, and "Dr. Williams", written for the Orchard Project's 24 Hour Musicals benefit. The show starred Jesse Tyler Ferguson and Cheyenne Jackson. Pasek and Paul were featured in the 2011 documentary film "One Night Stand" about the process. They wrote the lyrics and music to the 2012 musical "Dogfight", also contributing to "A Christmas Story, The Musical", which was nominated for a Tony Award in 2013 for Best Original Score.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Pasek and Paul wrote the music and lyrics to their musical "Dear Evan Hansen." The musical, inspired by the death of a fellow student while Pasek was in high school, features book by Steven Levenson. Directed by Michael Greif and starring Ben Platt, it premiered at the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C. on July 30, 2015. It made its Off-Broadway debut in March 2016 at the Second Stage Theatre, and on Broadway on November 14, 2016, opening three weeks later at the Music Box Theatre. At the 71st Tony Awards, it was nominated for nine awards including Best Musical, Best Score, Best Book of a Musical, and Best Actor in a Musical for Platt. It won six awards including Best Musical and Best Original Score for the duo. At the 2018 Grammy Awards, "Dear Evan Hansen" won Best Musical Theater Album. The musical received the Edgerton Foundation New Play Award and a 2016 Obie Award for Musical Theatre. The show broke box office records at the Music Box Theatre and became the longest-running production to play the venue in Broadway’s history.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: The musical made its West End debut at the Noël Coward Theatre in London on November 19, 2019, following previews in October of the same year. The show was nominated for seven Laurence Olivier Awards at the 2020 ceremony and won three: Best New Musical, Best Actor in a Musical for star Sam Tutty and Best Original Score or New Orchestrations for Pasek and Paul.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: The duo have written original music for several television shows. As of 2007, Pasek and Paul were writing music for the Disney Channel show "Johnny and the Sprites", with songs used in six episodes and for one story in the season's premiere.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Their original material was featured on season 2 of NBC's "Smash" in 2013, and have risen to the Top 25 on the iTunes Pop Charts.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Pasek and Paul also wrote the original song "Runnin' Home to You" performed by Grant Gustin for "The Flash" episode "Duet", a musical crossover between "The Flash" and "Supergirl". Melissa Benoist sang it in "Supergirl"'s "Crisis on Earth-X" crossover episode.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Pasek and Paul wrote the 2016 song "Get Back Up Again" for the film "Trolls", as well as five original songs for the 2016 animated direct-to-video feature "".


title: Pasek and Paul

text: They wrote the lyrics for the musical romantic comedy-drama film "La La Land", which had music written by Justin Hurwitz. The film, in its world premiere, was the opening film at the 73rd Venice International Film Festival on August 31, 2016. The film's track "City of Stars", with their lyrics and composition by Justin Hurwitz, won the 2017 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. "City of Stars" and "Audition" received nominations for Best Original Song at the 89th Academy Awards, and they won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "City of Stars."


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Pasek and Paul wrote the songs for the 2017 musical drama film "The Greatest Showman". About the Barnum & Bailey Circus, the film premiered on December 8, 2017. The duo's song "This Is Me" won a Golden Globe for Best Original Song and was nominated for Best Original Song at the 90th Academy Awards.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: In collaboration with Alan Menken, Pasek and Paul wrote the lyrics for two new songs for Disney's 2019 live action film adaptation of "Aladdin". The film also includes original 1992 song compositions written by Menken, Howard Ashman, and Tim Rice. Pasek and Paul will also write songs for Disney's upcoming live-action film, "Snow White".


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Pasek and Paul also adapted "Dear Evan Hansen" as a feature film for Universal Pictures and director Stephen Chbosky. They wrote two new songs for the film, including "The Anonymous Ones," which was written in collaboration with Amandla Stenberg for the character of Alana Beck, whom Stenberg plays in the film. They also wrote "A Little Closer" for the character of Connor Murphy, played by Colton Ryan, who reprises the role in which he understudied in the Broadway production. Paul also composed the film's underscore with Dan Romer. It premiered at the 2021 Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2021, followed by a release in theaters on September 24, 2021.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: They will next write original songs for Sony Pictures Animation's live-action/animated adaptation of Bernard Waber's children's book "Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile". It will be released on November 18, 2022.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Pasek is the son of Temple University professor Kathy Hirsh-Pasek. His alma mater is the University of Michigan and Friends' Central School. He is gay.


title: Pasek and Paul

text: Paul's alma mater is the University of Michigan and Staples High School. Paul is married; he and his wife have a daughter, born in 2016.


title: Acute accent

text: The acute accent (), , is a diacritic used in many modern written languages with alphabets based on the Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek scripts. For the most commonly encountered uses of the accent in the Latin and Greek alphabets, precomposed characters are available.


title: Acute accent

text: The acute accent was first used in the polytonic orthography of Ancient Greek, where it indicated a syllable with a high pitch. In Modern Greek, a stress accent has replaced the pitch accent, and the acute marks the stressed syllable of a word. The Greek name of the accented syllable was and is ("oxeîa", Modern Greek "oxía") "sharp" or "high", which was calqued (loan-translated) into Latin as "sharpened".


title: Acute accent

text: A graphically similar, but not identical, mark is indicative of a palatalized sound in several languages.


title: Acute accent

text: In Polish, such a mark is known as a () and is an integral part of several letters: four consonants and one vowel. When appearing in consonants, it indicates palatalization, similar to the use of the in Czech and other Slavic languages (e.g. "six"). However, in contrast to the which is usually used for postalveolar consonants, the denotes alveolo-palatal consonants. In traditional Polish typography, the is more nearly vertical than the acute accent, and placed slightly right of center. A similar rule applies to the Belarusian Latin alphabet . However, for computer use, Unicode conflates the codepoints for these letters with those of the accented Latin letters of similar appearance.


title: Acute accent

text: In Serbo-Croatian, as in Polish, the letter is used to represent a voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate .


title: Acute accent

text: In the romanization of Macedonian, and represent the Cyrillic letters (Gje) and (Kje), which stand for palatal or alveolo-palatal consonants, though and (or and ) are more commonly used for this purpose. The same two letters are used to transcribe the postulated Proto-Indo-European phonemes and .


title: Acute accent

text: Sorbian uses the acute for palatalization as in Polish: . Lower Sorbian also uses , and Lower Sorbian previously used and , also written as ; these are now spelt as and .


title: Acute accent

text: In the Quốc Ngữ system for Vietnamese, the Yale romanization for Cantonese, the Pinyin romanization for Mandarin Chinese, and the Bopomofo semi-syllabary, the acute accent indicates a rising tone. In Mandarin, the alternative to the acute accent is the number 2 after the syllable: lái = lai2. In Cantonese Yale, the acute accent is either tone 2, or tone 5 if the vowel(s) are followed by 'h' (if the number form is used, 'h' is omitted): má = ma2, máh = ma5.


title: Acute accent

text: In African languages and Athabaskan languages, it frequently marks a high tone, e.g., Yoruba "apá" 'arm', Nobiin "féntí" 'sweet date', Ekoti "kaláwa" 'boat', Navajo "t’áá" 'just'.


title: Acute accent

text: The acute accent is used in Serbo-Croatian dictionaries and linguistic publications to indicate a high-rising accent. It is not used in everyday writing.


title: Acute accent

text: The acute accent is used to disambiguate certain words which would otherwise be homographs in the following languages:


title: Acute accent

text: As with other diacritical marks, a number of (usually French) loanwords are sometimes spelled in English with an acute accent as used in the original language: these include "attaché", "blasé", "canapé", "cliché", "communiqué", "café", "décor", "déjà vu", "détente", "élite", "entrée", "exposé", "mêlée", "fiancé", "fiancée", "papier-mâché", "passé", "pâté", "piqué", "plié", "repoussé", "résumé", "risqué", "sauté", "roué", "séance", "naïveté", "toupée" and "touché". Retention of the accent is common only in the French ending "é" or "ée", as in these examples, where its absence would tend to suggest a different pronunciation. Thus the French word "résumé" is commonly seen in English as "", with only one accent (but also with both or none).


title: Acute accent

text: Acute accents are sometimes added to loanwords where a final "e" is not silent, for example, "maté" from Spanish "mate," the Maldivian capital "Malé," "saké" from Japanese "sake", and "Pokémon" from the Japanese compound for "pocket monster," the last three from languages which do not use the Roman alphabet, and where transcriptions do not normally use acute accents.


title: Acute accent

text: For foreign terms used in English that have not been assimilated into English or are not in general English usage, italics are generally used with the appropriate accents: for example, "coup d'état", "pièce de résistance", "crème brûlée" and "ancien régime".


title: Acute accent

text: The layout of some European PC keyboards, combined with problematic keyboard-driver semantics, causes some users to use an acute accent or a grave accent instead of an apostrophe when typing in English (e.g. typing or instead of John's).


title: Acute accent

text: Western typographic and calligraphic traditions generally design the acute accent as going from top to bottom. French even has the definition of acute is the accent (), meaning that it descends from top right to lower left.


title: Acute accent

text: In Polish, is instead used which usually has a different shape and style compared to other Western languages. It features a more vertical steep form and is moved more to the right side of center line than acute. As Unicode did not differentiate the from acute, letters from Western font and Polish font had to share the same set of characters which make designing the conflicting character (i.e. "o acute", ) more troublesome. OpenType tried to solve this problem by giving language-sensitive glyph substitution to designers so that the font will automatically switch between Western and Polish based on language settings. New fonts are sensitive to this issue and their design for the diacritics tends toward a more "universal design" so that there will be less need for localization, for example Roboto and Noto typefaces.


title: Acute accent

text: Pinyin uses the acute accent to mark the second tone (rising or high-rising tone), which indicate a tone rising from low to high, causing the writing stroke of acute accent to go from lower left to top right. This contradicts the Western typographic tradition which makes designing the acute accent in Chinese fonts a problem. Designers approach this problem in 3 ways: either keep the original Western form of going top right (thicker) to bottom left (thinner) (e.g. Arial/Times New Roman), flip the stroke to go from bottom left (thicker) to top right (thinner) (e.g. Adobe HeiTi Std/SimSun), or just make the accents without stroke variation (e.g. SimHei).


title: Acute accent

text: The ISO-8859-1 and Windows-1252 character encodings include the letters "á", "é", "í", "ó", "ú", "ý", and their respective capital forms. Dozens more letters with the acute accent are available in Unicode.


title: Acute accent

text: On Windows computers, letters with acute accents can be created by holding down the alt key and typing in a three-number code on the number pad to the right of the keyboard before releasing the Alt key. Before the appearance of Spanish keyboards, Spanish speakers had to learn these codes if they wanted to be able to write acute accents, though some preferred using the Microsoft Word spell checker to add the accent for them. Some young computer users got in the habit of not writing accented letters at all. The codes (which come from the IBM PC encoding) are:


title: Acute accent

text: On most non-US keyboard layouts (e.g. Hiberno-English), these letters can also be made by holding AltGr (or Ctrl+Alt) and the desired letter. Individual applications may have enhanced support for accents.


title: Acute accent

text: On macOS computers, an acute accent is placed on a vowel by pressing and then the vowel, which can also be capitalised; for example, á is formed by pressing and then , and Á is formed by pressing and then .


title: Acute accent

text: Because keyboards have only a limited number of keys, US English keyboards do not have keys for accented characters. The concept of dead key, a key that modified the meaning of the next key press, was developed to overcome this problem. This acute accent key was already present on typewriters where it typed the accent without moving the carriage, so a normal letter could be written on the same place. The US-International layout provides this function: is a dead key so appears to have no effect until the next key is pressed, when it adds the desired accute accent.


title: Acute accent

text: Computers sold in Europe (including UK) have an ('alternate graphic') key which adds a third and (with the Shift key) fourth effect to most keys. Thus produces and produces .


title: Temperature in Canada

text: Temperature in Canada varies widely from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near , but can drop below with severe wind chills. In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from , with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding .


title: Temperature in Canada

text: Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost; however, the future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada. Canada's annual average temperature over land has warmed by , with changes ranging from in various regions, since 1948. The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies. In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada.


title: Temperature in Canada

text: The following tables show the average maximum and minimum temperatures of Canada of various cities across Canada, based on the climate period from 1981 to 2010 for the months of January and July (generally the lowest and highest average temperature months, but not in every case).


title: Temperature in Canada

text: The two major Canadian cities that fall outside the continental climate schema are Vancouver and Victoria. Vancouver experiences an oceanic climate, bordering warm-summer mediterranean with a marked summer dry season. Victoria, BC is the only major Canadian city entirely in a warm-summer mediterranean climate. Of the eight largest Canadian cities, Ottawa, Montreal and Toronto have the warmest summers, Winnipeg the coldest winters, while Vancouver's winters are far milder than any other large city in Canada.


title: Temperature in Canada

text: In mountainous regions such as British Columbia the variety of elevations creates micro-climates with average temperatures that can vary wildly within relatively small distances. A few small towns in southern BC outside of Vancouver, for example, have a humid continental climate (Dfb) with average winter temperatures and cold snaps comparable to other parts of the country.


title: Temperature in Canada

text: Central Canada and northern Canada experiences subarctic and Arctic climates, much of them arid. Those areas are not heavily populated due to the severe climate, where it drops below on most winter days and has a very brief summer season.


title: Temperature in Canada

text: Some Mountain passes in southern BC also have a subarctic or subalpine climate, creating extremely dangerous driving conditions, as drivers may be unaware of wintry road conditions when they come from nearby areas like Vancouver and Kamloops that are much warmer.


title: Montclair State University

text: Montclair State University (MSU) is a public research university in Montclair, New Jersey, with parts of the campus extending into Little Falls. As of fall 2018, Montclair State was, by enrollment, the second largest public university in New Jersey. As of November 2021, there were 21,005 total enrolled students: 16,374 undergraduate students and 4,631 graduate students. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". The campus covers approximately . The university offers more than 300 majors, minors, and concentrations.


title: Montclair State University

text: Plans for the State Normal school were initiated in 1903, and required a year for the State of New Jersey to grant permission to build the school. It was then established as New Jersey State Normal School at Montclair, a normal school, in 1908 approximately 5 years after the initial planning of the school. At the time, Governor John Franklin Fort attended the dedication of the school in 1908, and the school was to have its first principal Charles Sumner Chapin that same year. The first building constructed was College Hall, and it still stands today. At the time, the campus was around , had 8 faculty members and 187 students. The first graduating class, which numbered at 45 students, contained William O. Trapp, who would then go on to win the Pulitzer Prize for journalism in 1929. The first dormitory was then built five years later, in 1915, and is known as Russ Hall.


title: Montclair State University

text: In 1924, Dr. Harry Sprague was the first president of Montclair, and shortly afterwards the school began being more inclusive of extracurricular activities such as athletics. In 1927, however, after studies had emerged concerning the number of high school teachers in the state of New Jersey (only 10% of all high school teachers received their degrees from New Jersey), the institution became Montclair State Teachers College and developed a four-year (Bachelor of Arts) program in pedagogy, becoming the first US institute to do so. In 1937 it became the first teachers college accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools.


title: Montclair State University

text: In 1943, during World War II, several students, with permission from the president, Harry Sprague, joined the US Navy as volunteers to train for the war. It was also a time when students and faculty sold war bonds to support US American troops.


title: Montclair State University

text: In 1958 the school merged with the Panzer College of Physical Education and Hygiene to become Montclair State College. The school became a comprehensive multi-purpose institution in 1966. The Board of Higher Education designated the school a teaching university on April 27, 1994, and in the same year the school became Montclair State University. It has offered Master of Arts programs since 1932, Master of Business Administration since 1981, Master of Education since 1985, Master of Science since 1992, Master of Fine Arts since 1998, Doctor of Education since 1999, and Doctor of Environmental Management in 2003 (now the PhD in Environmental Science and Management). PhD degrees were added in Teacher Education and Teacher Development in 2008, Counselor Education, Family Studies, Mathematics Education, Communications Sciences and Disorders by 2014, and most recently Clinical as well as Industrial/Organizational Psychology (2021). In 2018, Montclair State University graduated more than 30 doctoral students.


title: Montclair State University

text: In 2004, NJ Transit opened the Montclair State University station, which links the university to New York City. The building of the MSU Station cost $26 million to complete, including a 1,500-space parking deck. In 2015, the university established the School of Communication and Media and added two new buildings to its campus; the Feliciano School of Business and the Center for Environmental and Life Sciences (CELS). Partridge Hall was fully renovated and in 2016, became the new School of Nursing, which welcomed its inaugural class of students that fall. In 2016, Montclair State University was designated by the U.S. Department of Education as a Hispanic-Serving Institution (HSI). In 2017, Montclair State was designated a public research university by the New Jersey Legislature. The new state-of-the-art home for the School of Communication and Media opened in fall 2017, followed in 2018 by the opening of the Center for Computing and Information Science in the former Mallory Hall, which underwent a complete renovation and expansion. In 2016, the university's classification was changed from a Masters to a Doctoral Research University, and in 2019, was changed to R2: Doctoral University - High Research Activity.


title: Montclair State University

text: Montclair State University comprises five colleges and six schools, each led by a Dean or Director. The colleges and schools organize and conduct academic programs within their units (Bachelor's, Master's, Doctoral and Certificate Programs), and work cooperatively to offer interdisciplinary programs.


title: Montclair State University

text: The John J. Cali School of Music is part of the College of the Arts. The Cali School of Music provides a wide range of study and performance opportunities for its undergraduate and graduate students, as well as a professional certification program in Music Education and the Artist's Diploma and Performer's Certificate degrees in classical and jazz performance. The noted string quartet, the Shanghai Quartet, was in residence at MSU from 2002-2020. As part of their new residency programs, the Cali School welcomed the Harlem Quartet as its new quartet-in-residence and introduced Jessie Montgomery as its composer-in-residence. In 2021, the Cali School implemented the Cali Pathways Project, a scholarship program designed to create dynamic and comprehensive pathways to higher education and careers in music for talented student musicians from underrepresented backgrounds.


title: Montclair State University

text: The school opened a well-equipped, modern facility in fall 2017. It features a 187-seat Sony Digital Cinema Presentation Hall, four broadcast-ready HD + 4K studio and control rooms, motion picture stage for digital filmmaking, and an Audio Production Center featuring a Foley stage, a performance stage and audio sound labs.


title: Montclair State University

text: The College of Education and Human Services houses the Center of Pedagogy, with oversees the Teacher Education program. Majors across the university earning teacher credentials are administered jointly by the Center of Pedagogy and the department that houses the student's major.


title: Montclair State University

text: The College of Humanities and Social Sciences at Montclair State offers 20 undergraduate majors and more than 40 minors. The College of Humanities and Social Sciences is the largest college by enrollment within Montclair State.


title: Montclair State University

text: Montclair State supports and encourages interdisciplinary programs. In 2019, the College of Humanities and Social Sciences and the College of Science and Mathematics have teamed up to offer the ONLY Master of Science in Computational Linguistics program in New Jersey https://www.montclair.edu/graduate/programs-of-study/computational-linguistics-ms/.


title: Montclair State University

text: The College of Science and Mathematics (CSAM) offers programs in the natural, physical, life, and computational sciences. Located in Richardson Hall are the Department of Physics and Astronomy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and the Student Success Center. Science Hall houses the Department of Biology. The Department of Computer Science and the Department of Mathematics are housed in the Center for Computing and Information Science.


title: Montclair State University

text: The Center for Environmental and Life Sciences (CELS) houses the Department of Earth and Environmental Studies, which includes Earth and Environmental Science, Geographic and Urban Studies, and Sustainability Science. CELS houses the PSEG Institute for Sustainability Studies, New Jersey Center for Water Science and Technology, Clean Energy and Sustainability Analytics Center, Microscopy and Microanalysis Research Lab, Sokol Institute for Pharmaceutical and Life Sciences, and the interdisciplinary PhD Program in Environmental Science and Management.


title: Montclair State University

text: The Feliciano School of Business offers undergraduate as well as MBA programs. Students may opt to choose the Bachelor of Arts approach or the Bachelor of Science. The school offers a BA degree program culminating in a Bachelor of Arts in Economics. In 2016, the MBA program became available in a fully online format. The School of Business also offers post-MBA certificate programs. In 2015 a brand new building for the Feliciano School of Business opened, dedicated to Mimi and Edwin Feliciano.


title: Montclair State University

text: In 2016, Montclair State University launched a School of Nursing. It offers RN-to-BSN and four-year BSN programs. The school is housed in a state-of-the-art facility that includes mediated classrooms, computer study areas, a nursing skills laboratory, anatomy laboratory, and high-fidelity and home care simulation rooms.


title: Montclair State University

text: Montclair State began offering master's degree programs in 1932, beginning with the Master of Fine Arts degree; the university began to grant doctoral degrees in 1998, after receiving state approval to establish a Doctor of Education degree in pedagogy. In the fall of 2019, the university had about 300 doctoral students in eight programs.


title: Montclair State University

text: University College is an academic home for students to pursue interests that will lead them to their eventual academic concentration. University College admits about one-third of incoming freshman, as well as approximately 1,400 returning and transfer students who have yet to declare a major. Once University College students have been admitted to their chosen majors, they will transition onto the college or school of that academic program.


title: Montclair State University

text: "U.S. News & World Report" listed Montclair State as No. 179 among all national universities in its 2022 rankings, No. 19 in Top Performers on Social Mobility and No. 88 in Top Public Schools. "U.S. News & World Report" 2022 Best Graduate Schools ranked several of the University’s programs among the best in the nation, including its education program (second in New Jersey and 103 in the nation), its Master’s in Public Health program (second in New Jersey and 135 in the country) and its Master’s in Business Administration program (fourth in New Jersey and 185 in the nation). Montclair State University’s online Master of Arts in Educational Leadership program was ranked No. 1 in New Jersey and No. 25 in the nation in the "U.S. News & World Report" 2020 Best Online Programs rankings. The Feliciano School of Business was included in the 2020 edition of “The Best Business Schools” published by The Princeton Review. The MBA and Accounting programs of the Feliciano School of Business were both ranked in the top three out of 25 New Jersey institutions in the 2019 NJBIZ Reader Rankings. The Princeton Review Guide to Green Colleges: 2019 Edition included Montclair State in its rankings of America’s greenest campuses. Money magazine ranked Montclair State among the nation’s “Best Colleges for Your Money” in 2020. Money also ranked the University at No. 16 on its 2020 “Most Transformative Colleges” list. Campus Pride named Montclair State a “Premier Campus” in its 2020 Campus Pride Index, the national listing of LGBTQ-friendly colleges and universities. Montclair State earned the maximum five stars out of five, one of only two institutions in New Jersey to do so.


title: Montclair State University

text: Montclair State University's athletic teams have played under many names in the school's history. From the late 1920s to '30s, the school played as the "Big Red" and featured a large scarlet "M" on its uniforms. Next, Montclair State Teacher's College competed as the Indians, using a logo with a Native American chief's profile with the initials "MSTC" emblazoned on the caricature's headdress. The initials were changed to "MSC" when the school became Montclair State College in 1958. In response to the growing concerns voiced by Native Americans, the school changed its nickname to the Red Hawks, named after the Red-tailed Hawks that are indigenous to the area.


title: Montclair State University

text: Montclair State University athletics are in the NCAA Division III in the New Jersey Athletic Conference (NJAC). The university currently offers the following sports:


title: Montclair State University

text: The original Montclair State University campus consisted of College Hall, Russ Hall, Chapin Hall and Morehead Hall, all built between 1908 and 1928. Housing for students returning from World War II was added near the end of the war. Between 1950 and 1980, Montclair State gradually acquired land from a former traprock quarry and expanded its facilities with an additional 23 buildings. Montclair State University began its next phase of growth in the late 1990s to accommodate New Jersey's growing student population. Dickson Hall was dedicated in 1995. The building is named for David W.D. Dickson, the first African American president of Montclair State University. The Floyd Hall Arena, an ice skating rink, was built in 1998. Science Hall, the home of the Department of Biology, opened in 1999. The Red Hawk Diner was built in 2001, making it the first diner on a university campus in the United States.


title: Montclair State University

text: MSU's most recent master plan contained $650 million in capital construction and improvements. The major projects under this new program were:


title: Montclair State University

text: The newest residential complex on campus, the Heights consists of two H-shaped buildings named John Victor Machuga Heights and Anthony M. Dinallo Heights, which house about 2,000 students combined. The Heights opened in August 2011 near the Student Recreation Center and greatly expanded the campus' residential capacity. Dinallo Heights consists of Basilone, Whitman, Einstein, and Parker Halls; while Machuga Heights consists of Mills, Gordon, Gibson and Barton Halls. Both Heights complexes have suite-style rooms with two residents sharing a bathroom in a suite with one large bedroom or two smaller single bedrooms. The buildings also have large lounge areas to be shared with the four Halls within them. Machuga Heights also contains a large dining hall called Sam's Place.


title: Montclair State University

text: This five-story coed complex houses 640 residents in double and triple rooms connected by a bathroom. Between four and five residents share each "suite" bathroom. Blanton Hall also contains a central food court containing a Chili's, Dunkin' Donuts, Jersey Mike's Subs, and a convenience store.


title: Montclair State University

text: The tallest building at MSU, Bohn Hall opened in 1972 and houses approximately 700 co-ed first year residents in double, triple, and quadruple rooms. Floors are divided into one, two, or three wings with each wing having its own community bathroom facility. Bohn Hall also contains classrooms, offices, and student/academic support resources including a Mediation Resource Center, Academic Resource Center, and a Center for Writing Excellence.


title: Montclair State University

text: These co-ed garden apartment units house 350 upperclassmen. The apartments are broken up into three buildings, called Accipiter, Falco, and Buteo. Each apartment has two bedrooms, houses four residents, and has a kitchen and bathroom. Previously known as Clove Road Apartments, this complex was renamed Hawk Crossings in Fall 2010.


title: Montclair State University

text: Housing approximately 235 co-ed residents, Grace M. Freeman Hall opened in 1963 and is home to mainly students of music or athletic training. Residents live in a "suite" style double or triple rooms, in which two rooms share a bathroom. The building also contains a dining hall for students, Balance Kitchen at Freeman Hall.


title: Montclair State University

text: Edward Russ Hall is a coed upperclassmen community and houses the international community, housing 91 residents in a "suite" style community. Russ Hall, the second building to open on campus in 1915, was converted from an administrative building into a residential facility in the late 1990s.


title: Montclair State University

text: The Village at Little Falls consists of four separate residential apartment buildings: William Carlos Williams Hall, Count Basie Hall, Millicent Fenwick Hall, and Alice Paul Hall. The complex also contains a fifth building, the Abbott & Costello Center which contains complex offices and a police sub-station. The four buildings house a total of 848 students. Each apartment consists of a kitchen, living room, dining area, two full bathrooms, and either two double bedrooms, two single and one double bedroom, or four single bedrooms. The complex also has basketball courts and an outdoor pool open seasonally. The Village houses junior, senior, and graduate students. Basie Hall and Paul Hall were renovated in the Summer of 2017 to replace flooring and furniture.


title: Montclair State University

text: Francis A. Sinatra Hall is a 6-floor suite-style residence hall located on Clove Rd between Hawk Crossings Apartments and The Village at Little Falls. It opened in the Fall of 2010. The hall is set up suite style with a single, a double, and a triple all sharing a bathroom, powder room, and a common area.


title: Montclair State University

text: Stone Hall was originally built in 1955 as a residence hall, but was eventually converted into an office building. For the Fall 2016 semester, the building received a total renovation and was repurposed to its original use as a residence facility. The renovated Stone Hall houses approximately 150 first year students in double rooms with community bathroom facilities.


title: Montclair State University

text: Dancer and choreographer Emily Johnson published a letter on January 20, 2021 addressed to the National Endowment for the Arts sharing the racist, extractive and harmful experience as a Yup’ik woman with Jedidiah Wheeler, Executive Director of Peak Performances.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Cardinal Jules Mazarin (, , , ; 14 July 1602 – 9 March 1661), born Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino () or Mazarini, was an Italian cardinal, diplomat and politician who served as the chief minister to the Kings of France Louis XIII and Louis XIV from 1642 to his death. In 1654, he acquired the title Duke of Mayenne and in 1659 that of 1st Duke of Rethel and Nevers.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: After serving as a papal diplomat for Pope Urban VIII, Mazarin offered his diplomatic services to Cardinal Richelieu and moved to Paris in 1640. After the death of Richelieu in 1642, Mazarin took his place as first minister and then of Louis XIII in 1643. Mazarin acted as the head of the government for Anne of Austria, the regent for the young Louis XIV. Mazarin was also made responsible for the king's education until he came of age.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The first years of Mazarin in office were marked by military victories in the Thirty Years' War, which he used to make France the main European power and establish the Peace of Westphalia (1646–1648). A major uprising against Anne of Austria and Mazarin, called the Fronde and led by the nobles of the Parliament of Paris, broke out in Paris in 1648, followed by a second Fronde, led by Louis, Grand Condé, who had turned from his chief ally to his chief enemy. Mazarin took Anne of Austria and Louis XIV out of Paris and then shifted his base to Germany for a time. Turenne, a general loyal to Louis XIV and Mazarin, defeated Condé, and Mazarin made a triumphal return to Paris in 1653.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The last years of Mazarin's life, between 1657 and his death in 1661, were marked by a series of major diplomatic victories. In 1657 he made a military alliance with England. In 1658 he unveiled the League of the Rhine, a new group of 50 small German principalities, which were now linked by a treaty with France. The same year, Marshal Turenne decisively defeated the army of Condé at the Battle of the Dunes in Flanders. Between February and June 1659, Mazarin conducted intensive negotiations with the Spanish. On 7 November 1659, Spain signed the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which added Artois, the Cerdagne and Roussillon as new provinces of France. That was followed in June 1660 by an even more important diplomatic event that had been carefully arranged by Mazarin, the marriage of Louis XIV with Maria Theresa of Spain. The marriage took place in Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The couple made a triumphant entry into Paris on 26 August 1660. The marriage and accompanying agreements ended, at least for a time, the long and costly wars between the Habsburgs and France.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin, as the "de facto" ruler of France for nearly two decades, played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of the principles, such as the nation state's sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, have remained the basis of international law to this day.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: In addition to his diplomacy, Mazarin was an important patron of the arts. He introduced Italian opera on a grand scale to Paris and assembled a remarkable art collection, much of which today can be seen in the Louvre. He also founded the Bibliothèque Mazarine, the first true public library in France, which is now found in the Institut de France, across the Seine from the Louvre.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Giulio Mazzarino was born on 14 July 1602 in Pescina in the Abruzzo province of Italy, about one hundred twenty kilometers from Rome. His parents were residents of Rome, spending the summer in Pescina to escape the summer heat. His father, Pietro Mazzarino (1576-1654), had moved to Rome from Sicily in 1590 to become a chamberlain in the family of Filippo I Colonna, the Grand Constable of Naples. His father became a citizen of Rome in 1608. His mother Ortensia Bufalini (1575-1644) was a native of Rome, from the Bufalini family of nobility whose origins were in Città di Castello in Umbria. The family had moved to Rome in the Middle Ages. She was the goddaughter of Filippo I Colonna, her husband's employer. Giulio was the eldest of six children, two boys and four girls.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Through the influence of the Colonnas, Giulio was admitted at the age of seven to the Jesuit College in Rome, the most respected school in the city. Though he declined to join their order, he excelled in his studies. In 1618, at the age of sixteen, he gave a public lecture on theories explaining Halley's comet, which appeared in that year. He also excelled in theatrics; he was chosen to play the part of the newly sainted Ignatius of Loyola in a religious pageant. He also acquired the habit of gambling at cards, and frequently was in debt. A particular favourite game of his was a variant of Hoc named after him: Hoc Mazarin.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: When he was twenty his father decided to send him away from the bad influences of Rome. Giulio accompanied Girolamo Colonna, one of the sons of Filippo I Colonna, who was eighteen, to the Complutense University of Madrid (then located in Alcalá de Henares) in Spain. He studied law with Girolamo during the daytime and in the evenings continued to gamble and again was in debt. A notary who had advanced some cash to cover gaming debts urged the charming and personable young Mazarino to take his daughter as bride, with a substantial dowry, and Giulio accepted. Girolamo Colonna wrote urgently to his father in Rome, and Giulio was ordered to return immediately to Rome, without his fiancée.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Upon his return to Rome, he resumed his studies, this time in law. In 1628 he received the title of doctor "in utroque jure", meaning he could practice both civil and canonical law. In the same year Ferdinand II, the Habsburg emperor, laid claim to a papal territory, the Valtellina, in the Italian alps. Pope Urban VIII raised an army to defend his territory. The Prince of Palestrina, who was also a member of the Colonna family, commanded a new regiment of the Papal army, and invited Giulio to become a lieutenant in the regiment. Since neither the regiment nor Giulio had any military experience, they were assigned to a town far from the front line. Giulio knew little of military discipline. He received a message from Rome informing that his mother was seriously ill. Without asking permission from his commander, he immediately rode to Rome, and stayed there until his mother had recovered. He was summoned before the Pope, Urban VIII, to explain why he had deserted his post. He threw himself at the feet of the Pope, and pleaded to be pardoned for his excess of loyalty to his family. The Pope was impressed by Giulio's spontaneity and eloquence, forgave his desertion, and invited him to become a Papal emissary.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: In 1628 Mazarin was named the secretary to Jean-François Sacchetti, a senior papal diplomat, who was trying to prevent the impending War of the Mantuan Succession between the armies of France and Spain for dominance of that region of northern Italy. Throughout 1629 and 1630 he shuttled between Milan, Mantua, Turin, Casale and France, trying to find a solution to the crisis before the fighting began. This became, throughout his career, his standard method of diplomacy; traveling continually, getting to know and win the trust of as many decision-makers as possible. During this time he came to know Cardinal Francesco Barberini, the head of diplomacy for the papacy, and, more important, Cardinal Richelieu of France, his future mentor, whom he first met in Lyon on 29 January 1630. Richelieu was aloof and confrontational; he wrote afterwards: "This Mazarini is here more to spy than to negotiate...He is so Spanish and so Savoyard that what he says shouldn't be taken as gospel truth."


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Richelieu at first decided to ignore Mazarin's diplomacy and to send the French army across the Alps into Italy. On 26 October 1630 the French and Spanish armies met outside the walls of the French-held town of Casale, ready to fight. Suddenly, a man on horseback with a flag appeared, galloping toward them, crying "Pace! Pace!" ("Peace! Peace!") It was Mazarin, carrying an agreement from the Spanish commander to evacuate their soldiers from the town if the French would leave Montferrat to Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua. Mazarin brought together the Spanish and French commanders and explained the terms of the agreement, which were readily accepted by both sides. Mazarin had achieved his first diplomatic success.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The result of Mazarin's first diplomatic efforts was the Treaty of Cherasco, 6 April 1631, in which the Emperor and the Duke of Savoy recognized the possession of Mantua and part of Monferrat by Charles Gonzaga and the French occupation of the strategic stronghold of Pinerolo, the gate to the valley of the Po, to the great satisfaction of Richelieu and King Louis XIII of France.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The Pope sent Mazarin to Paris at the beginning of 1631 to work out the final details of the agreement. He returned to France again from April to July 1632. He had his first interview with Lous XIII and with the Queen, Anne of Austria, in May 1632. He tried to persuade Louis XIII to send a military expedition to capture Geneva, the fortress of the Protestant movement, but the King, who had good relations with the Swiss cantons, rejected the idea. Mazarin returned to Rome in November 1632, and made a new friend and ally, Antonio Barberini, the nephew of the Pope and one of his chief diplomats, and his older brother, Francesco Barberini, the Cardinal Secretary of State. With their assistance, he established himself as a guardian of French interests in Rome, and then of papal interests in France. In 1632, he was named papal vice-legate at Avignon, appointed a prelate, and began to wear ecclesiastical dress, though he was not and never became a priest.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: While in Rome, Mazarin sent regular gifts of flowers, perfumes and delicacies to the women of the French court, and more valuable gifts, including statues and Renaissance paintings, to Richelieu. In 1634 he was named nuncio extraordinary to Paris by Urban VIII, and entrusted with the mission of persuading Louis XIII to undertake a grand naval crusade against the Turks. The goal was to create a combined fleet of the ships of Christian nations to seize the Turkish ports around the Mediterranean. Mazarin, a realist, knew that, given the rivalries between European powers, this project would never take place.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: A new crisis arrived on 19 May 1635; France declared war on the Habsburg rulers of Austria and Spain. Mazarin wrote later that he had done his best to persuade Richelieu to avoid a war. He wrote that in March 1635 he gave Richelieu all his reasons to maintain the peace. "His Eminence told me, as he stood up," Mazarin wrote, "that I courted Peace as if she were the woman of my dreams. Then he shook my hand, and concluded, 'You are no longer on the side of France.'" Mazarin returned to Avignon on 7 April 1636.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: During all of his negotiations, Mazarin was very careful not to be too critical of the French court and Richelieu, and they remained in contact. In November 1636 he left Avignon to return to Rome, carrying instructions from Richelieu that made him a discreet ambassador for the king of France.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The atmosphere within the papal curia was hostile to France and to Richelieu; Spanish priests occupied many positions in the hierarchy and they considered him, with reason, an agent of France. When the Pope refused to send him back to France, or to represent the papacy at a peace conference, he wrote: "I am not a subject of the King of France, but I believe I can truly say that the declarations of the Spanish have declared me to be French, so that with justice one can say that France is my country."


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: His position in Rome was increasingly difficult. He had the affection of Pope Urban VIII, but he was disliked by Cardinal Barberini, the chief of Papal diplomacy, and by the large contingent of Spaniards in the papal household. He spent his time collecting sculpture and other works of art which he sent to Richelieu for the Cardinal's new palace in Paris. He considered serving the rulers of Savoy, Poland, or Queen Henriette of England, but in the end he decided to enter the service of Richelieu and France. However, Richelieu was in no hurry to bring him to Paris; he valued the diplomatic contributions Mazarin was making in Rome, as well as the art treasures he was acquiring. He kept Mazarin in Rome for two more years. Richelieu did one important favor for Mazarin; in October 1638 he put forward Mazarin's name as a candidate for Cardinal when the next vacancy opened up. In December 1638, when a sitting Cardinal died, Mazarin was nominated as a Cardinal. He had to wait the entire year of 1639 before his new position was confirmed. Then on 14 December 1639, he departed Rome for the port of Civitavecchia, boarded an armed French ship to Marseille, and then traveled from Lyon to Paris, where he arrived on 5 January 1640.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: When he arrived in Paris, Mazarin was welcomed warmly by the King, by Richelieu, and by the Queen, Anne of Austria, to whom Mazarin had regularly sent perfumes, fans, gloves and other gifts. The Queen was at this time pregnant with her second child, and it was already anticipated that she would be the regent when King Louis XIII died. Mazarin advised Richelieu on both political and cultural matters. He recommended artists to bring from Rome to Paris, and in 1640 he commissioned a bust of Richelieu from the sculptor Bernini in Rome, sending Bernini pictures of Richelieu. The bust of Richelieu arrived in August 1641. Mazarin declared that it was perfect, so lifelike that, as he wrote, "it seemed about to speak", but French tastes did not approve of the Baroque style. The other members of the Court condemned the work, and Mazarin wrote back to Bernini, sending him more pictures of Richelieu and asking him to try again.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Richelieu sent Mazarin on several delicate diplomatic missions, including a long trip to Savoy to straighten out the tangled political affairs there: the regency of Christine, the Duchess of Savoy, and sister of Louis XIII, was challenged by her brothers-in-law, the princes Maurice and Thomas of Savoy. (See Piedmontese Civil War) Mazarin successfully secured Christine's position, and established a solid alliance between Savoy and France. This task kept him away from Paris for nine months, until June 1641. On 16 December 1641, though he had not reached his fortieth birthday, he received what he most desired, he was formally made a Cardinal.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: He had established a cordial relationship with Richelieu; Richelieu jokingly referred to him as "Rinzama" (an anagram of his name), or "Nunzinicardo" ("dear little envoy"), or, most frequently, "Colmarduccio", or "Colmardo". When was asked what it meant. he translated into French as "Frére Coupechou", the term for a junior candidate monk who was assigned to chop cabbage in the kitchen of the abbey. However, he did not send Mazarin on the mission that he most wanted, as delegate of France to a Europe-wide peace conference. Richelieu's attention was devoted to making war; Richelieu, who was elderly and in poor health, took the King, who was also in poor health, the court and Mazarin on a series of long military expeditions, to suppress a rebellion in Catalonia, to capture Roussillon, and, in January 1642, to lay siege to Narbonne.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: On 11 June 1642, while in Tarascon on one of the long military expeditions, Mazarin was presented with evidence that Gaston, Duke of Orléans, the brother of Louis XIII, and the Marquis of Cinq-Mars, one of the King's closest advisors, had made a secret agreement with the King of Spain, without the knowledge of Richelieu or the King. It appeared probable that the Queen, Anne of Austria, was also aware of this secret betrayal of Richelieu, but did not tell him or the King. Cinq-Mars was arrested, Gaston was disgraced, and another conspirator, the Duke of Bouillon, was granted a pardon on the condition of revealing all the details of the plot to Mazarin, and surrendering the important fortress of Sedan to the King. Mazarin did not reveal the participation of the Queen in the conspiracy, but his knowledge gave him even greater leverage at the court. The destruction of the conspiracy against the King was one of the last acts of Cardinal Richelieu. He fell ill and died on 4 December 1642.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The succession of Mazarin to the position of chief minister of Louis XIII was not automatic or immediate. Despite the accounts of some later historians, Richelieu did not name Mazarin as his successor. Richelieu did, according to Mazarin himself, advise the King to employ Mazarin, who until that time had no official position at Court.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: After the death of Richelieu, Louis XIII named three prominent figures to advise him; François Sublet de Noyers, Léon Bouthillier, comte de Chavigny and Mazarin. Mazarin and de Chavigny immediately joined together to get rid of de Noyers. They hinted to the King that de Noyers had secretly made an agreement with Anne of Austria to make her the regent of France after the King's death. The King, who had little love for the Queen and in his will had refused to make her his Regent, was furious; de Noyers was forced to resign on 10 April 1643.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Louis XIII died 14 May 1643, just five months after Richelieu. His successor, Louis XIV, was just four years old. The King had specifically instructed that his wife, Anne of Austria, not rule in his place as regent. However, as soon as he was dead, she applied to the body of nobles known as the Parliament of Paris, and had his will annulled. She was declared Regent on 18 May. The Queen had a particular dislike of de Chavigny, the other chief advisor chosen by Louis XIII. He had been close to Richelieu and was the only real rival in experience to Mazarin. The evening that she became regent, she declared that Mazarin would be her chief minister and head of her government.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The management style of Mazarin was entirely different from that of Richelieu. The contrast was described by Cardinal Retz, the future enemy of Mazarin, in his Memoires: "One saw on the steps of the throne, where the sharp and fearsome Richelieu had thundered rather than governed the people, a leader who is gentle, benevolent, and demands nothing...He has the spirit, the insinuation, the playfulness, the manners, but also a certain laziness..."


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Cardinal Retz and other rivals in the court underestimated Mazarin's skills, energy and determination. Mazarin continued Richelieu's costly war against the chief rivals of France in Europe, the Habsburgs of Austria and Spain. The victories of Condé and Turenne finally brought Austria to the bargaining table and ended the Thirty Years' War with the Peace of Westphalia (1646–48)


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin's policies also added Alsace (though not Strasbourg) to France. He settled Protestant princes in secularized bishoprics and abbacies in reward for their political opposition to the Habsburgs, building a network of French influence as a buffer in the western part of the Empire. In 1657, he made an attempt to get Louis XIV elected as Holy Roman Emperor. In 1658 he formed the League of the Rhine, which was designed to check the House of Austria in central Germany. In 1659 he made peace with Habsburg Spain in the Peace of the Pyrenees, which added to French territory Roussillon and northern Cerdanya—as French Cerdagne—in the far south as well as part of the Low Countries.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Towards Protestantism at home, Mazarin pursued a policy of promises and calculated delay to defuse the armed insurrection of the Ardèche (1653), for example, and to keep the Huguenots disarmed: for six years they believed themselves to be on the eve of recovering the protections of the Edict of Nantes, but in the end they obtained nothing.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: There was constant friction with the pontificate of the Spanish Cardinal Pamphilj, elected Pope on 15 September 1644 as Innocent X. Mazarin protected the Barberini cardinals, nephews of the late Pope, and the Bull against them was voted by the Parlement of Paris "null and abusive"; France made a show of preparing to take Avignon by force, and Innocent backed down. Mazarin was more consistently an enemy of Jansenism, in particular during the formulary controversy, more for its political implications than out of theology. On his deathbed he warned young Louis "not to tolerate the Jansenist sect, not even their name." After his death, Louis XIV did not appoint a new principal minister and instead governed himself, marking the beginning of a new era of centralized government in France.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin's long war against the Habsburgs, the final part of the Thirty Years War, was successful, but the cost was enormous. Resentment grew against the Spanish Queen and her Italian prime minister, and culminated in the Fronde, a rebellion against the government by members of the nobility and discontented citizens of Paris, which lasted from 1648 until 1653.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin was forced to raise money by any means possible to support the war against the Habsburgs. His financial counselor was Michel Particelli d'Emery, also Italian. When taxes, loans, and the sale of titles did not bring in enough, he sought new sources of income. He discovered an old law dating to Henry IV which forbade Parisians to build houses outside the city limits. Since the city had grown well outside its old boundaries, in 1644 he imposed heavy fines on all those who lived outside the city limits. In addition, he taxed all merchandise being brought into the city. One measure caused particular resentment among the nobility; he imposed a special tax on all the nobles who served on the various royal courts and councils, amounting to four years of their fees.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The center of resistance was the Paris "parlement", an ancient assembly of nobles which served as a high court of appeals. It was a period of rebellion against monarchs across Europe; independence movements appeared in the Spanish provinces of Catalonia and Portugal, a revolutionary seized power in Naples, and Charles I of England, the brother-in-law of Louis XIII, was deposed and executed in 1649. In Paris, the members of the "parlement" called a special session to debate Mazarin's measures. The meeting was forbidden by Regent, Anne of Austria, but went ahead anyway. The "parlement" issued a charter, inspired by the writ of Habeas Corpus in England, which revoked the authority of the King's justice officials, forbade any new taxes without the approval of the "parlement", and declared that no royal subjects could be imprisoned without due process of law.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin recommended to the Queen that she listen to the "parlement" and modify her decrees, but she was furious at their opposition. She waited until the right moment to strike back. The occasion she chose was the celebration of a major victory of the French Army over the Spanish at the Battle of Lens in Belgium on 26 August 1648. On the day that a special mass was held at the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris to celebrate the victory, she gave orders to the Captain of her guards to arrest the leaders of the "parlement", including the popular Pierre Broussel. News of the arrest quickly spread in Paris, and crowds came out into the street to protest and to build barricades. That evening Mazarin wrote in his journal, "the "parlement" has performed the functions of the King, and the people have deferred to it entirely."


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: During the Fronde, the anti-Mazarin crowds of Paris enjoyed listening to "Mazarinades", popular songs with verses mocking the Cardinal. Dozens were written and published, accusing him of virtually all possible faults and crimes. Mazarin had a sense of humor, and when the Fronde was finished, he had the best "Mazarinades" collected and performed in a concert at his palace.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The rebellion lasted for three years. It took its popular name, Fronde, from the children's slings ("frondes") which were used by the mobs in the Paris streets to hurl stones. It combined the anger of the Parisians against the new taxes with the resentment of the nobility against the reduction of their ancient privileges. It was led over time by an odd assortment of allies; Gaston d'Orleans, the brother of Louis XIII; Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé a brilliant general but poor politician, and the Cardinal Paul de Gondi, a consummate intriguer. Each of them had different goals, but all agreed that Mazarin should fall.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: When the Fronde began, the French Army, commanded by the Prince de Condé was far from Paris, fighting the Austrians. Mazarin quickly sent an envoy to the Emperor in Vienna, calling for a truce and peace conference. The Peace of Westphalia, ending the war, was signed 24 October 1648. Despite the peace, disturbances continued in the streets of Paris. During the night of January 6, 1649, Mazarin secretly took the young Louis XIV, Anne of Austria and the court to the safety of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, just west of Paris. Mazarin then set to work intriguing to divide the different factions of the Fronde. His goal was to separate the members of the Parlement and the more radical Parisian street demonstrators, who were united only by their dislike of Mazarin and Anne of Austria.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: As soon as the war was concluded, he brought Condé and his army back to Paris and placed the city under blockade. He then persuaded the "Parlement" that they had more to fear from an uprising of the "Parisiens" than they did from him. On 14 March 1649 Mazarin accepted many of the reforms demanded by the "Parlement". In return, the Parlement supporters laid down their weapons and allowed Anne of Austria, the young Louis XIV and Mazarin to return to Paris.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The "Parlement" accepted Mazarin and his government, but the Fronde was still not finished. Many "frondeurs" were unhappy with the compromise reached in 1649. Once in Paris, Condé made endless demands on Anne of Austria until she finally angrily dismissed him. One of the other leaders of the Fronde, Jean François Paul de Gondi, soon persuaded Condé to join him in bringing down both Mazarin and Anne of Austria. Mazarin had an excellent network of agents, and immediately learned of the plot. On 18 January 1650 Mazarin had Condé, Condé's brother, Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti and his brother-in-law, Henri II d'Orléans, duc de Longueville arrested.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The agreements of 1649 had brought peace to Paris, but the unrest of the Fronde continued in other parts of France. Opponents of Mazarin disrupted tax collection and administration. As the rebellion grew, Mazarin observed that the rebels were only united in opposition to him. He decided it was wisest to resign his position and leave France while he could. He had Condé freed from prison, and, after a long journey to different cities, settled in Brühl near Cologne, as the guest of the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: From Germany, he sent daily instructions to Anne of Austria and to his agents in France. The strategy was to sow distrust among the different factions of the Fronde. Mazarin's instructions were carried out meticulously by Anne of Austria. His intrigues succeeded in preventing the proposed marriage between one of the leading Frondeurs, the Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti with Princess Charlotte-Marie of Lorraine, Mademoiselle de Chevreuse, another of his principal enemies in Paris. He was greatly aided by the political ineptitude of Condé, who offended many of his natural allies. Mazarin urged Anne of Austria to bring him back to Paris as soon as possible, "to correct the greatest attack ever made against the royal authority".


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Once back in Paris, Mazarin soon made an alliance with his old enemy, Cardinal Jean François Paul de Gondi. Condé departed to Bordeaux to gather reinforcements. He raised an army of Spanish and French soldiers, and marched on Paris, arriving on 2 July. The soldiers loyal to the Queen, commanded by Turenne, were waiting, and trapped Condé's army against the walls of Paris. An ally of Condé, the Grande Mademoiselle, ordered the gates of the city opened to rescue Condé's army. The battle was witnessed from the hills of Charonne by the young Louis XIV.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: As soon as Condé's soldiers entered Paris, he demanded an immediate purge of Mazarin's supporters. Riots broke out around the Bastille, and were suppressed with great difficulty. The Presidents of the "Parlement", now allies of Mazarin, demanded that the violence be stopped and that Condé take his army out of Paris. Reluctantly, Condé left the city, going to the Spanish Netherlands, pursued by Turenne.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Louis XIV, now of age to claim his throne, re-entered Paris in October 1652, accompanied by his mother and by Turenne. Mazarin had to wait longer to make his return, which was carefully orchestrated with his help. The Parlement de Paris was first transferred by Anne of Austria from Paris to Pontoise, to see how many members would accept her authority. A majority appeared at the meeting. Following the prepared plan, the Parlement respectfully asked that Mazarin be dismissed, and Anne of Austria agreed. Mazarin, knowing this was the plan, accepted this decision, and waited a respectful time in exile. He made his return to Paris in February 1653. He was welcomed with a triumphal banquet at the Hotel de Ville, where crowds earlier had demanded his downfall.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Finding money was a primary preoccupation for Mazarin throughout his entire time as first minister. His new taxes on Parisians and the nobility had provoked the first Fronde, but the end of the Fronde did not resolve the problem. The government had borrowed huge amounts to finance the campaigns against the first Fronde and against Condé, and also had to pay for the continual travels of the Regent and the young King, and the elaborate festivities, parades, and cavalcades that accompanied their travel and every major event. The royal budget for 1653 was about 109 million "livres", which amounted to eight hundred tons of silver or sixty tons of gold. Expenditures were the greatest between 1656 and 1659. Twenty-seven agreements were made with bankers, who loaned the government 98 million "livres" to supplement the money collected through ordinary taxes.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Following the death of his first finance minister, La Vieuville, on 2 February 1653, Mazarin chose a new minister, Nicolas Fouquet. At the age of twenty-five, Fouquet had inherited a very large fortune after the death of his young first wife, and an even greater fortune when he married the second time, to Marie-Madeleine de Castille, whose family was one of the wealthiest in Europe. Fouquet began as a master of receipts at age twenty, then an intendant to the army, then Procuror-General for the Parliament of Paris at the age of thirty-five.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Through his family connections, Fouquet had amassed a fortune of three to four million livres. One of the reasons for Fouquet's rapid rise was his willingness to lend very large sums to Mazarin for his various projects. In November 1657 Mazarin needed 11.8 million livres to pay the Army of the North. Fouquet, drawing upon his wealthy relatives, was able to provide the money. In 1659 he provided another loan of five million livres.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The great rival of Fouquet was Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who was also recommended to Louis XIV and brought into the government by Mazarin. Soon after he became an assistant to Mazarin, he wrote a "mémoire" to Mazarin, claiming that of the taxes paid by the people, not one-half reached the King. The paper also accused Fouquet of using royal funds for his own enrichment. Mazarin did not defend Fouquet; shortly before his own death, he agreed that Fouquet had to go. Shortly after Mazarin's death, Fouquet was accused by Colbert of misuse of state funds, his property was confiscated, and he was put into prison until his death, with Colbert eventually taking his place.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The personal fortune of Mazarin at the time of his death was immense, amounting to 35 million livres, not counting the sums he left to his nieces. It exceeded the second-greatest personal fortune of the century, that of Richelieu, worth some 20 million livres. About one third of the personal fortune of Mazarin came from some twenty-one abbeys around France, each of which paid him an annual share of their revenue. Unlike members of the nobility, he did not have any large estates; his only real estate was the palace in Paris which he purchased in 1649, and added several surrounding houses. It was valued at 1.2 million livres. Thirty-seven percent of his fortune was in easily transportable jewels and cash. Within the ebony cabinets of his rooms at the Louvre his heirs found 450 pearls of high quality, plus quantities of gold chains and crosses, and rings with precious stones, altogether adding another 400,000 livres. He left to his family jewels worth an estimated 2.5 million livres, and gave a collection of diamonds worth 50,000 livres to the new Queen, and a 14-carat diamond called "The Rose of England", valued at 73,000 livres, to the Queen Mother. The most valuable legacies of all, including a set of eighteen diamonds known as the "Mazarins", worth two million livres, were given to the young Louis XIV.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin was second only to Louis XIV as a patron of the arts in France in the 17th century. In 1648 he founded the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. After his death in 1661, the inventory of his art collection at the Mazarin Palace recorded 858 paintings, 128 statues, 185 busts, plus 150 carpets, 514 pieces of jewelry and fine silver, and 317 precious stones, not counting the famous Mazarin diamonds, which he left to Louis XIV. His collection included works by most of the major French and Italian artists of his time and before, going back to the Renaissance. His acquisitions included works by Poussin, Rubens, Corregio, Van Dyck, Titian, and many others, as well as the famous "Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione" by Raphael, which had belonged to Charles I of England, and had been bought by Richelieu. Just before his death, he visited his gallery for the last time with his deputy Brienne, and told him: "Ah, my poor friend, I must leave all this. Farewell, dear paintings, which cost me so much and which I so much loved." Many of the paintings he owned are now in the Louvre.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The Palais Mazarin (Mazarin Palace) was created by Mazarin beginning in 1643, soon after he became first minister, when he rented four adjacent "hôtels" on the north side of the Rue Neuve-des-Petits-Champs between the Rue Vivienne to the east and the Rue de Richelieu on the west and across from the Palais Royal, which was the King's residence. He commissioned François Mansart to add a garden wing with two superimposed galleries running north from the west end of the easternmost building, the Hôtel Tubeuf, where he could display his art. Between 1645 and 1647 he commissioned the Italian painter Giovanni Francesco Romanelli to create scenes from the works of Ovid on the ceiling of the upper gallery (although much modified, now known as the Galerie Mazarine). In 1721, the Palais Mazarin became the site of the King's Library (Bibliothèque du Roi), now the Richelieu site of the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Mazarin spent little time in his Palace; he lived most of the time in the Palais Royal, when Louis XIV was in residence there, or in the Louvre. Near the end of his life he resided in the Château de Vincennes, where he decorated a suite of rooms. He also had the moats of the chateau turned into a kind of zoo, with lions, tigers, bears and other exotic animals, for the amusement of the young King.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin also played an important role in bringing Italian music to Paris. Before Mazarin, Italian opera was very little known or appreciated in Paris. Louis XIII, Catherine de Medici and Marie de Medici had all brought Italian musicians to Paris, but Mazarin did it more systematically and on a much larger scale. After his arrival as a minister in 1643, he invited the famous soprano Leonora Baroni and the castrato Atto Melani. Melani doubled as a diplomat; Mazarin sent him on several secret missions to other courts in Europe.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Due to Mazarin's efforts, seven Italian operas were performed in Paris between 1645 and 1662. In 1645 Mazarin brought to Paris the famous scenery designer Giacomo Torelli, who staged Sacrati's opera "La finta pazza". In 1647, for Carnaval, he staged a lavish production of the premiere of "Orfeo" by Luigi Rossi. Later on Torelli became involved more in the "ballet de cour" than in opera, reflecting the passion of the king for dancing. Torelli's career in France came to a definitive end in 1661, when he worked on sets for Molière's "Les fâcheux", presented by Nicholas Fouquet as part of his grand fête at Vaux-le-Vicomte in honor of the King, the overly ostentatious display which ultimately led to Fouquet's imprisonment.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin was also a famous collector of books. In 1646, he brought to Paris his collection of nine thousand volumes, which he installed in his residence. It was the second-largest library in Paris, second only to the library of the King. However, when Mazarin was forced to leave Paris during the Fronde, his library was seized by the Fronde leaders, and was dispersed. He then began a second library with what was left of the first. The library grew to over 25,000 volumes and was open to all scholars after 1643. It is recognized as the first true public library in France. In his will, he gave his library to the Collège des Quatre-Nations which he had founded in 1661. The original bookcases of his library were transferred to the reading room of the College of Quatre-Nations when it was built.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: From the eighth birthday of the young Louis XIV, Mazarin took the title "Superintendent of the Royal Education" and managed every aspect of the young King's studies. All of the King's activities were governed and scheduled by Mazarin; his time of rising, his prayers, his physical exercise ("paume" fencing, and dance) followed by a morning lesson in politics with Mazarin himself. In the afternoons he was charged to write an essay each day for Mazarin on what he had learned. The education he gave Louis was purely practical, not theoretical. Among other topics, he instructed the King in the fine art of dissimulation, or lying, when needed, and always, when making an agreement, to leave a way out.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Beginning in 1659, as the King reached the age of twenty-one, and Mazarin approached the end of his life, he wrote a series of guidelines in political affairs for the King. When the King set off on his journey to Spain to be married, Mazarin wrote to him: "Remember, I ask you, what I have had the honor to tell you, when you asked me the way to take to become a great King...it is necessary to begin by making the greatest efforts to not be dominated by any passion...because, otherwise, if any misfortune arrives, regardless of what good will you have, you will not be able to do what has to be done."


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Despite Mazarin's instructions, Louis XIV continued to correspond with Mazarin's niece Marie, with the tacit collusion of his mother. Mazarin immediately adopted a stricter tone: "God established Kings...for watching over the well-being, safety and peace of their subjects; and not to sacrifice this well-being and safety for their personal passions...you must remember your responsibilities to God for your actions and for your safety, and to the world for the support of your glory and your reputation." Mazarin also threatened to depart France with his family if the King did not agree to stop communicating with Marie. In response, Louis wrote a new letter to his mother, promising that henceforth he would forget Marie and concentrate exclusively on "the great occupation of King". ("Grand metier du Roi")


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: The last years of Mazarin's life, between 1658 and his death in 1661, were marked by a series of major diplomatic victories, including the marriage of Louis XIV. In 1658, after long and intense preparation, Mazarin unveiled the League of the Rhine, a new group of fifty small German principalities which were now linked by a treaty with France. They promised not to allow enemy forces pass through them to invade France. This treaty weakened both the old Holy Roman Empire and the Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs, This gave a new measure of security to France's eastern border. In the same month, Marshal Turenne decisively defeated the army of Condé at the Battle of the Dunes in Flanders. This marked the end of the threats to France from the north, from the Spanish Netherlands.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Negotiation of a draft peace treaty between France and Spain took place between February and June 1659, but many critical details remained unresolved. Mazarin and Spain's Dom Luis de Haro personally took charge of the negotiations on 13 August. Their conferences, which continued for three months, were held on the French-Spanish border on the island of Faisans, midway between French Hendaye and Spanish Fuenterrabía, in the river Bidassoa. The resulting Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed on 7 November 1659 and added Artois, Cerdanya, and Roussillon as new provinces of France. It also provided for an even more important diplomatic event carefully arranged by Mazarin, the marriage of Louis XIV with Maria Theresa of Spain, the French celebration of which followed in June 1660 in nearby Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The couple made a triumphant entry into Paris on 26 August 1660. This marriage and accompanying agreements ended, at least for a time, the long and costly wars between the Austrians and France.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin, as the "de facto" ruler of France, played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of these principles, such as the nation state's sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, remain the basis of international law to this day.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: In his last months, Mazarin resided mainly in the Louvre Palace. A large fire broke out in the Gallery of Apollo, the main picture gallery of the Louvre, and destroyed many pictures, greatly upsetting Mazarin. It was the beginning of his decline. When his doctor informed him that his end was near, Mazarin asked, "How long?" The Doctor replied "two months." Mazarin responded, "That's enough."


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin had already prepared several wills. Knowing that his enemies at court were telling Louis XIV that he was taking money that belonged rightfully to the King, his first will, which he made public, cleverly left all of his fortune to Louis XIV. Mazarin probably calculated that the King would be too embarrassed to take all of his mentor's and chief Minister's wealth. The King waited for three days, then refused to accept it. Mazarin had also prepared a different will, which left a large sum for the establishment of the Collège des Quatre-Nations, which he had founded for students from the four new provinces which he had added to the territory of France by the Treaty of Westphalia. The college, now the "Institut de France", was eventually built directly across the Seine from the Louvre, where it is visible from the Palace. Mazarin asked that his remains be interred there, where they rest today in a marble monument beneath the dome. The college is home to the five French academies, including the Academie Française.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Mazarin did not have children, but he did have seven nieces: five from the Mancini family (daughters of his sister Girolama) and two from the Martinozzi family (daughters of his sister Laura). The nieces all moved to Paris, and Mazarin devoted care to arranging marriages for them, always with wealthy and aristocratic families. The nieces were known for their beauty, wit and ambition, and became known as the Mazarinettes.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: Laura Mancini was the eldest of the five famous Mancini sisters. She married Louis de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, grandson of King Henry IV, and was the mother of the great general the Duke of Vendôme. Both Olympia Mancini and Marie Mancini had romantic relationships with the young Louis XIV. He wished to marry Marie, but was prevented by his mother and by Mazarin, who had greater plans to marry Louis to a princess of Spain. In 1657 Olympia was married to Prince Eugene of Savoy, and became the mother of Eugene of Savoy, a famous general for the Austrians. Marie became the wife of the Italian nobleman Lorenzo Onofrio Colonna, of the same family that had employed Mazarin's father as an intendant. Hortense Mancini was married shortly before Mazarin's death to a nephew of Cardinal Richelieu, who thereafter took the title Duke Mazarin. After fleeing from her abusive marriage, Hortense became for a time the mistress of King Charles II of England. Marie Anne Mancini married the Duke of Bouillon soon after the death of Mazarin.


title: Cardinal Mazarin

text: As for the two Martinozzi sisters, Anne Marie Martinozzi married the Prince de Conti in 1654. Her sister Laura Martinozzi married Alfonso IV d'Este, Duke of Modena, and was the mother of Mary of Modena, who became Queen Consort of England as the wife of King James II.


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: Chris Brown (born 11 September 1978) is an Australian veterinarian, television presenter and author. He is best known for the television series "Bondi Vet", which began screening in 2009. He hosts "The Open Road with Doctor Chris" on CBS. In Australia, he appears on the lifestyle program "The Living Room", and alongside Julia Morris is the presenter of the local version of "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!".


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: Brown was born and grew up in the suburbs of Merewether Heights, Newcastle, New South Wales, where his father was a local vet. He attended Merewether Heights Public School and Merewether High School. His first pet was a cow called Bridget. He graduated from The University of Sydney with First Class Honours in Veterinary Science in 2001.


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: After graduating from university, Brown began work at a clinic in Sydney's North Shore. He travelled to remote Aboriginal communities in the Northern Territory to treat animals.


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: Brown's first television presenting role as a vet was on "Harry's Practice" in 2003, for which he was nominated for a "Most Popular New Talent" Logie Award. He became a presenter on Channel Nine's "Burke's Backyard" in 2004 and made regular appearances on "Today". His first book, "The Family Guide to Pets", was released in 2005 and sold over 25,000 copies. In 2008, he also began writing a column called "Pet Page" in "Woman's Day" magazine and was interviewed on radio stations Triple M and Vega FM.


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: In 2008, he began "Bondi Vet" on Network Ten, a factual television program that chronicles his life and work at a veterinary clinic at Bondi Junction. Since 28 September 2013, the show is seen on Saturday mornings in the United States on the CBS network, under the title of "Dr. Chris: Pet Vet."


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: In 2010, Brown became a regular guest panelist on Network Ten's talk show "The Project", and he served as a fill-in host for Charlie Pickering before Pickering left.


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: In 2012, Brown began co-hosting Network Ten's lifestyle show "The Living Room" with Amanda Keller, Miguel Maestre and Barry Du Bois. Brown presents the travel and pet segments on the program.


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: On 1 February 2015, Brown began co-hosting the Australian version of "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" with Julia Morris, also on Network Ten. He and Morris have co-presented all series to date, from 2015 to 2022.


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: In March 2017, Brown announced he was stepping down as host of "Bondi Vet" due to an extensive schedule.


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: "Vet Gone Wild", a series that began airing on Animal Planet (US) in June 2018, features Brown helping animals in various situations outside of Sydney. He even ventures out to other countries in some episodes.


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: In 2018, it was announced that he would host a local version of "Saturday Night Takeaway" alongside Julia Morris. He began hosting on 24 February 2019 on Network 10, with the name "Chris & Julia's Sunday Night Takeaway".


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: Photography has been one of Brown's hobbies since he was a child, and he is now an ambassador for Canon. He stated, "Photography has always been a bit of a secret pleasure for me. I'll often grab a camera before or after work to escape for some 'me' time, and you'll find me with one of my eyes wedged up against the viewfinder, trying to capture that elusive shot."


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: Brown had size 15 feet since he was 14 years old and in his home town the only shoes he could buy to fit were purple and green.


title: Chris Brown (veterinarian)

text: Surfing is one of Brown's hobbies, which he could be seen doing on episodes of "Bondi Vet". While surfing in Chile on a 12-foot wave, he got whiplash and tore his groin.


title: Cam Clarke

text: Cam Clarke is an American voice actor, known for his work in animation, video games and commercials. Among his notable roles are Leonardo and Rocksteady in the 1987 "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" animated series, Shotaro Kaneda in the 1989 original Streamline Pictures English dub of "Akira", and Liquid Snake in the "Metal Gear" series. He often serves as a voice double for Matthew Broderick and served as Broderick's singing voice of Simba in "".


title: Cam Clarke

text: Clarke began his acting career in "The Hollywood Palace" as "The King Family Show". He continued to perform with his family on various television specials until the 1980s when he got his first voice acting roles in "Snorks" and "Robotech". He was taught by Michael Bell.


title: Cam Clarke

text: To date, Clarke has voiced over four hundred titles. From 1987 until 1996, Cam Clarke would most notably portray Leonardo, the leader of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles as well as Rocksteady, one of the show's antagonists. Clarke would reprise the role of Leonardo in non-musical spoken portions of the first show of the "" concerts designed around the Ninja Turtle characters held at Radio City Music Hall, though the later VHS tape released of the event leaves him uncredited.


title: Cam Clarke

text: Clarke is the nephew to guitarist Alvino Rey and pianist Buddy Cole, cousin to actress Tina Cole, actor and "TMNT" co-star Pat Fraley, and writer Chris Conkling, half brother to musicians Ric and Lex de Azevedo, and uncle to voice actress Emilie Brown and actress Rachel Coleman.


title: Cam Clarke

text: Clarke is gay, and his experiences inspired his album "Inside Out", which changed pronouns in lyrics of classic songs and his one-man autobiographical play "Stop Me If I Told You This".


title: Jason Hervey

text: Jason Robert Hervey (born April 6, 1972) is an American actor and television producer. He is best known for his role as Wayne Arnold on "The Wonder Years".


title: Jason Hervey

text: Hervey was born in Los Angeles, the son of Marsha, a talent agent, and Alan Hervey, a retail sales manager. In his early career, Hervey had small roles in films including "Back to the Future", "Pee-wee's Big Adventure", "Meatballs Part II", "", and had a recurring role as Charlie in the final season of "Diff'rent Strokes". His big break came as a cast member of the successful family dramedy"The Wonder Years", as the older brother of Fred Savage's character. He ranked at #71 on VH1's 100 Greatest Kid Stars for the role.