title: Electron mobility

text: Recall that by definition, mobility is dependent on the drift velocity. The main factor determining drift velocity (other than effective mass) is scattering time, i.e. how long the carrier is ballistically accelerated by the electric field until it scatters (collides) with something that changes its direction and/or energy. The most important sources of scattering in typical semiconductor materials, discussed below, are ionized impurity scattering and acoustic phonon scattering (also called lattice scattering). In some cases other sources of scattering may be important, such as neutral impurity scattering, optical phonon scattering, surface scattering, and defect scattering.


title: Electron mobility

text: Elastic scattering means that energy is (almost) conserved during the scattering event. Some elastic scattering processes are scattering from acoustic phonons, impurity scattering, piezoelectric scattering, etc. In acoustic phonon scattering, electrons scatter from state k to k', while emitting or absorbing a phonon of wave vector q. This phenomenon is usually modeled by assuming that lattice vibrations cause small shifts in energy bands. The additional potential causing the scattering process is generated by the deviations of bands due to these small transitions from frozen lattice positions.


title: Electron mobility

text: Semiconductors are doped with donors and/or acceptors, which are typically ionized, and are thus charged. The Coulombic forces will deflect an electron or hole approaching the ionized impurity. This is known as "ionized impurity scattering". The amount of deflection depends on the speed of the carrier and its proximity to the ion. The more heavily a material is doped, the higher the probability that a carrier will collide with an ion in a given time, and the smaller the mean free time between collisions, and the smaller the mobility. When determining the strength of these interactions due to the long-range nature of the Coulomb potential, other impurities and free carriers cause the range of interaction with the carriers to reduce significantly compared to bare Coulomb interaction.


title: Electron mobility

text: If these scatterers are near the interface, the complexity of the problem increases due to the existence of crystal defects and disorders. Charge trapping centers that scatter free carriers form in many cases due to defects associated with dangling bonds. Scattering happens because after trapping a charge, the defect becomes charged and therefore starts interacting with free carriers. If scattered carriers are in the inversion layer at the interface, the reduced dimensionality of the carriers makes the case differ from the case of bulk impurity scattering as carriers move only in two dimensions. Interfacial roughness also causes short-range scattering limiting the mobility of quasi-two-dimensional electrons at the interface.


title: Electron mobility

text: At any temperature above absolute zero, the vibrating atoms create pressure (acoustic) waves in the crystal, which are termed phonons. Like electrons, phonons can be considered to be particles. A phonon can interact (collide) with an electron (or hole) and scatter it. At higher temperature, there are more phonons, and thus increased electron scattering, which tends to reduce mobility.


title: Electron mobility

text: Piezoelectric effect can occur only in compound semiconductor due to their polar nature. It is small in most semiconductors but may lead to local electric fields that cause scattering of carriers by deflecting them, this effect is important mainly at low temperatures where other scattering mechanisms are weak. These electric fields arise from the distortion of the basic unit cell as strain is applied in certain directions in the lattice.


title: Electron mobility

text: Surface roughness scattering caused by interfacial disorder is short range scattering limiting the mobility of quasi-two-dimensional electrons at the interface. From high-resolution transmission electron micrographs, it has been determined that the interface is not abrupt on the atomic level, but actual position of the interfacial plane varies one or two atomic layers along the surface. These variations are random and cause fluctuations of the energy levels at the interface, which then causes scattering.


title: Electron mobility

text: In compound (alloy) semiconductors, which many thermoelectric materials are, scattering caused by the perturbation of crystal potential due to the random positioning of substituting atom species in a relevant sublattice is known as alloy scattering. This can only happen in ternary or higher alloys as their crystal structure forms by randomly replacing some atoms in one of the sublattices (sublattice) of the crystal structure. Generally, this phenomenon is quite weak but in certain materials or circumstances, it can become dominant effect limiting conductivity. In bulk materials, interface scattering is usually ignored.


title: Electron mobility

text: During inelastic scattering processes, significant energy exchange happens. As with elastic phonon scattering also in the inelastic case, the potential arises from energy band deformations caused by atomic vibrations. Optical phonons causing inelastic scattering usually have the energy in the range 30-50 meV, for comparison energies of acoustic phonon are typically less than 1 meV but some might have energy in order of 10 meV. There is significant change in carrier energy during the scattering process. Optical or high-energy acoustic phonons can also cause intervalley or interband scattering, which means that scattering is not limited within single valley.


title: Electron mobility

text: Due to the Pauli exclusion principle, electrons can be considered as non-interacting if their density does not exceed the value 10~10 cm or electric field value 10 V/cm. However, significantly above these limits electron–electron scattering starts to dominate. Long range and nonlinearity of the Coulomb potential governing interactions between electrons make these interactions difficult to deal with.


title: Electron mobility

text: A simple model gives the approximate relation between scattering time (average time between scattering events) and mobility. It is assumed that after each scattering event, the carrier's motion is randomized, so it has zero average velocity. After that, it accelerates uniformly in the electric field, until it scatters again. The resulting average drift mobility is:


title: Electron mobility

text: where "q" is the elementary charge, "m"* is the carrier effective mass, and is the average scattering time.


title: Electron mobility

text: If the effective mass is anisotropic (direction-dependent), m* is the effective mass in the direction of the electric field.


title: Electron mobility

text: Normally, more than one source of scattering is present, for example both impurities and lattice phonons. It is normally a very good approximation to combine their influences using "Matthiessen's Rule" (developed from work by Augustus Matthiessen in 1864):


title: Electron mobility

text: where "µ" is the actual mobility, formula_32 is the mobility that the material would have if there was impurity scattering but no other source of scattering, and formula_33 is the mobility that the material would have if there was lattice phonon scattering but no other source of scattering. Other terms may be added for other scattering sources, for example


title: Electron mobility

text: where "τ" is the true average scattering time and τ is the scattering time if there was impurity scattering but no other source of scattering, etc.


title: Electron mobility

text: Matthiessen's rule is an approximation and is not universally valid. This rule is not valid if the factors affecting the mobility depend on each other, because individual scattering probabilities cannot be summed unless they are independent of each other. The average free time of flight of a carrier and therefore the relaxation time is inversely proportional to the scattering probability. For example, lattice scattering alters the average electron velocity (in the electric-field direction), which in turn alters the tendency to scatter off impurities. There are more complicated formulas that attempt to take these effects into account.


title: Electron mobility

text: With increasing temperature, phonon concentration increases and causes increased scattering. Thus lattice scattering lowers the carrier mobility more and more at higher temperature. Theoretical calculations reveal that the mobility in non-polar semiconductors, such as silicon and germanium, is dominated by acoustic phonon interaction. The resulting mobility is expected to be proportional to "T" , while the mobility due to optical phonon scattering only is expected to be proportional to "T" . Experimentally, values of the temperature dependence of the mobility in Si, Ge and GaAs are listed in table.


title: Electron mobility

text: As formula_36, where formula_37 is the scattering cross section for electrons and holes at a scattering center and formula_38 is a thermal average (Boltzmann statistics) over all electron or hole velocities in the lower conduction band or upper valence band, temperature dependence of the mobility can be determined. In here, the following definition for the scattering cross section is used: number of particles scattered into solid angle dΩ per unit time divided by number of particles per area per time (incident intensity), which comes from classical mechanics. As Boltzmann statistics are valid for semiconductors formula_39.


title: Electron mobility

text: For scattering from acoustic phonons, for temperatures well above Debye temperature, the estimated cross section Σ is determined from the square of the average vibrational amplitude of a phonon to be proportional to T. The scattering from charged defects (ionized donors or acceptors) leads to the cross section formula_40. This formula is the scattering cross section for "Rutherford scattering", where a point charge (carrier) moves past another point charge (defect) experiencing Coulomb interaction.


title: Electron mobility

text: The temperature dependencies of these two scattering mechanism in semiconductors can be determined by combining formulas for τ, Σ and formula_38, to be for scattering from acoustic phonons formula_42 and from charged defects formula_43.


title: Electron mobility

text: The effect of ionized impurity scattering, however, "decreases" with increasing temperature because the average thermal speeds of the carriers are increased. Thus, the carriers spend less time near an ionized impurity as they pass and the scattering effect of the ions is thus reduced.


title: Electron mobility

text: These two effects operate simultaneously on the carriers through Matthiessen's rule. At lower temperatures, ionized impurity scattering dominates, while at higher temperatures, phonon scattering dominates, and the actual mobility reaches a maximum at an intermediate temperature.


title: Electron mobility

text: While in crystalline materials electrons can be described by wavefunctions extended over the entire solid, this is not the case in systems with appreciable structural disorder, such as polycrystalline or amorphous semiconductors. Anderson suggested that beyond a critical value of structural disorder, electron states would be "localized". Localized states are described as being confined to finite region of real space, normalizable, and not contributing to transport. Extended states are spread over the extent of the material, not normalizable, and contribute to transport. Unlike crystalline semiconductors, mobility generally increases with temperature in disordered semiconductors.


title: Electron mobility

text: Mott later developed the concept of a mobility edge. This is an energy formula_44, above which electrons undergo a transition from localized to delocalized states. In this description, termed "multiple trapping and release", electrons are only able to travel when in extended states, and are constantly being trapped in, and re-released from, the lower energy localized states. Because the probability of an electron being released from a trap depends on its thermal energy, mobility can be described by an Arrhenius relationship in such a system:


title: Electron mobility

text: where formula_46 is a mobility prefactor, formula_47 is activation energy, formula_48 is the Boltzmann constant, and formula_49 is temperature. The activation energy is typically evaluated by measuring mobility as a function of temperature. The Urbach Energy can be used as a proxy for activation energy in some systems.


title: Electron mobility

text: At low temperature, or in system with a large degree of structural disorder (such as fully amorphous systems), electrons cannot access delocalized states. In such a system, electrons can only travel by tunnelling for one site to another, in a process called "variable range hopping". In the original theory of variable range hopping, as developed by Mott and Davis, the probability formula_50, of an electron hopping from one site formula_51, to another site formula_52, depends on their separation in space formula_53, and their separation in energy formula_54.


title: Electron mobility

text: Here formula_56 is a prefactor associated with the phonon frequency in the material, and formula_57 is the wavefunction overlap parameter. The mobility in a system governed by variable range hopping can be shown to be:


title: Electron mobility

text: where formula_46 is a mobility prefactor, formula_60 is a parameter (with dimensions of temperature) that quantifies the width of localized states, and formula_61 is the dimensionality of the system.


title: Electron mobility

text: Carrier mobility is most commonly measured using the Hall effect. The result of the measurement is called the "Hall mobility" (meaning "mobility inferred from a Hall-effect measurement").


title: Electron mobility

text: Consider a semiconductor sample with a rectangular cross section as shown in the figures, a current is flowing in the "x"-direction and a magnetic field is applied in the "z"-direction. The resulting Lorentz force will accelerate the electrons ("n"-type materials) or holes ("p"-type materials) in the (−"y") direction, according to the right hand rule and set up an electric field "ξ". As a result there is a voltage across the sample, which can be measured with a high-impedance voltmeter. This voltage, "V", is called the Hall voltage. "V" is negative for "n"-type material and positive for "p"-type material.


title: Electron mobility

text: In steady state this force is balanced by the force set up by the Hall voltage, so that there is no net force on the carriers in the "y" direction. For electrons,


title: Electron mobility

text: For electrons, the field points in the −"y" direction, and for holes, it points in the +"y" direction.


title: Electron mobility

text: Here the value of "V" (Hall voltage), "t" (sample thickness), "I" (current) and "B" (magnetic field) can be measured directly, and the conductivities "σ" or "σ" are either known or can be obtained from measuring the resistivity.


title: Electron mobility

text: The mobility can also be measured using a field-effect transistor (FET). The result of the measurement is called the "field-effect mobility" (meaning "mobility inferred from a field-effect measurement").


title: Electron mobility

text: The measurement can work in two ways: From saturation-mode measurements, or linear-region measurements. (See MOSFET for a description of the different modes or regions of operation.)


title: Electron mobility

text: In this technique, for each fixed gate voltage V, the drain-source voltage V is increased until the current I saturates. Next, the square root of this saturated current is plotted against the gate voltage, and the slope "m" is measured. Then the mobility is:


title: Electron mobility

text: where "L" and "W" are the length and width of the channel and "C" is the gate insulator capacitance per unit area. This equation comes from the approximate equation for a MOSFET in saturation mode:


title: Electron mobility

text: where "V" is the threshold voltage. This approximation ignores the Early effect (channel length modulation), among other things. In practice, this technique may underestimate the true mobility.


title: Electron mobility

text: In this technique, the transistor is operated in the linear region (or "ohmic mode"), where V is small and formula_77 with slope "m". Then the mobility is:


title: Electron mobility

text: In practice, this technique may overestimate the true mobility, because if V is not small enough and V is not large enough, the MOSFET may not stay in the linear region.


title: Electron mobility

text: Electron mobility may be determined from non-contact laser photo-reflectance technique measurements. A series of photo-reflectance measurements are made as the sample is stepped through focus. The electron diffusion length and recombination time are determined by a regressive fit to the data. Then the Einstein relation is used to calculate the mobility.


title: Electron mobility

text: Electron mobility can be calculated from time-resolved terahertz probe measurement. Femtosecond laser pulses excite the semiconductor and the resulting photoconductivity is measured using a terahertz probe, which detects changes in the terahertz electric field.


title: Electron mobility

text: A proxy for charge carrier mobility can be evaluated using time-resolved microwave conductivity (TRMC). A pulsed optical laser is used to create electrons and holes in a semiconductor, which are then detected as an increase in photoconductance. With knowledge of the sample absorbance, dimensions, and incident laser fluence, the parameter formula_80 can be evaluated, where formula_81 is the carrier generation yield (between 0 and 1), formula_82 is the electron mobility and formula_83 is the hole mobility. formula_84 has the same dimensions as mobility, but carrier type (electron or hole) is obscured.


title: Electron mobility

text: The charge carriers in semiconductors are electrons and holes. Their numbers are controlled by the concentrations of impurity elements, i.e. doping concentration. Thus doping concentration has great influence on carrier mobility.


title: Electron mobility

text: While there is considerable scatter in the experimental data, for noncompensated material (no counter doping) for heavily doped substrates (i.e. formula_85 and up), the mobility in silicon is often characterized by the empirical relationship:


title: Electron mobility

text: where "N" is the doping concentration (either "N" or "N"), and "N" and α are fitting parameters. At room temperature, the above equation becomes:


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Hud is a 1963 American Western film directed by Martin Ritt and starring Paul Newman, Melvyn Douglas, Brandon deWilde, and Patricia Neal. It was produced by Ritt and Newman's recently founded company, Salem Productions, and was their first film for Paramount Pictures. "Hud" was filmed on location on the Texas Panhandle, including Claude, Texas. Its screenplay was by Irving Ravetch and Harriet Frank Jr. and was based on Larry McMurtry's 1961 novel, "Horseman, Pass By". The film's title character, Hud Bannon, was a minor character in the original screenplay, but was reworked as the lead role. With its main character an antihero, "Hud" was later described as a revisionist Western.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: The film centers on the ongoing conflict between principled patriarch Homer Bannon and his unscrupulous and arrogant son, Hud, during an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease putting the family's cattle ranch at risk. Lonnie, Homer's grandson and Hud's nephew, is caught in the conflict and forced to choose which character to follow.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: "Hud" premiered at the Venice International Film Festival, and was a critical and commercial success at its general release. It was nominated for seven Academy Awards, winning three; Patricia Neal won Best Actress, Melvyn Douglas won Best Supporting Actor, and James Wong Howe the Academy Award for Best Black and White Cinematography. Howe's use of contrast to create space and his selection of black-and-white was acclaimed by critics. In later reviews, the film received additional praise. In 2018, the film was included in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Hud Bannon (Newman) is ambitious and self-centered, the opposite of his deeply principled rancher father Homer (Douglas). Also living on the Bannon ranch is Hud's teenaged nephew, Lonnie (Brandon deWilde), who looks up to both men, but is most impressed by Hud. Lonnie and Hud are attracted to the Bannons' housekeeper, Alma (Patricia Neal). Although she is attracted to Hud, Alma keeps her distance because she has been mistreated in the past by men like him.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: After the sudden, inexplicable death of a cow on the ranch, Homer sends Lonnie to town to bring Hud to the ranch for his opinion. Lonnie, finding Hud just in time to take the blame for Hud's tryst with a married woman, protests Hud's putting him in a dangerous situation as they return to the ranch, with Hud driving over Alma's flowers as they arrive. At the dead animal, Hud shoots several buzzards to scare the flock away against his father's protestations that they keep the land clean and shooting them is illegal. Hud states his immunity to laws that inconvenience him, setting the tone of his overall demeanor. Hud is annoyed by his father's decision to summon the state veterinarian, and suggests selling the animals to other ranchers before the news spreads; otherwise, government agents will kill all the cattle and destroy everything they have worked for. He blames his father for not realizing that the cheap Mexican cattle were sick before he bought them. Adhering to his principles, Homer ignores Hud's idea and waits for the veterinarian. Upon his arrival, the state veterinarian immediately issues a legally binding state livestock transfer order directing the quarantine of the ranch for a possible foot-and-mouth disease outbreak. This freezes the movement of all livestock to or from the Bannon ranch, while they await the test results.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: One night, Hud takes Lonnie out and they prevail in a drunken barroom brawl. Back at the ranch, he reflects on the past (when Lonnie's father and he did the same thing), revealing his feelings about his brother Norman's death and his father's coldness to him. When they enter the house, Homer confronts Hud, accusing his son of trying to corrupt Lonnie. They argue, with Hud accusing Homer of hypocrisy and resentment of him for Norman's death. Homer replies that his disappointment in Hud began before the accident; Hud cares about no one but himself, and is "not fit to live with". Hurt and angry, Hud retorts "My mama loved me, but she died" as he walks away. When Lonnie tells Homer that he was too harsh and other people act like him, Homer replies that one day he will have to decide for himself what is right and wrong.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: After learning from Lonnie that Hud is trying to seize the ranch, Homer confronts Hud. Infuriated by his eroded inheritance, Hud threatens to have Homer declared legally incompetent so he can take over the ranch. Homer tells his son he will lose. He admits that he made mistakes raising Hud, and was too hard on him. When Hud accuses him of having a "shape up or ship out" policy, Homer wonders aloud how a man like Hud can be his son and storms off to his room. Hud, drunk, goes outside and tries to rape Alma before Lonnie comes to her aid.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: When the herd tests positive for foot-and-mouth disease, the veterinarian orders them to be killed and buried on the ranch under state supervision to keep the disease from spreading. Hud points out that they could sell some oil leases to keep the ranch profitable, but Homer refuses as he only has pride in cattle, despite his ruinous decision to purchase the Mexican cattle.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: The state veterinarian and his assistant pull up to ranch following the killing of most of Homer's cattle, noticing that two Longhorns are still alive. The assistant gets his rifle and proceeds to leave the car with the intention of killing them. Homer stops him and tells him he will take care of them himself, seeing as how he raised them. The assistant voices his doubts about Homer going through with it, he has no guarantee that will happen. Then Hud soundly defends his father's word and tells him, "he just said he would."


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Alma decides to leave the ranch. After Lonnie drops her off at the bus station, Hud sees her as she is waiting. He apologizes for his drunken assault, but not for his attraction to her, and he would remember her as "the one who got away". Driving back to the ranch, Lonnie sees his grandfather lying on the side of the road after a fall from his horse during a survey of the ranch. Hud pulls up behind Lonnie, and despite their efforts, he dies.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Lonnie is repelled by his uncle's treatment of Homer and Alma and leaves the ranch after his grandfather's funeral, uncertain if he will ever return. When he tells Hud to put his half of their inheritance in the bank, his uncle replies that Lonnie now sees him as Homer did. Hud goes back into the Bannon house alone; as he closes the door, the final fade-out is the window shade's pull-ring swaying.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: After working together on other projects, director Martin Ritt and Paul Newman co-founded Salem Productions and the company made a three-film deal with Paramount Studios. For its first film, Salem hired husband-and-wife scriptwriters Irving Ravetch and Harriet Frank Jr., who worked with Ritt and Newman on "The Long, Hot Summer". Ravetch found Larry McMurtry's novel, "Horseman, Pass By", in an airport shop during a Dallas stopover and presented the project to Ritt and Newman after reading a description of Hud Bannon. The partners met Ravetch and Frank at their home, approved the project, and the writers adapted the script.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Although McMurtry's novel focuses on Lonnie Bannon, Ravetch and Frank expanded Hud's character to the lead role. Ritt wanted Hud to be an antihero who did not regret his actions at the end of the film. He was changed from Homer's stepson to his son, and the character of Homer's wife was eliminated. Newman and Ritt initially named the project "Wild Desire", followed by "The Winners", "Hud Bannon Against the World", "Hud Bannon" and finally "Hud". Ravetch and Frank accompanied Ritt and Newman through preproduction, casting, and publicity design.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Ritt asked that the housekeeper character (originally Halmea, a black woman) be renamed Alma and played by a white actress, because he thought a relationship between Hud and a black woman would not work. According to Ravetch and Frank, "Neither American Western film nor American society was quite ready for that back then". Although Halmea is assaulted by Hud in the novel, Ravetch and Frank added Lonnie's intervention to "highlight" his significance and keep Hud "human" and not "totally and simplistically evil". To accentuate the scene's violence, Hud's roughness was complemented by the use of shadows, while a camera was attached on Newman's back to create a "man's view angle" while he chased Neal. Film critic Pauline Kael described Neal's performance as "perhaps the first female equivalent of the white-negro".


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Cinematographer James Wong Howe shot "Hud" in black-and-white to "elevate its dramatic propensities". Filmed in Panavision, Howe used high contrast with unbalanced light and dark tones. He highlighted the white ground and clear skies, making the shadows black. Dark tones were "overpowered" by light ones, creating a sense of "infinite space". For faces and structures, Howe used light reflected from the ground. The contrast between the environment and objects silhouetted against the background provides a sense of depth. Ritt's biographer, Carlton Jackson, wrote that in "Hud" "the scenery becomes a part of the thematic development itself". According to "Texas Monthly", "Howe's austere rendition of Texas landscapes [...] remains one of the film's most distinctive pleasures".


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: "Hud" was shot over a four-week period in and around the Texas Panhandle, using the town of Claude as a setting. Location filming began on May 21, 1962, and was finished by the second week of June. Outdoor scenes were filmed at the Goodnight Ranch. To avoid surpassing the shooting schedule due to weather conditions, the cast had to cancel two scenes originally planned for the location that featured people from Claude and Amarillo. The rest of the scenes were shot at the Paramount sound stages in Hollywood beginning in the first week of July. The film was completed on August 1, 1962. The pig-scramble scene, written by dialect coach Bob Hinkle, replaced a softball game in Ravetch and Frank's script; Hinkle played the announcer in the scene. For the filming of the cattle-slaughter scene, the Humane Society was present to monitor the animals' treatment. The herd was sprayed with a substance to make it appear ill, and bungee cords were tied to the cattle's legs. Camera angles were arranged by Ritt and Howe to avoid showing the death of the cattle. When a man was shown shooting, the camera would switch to the cattle; the crew shook the cords, creating an effect of the herd being shot. During location shooting, Newman and deWilde often changed hotel rooms due to female fans following them.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Elmer Bernstein used sparse arrangements for "Hud"s score; in its theme, Bernstein "insinuated" natural sounds with "poignant strings on the guitar". "Variety" called the theme "vital and noteworthy", "sombre, plaintive and foreboding".


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: "Hud"s budget was $2.35 million, and Paramount executives were unhappy with the film. They felt it was too dark and were displeased by the black-and-white cinematography and Hud's lack of remorse and unchanged behavior. Although Martin Rackin asked Ritt to change the film's ending, Newman and he decided to keep the original. After "Hud" was previewed, Paramount considered dropping the project, feeling that it was not "commercial enough", but Ritt flew to New York and convinced the executives to release the film unmodified.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Advertising posters, with Newman in blue jeans in a "suggestive, full-length pose", read: "Paul Newman is "Hud"! ... the man with the barbed-wire soul".


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: "Hud" was acclaimed during its premiere at the 24th Venice International Film Festival. After its general release on May 29, 1963, the film grossed $10 million at the domestic box office, earning $5 million in theatrical rentals. It was the 19th-highest-grossing film of the year. "Life" called "Hud" an "arrestingalmost greatmovie", describing Paul Newman's acting as "faultless". An "Outlook" reviewer wrote that the four main cast members acted "splendidly"; Newman "speaks at times with an unpleasant nasal twang, but is clearly suited to the part." They described Melvyn Douglas' performance as "impeccable", Brandon deWilde's as "[successful] in looking earnest unsure of himself" and praised Patricia Neal's expressiveness. "Time" called the performances "splendid", and Howe's photography "brings the Texas Panhandle to dusty, sweaty life." The "New York Times", in a favorable review, said Ritt's direction had "[a] powerfully realistic style" and called Ravetch and Frank's work "[an] excellent screenplay." The newspaper called Newman's acting "tremendous", Douglas' "magnificent", deWilde's "eloquent of clean, modern youth" and Patricia Neal's "brilliant." The review also praised James Wong Howe's "excellent" camera work and Elmer Bernstein's "poignant" score. "Variety" called "Hud" "a near miss"; its screenplay fails to "filter its meaning and theme lucidly through its characters and story", although it called the four leads' performances "excellent."


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Through the character of Hud, Ritt and Newman had intended to show the corruption of modern capitalism and the pitfalls of admiring an individual blindly, without observing his character. Critics, however, did not universally echo this view. "Life"s review described Hud as "likable, smart, and [with] the potential to measure up to his tough, honorable father" and "Saturday Review" called him a "charming, raffish monster". According to "Outlook", "Hud Bannon is a mean, unscrupulous man who never has even a momentary twinge of conscience or change of heart"; in the end scene, Hud "[p]ulls down the shade on the world of goodness and decency". Pauline Kael initially described the film as an "anti-Western"; she called it an "anti-American film", which was "so astutely made and yet such a mess that it (was) redeemed by its fundamental dishonesty."


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: The "Los Angeles Times" critic John L. Scott felt that the film was "a bewildering, at times brilliant, bitter look at life in the raw". The reviewer described the relation between Hud and Homer and determined that "two hours of this type of conflict can prove distasteful" but he added that the "vivid performances of principals" and "some yeoman work" by Ritt "are definite credits, turning 'Hud' into an absorbing, if troubling, cinematic experience". Scott commented that in the film "Newman gives one of his finest portrayals". Meanwhile, he deemed Douglas's acting "a powerful, wrenching portrayal". He praised Neal's "bawdy humor" that "combines drabness and atractiveness in quite wonderful fashion." and called De Wilde "a good choice for the role". The reviewer celebrated Howe as "long one of the best, with fine photography". "The New York Daily News" rated "Hud" with four stars, as the publication consider the movie "a rarity, a realistic film about real people, hard, stubborn cattlemen of Texas, a drama unsentimental and uncompromising in a strained relationship". The piece determined that Ritt "made a picture that has nothing wrong with it" and that it was "storytelling at its best". The performances of Newman, De Wilde, Douglas and Neal were welcomed as "uniform perfection" as the review further added that they "play these strong people as if they had lived them". The column concluded that "Hud" was "a western of a rare variety, modern and effectively dramatic."


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: "The Philadelphia Inquirer" wrote that calling the film "a western" would put it "a very specific story into a very general category". Reviewer Henry Murdock felt that "Hud" had "a highly individualistic , arresting approach of its own." The review expressed that it was "filled with good performances" and that Ritt "can make mood as important as action". Murdock hailed Newman and Douglas's performance as "superb as the antagonists", while he remarked De Wilde's "intuition to the role". However, the review focused on Neal's appearance that the review considered "of such courage and clarity , such understanting of Hud's character" That Murdock "wanted to violate all the rules of critics' behaviour by applauding her terrific performance." Meanwhile, the "Chicago Tribune" attributed the main character's behavior as "one of the reasons for this pictures' power, in addition to some superior performances, is that provides no easy answers." Newman's interpretation, that treated the role in a "smoldering, shattering fashion" was deemed "powerful". Douglas's appareance was seen as "the perfect touch of a true professional", while De Wilde's offered "innocence and vulnerability without the slightest trace of mawkishness." The review finished crediting Ritt with "an uncompromising story with economical effectiveness."


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: "The Miami Herald" praised the film, as the publication opined that Ritt produced "superb performances out of his first rate cast." Critic Jack Anderson hailed Ravetch and Frank's adaptation that offered "a well balanced script" and "skillfully managed inter-relationship of its characters." Meanwhile, he described Howe's capture of the Texas Panhandle as "spell-binding effectiveness". While Anderson felt that the story was "a depressing one", he opined that it was "so well told and acted that it trascends its emotional murkiness to make it completely fascinating to watch." "The Kansas City Star" favored Newman's "enormous range and depth". The reviewer felt that "Hud" was "much like life" as in the end "Nothing is settled, no real victories are won and none of the principals undergoes a major change in character or personality". For the reviewer, Neal showed "wit and allure" and De Wilde appeared "callow, yet wise; eager, yet restrained". The publication attributed its positive reception to Ravetch and Frank's screenplay, as well as to Ritt's interpretation of the material. It described Ritt's direction as "building tansion and then changing step quickly as the fury mounts". For the reviewer, "Hud" was "enhanced considerably by the use of black and white film" , while he added that the characters were "so vital" that "color photography might have overstated the general tone".


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: Although Hud was conceived as an outwardly charming, but morally repugnant character, audiences, especially young people, found him likable, even admirable. Paul Newman said, "We thought [the] last thing people would do was accept Hud as a heroic character ... His amorality just went over [the audience's] head; all they saw was this Western, heroic individual". Martin Ritt later attributed audience interpretation of the character to the counterculture of the 1960s which "changed the values" of the young audiences who saw Hud as a hero.


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: In 2018, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: "Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide" gave "Hud" four stars out of four. Maltin called the film "An excellent story of moral degradation, with impeccable performances by all". Steven H. Scheuer's "Movies on TV" also gave the film four stars out of four; Scheuer called it "a must for movie-drama fans", and said the cast was "superb". In "Film and Video Guide" Leslie Halliwell gave "Hud" four stars out of four, calling it "unique". "Allmovie" gave "Hud" five stars out of five, calling the film "a warning shot for the Sixties" and saying that its "generational conflict would prove prescient". It praised Howe's cinematography, which gave the film "an authentic Western feel".


title: Hud (1963 film)

text: The Academy Film Archive preserved "Hud" in 2005. In 2018, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: Hiroshima mon amour (, lit. , ), is a 1959 romantic drama film directed by French director Alain Resnais and written by French author Marguerite Duras.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: Resnais' first feature-length work, it was a co-production between France and Japan, and documents a series of intensely personal conversations (or one long conversation) over slightly more than a 24-hour period between an unnamed French actress and Japanese architect. The film is notable for Resnais' innovative use of brief flashbacks to suggest flashes of memory, which create a nonlinear storyline.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: Along with films such as "Breathless" (1960) and "The 400 Blows" (1959), "Hiroshima mon amour" brought international attention to the new movement in French cinema and is widely considered to be one of the most influential films of the French New Wave. In particular, it was a major catalyst for Left Bank Cinema.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: A series of closeups of the backs and arms of a man and woman embracing, amidst falling ash and then covered in sweat. In voiceover, the woman recounts the aftermath of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima that she has seen on her trip to the city, while newsreel and fictional footage of victims, protests, war memorials, and the streets and buildings of modern Hiroshima are shown. The man calmly says the woman has not seen anything, nor does she know what it is to forget. He is from Hiroshima and his family died in the bombing while he was off fighting in the war, and the woman is a French actress who is in the city to make an anti-war film.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: In the morning, the woman watches the man sleep. His twitching hand reminds her of her first love, a soldier whose hand moved similarly as he lay dying. The Japanese man wakes, and it becomes clear he and the woman met the previous night at a café. She learns he is an architect who is involved in politics. They discuss the bombing and the end of the war, and he is enchanted by the word "Nevers", her hometown, to which she never wants to return. The man says he would like to see the woman again, but she says she is flying back to Paris the next day. Neither this nor the revelation that she has children change how he feels, but she, though torn, repeatedly declines to arrange another meeting.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: The man visits the woman at the filming location, and she is happy to see him. He takes her back to his house. She asks if he lives alone, and he replies that his wife is out of town for a few days. They both say they are happy in their marriages, though they have had casual affairs before, and make love again. After deciding to spend the woman's remaining time in Hiroshima together, they go to a tea room, where the man asks the woman to tell him more about Nevers and her life there. Intercut with flashbacks, she tells how she and an occupying German soldier fell in love and planned to elope to Bavaria before he was shot while waiting for her on the day Nevers was liberated, how she stayed with him while he died over the next two days, how the villagers shaved her head when they found out about the relationship, and how her parents locked her alternately in her room and the cellar while her hair grew out and she came out of her madness and then sent her away to Paris just before Hiroshima was bombed. She tries to convey the pain she feels about forgetting the German and their love, and indicates she has been trying to keep her distance from the Japanese man because she does not want any more such heartbreak.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: The man is elated when he learns the woman never told her husband about the German, but, when they leave the tea room, she tells him to go away and that they will probably never see each other again. In her hotel room, she feels guilty about telling the man about the German, but decides to stay in Hiroshima. She goes back to the now-closed tea room, and the man finds her and asks her to stay. She weakly says she will, but then tells him again to go away. They walk around the city, together and separately, images of Hiroshima alternating with images of Nevers. The woman goes to a train station, where she lets go of some of her issues surrounding her first love and decides she might like to visit Nevers. She takes a cab to a nightclub, the man following. The place is nearly empty and they sit apart. As the sun rises, a Japanese man sits by the woman and hits on her in English.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: Back in the woman's hotel room, the architect knocks at the door. She lets him in and yells that she is already starting to forget him, but abruptly calms and says his name is "Hiroshima". He responds that it is, and her name is "Nevers".


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: According to James Monaco, Resnais was originally commissioned to make a short documentary about the atomic bomb, but spent several months confused about how to proceed because he did not want to recreate his 1956 Holocaust documentary "Night and Fog". He later went to his producer and joked that the film could not be done unless Marguerite Duras was involved in writing the screenplay.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: The film was a co-production by companies from both France and Japan. The producers stipulated that one main character must be French and the other Japanese, and also required that the film be shot in both countries employing film crews comprising technicians from each.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: Among the film's innovations is the way Resnais intercut very brief flashback sequences into scenes to suggest a brief flash of memory. He later used a similar effect in "Last Year at Marienbad" (1961) and "The War Is Over" (1966).


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: In his book on Resnais, James Monaco ends his chapter on "Hiroshima mon amour" by claiming that the film contains a reference to the classic 1942 film "Casablanca":


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: The uncensored version of the film was shown at the Montreal International Film Festival in 1960, but was censored for its Canadian theatrical release.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: At the 1959 Cannes Film Festival, where the film was excluded from the official selection because of its sensitive subject matter of nuclear bombs and to avoid upsetting the U.S. government, the film won the FIPRESCI International Critics' Prize, and it won the prestigious Grand Prix from the Belgian Film Critics Association in 1960. For her work on the film, screenwriter Marguerite Duras was nominated for the award for Best Original Screenplay at the 33rd Academy Awards. In 2002, the film was voted by the international contributors of the French film magazine "Positif" to be one of the top 10 films since 1952, when the magazine was founded.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: "Hiroshima mon amour" has been described as ""The Birth of a Nation" of the French New Wave" by American critic Leonard Maltin. New Wave filmmaker Jean-Luc Godard described its inventiveness as "Faulkner plus Stravinsky" and celebrated the film's originality, calling it "the first film without any cinematic references". Filmmaker Eric Rohmer said: "I think that in a few years, in ten, twenty, or thirty years, we will know whether "Hiroshima mon amour" was the most important film since the war, the first modern film of sound cinema".


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: The film was shown as part of the Cannes Classics section of the 2013 Cannes Film Festival and was screened nine times at the Harvard Film Archive between 28 November and 13 December 2014.


title: Hiroshima mon amour

text: In "Japan Journals: 1947-2004", film historian Donald Richie writes in an entry for 25 January 1960 of seeing the film in Tokyo and remarks on various distracting (for the Japanese) cultural errors which Resnais made. He notes, for example, that the Japanese-language arrival and departure time announcements in the train scenes bear no relation to the time of day in which the scenes are set. Also, people pass through noren curtains into shops which are supposedly closed. The noren is a traditional sign that a shop is open for business and is invariably taken down at closing time.


title: Rock hyrax

text: The rock hyrax (; Procavia capensis), also called dassie, Cape hyrax, rock rabbit, and (in the King James Bible) coney, is a medium-sized terrestrial mammal native to Africa and the Middle East. Commonly referred to in South Africa as the dassie (; ), it is one of the five living species of the order Hyracoidea, and the only one in the genus "Procavia".


title: Rock hyrax

text: Rock hyraxes are found at elevations up to above sea level in habitats with rock crevices, allowing them to escape from predators. They are the only extant terrestrial afrotherians in the Middle East. Hyraxes typically live in groups of 10–80 animals, and forage as a group. They have been reported to use sentries to warn of the approach of predators. Having incomplete thermoregulation, they are most active in the morning and evening, although their activity pattern varies substantially with season and climate.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Over most of its range, the rock hyrax is not endangered, and in some areas is considered a minor pest. In Ethiopia, Israel, and Jordan, it is a reservoir of the leishmaniasis parasite.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Along with other hyrax species and the sirenians, this species is the most closely related to the elephant. An unrelated, convergently evolved mammal of similar habits and appearance is the rock cavy of Brazil.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Rock hyraxes are squat and heavily built, with adults reaching a length of and weighing around , with a slight sexual dimorphism, males being about 10% heavier than females. Their fur is thick and grey-brown, although this varies strongly between different environments, from dark brown in wetter habitats, to light gray in desert-living individuals. Hyrax size (as measured by skull length and humerus diameter) is correlated to precipitation, probably because of the effect on preferred hyrax forage.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Prominent in and apparently unique to hyraxes is the dorsal gland, which excretes an odour used for social communication and territorial marking. The gland is most clearly visible in dominant males.


title: Rock hyrax

text: The rock hyrax has a pointed head, short neck, and rounded ears. It has long, black whiskers on its muzzle. The rock hyrax has a prominent pair of long, pointed tusk-like upper incisors, which are reminiscent of the elephant, to which the hyrax is distantly related. The fore feet are plantigrade, and the hind feet are semi-digitigrade. The soles of the feet have large, soft pads that are kept moist with sweat-like secretions. In males, the testes are permanently abdominal, another anatomical feature that hyraxes share with elephants and sirenians.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Thermoregulation in rock hyraxes has been subject to much research, as their body temperature varies with a diurnal rhythm. Animals kept in constant environmental conditions also display such variation, and this internal mechanism may be related to water balance regulation.


title: Rock hyrax

text: The rock hyrax occurs widely across sub-Saharan Africa in disjunct northern and southern populations; it is absent from the Congo Basin and Madagascar. The distribution encompasses southern Algeria, Libya, Egypt, and the Middle East, with populations in Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and the Arabian Peninsula. The northern subspecies was introduced to Jebel Hafeet, which is on the border of Oman and the United Arab Emirates.


title: Rock hyrax

text: The shade of their pelts varies individually and regionally. In particular, the dorsal patches (present in both sexes) of the central populations are very variable, ranging from yellow to black, or flecked. In outlying populations, these are more constant in colour, black in "P. c. capensis", cream in "P. c. welwitschii", and orange in "P. c. ruficeps". A larger, longer-haired population is abundant in the moraines in the alpine zone of Mount Kenya.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Rock hyraxes build dwelling holes in any type of rock with suitable cavities, such as sedimentary rocks and soil.


title: Rock hyrax

text: In Mount Kenya, rock hyraxes live in colonies comprising an adult male, several adult females, and immatures. They are active during the day, and sometimes during moonlit nights. The dominant male defends and watches over the group. The male also marks his territory.


title: Rock hyrax

text: In Africa, hyraxes are preyed on by leopards, Egyptian cobras, puff adders, rock pythons, caracals, wild dogs, hawks, and owls. Verreaux's eagle in particular is a specialist hunter of hyraxes. In Israel, the rock hyrax is reportedly rarely preyed upon by terrestrial predators, as their system of sentries and reliable refuges provide considerable protection. Hyrax remains are almost absent from the droppings of wolves in the Judean Desert.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Hyraxes feed on a wide variety of plant species, including "Lobelia" and broad-leafed plants. They also have been reported to eat insects and grubs. They forage for food up to about 50 m from their refuge, usually feeding as a group and with one or more acting as sentries from a prominent lookout position. On the approach of danger, the sentries give an alarm call, and the animals quickly retreat to their refuge.


title: Rock hyrax

text: They are able to go for many days without water due to the moisture they obtain through their food, but quickly dehydrate under direct sunlight. Despite their seemingly clumsy build, they are able to climb trees (although not as readily as "Heterohyrax"), and readily enter residential gardens to feed on the leaves of citrus and other trees.


title: Rock hyrax

text: The rock hyrax also makes a loud, grunting sound while moving its jaws as if chewing, and this behaviour may be a sign of aggression. Some authors have proposed that observation of this behavior by ancient Israelites gave rise to the misconception given in Leviticus 11:4–8 that the hyrax chews the cud, but the hyrax is not a ruminant.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Rock hyraxes give birth to two to four young after a gestation period of 6–7 months (long, for their size). The young are well developed at birth with fully opened eyes and complete pelage. Young can ingest solid food after two weeks and are weaned at 10 weeks. After 16 months, they become sexually mature, they reach adult size at 3 years, and they typically live about 10 years. During seasonal changes, the weight of the male reproductive organs (testes, seminal vesicles) changes due to sexual activity. Between May and January in Cape Province, South Africa, the males are inactive sexually. From February onward, the weight of these organs increases dramatically and the males are able to copulate.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Hyraxes that live in more "egalitarian" groups, in which social associations are spread more evenly among group members, survive longer. In addition, hyraxes are the first nonhuman species in which structural balance was described. They follow "the friend of my friend is my friend" rule, and avoid unbalanced social configurations. The balance of social interactions within a group is positively correlated to individual longevity, meaning that "it is not the number or strength of associations that an adult individual has (i.e. centrality) that is important, but the overall configuration of social relationships within the group." The reason for such a balanced group configuration, rather than one that is centrally dominated by a few individual hyraxes, was suggested to have to do with the fact that information flow to all members is important in a fragmented habitat as that of the hyrax, making a dominance hierarchy a liability for the survival of the group at large.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Captive rock hyraxes make more than 20 different noises and vocal signals. The most familiar one is a high trill, given in response to perceived danger. Rock hyrax calls can provide important biological information, such as size, age, social status, body weight, condition, and hormonal state of the caller, as determined by measuring their call length, patterns, complexity, and frequency. More recently, researchers have found rich syntactic structure and geographical variations in the calls of rock hyraxes, a first in the vocalization of mammalian taxa other than primates, cetaceans, and bats. Higher-ranked males tend to sing more often, and the energetic cost of singing is relatively low. A recent study found that snorts, a rare aspect of male hyrax songs, play an important signalling role as well, with increasing snort harshness being associated with "the progression of inner excitement or aggression". It is also positively associated with the singing animal's social status and testosterone levels. Singing has also been shown to be a marker of an individual hyrax's unique identity, where identity is expressed by unique vocal signatures "that are not condition dependent and are stable over years in singers that did not alter their spatial position."


title: Rock hyrax

text: The rock hyrax spends roughly 95% of its time resting. During this time, it can often be seen basking in the sun, which sometimes involves "heaping", where several animals pile on top of each other. This is thought to be an element of its complex thermoregulation.


title: Rock hyrax

text: Male hyraxes have been categorised into four classes: territorial, peripheral, early dispersers, and late dispersers. The territorial males are dominant. Peripheral males are more solitary and sometimes take over a group when the dominant male is missing. Early-dispersing males are juveniles that leave the birth site around 16 to 24 months of age. Late dispersers are also juvenile males, but they leave the birth site much later, around 30 or more months of age.


title: Rock hyrax

text: The species is known as in Afrikaans (etymology: cliff + badger), while most people just call them "dassies" (the plural of dassie) or "rock rabbits" in South Africa. The Swahili names for them are , , and , though the latter two names are nowadays reserved for the tree hyraxes.


title: Rock hyrax

text: This species has many subspecies, many of which are also known as rock or Cape hyrax, although the former usually refers to African varieties.


title: Rock hyrax

text: In Arabic, the rock hyrax is called () or ('). In Hebrew, the rock hyrax is called ('), meaning rock "shafan", where the meaning of "shafan" is obscure, but is colloquially used as a synonym for rabbit in modern Hebrew. According to Gerald Durrell, local people in Bafut, Cameroon, call the rock hyrax the "n'eer".


title: Rock hyrax

text: Rock hyraxes produce large quantities of hyraceum, a sticky mass of dung and urine that has been employed as a South African folk remedy in the treatment of several medical disorders, including epilepsy and convulsions. Hyraceum is now being used by perfumers, who tincture it in alcohol to yield a natural animal musk.


title: Rock hyrax

text: The rock hyrax is classified as "treif" (not kosher; unclean) according to "kashrut" – Jewish food hygiene rules – due to statements in the Old Testament in Leviticus 11:5:


title: Rock hyrax

text: "And the coney, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you". Hyraxes are also mentioned in Proverbs 30:26 as one of a number of remarkable animals for being small but exceedingly wise, in this case because "the conies are a people not mighty, yet they make their homes in the cliffs".


title: Rock hyrax

text: In Joy Adamson's books and the film "Born Free", a rock hyrax called Pati-Pati was her companion for six years before Elsa and her siblings came along; Pati-Pati reportedly took the role of nanny and watched over them with great care.


title: Rock hyrax

text: The 2013 animated film "Khumba" features a number of rock hyraxes that sacrifice one of their own to a white Verreaux's eagle.


title: Adolphe Sax

text: Antoine-Joseph "Adolphe" Sax (; 6 November 1814 – 4 February 1894) was a Belgian inventor and musician who invented the saxophone in the early 1840s, patenting it in 1846. He also invented the saxotromba, saxhorn and saxtuba. He played the flute and clarinet.


title: Adolphe Sax

text: Antoine-Joseph Sax was born on 6 November 1814 in Dinant, in what is now Belgium, to Charles-Joseph Sax and his wife Marie-Joseph (Masson). While his given name was Antoine-Joseph, he was referred to as Adolphe from childhood. His father and mother were instrument designers themselves, who made several changes to the design of the French horn. Adolphe began to make his own instruments at an early age, entering two of his flutes and a clarinet into a competition at the age of 15. He subsequently studied performance on those two instruments as well as voice at the Royal Conservatory of Brussels.


title: Adolphe Sax

text: Sax faced many brushes with death. As a child, he once fell from a height of three floors, hit his head on a stone and was believed dead. At the age of three, he drank a bowl full of acidic water, mistaking it for milk, and later swallowed a pin. He received serious burns from a gunpowder explosion and once fell onto a hot cast-iron frying pan, burning his side.


title: Adolphe Sax

text: Several times he avoided accidental poisoning and asphyxiation from sleeping in a room where varnished furniture was drying. Another time young Sax was struck on the head by a cobblestone and fell into a river, almost dying.


title: Adolphe Sax

text: His mother once said that "he's a child condemned to misfortune; he won't live". His neighbors called him "little Sax, the ghost".


title: Adolphe Sax

text: After leaving the Royal Conservatory of Brussels, Sax began to experiment with new instrument designs, while his parents continued their business of making conventional instruments. Sax's first important invention was an improvement in bass clarinet design, which he patented at the age of 24. He relocated permanently to Paris in 1842 and began working on a new set of valved bugles. While he did not invent this instrument, his examples were much more successful than those of his rivals and became known as saxhorns. Hector Berlioz was so enamoured of these that he arranged in February 1844 for one of his pieces to be played entirely on saxhorns. They were made in seven different sizes and paved the way for the creation of the flugelhorn. Today saxhorns are sometimes used in concert bands, marching bands, and orchestras. The saxhorn also laid the groundwork for the modern euphonium.


title: Adolphe Sax

text: Sax also developed the "saxotromba" family, valved brass instruments with narrower bore than the saxhorns, in 1845, though they survived only briefly.


title: Adolphe Sax

text: The use of saxhorns spread rapidly. The saxhorn valves were accepted as state-of-the-art in their time and remain largely unchanged today. The advances made by Adolphe Sax were soon followed by the British brass band movement, which exclusively adopted the saxhorn family of instruments. A decade after saxhorns became available, the Jedforest Instrumental Band (1854) and The Hawick Saxhorn Band (1855) were formed in the Scottish Borders.


title: Adolphe Sax

text: The period around 1840 saw Sax inventing the , an early unsuccessful design of contrabass clarinet. On 28 June 1846 he patented the saxophone, intended for use in orchestras and military bands. By 1846 Sax had designed saxophones ranging from sopranino to subcontrabass, although not all were built. Composer Hector Berlioz wrote approvingly of the new instrument in 1842, but despite his support, saxophones did not become a standard part of the orchestra. Their ability to play technical passages easily like woodwinds yet project loudly like brass instruments led to their inclusion in military bands in France and elsewhere. Sax's reputation helped secure him a job teaching at the Paris Conservatory in 1857.


title: Adolphe Sax

text: He continued to make instruments later in life and presided over the new saxophone course at the Paris Conservatory. Legal troubles involving patents continued for over 20 years, with rival instrument makers attacking the legitimacy of his patents and Sax suing them for patent infringement. He was driven into bankruptcy three times: in 1852, 1873 and 1877.


title: Adolphe Sax

text: Sax suffered from lip cancer between 1853 and 1858 but made a full recovery. In 1894 he died of pneumonia in Paris, in poverty, and was interred in section 5 (Avenue de Montebello) at the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: Oath of the Horatii (), is a large painting by the French artist Jacques-Louis David painted in 1784 and now on display in the Louvre in Paris. The painting immediately became a huge success with critics and the public, and remains one of the best known paintings in the Neoclassical style.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: It depicts a scene from a Roman legend about a seventh-century BC dispute between two warring cities, Rome and Alba Longa, and stresses the importance of patriotism and masculine self-sacrifice for one's country. Instead of the two cities sending their armies to war, they agree to choose three men from each city; the victor in that fight will be the victorious city. From Rome, three brothers from a Roman family, the Horatii, agree to end the war by fighting three brothers from a family of Alba Longa, the Curiatii. The three brothers, all of whom appear willing to sacrifice their lives for the good of Rome, are shown saluting their father who holds their swords out for them. Of the three Horatii brothers, only one will survive the confrontation. However, it is the surviving brother who is able to kill the other three fighters from Alba Longa: he allows the three fighters to chase him, causing them to separate from each other, and then, in turn, kills each Curiatii brother. Aside from the three brothers depicted, David also represents, in the bottom right corner, a woman crying while sitting down. She is Camilla, a sister of the Horatii brothers, who is also betrothed to one of the Curiatii fighters, and thus she weeps in the realisation that, whatever happens, she will lose someone she loves. Seeing her weep the surviving brother, Publius, kills Camilla for weeping over the enemy.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: The principal sources for the story behind David's "Oath" are the first book of Livy (sections 24–26) which was elaborated by Dionysius in book 3 of his "Roman Antiquities". However, the moment depicted in David's painting is his own invention. The painting led to the popularization of the Roman salute.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: It grew to be considered a paragon of neoclassical art. The painting increased David's fame, allowing him to take on his own students.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: In 1774, David won the Prix de Rome with his work "Érasistrate découvrant la cause de la Maladie d’Antiochius". This allowed him to stay five years (1775–1780) in Rome as a student from the French government. Upon his return to Paris, he exhibited his work, which Diderot greatly admired; the success was so resounding that King Louis XVI of France allowed him to stay in the Louvre, a privilege greatly desired by artists. There he met Pecoul, the contractor for the actual buildings, and Pecoul's daughter, whom he married. The king's assistant, Charles-Claude Flahaut de la Billaderie, commissioned "Oath of the Horatii" with the intention that it be an allegory about loyalty to the state and therefore to the king. Nevertheless, David departed from the agreed-upon scene, painting this scene instead. The painting was not completed in Paris, but rather in Rome, where David was visited by his pupil Jean-Germaine Drouais who had himself recently won the Prix de Rome. Ultimately, David's picture manifests a progressive outlook, deeply influenced by Enlightenment ideas, that eventually contributed to the overthrow of the monarchy. As the French Revolution approached, paintings increasingly referred to the loyalty to the state rather than the family or the church. Painted five years before the Revolution, the "Oath of the Horatii" reflects the political tensions of the period.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: In 1789, David painted "The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons", a picture that was also a royal commission. Shortly afterward, the king went up to the scaffold also accused of treason, as the sons of Brutus, and with the vote of the artist in the National Assembly, which supported the execution of Louis XVI.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: The painting depicts the Roman Horatius family, who, according to Titus Livius' "Ab Urbe Condita" ("From the Founding of the City") had been chosen for a ritual duel against three members of the Curiatii, a family from Alba Longa, in order to settle disputes between the Romans and the latter city.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: As revolution in France loomed, paintings urging loyalty to the state rather than to clan or clergy abounded. Although it was painted nearly four years before the revolution in France, "The Oath of the Horatii" became one of the defining images of the time. In the painting, the three brothers express their loyalty and solidarity with Rome before battle, wholly supported by their father. These are men willing to lay down their lives out of patriotic duty. With their resolute gaze and taut, outstretched limbs, they are citadels of patriotism. They are symbols of the highest virtues of Rome. Their clarity of purpose, mirrored by David's simple yet powerful use of tonal contrasts, lends the painting, and its message about the nobility of patriotic sacrifice, an electric intensity. This is all in contrast to the tender-hearted women who lie weeping and mourning, awaiting the results of the fighting.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: The mother and sisters are shown clothed in silken garments seemingly melting into tender expressions of sorrow. Their despair is partly due to the fact that one sister was engaged to one of the Curiatii and another is a sister of the Curiatii, married to one of the Horatii. Upon defeat of the Curiatii, the remaining Horatius journeyed home to find his sister cursing Rome over the death of her fiancé. He killed her, horrified that Rome was being cursed. Originally David had intended to depict this episode, and a drawing survives showing the surviving Horatius raising his sword, with his sister lying dead. David later decided that this subject was too gruesome a way of sending the message of public duty overcoming private feeling, but his next major painting, "The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons" depicted a similar scene - Lucius Junius Brutus brooding as the bodies of his sons, whose executions for treason he had ordered, are returned home. This was a subject the tragedy "Brutus" by Voltaire had made familiar to the French.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: The painting shows the three brothers on the left, the Horatii father in the center, and the three women along with two children on the right. The Horatii brothers are depicted swearing upon (saluting) their swords as they take their oath. The men show no sense of emotion. Even the father, who holds up three swords, shows no emotion. On the right, three women are weeping—one in the back and two up closer. The woman dressed in the white is a Horatius weeping for both her Curiatii fiancé and her brother; the one dressed in brown is a Curiatius who weeps for her Horatii husband and her brother. The background woman in black holds two children—one of whom is the child of a Horatius male and his Curiatii wife. The younger daughter hides her face in her nanny's dress as the son refuses to have his eyes shielded.


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: This painting shows the neoclassical art style, and employs various techniques that were typical of it:


title: Oath of the Horatii

text: The painting was exhibited in France at the Salon of 1785, but it was delivered late. David's enemies at the Academy took advantage of the delay to exhibit the painting in a poor locale in the gallery. The public's dissatisfaction with the painting's poor viewing conditions obliged the gallery to move it to a more prominent location. David kept "The Oath of the Horatii" on exhibit for longer than expected to permit reporters to write about all of the paintings exhibited, not just his.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: The Federal Air Marshal Service (FAMS) is a United States federal law enforcement agency under the supervision of the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS).


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Because of the nature of their occupation, federal air marshals (FAMs) travel often. They must also train to be highly proficient marksmen. A FAM's job is to blend in with other passengers on board aircraft and rely heavily on their training, including investigative techniques, criminal terrorist behavior recognition, firearms proficiency, aircraft-specific tactics, and close quarters self-defense measures to protect the flying public.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: In 1961, Gen. Benjamin O. Davis Jr., presented the idea of armed security forces on commercial flights. President John F. Kennedy ordered federal law enforcement officers to be deployed to act as security officers on certain high-risk flights. The Federal Air Marshal Service began on March 2, 1962 as the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) "FAA Peace Officers Program." On this date, the first 18 volunteers from the FAA's Flight Standards Division graduated training. They received training from the U.S. Border Patrol at Port Isabel, TX, and later went through recurrent yearly training in Brownsville, Texas. These initial FAA Peace Officers were named by FAA Administrator Najeeb Halaby. Later, it became an integral part of the Civil Aviation Security Division of the FAA. As early as 1963, after an article in "FAA Horizons Magazine," the FAA Peace Officers were referred to as "Sky Marshals" internally within the FAA, although the term would not be used by the media for nearly a decade. Many years after their initial inception, personnel were given firearms and some close quarters combat training at the FBI Academy located on the U.S. Marine Corps training grounds at Quantico, VA.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: In October 1969, due to the increasing violence of hijacked aircraft in the Middle East, the U.S. Marshals Service started a "Sky Marshal Division" out of the Miami Field Office. The program was run by John Brophy and staffed with a handful of deputies. Since the majority of hijackings were occurring out of Florida in the late 1960s, the U.S. Marshals Service started their program to try and combat air piracy given their broad jurisdiction.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: The "Sky Marshal Program" of the 1970s later became a joint effort between the then United States Customs Service and the FAA and was led by General Benjamin O. Davis Jr., a former Tuskegee Airman. On September 11, 1970, in response to increasing acts of air piracy by hijacking to Cuba and Islamic radicals, President Richard Nixon ordered the immediate deployment of armed federal agents on United States commercial aircraft. Initially, the deployed personnel were federal agents from the U.S. Department of Treasury. Subsequently, the United States Customs Service formed the Division of Air Security, and established the position of Customs Security Officer (CSO). Approximately 1,700 personnel were hired for this position and were trained at the Treasury Air Security Officer (TASOS) training complex at Fort Belvoir, Virginia. Customs security officers were deployed on U.S. flagged commercial aircraft, flying on both domestic and international routes in an undercover capacity in teams of two and three. Customs security officers also handled ground security screening on selected flights at domestic U.S. airports.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Following the mandatory passenger screening enacted by the FAA at U.S. airports beginning in 1973, the customs security officer force was disbanded and its personnel were absorbed by the U.S. Customs Service. By 1974 armed sky marshals were a rarity on U.S. aircraft. The former customs security officers were reassigned as customs patrol officers, customs inspectors, and customs special agents.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: A small force of Federal Air Marshals were retrained at the FAA starting in 1974. The personnel trained under this program was limited to 10–12 people. For the next several years after customs security officer disbandment, the FAA air marshals rarely flew missions.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: In 1985, President Ronald Reagan requested the expansion of the program and Congress enacted the International Security and Development Cooperation Act, which expanded the statutes that supported the Federal Air Marshal Service. The FAM program was begun in response to domestic hijackings and FAM operational flights were almost exclusively conducted on domestic U.S. flights until 1985. After the hijacking of TWA Flight 847 in 1985 and the enactment of the International Security and Development Cooperation Act, the number of FAMs was increased and their focus became international U.S. air carrier operations. Due to resistance of several countries including the United Kingdom and Germany to having individuals carrying firearms entering their countries, the coverage of international flights was initially limited. Resistance to the entrance of armed personnel to their countries was overcome through negotiations and agreements about the terms and handling of weapons when they were brought in country. Hence the FAMs could operate worldwide in carrying out their mission to protect U.S. aviation from hijackings.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Air marshals were originally designated as U.S. Customs security officers assigned by order of President Kennedy on an as-needed basis, and later were specially trained FAA personnel. The customs officers were phased out in 1974. Many of them transferred to the FAA's Civil Aviation Security Division to serve as aviation security inspectors and also in the volunteer FAM program directed by the FAA's Civil Aviation Security Division (later renamed the "Office of Civil Aviation Security"). This program later became non-voluntary, required of all FAA Inspectors, breeding other problems within the FAA's Office of Civil Aviation Security. In 1992, Retired Major General Orlo Steele, then the Associate Administrator for Civil Aviation Security, hired Greg McLaughlin as Director of the Federal Air Marshal Program. McLaughlin was hired as an air marshal after the hijacking of TWA 847 and was working in Frankfurt, Germany, investigating the bombing of Pan Am 103. McLaughlin turned the Federal Air Marshal Program into an all-voluntary program. The voluntary nature of the program and efforts by McLaughlin and Steele turned the small force of Federal Air Marshals into an extremely capable one. From 1992 to just after the attacks on 9/11, the air marshals had one of the toughest firearms qualification standards in the world. A study from the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) later came out with a classified report during this time period, placing Federal Air Marshals among the top 1% of combat shooters in the world. This is no longer the case due to changes in capabilities and training.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Before the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Federal Air Marshal Service consisted of varying numbers of FAMs dependent on government funding. Although 50 positions were authorized by Congress, only 33 FAMs were active on September 11, 2001. As a result of the 9/11 attacks, President George W. Bush ordered the rapid expansion of the Federal Air Marshal Service. Many new hires were agents from other federal agencies, such as the United States Border Patrol, the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP), the DEA, NPS, FBI, ATF, INS, U.S. Housing and Urban Development Office of the Inspector General (OIG), U.S. Postal Inspection Service (USPIS), IRS CID, and many others. Immediately after the attacks on 9/11, then-Director McLaughlin was tasked with hiring and training 600 air marshals in one month. A classified number of applicants were later hired, trained, and deployed on flights worldwide. As of August 2013, this number is estimated to be approximately 4,000. Currently, these FAMs serve as the primary law enforcement entity within the Transportation Security Administration (TSA).


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: On October 16, 2005, Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff approved the transfer of the Federal Air Marshal Service from U.S. Immigration & Customs Enforcement (ICE) to TSA as part of a broader departmental reorganization to align functions consistent with the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) "Second Stage Review" findings for the following:


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: As part of this realignment, the director of the Federal Air Marshal Service also became the assistant administrator for the TSA Office of Law Enforcement (OLE), which houses nearly all TSA law enforcement services.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: In March 2014, Director Robert Bray announced six of the service's twenty-six offices would be closed by the end of 2016. Bray attributed the cuts to a reduction of operating budget from $966 million to $805 million and the Transportation Security Administration stated no positions would be eliminated.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Since July 2004, TSA has provided supplemental personnel, including federal air marshals, to assist mass transit systems during major events, holidays, and anniversaries of prior attacks. These TSA personnel deploy as Visible Intermodal Prevention and Response Teams (VIPR teams), whose goal is to provide a random, unannounced, unpredictable, high-visibility presence in a mass transit or passenger rail environment. The level of assistance transit systems request depends on a transit system's local political and security environment. Beginning in July 2007, TSA significantly increased the number and frequency of VIPR deployments, from an average of one exercise per month to one or two exercises per week.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: There were issues with Federal Air Marshals and early VIPR deployments. TSA field officials said the initial exercises put their safety at risk. TSA required Federal Air Marshals to wear raid jackets or shirts identifying them as air marshals, which potentially compromised their anonymity. In response to this concern, TSA changed the policy. Federal Air Marshals now attend VIPR exercises in civilian clothes or jackets that simply identify them as DHS officials. Some transit security officials reported that Federal Air Marshals were unfamiliar with local laws, local police procedures, the range of behavior encountered on public transportation, and the parameters of their authority as federal law enforcement officers. In 2011 Amtrak temporarily banned VIPR teams from its property after screenings at the Savannah, Georgia station that Amtrak Police chief John O'Conner called illegal and violations of Amtrak policy.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Previously, the supervisory ranks had different naming. A SAC was known as a Special Agent in Charge as were the Assistant and Deputy SACs and a Supervisory Federal Air Marshal was known as an Assistant to the Special Agent in Charge or ATSAC. The rank change was introduced in 2011 to reduce an “us versus them” perception between supervisory and non-supervisory air marshals.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Federal Air Marshals go through an intense, two-phase training program. The first phase of the program is a eight-week basic law enforcement course. This training is completed at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Artesia, New Mexico; air marshals also receive follow-on training at the William J. Hughes Technical Center in New Jersey at the Federal Air Marshal Service Training Center. Their training is tailored to the role that the Federal Air Marshals will perform while on the job. Some of the subjects covered in this training include constitutional law, marksmanship, physical fitness, behavioral observation, defensive tactics, emergency medical assistance, and other law enforcement techniques.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: The second phase trains the candidates for tasks that they will be expected to carry out in the field. This training places an emphasis on perfecting the marksmanship skills of the candidates including active shooter-CQB/CQC tactics and close quarter defensive skills due to their obvious work area. This is a necessity of the job due to the tight confines of an aircraft, as well as the number of bystanders. Candidates who successfully complete this training will be assigned to one of 21 field offices, where they begin their missions.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: According to an anonymous air marshal, they are trained to "shoot to stop", typically firing at the largest part of the body (the chest) and then the head to "incapacitate the nervous system."


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: In early 2020, the Federal Air Marshal Service announced the agency will be transitioning to the Glock 19 Gen 5 9mm handgun and awarded SIG Sauer the contract for ammunition.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: The air marshals may be deployed on as little as an hour's notice and at high-risk locations. Undercover air marshals were deployed on flights in and out of New Orleans during Super Bowl XXXVI in 2002; flights coming near Salt Lake City during the 2002 Winter Olympics; and cities visited by the President.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Federal Air Marshal Frank Terreri of the Federal Law Enforcement Officers Association (FLEOA) successfully sued senior executives of the Department of Homeland Security complaining that policies prevented air marshals from speaking out that current policies (such as their strict dress code, "Federal Air Marshal discount" mandatory grouping hotel policy, airport policies that force air marshals to walk up security checkpoint exit lanes, and priority aircraft pre-boarding before handicapped passengers and passengers flying with small children) make marshals easy targets for any possible hijackers, making them stand out as the government agents concealing firearms, and thus eliminating their effectiveness.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: A policy change in August 2006 allowed air marshals to wear whatever clothing they want, in addition to staying at any hotel of their choice to protect their anonymity. When asked what they do for a living, federal air marshals are instructed to answer in various words like "I work for the Transportation Security Administration" or any other answer they can think of.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: On May 30, 2013, the first book on the history of the air marshals was published in the United States by Federal Air Marshal Clay Biles, who resigned three days after its publication. The book, entitled "The United States Federal Air Marshal Service: A Historical Perspective, 1962–2012," gave never-before-released information on the more than fifty years of Federal Air Marshal Service. On July 1, 2014, a new book and personal memoir was published by Biles. The book, titled "Unsecure Skies," gave a behind the scenes look at the inner workings of the Federal Air Marshal Service under the Transportation Security Administration, including discussions on alleged bureaucratic strain and favoritism within the agency.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Budgeting issues within the TSA created tension between funding for airport screeners versus the FAMS, and in time the FAMS was realigned to U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). The reasoning was that the FAMS could be re-designated as criminal investigator/special agents and would have a career path. ICE has an investigative division, Homeland Security Investigations (HSI), that is the critical investigative arm of the Department of Homeland Security whose special agents investigate criminal organizations illegally exploiting America's travel, trade, financial and immigration systems. HSI special agents would be cross trained to serve as supplemental FAMS in the event of a national emergency or in response to intelligence requiring additional marshals on flights.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Ultimately, one of Asa Hutchinson's final decisions before resigning as head of DHS's Border and Transportation Security Directorate was the issuance of a memorandum determining that air marshals would not be HSI special agents. In 2005, Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff conducted a second-stage review of DHS' organization and ordered the FAMS to be moved from ICE and back to the TSA. This move to TSA was effective October 1, 2005.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: On December 7, 2005, two Federal Air Marshals shot and killed 44-year-old U.S. citizen Rigoberto Alpizar, a passenger of American Airlines Flight 924, on a boarding bridge at Miami International Airport.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: According to initial media reports of the incident, a fight broke out between Alpizar and his wife, after which Alpizar suddenly ran up the aisle from the back of the plane. Lonny Glover, national safety coordinator for the Association of Professional Flight Attendants, said, "As the man came forward it was obvious that he was upset ... That's when one of our attendants at the front of plane told him, 'Sir, you can't leave the plane.' His response, she said, was implying that he had a bomb in his backpack. It was at that point that the air marshals gave up their cover and pursued him out the door and up the jet bridge."


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: On December 8, 2005, White House Press Secretary Scott McClellan said that President George W. Bush was satisfied that air marshals acted appropriately in the Alpizar shooting.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Sensitive Security Information (SSI) is a label used for unclassified information that could compromise aviation safety.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: On July 29, 2003, the FAMS Agency Executive Vice President for the Federal Law Enforcement Officers Association (FLEOA), FAM Robert MacLean, disclosed that the FAMS planned to remove air marshals from long haul flights in order to avoid the cost of an overnight hotel stay. The plan was ordered when TSA was faced with a budget shortfall and right after DHS issued a July 26, 2003 warning that terrorists were planning to smuggle weapons onboard aircraft leaving the U.S. East Coast, United Kingdom, Italy, and Australia with the intention of hijacking them. After Congressional outrage, this plan was cancelled before going into effect. This plan was also at odds with the Aviation and Transportation Security Act (ATSA), whose Section 105 states that "Deployment of Federal Air Marshals... [on] nonstop, long distance flights, such as those targeted on September 11, 2001, should be a priority."


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: MacLean was fired for "Unauthorized Disclosure of Sensitive Security Information (SSI)" as a result of his whistleblower disclosure. After challenging this charge in the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, which found that Maclean was protected under the Whistleblower Protection Act, he was unconditionally reinstated as air marshal.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: "The New York Times" quotes: "Several air marshals said they took medication or drank alcohol to stay awake — despite a policy prohibiting alcohol consumption within 10 hours before work." Thirteen marshals received DUIs between 2016 and 2018. One marshal who was a recovering alcoholic, saw himself featured in a TSA alcohol awareness promo video and subsequently died by suicide. TSA opted to monitor whether employees were sober before boarding flights.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: In recent years, the Federal Air Marshal Service has been the subject of controversies related to the number of flights that air marshals actually man and of criminal activities involving air marshals. CNN conducted an investigative report by Drew Griffin that included current and former air marshals that accused TSA of exaggerating the numbers of manned flights and of poor quality training. The TSA has rejected the report and pursued investigations into personnel who gave interviews to the media. They also responded to the accusations.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: Another investigation was conducted by reporter Amy Davis of Houston news station KPRC into the possibility that air marshals with criminal convictions were still being employed by FAMS. The investigation discovered that 28 had been hired with pre-existing misdemeanors and that several current air marshals had been convicted of or were awaiting trial for offenses including disorderly conduct, DUIs, and sexual crimes against children. The investigation led to U.S. Congressman Ted Poe of Houston getting involved.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: On August 6, 2006, two air marshals were sentenced in the Southern District of Texas (Houston) after having been convicted of conspiring to possess with intent to distribute cocaine and also on bribery charges. According to a Department of Justice press release, "Shawn Ray Nguyen, 38, and Burlie L. Sholar, 33, were sentenced to 87 months and 108 months in federal prison, respectively, by United States District Judge Kenneth Hoyt on Monday, August 28, 2006. Nguyen’s lesser sentence is a result of the court's consideration of his cooperation with the United States."


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: FAMS effectiveness against crime and terror, has also been questioned. According to Congressman John J. Duncan, the air marshal program has led to only 4.2 arrests a year, at an average cost of $200 million per arrest. He argued that this represents a win of the perceived dangers of terror, supported by a profit center-type approach, over realistic spending priorities.


title: Federal Air Marshal Service

text: On August 20, 2018, two air marshals were detained at the Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport after one of them allegedly showed their gun to the air crew during the flight, instead of their badge, as is required. The flight crew became suspicious and declared an emergency and landed the aircraft.


title: Callum Woodhouse

text: He is best known for his portrayal of Leslie Durrell in all four seasons of ITV comedy-drama series "The Durrells".


title: Callum Woodhouse

text: Woodhouse is also known for playing the character of Josh Marsden in ITV comedy-drama series "Cold Feet".


title: Callum Woodhouse

text: He also appeared as Randall Jones in "The Skylark Scandal", a Series 7 episode of BBC One's detective period drama "Father Brown".


title: Callum Woodhouse

text: In the Channel 5/PBS production "All Creatures Great and Small" about James Herriot, Woodhouse plays Tristan Farnon, the younger brother of the senior partner, Siegfried Farnon. The programme was renewed for a second series, also of six episodes plus a Christmas special, which aired in September 2021. A third series was broadcast in 2022.


title: Ted Allen

text: Edward Reese Allen (born May 20, 1965) is an American author and television personality. He was the food and wine connoisseur on the Bravo network's television program "Queer Eye", and has been the host of the TV cooking competition series "Chopped" since its launch in 2009, as well as "Chopped Junior", which began in mid-2015. On April 13, 2014, he became the host of another Food Network show, originally called "America's Best Cook"; a retooled version of that show, retitled "All-Star Academy," debuted on March 1, 2015. In early 2015, he also hosted a four-part special, "Best. Ever." which scoured America for its best burgers, pizza, breakfast, and barbecue. He is a longtime contributing writer to "Esquire" magazine and is the author of two cookbooks, and regularly appears on the Food Network show "Beat Bobby Flay" and other television cooking shows.


title: Ted Allen

text: Allen graduated from Carmel High School in Carmel, Indiana in 1983 and was inducted into the school's Alumni Hall of Fame in 2011. He received a degree in psychology from Purdue University in 1987. Subsequently, he enrolled in Purdue's Krannert Graduate School of Management but left to accept a job as a copy editor at the Lafayette, Indiana, "Journal & Courier".


title: Ted Allen

text: He later returned to graduate school, earning an MA in journalism from the Science and Environmental Reporting Program at New York University. He then moved to Chicago, where he worked as a reporter for Lerner Newspapers, a chain of community weekly newspapers.


title: Ted Allen

text: Allen got his start in restaurant criticism there as one-quarter of a bi-weekly group-review team called "The Famished Four," along with Barry Rice, then the chain's entertainment editor (and now Allen's husband), who initiated the concept with Lerner food editor Leah A. Zeldes.


title: Ted Allen

text: Allen then became a freelancer for "Chicago" magazine, eventually signing on as a senior editor and often writing about food, wine, and luminaries of the culinary world. He joined "Esquire" in 1997 as a contributing editor, where he wrote features, food pieces, and profiles and co-authored the magazine's popular "Things a Man Should Know" series. He also has written for "GQ", "Bon Appétit", "Food & Wine", and "Epicurious".


title: Ted Allen

text: Allen gained great visibility in 2003 when he became a cast member of the television makeover series "Queer Eye for the Straight Guy", serving as its food and wine specialist. He continued to make television appearances as a gourmet, including as a frequent guest judge on Food Network's "Iron Chef America". Allen hosted a six-part documentary, "Uncorked: Wine Made Simple", on PBS starting May 7, 2007. Beginning June 13, 2007, Allen appeared as a regular judge on seasons 3 and 4 of Bravo's reality television program "Top Chef", following several guest judge appearances during the previous two seasons. In 2008, he left Bravo when Food Network offered him the host job on two shows: "Food Detectives", which debuted on July 29, 2008, and "Chopped", which launched a 13-episode season on January 13, 2009. "Detectives" returned for a second season of 13 episodes, also in January 2009. "Chopped" was renewed for 26 episodes and went back into production in March 2009 in New York. The show took off with viewers and was renewed for another 33 episodes, which were shot in January and February 2010. Now one of the highest-rated prime-time shows on the network, as of May 2022, "Chopped" has shot some 850 episodes, and "Chopped Junior" has shot 100.


title: Ted Allen

text: In an interview with the Food Network about his favorite moments on "Chopped", Allen stated, "My favorite mystery basket ingredient remains the whole chicken in a can, not so much because I love the food, [but because] I love the sound it makes when it plops out of the can."