title: Anthony Curcio

text: Curcio continued to maintain an outward appearance that resembled a successful business owner and family man. He graduated from Washington State University in 2004, married his high school sweetheart, had two daughters and later owned a real estate investment company based in Seattle, Washington.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: However, he was living two different lives. As his addiction progressed, so did his involvement in illegal activities. By his mid 20s, Curcio had already organized several high-dollar thefts, scams, and loan-sharking schemes, and was also behind a sports memorabilia counterfeiting ring.<ref name="20/20"></ref>


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Despite having completed four drug and alcohol treatment programs, ABC News stated that Curcio was spending nearly $15,000 a month on his increasing drug habit which now also included cocaine and benzodiazepines.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Curcio's real estate investment business took a heavy downturn when the economy collapsed in 2008, leaving him with several homes on the verge of foreclosure and vehicles near repossession among other outstanding personal debts.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: For three months, Curcio observed a Brink's armored car as it made deliveries to the Bank of America branch in Monroe. He took notes of the schedule, diagrammed locations of the bank's cameras, and noted the armored car's blind spots. He also estimated how much money was being transferred to the bank and how much was being removed via ATMs.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: He considered police protocol in responding to robberies and the location of the bank and decided on using a local creek to escape.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: After weeks of hand-dredging the creek in Woods Creek and a failed practice attempt at using a jet ski for the getaway, he changed his approach and created a cable pulley system to quickly pull himself, and large bags of cash, upstream using a connected canvas-wrapped inner tube.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Curcio's planning culminated with an advertisement he placed on Craigslist a few days before the robbery. The online ad sought 15 to 20 workers for a fictitious city cleanup project, promising $28.50 an hour. The laborers were told to wear jeans, a blue shirt, work shoes, and a yellow safety vest. The ad also told the applicants they needed to bring safety goggles and a painter's mask. The ad directed them to meet in the Bank of America parking lot at the exact time Curcio planned to rob the armored car.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: On September 30, 2008, Curcio, dressed identically to his decoy applicants, pretended to work the grounds near the bank. Wearing a blue shirt, jeans, yellow safety vest, work boots, and painter's mask, he pepper-sprayed the Brink's armored car guard who was pushing a dolly loaded with money into the bank. The pepper spray forced the guard to reach for his eyes and release the cart that held the money. Curcio grabbed two bags of money, containing more than $400,000, and ran toward the creek. Meanwhile, police arrived to find the bank's parking lot filled with men matching the robber's description.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: At the water's edge, Curcio threw the money into the inner tube and pulled himself up the creek with the cables he had previously strung. He traveled about 200 yards upstream and exited the creek behind several businesses on the opposite side of the highway from the bank. Curcio removed his wig and worker's clothing that had been attached by Velcro, revealing different attire underneath. He climbed into the trunk of a getaway vehicle driven by an associate and left.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Curcio's careful planning and unusual getaway gained national attention. The timing of the robbery came days after announcements of the government's bank bailout package that included Bank of America. The unique robbery techniques gained notoriety for the mysterious robber who was referred to as the "Craigslist Robber" and "D.B. Tuber", after the 1970s hijacker D. B. Cooper.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Curcio's undoing came a month later when a homeless man reported to police that several weeks before the robbery he had seen a man drive up to the Bank of America parking lot and retrieve a disguise from behind a trash bin. The man found it suspicious enough to write down the license plate number of the car which he later provided to police. The car was registered to Curcio. What the man had seen was one of Curcio's practice runs to ensure proper timing of the heist.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: After Curcio returned from a trip to Las Vegas, Nevada, the FBI began their surveillance of him as a suspect in the robbery. Local authorities retrieved his DNA from a drink bottle disposed of by Curcio at a gas station and compared it to the DNA from the face mask and wig discarded a short distance from the scene of the robbery. The DNA samples matched and Curcio was arrested in Lake Stevens, Washington, getting out of a luxury SUV with $17,000 in cash.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: With only circumstantial evidence connecting Curcio to the crime, he initially bonded out, but a month later (January 2009), his bond was revoked and he was returned to custody after being suspected of witness tampering.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Later details revealed that $220,000 was recovered after an associate of Curcio's came forward to make a deal with the FBI and local police. Curcio refused to cooperate with authorities and no other charges were ever filed against any of Curcio's unnamed co-conspirators.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: All of the money except for what Curcio paid the getaway driver and other accomplices was eventually recovered.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Curcio was sentenced to 72 months in federal prison and served his time in FCI Big Spring, FCI La Tuna and Coleman Correctional Complex.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: While being housed in FCI La Tuna, Curcio became close with fellow inmate George Jung. Jung encouraged Curcio to write a book, and put him in touch with author/biographer Dane Batty. The two soon began correspondence.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: During this time, Curcio was with two inmates who had previously assaulted another inmate. While prison authorities knew Curcio was not involved in the attack, authorities still held him ‘under investigation’ until the case had been resolved. Curcio spent seven months in solitary confinement for this affiliation. In solitary, he received beatings, witnessed suicides and had cockroaches crawl all over his body at night. Upon his release, he wrote the book "Heist and High", promising to prevent others from making the same decisions he had made.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Throughout the duration of his sentence, Curcio wrote and illustrated over 20 children's books, including one aimed at the children of incarcerated parents titled "My Daddy’s in Jail".


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Curcio finished his incarceration at USP Coleman in Florida, where he completed a drug-treatment program and was released from custody April 2013.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Curcio was released April 4, 2013, and returned to the Seattle area, reuniting with his wife and two daughters. He has since been working with youth and giving presentations regarding drug abuse prevention and the importance of making positive choices. He speaks to middle schools, high schools and universities across the U.S.


title: Anthony Curcio

text: Curcio has been featured on several media platforms using his story to increase awareness regarding addiction. His book, "Heist and High" (Nish Publishing, 286 pages), was released June 21, 2013, and has been the recipient of several awards.


title: Communist society

text: In Marxist thought, a communist society or the communist system is the type of society and economic system postulated to emerge from technological advances in the productive forces, representing the ultimate goal of the political ideology of communism. A communist society is characterized by common ownership of the means of production with free access to the articles of consumption and is often classless, stateless, and moneyless, implying the end of the exploitation of labour.


title: Communist society

text: Communism is a specific stage of socioeconomic development predicated upon a superabundance of material wealth, which is postulated to arise from advances in production technology and corresponding changes in the social relations of production. This would allow for distribution based on need and social relations based on freely-associated individuals.


title: Communist society

text: The term communist society should be distinguished from the Western concept of the communist state, the latter referring to a state ruled by a party which professes a variation of Marxism–Leninism.


title: Communist society

text: A communist economic system would be characterized by advanced productive technology that enables material abundance, which in turn would enable the free distribution of most or all economic output and the holding of the means of producing this output in common. In this respect communism is differentiated from socialism, which, out of economic necessity, restricts access to articles of consumption and services based on one's contribution.


title: Communist society

text: In further contrast to previous economic systems, communism would be characterized by the holding of natural resources and the means of production in common as opposed to them being privately owned (as in the case of capitalism) or owned by public or cooperative organizations that similarly restrict their access (as in the case of socialism). In this sense, communism involves the "negation of property" insofar as there would be little economic rationale for exclusive control over production assets in an environment of material abundance.


title: Communist society

text: The fully developed communist economic system is postulated to develop from a preceding socialist system. Marx held the view that socialism—a system based on social ownership of the means of production—would enable progress toward the development of fully developed communism by further advancing productive technology. Under socialism, with its increasing levels of automation, an increasing proportion of goods would be distributed freely.


title: Communist society

text: A communist society would free individuals from long working hours by first automating production to an extent that the average length of the working day is reduced and second by eliminating the exploitation inherent in the division between workers and owners. A communist system would thus free individuals from alienation in the sense of having one's life structured around survival (making a wage or salary in a capitalist system), which Marx referred to as a transition from the "realm of necessity" to the "realm of freedom". As a result, a communist society is envisioned as being composed of an intellectually-inclined population with both the time and resources to pursue its creative hobbies and genuine interests, and to contribute to creative social wealth in this manner. Karl Marx considered "true richness" to be the amount of time one has at his disposal to pursue one's creative passions. Marx's notion of communism is in this way radically individualistic.


title: Communist society

text: Marx's concept of the "realm of freedom" goes hand-in-hand with his idea of the ending of the division of labor, which would not be required in a society with highly automated production and limited work roles. In a communist society, economic necessity and relations would cease to determine cultural and social relations. As scarcity is eliminated, alienated labor would cease and people would be free to pursue their individual goals. Additionally, it is believed that the principle of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs" could be fulfilled due to scarcity being non-existent.


title: Communist society

text: Marx and Engels maintained that a communist society would have no need for the state as it exists in contemporary capitalist society. The capitalist state mainly exists to enforce hierarchical economic relations, to enforce the exclusive control of property, and to regulate capitalistic economic activities—all of which would be non-applicable to a communist system.


title: Communist society

text: Engels noted that in a socialist system the primary function of public institutions will shift from being about the creation of laws and the control of people into a technical role as an administrator of technical production processes, with a decrease in the scope of traditional politics as scientific administration overtakes the role of political decision-making. Communist society is characterized by democratic processes, not merely in the sense of electoral democracy, but in the broader sense of open and collaborative social and workplace environments.


title: Communist society

text: Marx never clearly specified whether or not he thought a communist society would be just; other thinkers have speculated that he thought communism would transcend justice and create society without conflicts, thus, without the needs for rules of justice.


title: Communist society

text: Marx also wrote that between capitalist and communist society, there would be a transitory period known as the dictatorship of the proletariat. During this preceding phase of societal development, capitalist economic relationships would gradually be abolished and replaced with socialism. Natural resources would become public property, while all manufacturing centers and workplaces would become socially owned and democratically managed. Production would be organized by scientific assessment and planning, thus eliminating what Marx called the "anarchy in production". The development of the productive forces would lead to the marginalization of human labor to the highest possible extent, to be gradually replaced by automated labor.


title: Communist society

text: Many aspects of a communist economy have emerged in recent decades in the form of open-source software and hardware, where source code and thus the means of producing software is held in common and freely accessible to everyone; and to the processes of peer production where collaborative work processes produce freely available software that does not rely on monetary valuation.


title: Communist society

text: Ray Kurzweil posits that the goals of communism will be realized by advanced technological developments in the 21st century, where the intersection of low manufacturing costs, material abundance and open-source design philosophies will enable the realization of the maxim "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs".


title: Communist society

text: The communist economic system was officially enumerated as the ultimate goal of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in its party platform. According to the 1986 Programme of the CPSU:


title: Communist society

text: In Vladimir Lenin's political theory, a classless society would be a society controlled by the direct producers, organized to produce according to socially managed goals. Such a society, Lenin suggested, would develop habits that would gradually make political representation unnecessary, as the radically democratic nature of the Soviets would lead citizens to come to agree with the representatives' style of management. Only in this environment, Lenin suggested, could the state wither away, ushering in a period of stateless communism.


title: Communist society

text: In Soviet ideology, Marx's concepts of the "lower and higher phases of communism" articulated in the "Critique of the Gotha Program" were reformulated as the stages of "socialism" and "communism". The Soviet state claimed to have begun the phase of "socialist construction" during the implementation of the first Five-Year Plans during the 1930s, which introduced a centrally planned, nationalized/collectivized economy. The 1962 Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, published under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev, claimed that socialism had been firmly established in the USSR, and that the state would now progress to the "full-scale construction of communism", although this may be understood to refer to the "technical foundations" of communism more so than the withering away of the state and the division of labor per se. However, even in the final edition of its program before the party's dissolution, the CPSU did not claim to have fully established communism, instead claiming that the society was undergoing a very slow and gradual process of transition.


title: Communist society

text: "The Culture" novels by Iain M Banks are centered on a communist post-scarcity economy where technology is advanced to such a degree that all production is automated, and there is no use for money or property (aside from personal possessions with sentimental value). Humans in the Culture are free to pursue their own interests in an open and socially-permissive society. The society has been described by some commentators as "communist-bloc" or "anarcho-communist". Banks' close friend and fellow science fiction writer Ken MacLeod has said that The Culture can be seen as a realization of Marx's communism, but adds that "however friendly he was to the radical left, Iain had little interest in relating the long-range possibility of utopia to radical politics in the here and now. As he saw it, what mattered was to keep the utopian possibility open by continuing technological progress, especially space development, and in the meantime to support whatever policies and politics in the real world were rational and humane."


title: Communist society

text: The economy and society of the United Federation of Planets in the "Star Trek" franchise has been described as a communist society where material scarcity has been eliminated due to the wide availability of replicator technology that enables free distribution of output, where there is no need for money.


title: Pine Gap (TV series)

text: Pine Gap is an Australian television series that was released on Netflix and broadcast on ABC in 2018. The six-part series is written and created by Greg Haddrick and Felicity Packard with Mat King directing all six episodes. The series is produced by Screentime.


title: Pine Gap (TV series)

text: "Pine Gap" is an international political thriller which is set around the Australian and American joint defence intelligence facility at Pine Gap, south-west of the town of Alice Springs, Australia.


title: Pine Gap (TV series)

text: Luke Buckmaster of "The Guardian" gave "Pine Gap" a critical review, writing that the series was "less a spy drama than an attempt to cure insomnia." He also criticised the series for what he regarded as its poor story-writing and unsatisfactory acting, giving it one out of five stars. Helen Razer of the "Daily Review" also gave the TV series a negative review, disparaging it as "a poor attempt at promoting favourable propaganda about Australia–United States relations". Razer also criticized what she regarded as the tokenistic use of Aboriginal characters.


title: Pine Gap (TV series)

text: Pat LaMarco of "The Daily Free Press" described the series as a "dull and sluggish attempt at a thriller". He also viewed the show's release on Netflix as a sign of what he regarded as the deteriorating quality of the streaming company's content. By contrast, Genevieve Burgess of Pajiba gave "Pine Gap" a favourable review, describing it as a "spy thriller for people who don't like spy thrillers." She praised the series for its realistic low-stakes political thriller plot and for defying conventional Hollywood spying tropes by exploring the everyday challenges of its main cast members.


title: Pine Gap (TV series)

text: "Pine Gap" was removed from Netflix in Vietnam, following an order from the country's Authority of Broadcasting and Electronic Information, as a map with the nine-dash line was briefly shown in two episodes of the series, albeit in a context in which characters criticised China's claim over the waters in on-screen dialogue. In November 2021, the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board of the Philippines ordered Netflix to remove certain episodes that featured the nine-dash line, deeming it "unfit for public exhibition" after the country's foreign department issued a complaint calling the line "illegal" and a "violation of Philippine sovereignty".


title: Amazing Stories (2020 TV series)

text: Amazing Stories is an American anthology series based on the 1985 television series of the same name created by Steven Spielberg. The series is produced for Apple TV+ and its executive producers for the series include Spielberg, Edward Kitsis, Adam Horowitz, Darryl Frank, and Justin Falvey. It premiered on March 6, 2020.


title: Amazing Stories (2020 TV series)

text: The name "Amazing Stories" is taken from the first science fiction magazine, which was launched in 1926 and has continued in various formats for decades.


title: Amazing Stories (2020 TV series)

text: On October 23, 2015, it was announced that NBC was developing a reboot of the 1985 anthology television series "Amazing Stories" created by Steven Spielberg. Bryan Fuller was expected to write the pilot episode and executive produce alongside Justin Falvey and Darryl Frank. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Universal Television. At that time, Spielberg was not expected to be involved with the series.


title: Amazing Stories (2020 TV series)

text: On October 10, 2017, it was announced that Apple Inc. had given the production a ten-episode series order. It was further announced that Amblin Television would serve as an additional production company for the series.


title: Amazing Stories (2020 TV series)

text: On February 7, 2018, it was reported that Fuller had stepped down as showrunner of the series over creative differences. It was unclear as to whether Fuller would have a different role in the production going forward but it was clarified that he had not delivered a script to Apple before his departure. Later that day, it was also reported that executive producer Hart Hanson was exiting the series as well. On May 22, 2018, it was announced that "Once Upon a Time" creators Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz had joined the production as executive producers and showrunners. On December 4, 2018, it was reported that Mark Mylod would direct an episode of the series executive produced by Edward Burns.


title: Amazing Stories (2020 TV series)

text: On December 4, 2018, it was announced that Edward Burns, Austin Stowell, and Kerry Bishé would guest star together in an episode. On October 11, 2019, it was announced that Robert Forster would appear on the show and would be his final role after his death in the episode "Dynaman and the Volt." On January 19, 2020, it was announced that Dylan O'Brien, Victoria Pedretti, Josh Holloway, and Sasha Alexander would also appear on the show.


title: Amazing Stories (2020 TV series)

text: Principal photography for the series began in November 2018 in Georgia, US. Filming took place in various locations around the state that month including Alto, Forsyth, Griffin, Dobbins Air Reserve Base, and Downtown Atlanta. In December 2018, the production was shooting in areas such as Sandy Springs, Smyrna, Kirkwood, and Flowery Branch. In January 2019, the series was working out of locations in Atlanta including the Starlight Drive-In Theatre, Emory University's Briarcliff campus and the Centennial Olympic Park.


title: Amazing Stories (2020 TV series)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 40% based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 5.07/10. The website's critical consensus states, "While "Amazing Stories"' aspirations are admirable, it feels more like a dated retread than a heartfelt reboot." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Amazing Stories (2020 TV series)

text: "Amazing Stories" has been nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Television Presentation (under 10 episodes).


title: Conjugate prior

text: In Bayesian probability theory, if the posterior distribution formula_1 is in the same probability distribution family as the prior probability distribution formula_2, the prior and posterior are then called conjugate distributions, and the prior is called a conjugate prior for the likelihood function formula_3.


title: Conjugate prior

text: A conjugate prior is an algebraic convenience, giving a closed-form expression for the posterior; otherwise, numerical integration may be necessary. Further, conjugate priors may give intuition by more transparently showing how a likelihood function updates a prior distribution.


title: Conjugate prior

text: The concept, as well as the term "conjugate prior", were introduced by Howard Raiffa and Robert Schlaifer in their work on Bayesian decision theory. A similar concept had been discovered independently by George Alfred Barnard.


title: Conjugate prior

text: The form of the conjugate prior can generally be determined by inspection of the probability density or probability mass function of a distribution. For example, consider a random variable which consists of the number of successes formula_4 in formula_5 Bernoulli trials with unknown probability of success formula_6 in [0,1]. This random variable will follow the binomial distribution, with a probability mass function of the form


title: Conjugate prior

text: where formula_8 and formula_9 are chosen to reflect any existing belief or information (formula_13 and formula_14 would give a uniform distribution) and formula_15 is the Beta function acting as a normalising constant.


title: Conjugate prior

text: In this context, formula_8 and formula_9 are called "hyperparameters" (parameters of the prior), to distinguish them from parameters of the underlying model (here formula_6). A typical characteristic of conjugate priors is that the dimensionality of the hyperparameters is one greater than that of the parameters of the original distribution. If all parameters are scalar values, then there will be one more hyperparameter than parameter; but this also applies to vector-valued and matrix-valued parameters. (See the general article on the exponential family, and also consider the Wishart distribution, conjugate prior of the covariance matrix of a multivariate normal distribution, for an example where a large dimensionality is involved.)


title: Conjugate prior

text: This is the Poisson distribution that is "the" most likely to have generated the observed data formula_22. But the data could also have come from another Poisson distribution, e.g., one with formula_23, or formula_24, etc. In fact, there is an infinite number of Poisson distributions that "could" have generated the observed data. With relatively few data points, we should be quite uncertain about which exact Poisson distribution generated this data. Intuitively we should instead take a weighted average of the probability of formula_25 for each of those Poisson distributions, weighted by how likely they each are, given the data we've observed formula_22.


title: Conjugate prior

text: Generally, this quantity is known as the posterior predictive distribution formula_27 where formula_28 is a new data point, formula_22 is the observed data and formula_30 are the parameters of the model. Using Bayes' theorem we can expand formula_31 therefore formula_32 Generally, this integral is hard to compute. However, if you choose a conjugate prior distribution formula_2, a closed-form expression can be derived. This is the posterior predictive column in the tables below.


title: Conjugate prior

text: Returning to our example, if we pick the Gamma distribution as our prior distribution over the rate of the Poisson distributions, then the posterior predictive is the negative binomial distribution, as can be seen from the table below. The Gamma distribution is parameterized by two hyperparameters formula_34, which we have to choose. By looking at plots of the gamma distribution, we pick formula_35, which seems to be a reasonable prior for the average number of cars. The choice of prior hyperparameters is inherently subjective and based on prior knowledge.


title: Conjugate prior

text: Given the prior hyperparameters formula_8 and formula_9 we can compute the posterior hyperparameters formula_38 and formula_39


title: Conjugate prior

text: This much more conservative estimate reflects the uncertainty in the model parameters, which the posterior predictive takes into account.


title: Conjugate prior

text: Let "n" denote the number of observations. In all cases below, the data is assumed to consist of "n" points formula_41 (which will be random vectors in the multivariate cases).


title: Conjugate prior

text: If the likelihood function belongs to the exponential family, then a conjugate prior exists, often also in the exponential family; see .


title: Squash (drink)

text: Squash (sometimes known as cordial in British English, dilute in Hiberno English, and diluting juice in Scottish English) is a non-alcoholic beverage with concentrated syrup used in beverage making. It is usually fruit-flavoured, made from fruit juice, water, and sugar or a sugar substitute. Modern squashes may also contain food colouring and additional flavouring. Some traditional squashes contain herbal extracts, most notably elderflower and ginger.


title: Squash (drink)

text: Squash is mixed with a certain amount of water or carbonated water before drinking. The amount of water added is to taste, with the squash becoming less strong the more it is diluted. As a drink mixer, it may be combined with an alcoholic beverage to prepare a cocktail.


title: Squash (drink)

text: Citrus fruits (particularly orange, lime and lemon) or a blend of fruits and berries are commonly used as the base of squash.


title: Squash (drink)

text: Traditional squashes in Britain are usually flavoured with elderflower, orange, lemon, or blackcurrant. Raspberry and blackberry are popular in Eastern Europe, and currants is a common ingredient in the Low Countries.


title: Squash (drink)

text: Squash is prepared by combining one part concentrate with four or five parts water (carbonated or still). Double-strength squash and traditional cordials, which are thicker, are mixed with nine parts water to one part concentrate. Some squash concentrates are quite weak, and these are sometimes mixed with one part concentrate and two or three parts water.


title: Squash (drink)

text: Most cordials and squashes contain preservatives such as potassium sorbate or (in traditional cordials) sulphites, as they are designed to be stored on shelves. They keep well because of the preservatives and their high sugar content. Nonetheless, some choose to store their squash in refrigerators.


title: Squash (drink)

text: Ingredients in squashes and cordials have evolved over the years. A traditional cordial contains three ingredients: sugar, juice or plant extract and some water. Usually it can contain an acidifier such as citric acid or in very old-fashioned cordials lemon juice, or even spices such as cinnamon or cloves. Recreations of these traditional preparations often contain a preservative especially sulphur dioxide, although sugar alone will keep it fresh for quite a long time. Modern squash drinks are generally more complex and sugar free squash even more so; the ingredients are usually water, sweetener such as aspartame or sodium saccharin, juice in a low quantity (typically 5–10 percent), large quantities of flavouring, preservatives and sometimes a colour such as anthocyanin. In the middle are ordinary squashes, which contain sugar, water, a larger amount of juice, preservatives, colouring such as anthocyanin and often a small amount of flavouring. Although colours such as Allura Red AC and Sunset Yellow FCF are occasionally used in squash, most modern British companies are gradually aiming to use natural colours such as beta carotene or anthocyanins, and natural flavourings.


title: Squash (drink)

text: Traditional squashes may be flavoured with elderflowers, lemon, pomegranate, apple, strawberry, chokeberry (often with spices such as cinnamon or cloves added), orange, pear, or raspberry.


title: Squash (drink)

text: Modern squashes usually have simpler flavours, such as orange, apple, summer fruit (mixed berries), blackcurrant, apple and blackcurrant, peach, pineapple, mango, lime, or lemon.


title: Squash (drink)

text: "Cordial", "diluting juice", and "squash" are similar products, although the products known as cordials tend to be thicker and stronger, requiring less syrup and more water to be blended. In British English, "cordial" refers to a sweet fruit-flavoured drink (as different from a syrup). "High juice" is a type that contains a larger amount of juice, around 45%.


title: Squash (drink)

text: Squash is often colloquially known as "juice". However this term is a misnomer; no squash is pure juice. Squashes are commonly called according to the fruit from which they are made. More rarely, they may be called "fruit drink", especially if they are ready-diluted in a plastic bottle or paper carton (e.g., Fruit Shoot).


title: Squash (drink)

text: Squashes are measured by their juice content, the average being 30%. A variety of squash that contains a larger amount of fruit juice, up to half or more of the volume in juice, is sold in markets as "high juice", and squashes are quite often called "juice" when talking to children, especially these high-juice beverages, although this may be confusing. However, many squashes contain less than 20% juice, and some as little as 5–10%. The latter are typically low in nutritional value, and the high juice versions are reasonably higher in nutrients, although one downside is that it is high in sugar and does not contain fibre or minor nutrients. That goes with almost all squashes. A low juice squash may state "with real fruit juice" on the label.


title: Squash (drink)

text: Notable companies producing squash include Britvic (under the Robinsons, MiWadi and Teisseire brands), Hamdard (under the Rooh Afza brand in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh), Nichols (under the Vimto brand), Suntory (under the Ribena brand) and Coca-Cola (under the Kia-Ora brand). Australian brands include Cottee's, Bickford's, P&N Beverages and Golden Circle cordials. Indian brands include Rasna. In Israel, fruit squashes are produced by such companies as Prigat.


title: Squash (drink)

text: The gorillas at London Zoo are given both squash and cold fruit tea to drink. When a silverback called Kumbuka escaped from his enclosure in 2016, he drank of undiluted blackcurrant squash that was in the keepers' area.


title: Structure

text: A structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, minerals and chemicals. Abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. Types of structure include a hierarchy (a cascade of one-to-many relationships), a network featuring many-to-many links, or a lattice featuring connections between components that are neighbors in space.


title: Structure

text: Buildings, aircraft, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams, bridges and salt domes are all examples of load-bearing structures. The results of construction are divided into buildings and non-building structures, and make up the infrastructure of a human society. Built structures are broadly divided by their varying design approaches and standards, into categories including building structures, architectural structures, civil engineering structures and mechanical structures.


title: Structure

text: The effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis, which is one of the tasks of structural engineering. The structural elements can be classified as one-dimensional (ropes, struts, beams, arches), two-dimensional (membranes, plates, slab, shells, vaults), or three-dimensional (solid masses). Three-dimensional elements were the main option available to early structures such as Chichen Itza. A one-dimensional element has one dimension much larger than the other two, so the other dimensions can be neglected in calculations; however, the ratio of the smaller dimensions and the composition can determine the flexural and compressive stiffness of the element. Two-dimensional elements with a thin third dimension have little of either but can resist biaxial traction.


title: Structure

text: The structure elements are combined in "structural systems". The majority of everyday load-bearing structures are "section-active" structures like frames, which are primarily composed of one-dimensional (bending) structures. Other types are "Vector-active" structures such as trusses, "surface-active" structures such as shells and folded plates, "form-active" structures such as cable or membrane structures, and hybrid structures.


title: Structure

text: Load-bearing biological structures such as bones, teeth, shells, and tendons derive their strength from a multilevel hierarchy of structures employing biominerals and proteins, at the bottom of which are collagen fibrils.


title: Structure

text: In biology, one of the properties of life is its highly "ordered" structure, which can be observed at multiple levels such as in cells, tissues, organs, and organisms.


title: Structure

text: In another context, structure can also observed in macromolecules, particularly proteins and nucleic acids. The function of these molecules is determined by their shape as well as their composition, and their structure has multiple levels. Protein structure has a four-level hierarchy. The "primary structure" is the sequence of amino acids that make it up. It has a peptide backbone made up of a repeated sequence of a nitrogen and two carbon atoms. The "secondary structure" consists of repeated patterns determined by hydrogen bonding. The two basic types are the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet. The "tertiary structure" is a back and forth bending of the polypeptide chain, and the "quaternary structure" is the way that tertiary units come together and interact. Structural biology is concerned with biomolecular structure of macromolecules.


title: Structure

text: Chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and electronic structure. The structure can be represented by a variety of diagrams called structural formulas. Lewis structures use a dot notation to represent the valence electrons for an atom; these are the electrons that determine the role of the atom in chemical reactions. Bonds between atoms can be represented by lines with one line for each pair of electrons that is shared. In a simplified version of such a diagram, called a skeletal formula, only carbon-carbon bonds and functional groups are shown.


title: Structure

text: Atoms in a crystal have a structure that involves repetition of a basic unit called a "unit cell". The atoms can be modeled as points on a lattice, and one can explore the effect of symmetry operations that include rotations about a point, reflections about a symmetry planes, and "translations" (movements of all the points by the same amount). Each crystal has a finite group, called the space group, of such operations that map it onto itself; there are 230 possible space groups. By Neumann's law, the symmetry of a crystal determines what physical properties, including piezoelectricity and ferromagnetism, the crystal can have.


title: Structure

text: A large part of numerical analysis involves identifying and interpreting the structure of musical works. Structure can be found at the level of part of a work, the entire work, or a group of works. Elements of music such as pitch, duration and timbre combine into small elements like motifs and phrases, and these in turn combine in larger structures. Not all music (for example, that of John Cage) has a hierarchical organization, but hierarchy makes it easier for a listener to understand and remember the music.


title: Structure

text: In analogy to linguistic terminology, motifs and phrases can be combined to make complete musical ideas such as sentences and phrases. A larger form is known as the period. One such form that was widely used between 1600 and 1900 has two phrases, an "antecedent" and a "consequent", with a half cadence in the middle and a full cadence at the end providing punctuation. On a larger scale are single-movement forms such as the sonata form and the contrapuntal form, and multi-movement forms such as the symphony.


title: Structure

text: A social structure is a pattern of relationships. They are social organizations of individuals in various life situations. Structures are applicable to people in how a society is as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships. This is known as the social organization of the group. Sociologists have studied the changing structure of these groups. Structure and agency are two confronted theories about human behaviour. The debate surrounding the influence of structure and agency on human thought is one of the central issues in sociology. In this context, "agency" refers to the individual human capacity to act independently and make free choices. "Structure" here refers to factors such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, customs, etc. that seem to limit or influence individual opportunities.


title: Structure

text: In computer science, a data structure is a way of organizing information in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Data structures are built out of two basic types: An array has an index that can be used for immediate access to any data item (some programming languages require array size to be initialized). A linked list can be reorganized, grown or shrunk, but its elements must be accessed with a pointer that links them together in a particular order. Out of these any number of other data structures can be created such as stacks, queues, trees and hash tables.


title: Structure

text: In solving a problem, a data structure is generally an integral part of the algorithm. In modern programming style, algorithms and data structures are encapsulated together in an abstract data type.


title: Structure

text: Software architecture is the specific choices made between possible alternatives within a framework. For example, a framework might require a database and the architecture would specify the type and manufacturer of the database. The structure of software is the way in which it is partitioned into interrelated components. A key structural issue is minimizing dependencies between these components. This makes it possible to change one component without requiring changes in others. The purpose of structure is to optimise for (brevity, readability, traceability, isolation and encapsulation, maintainability, extensibility, performance and efficiency), examples being: language choice, code, functions, libraries, builds, system evolution, or diagrams for flow logic and design. Structural elements reflect the requirements of the application: for example, if the system requires a high fault tolerance, then a redundant structure is needed so that if a component fails it has backups. A high redundancy is an essential part of the design of several systems in the Space Shuttle.


title: Structure

text: As a branch of philosophy, logic is concerned with distinguishing good arguments from poor ones. A chief concern is with the structure of arguments. An argument consists of one or more premises from which a conclusion is inferred. The steps in this inference can be expressed in a formal way and their structure analyzed. Two basic types of inference are deduction and induction. In a valid deduction, the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, regardless of whether they are true or not. An invalid deduction contains some error in the analysis. An inductive argument claims that if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely.


title: Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy

text: Ruth Sylvia Roche, Baroness Fermoy, ("née" Gill; 2 October 1908 – 6 July 1993) was a friend and confidante of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother and the maternal grandmother of Diana, Princess of Wales. She was one of the Queen Mother's ladies-in-waiting.


title: Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy

text: Lady Fermoy was born Ruth Sylvia Gill at Dalhebity House, Bieldside, Aberdeenshire, the daughter of Colonel William Smith Gill and his wife, Ruth ("née" Littlejohn, daughter of David Littlejohn, DL). She showed early promise as a pianist and studied under Alfred Cortot at the Paris Conservatoire in the 1920s.


title: Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy

text: Her musical career was cut short when she met the wealthy and much older Maurice Roche, 4th Baron Fermoy. They married on 17 September 1931 at St. Devenick's Church in Bieldside, Aberdeenshire. Lord and Lady Fermoy had three children, including Frances, who would become the mother of Diana, Princess of Wales.


title: Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy

text: Lady Fermoy did play the piano in public occasionally after her marriage, most notably with Josef Krips at the Royal Albert Hall in 1950, and with Sir John Barbirolli and the Hallé Orchestra at King's Lynn in 1966. She founded the King's Lynn Festival in 1951 and remained closely involved with the Festival for 25 years, persuading Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother to become its patron. She was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in January 1952 for her services as Chairman of the King's Lynn Arts Festival Society.


title: Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy

text: In 1956, the Queen Mother appointed Lady Fermoy an Extra Woman of the Bedchamber. The Queen Mother, being a widow herself, showed a preference for appointing widows to her household, and four years later Lady Fermoy was promoted to Woman of the Bedchamber, a post she held for the next 33 years. She was appointed a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in June 1966, and a Dame Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in June 1979.


title: Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy

text: Lady Fermoy was a firm believer in the sanctity of marriage. In 1969, her daughter Frances and John Spencer, Viscount Althorp, divorced after Frances left her husband for Peter Shand Kydd. Lady Fermoy testified against her daughter, which allowed Viscount Althorp to retain custody of their children.


title: Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy

text: The Queen Mother and Lady Fermoy became confidantes, and it was assumed by many that the two women engineered the match between their grandchildren, Charles, Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer. However, when asked about it, Lady Fermoy remarked: "You can say that if you like – but it simply wouldn't be true". She was also said to have counselled her granddaughter against the marriage, saying: "Darling, you must understand that their sense of humour and their lifestyle are different, and I don't think it will suit you."


title: Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy

text: Lady Fermoy died at her home at 36 Eaton Square, London, on 6 July 1993, aged 84. It was reported that she was not on speaking terms with Diana when she died.


title: Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy

text: Lady Fermoy's great-grandmother, Kitty Forbes, was the daughter of Eliza Kewark. Eliza's father, Hakob Kevork or Kevorkian, was Armenian; her Indian mother was probably Muslim. She is variously described in contemporary documents as "a dark-skinned native woman" and "an Armenian woman from Bombay".


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Aluminium chloride, also known as aluminium trichloride, is an inorganic compound with the formula . It forms hexahydrate with the formula , containing six water molecules of hydration. Both are colourless crystals, but samples are often contaminated with iron(III) chloride, giving a yellow color.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: The anhydrous material is important commercially. It has a low melting and boiling point. It is mainly produced and consumed in the production of aluminium metal, but large amounts are also used in other areas of the chemical industry. The compound is often cited as a Lewis acid. It is an example of an inorganic compound that reversibly changes from a polymer to a monomer at mild temperature.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: adopts three structures, depending on the temperature and the state (solid, liquid, gas). Solid has a sheet-like layered structure with cubic close-packed chloride ions. In this framework, the Al centres exhibit octahedral coordination geometry. Yttrium(III) chloride adopts the same structure, as do a range of other compounds. When aluminium trichloride is in its melted state, it exists as the dimer , with tetracoordinate aluminium. This change in structure is related to the lower density of the liquid phase (1.78 g/cm) versus solid aluminium trichloride (2.48 g/cm). dimers are also found in the vapour phase. At higher temperatures, the dimers dissociate into trigonal planar monomer, which is structurally analogous to . The melt conducts electricity poorly, unlike more ionic halides such as sodium chloride.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Aluminium chloride monomer belongs to the point group D in its monomeric form and D in its dimeric form.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: The hexahydrate consists of octahedral cation centers and chloride anions () as counterions. Hydrogen bonds link the cation and anions.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: The hydrated form of aluminium chloride has an octahedral molecular geometry, with the central aluminium ion surrounded by six water ligand molecules. Being coordinatively saturated, the hydrate is of little value as a catalyst in Friedel-Crafts alkylation and related reactions.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: is a common Lewis-acid catalyst for Friedel-Crafts reactions, both acylations and alkylations. Important products are detergents and ethylbenzene. These types of reactions are the major use for aluminium chloride, for example, in the preparation of anthraquinone (used in the dyestuffs industry) from benzene and phosgene. In the general Friedel-Crafts reaction, an acyl chloride or alkyl halide reacts with an aromatic system as shown:


title: Aluminium chloride

text: The alkylation reaction is more widely used than the acylation reaction, although its practice is more technically demanding. For both reactions, the aluminium chloride, as well as other materials and the equipment, should be dry, although a trace of moisture is necessary for the reaction to proceed. Detailed procedures are available for alkylation and acylation of arenes.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: A general problem with the Friedel-Crafts reaction is that the aluminium chloride catalyst sometimes is required in full stoichiometric quantities, because it complexes strongly with the products. This complication sometimes generates a large amount of corrosive waste. For these and similar reasons, the use of aluminium chloride has often been displaced by zeolites.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Aluminium chloride can also be used to introduce aldehyde groups onto aromatic rings, for example via the Gattermann-Koch reaction which uses carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride and a copper(I) chloride co-catalyst.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Aluminium chloride finds a wide variety of other applications in organic chemistry. For example, it can catalyse the "ene reaction", such as the addition of 3-buten-2-one (methyl vinyl ketone) to carvone:


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Aluminium chloride combined with aluminium in the presence of an arene can be used to synthesize bis(arene) metal complexes, e.g. bis(benzene)chromium, from certain metal halides via the so-called Fischer-Hafner synthesis. Dichlorophenylphosphine is prepared by reaction of benzene and phosphorus trichloride catalyzed by aluminium chloride.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Anhydrous aluminium chloride is a powerful Lewis acid, capable of forming Lewis acid-base adducts with even weak Lewis bases such as benzophenone and mesitylene. It forms tetrachloroaluminate () in the presence of chloride ions.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Aluminium chloride reacts with calcium and magnesium hydrides in tetrahydrofuran forming tetrahydroaluminates.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Anhydrous aluminium chloride is hygroscopic, having a very pronounced affinity for water. It fumes in moist air and hisses when mixed with liquid water as the Cl ligands are displaced with HO molecules to form the hexahydrate . The anhydrous phase cannot be regained on heating the hexahydrate. Instead HCl is lost leaving aluminium hydroxide or alumina (aluminium oxide):


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Aqueous solutions behave similarly to other aluminium salts containing hydrated ions, giving a gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide upon reaction with dilute sodium hydroxide:


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Aluminium chloride is manufactured on a large scale by the exothermic reaction of aluminium metal with chlorine or hydrogen chloride at temperatures between .


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Aluminium chloride may be formed via a single displacement reaction between copper(II) chloride and aluminium metal.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: In the US in 1993, approximately 21,000 tons were produced, not counting the amounts consumed in the production of aluminium.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Hydrated aluminium trichloride is prepared by dissolving aluminium oxides in hydrochloric acid. Metallic aluminium also readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid ─ releasing hydrogen gas and generating considerable heat. Heating this solid does not produce anhydrous aluminium trichloride, the hexahydrate decomposes to aluminium hydroxide when heated:


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Aluminium also forms a lower chloride, aluminium(I) chloride (AlCl), but this is very unstable and only known in the vapour phase.


title: Aluminium chloride

text: Anhydrous aluminium chloride is not found as a mineral. The hexahydrate, however, is known as the rare mineral chloraluminite. A more complex, basic and hydrated aluminium chloride mineral is cadwaladerite.


title: Amalfi

text: Amalfi (, , ) is a town and "comune" in the province of Salerno, in the region of Campania, Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno. It lies at the mouth of a deep ravine, at the foot of Monte Cerreto (1,315 metres, 4,314 feet), surrounded by dramatic cliffs and coastal scenery. The town of Amalfi was the capital of the maritime republic known as the Duchy of Amalfi, an important trading power in the Mediterranean between 839 and around 1200.


title: Amalfi

text: In the 1920s and 1930s, Amalfi was a popular holiday destination for the British upper class and aristocracy.


title: Amalfi

text: Amalfi is the main town of the coast on which it is located, named "Costiera Amalfitana" (Amalfi Coast), and is today an important tourist destination together with other towns on the same coast, such as Positano, Ravello and others. Amalfi is included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.


title: Amalfi

text: A patron saint of Amalfi is Saint Andrew, the Apostle, whose relics are kept here at Amalfi Cathedral (Cattedrale di Sant'Andrea/Duomo di Amalfi).


title: Amalfi

text: Amalfi held importance as a maritime power, trading grain from its neighbours, salt from Sardinia and slaves from the interior, and even timber, in exchange for the gold dinars minted in Egypt and Syria, in order to buy the Byzantine silks that it resold in the West. Grain-bearing Amalfi traders enjoyed privileged positions in the Islamic ports, Fernand Braudel notes. The Amalfi tables ("") provided a maritime code that was widely used by the Christian port cities. Merchants of Amalfi were using gold coins to purchase land in the 9th century, while most of Italy worked in a barter economy. During the late 9th century, long-distance trade revived between Amalfi and Gaeta with Byzantine, the latter which benefited from a flourishing trade network with the Arabs.


title: Amalfi

text: An independent republic from the 7th century until 1073, Amalfi extracted itself from Byzantine vassalage in 839 and first elected a duke in 958; it rivalled Pisa and Genoa in its domestic prosperity and maritime importance before the rise of the Republic of Venice. In spite of some devastating setbacks it had a population of some 70,000 to 80,000 reaching a peak about the turn of the millennium, during the reign of Duke Manso (966–1004). Under his line of dukes, Amalfi remained independent, except for a brief period of Salernitan dependency under Guaimar IV.


title: Amalfi

text: In 1073, the republic fell to the Norman countship of Apulia, but was granted many rights. A prey to the Normans who encamped in the south of Italy, it became one of their principal posts. However, in 1131, it was reduced by Roger II of Sicily, who had been refused the keys to its citadel. The Holy Roman Emperor Lothair, fighting in favour of Pope Innocent II against Roger, who sided with the Antipope Anacletus, took him prisoner in 1133, assisted by forty-six Pisan ships. The Pisans, commercial rivals of the Amalfitani, sacked the city; Lothair claimed as part of the booty a copy of the Pandects of Justinian which was found there.


title: Amalfi

text: In 1135 and 1137, it was taken by the Pisans and rapidly declined in importance, though its maritime code, known as the Amalfian Laws, was recognized in the Mediterranean until 1570. A tsunami in 1343 destroyed the port and lower town, and Amalfi never recovered to anything more than local importance.


title: Amalfi

text: In medieval culture Amalfi was famous for its flourishing schools of law and mathematics. Flavio Gioia, traditionally considered the first to introduce the mariner's compass to Europe, is said to have been a native of Amalfi.


title: Amalfi

text: Amalfi has a long history of catering for visitors, with two former monasteries being converted to hotels at a relatively early date, the Luna Convento in the second decade of the 19th century and the Cappuccini Convento in the 1880s. Celebrated visitors to Amalfi included the composer Richard Wagner and the playwright Henrik Ibsen, both of whom completed works while staying in Amalfi. Author Gore Vidal was a long time resident.


title: Amalfi

text: Amalfi occupied a high position in medieval architecture; its cathedral of Sant'Andrea (Saint Andrew, 11th century), the campanile, the convent of the Cappuccini, founded by the Amalfitan Cardinal Pietro Capuano, richly represent the artistic movement prevailing in Southern Italy at the time of the Normans, with its tendency to blend the Byzantine style with the forms and sharp lines of the northern architecture.


title: Amalfi

text: At the top of a flight of steps, Saint Andrew's Cathedral (Duomo) overlooks the Piazza Duomo, the heart of Amalfi. The cathedral dates back to the 11th century; its interior is adorned in the late Baroque style with a nave and two aisles divided by 20 columns. The façade of the cathedral is Byzantine in style and is adorned with various paintings of saints, including a large fresco of Saint Andrew.


title: Amalfi

text: The gold caisson ceiling has four large paintings by Andrea dell'Asta. They depict the flagellation of Saint Andrew, the miracle of Manna, the crucifixion of Saint Andrew and the Saint on the cross. From the left hand nave there is a flight of stairs which leads to the crypt. These stairs were built in 1203 for Cardinal Pietro Capuano, who, on 18 May 1208, brought Saint Andrew's remains to the cathedral from Constantinople.


title: Amalfi

text: The bronze statue of Saint Andrew in the cathedral was sculpted by Michelangelo Naccherino, a pupil of Michelangelo; also present are Pietro Bernini marble sculptures of St. Stephen and St. Lawrence.


title: Amalfi

text: In 1206, Saint Andrew's relics were brought to Amalfi from Constantinople by the Pietro Capuano following the Sack of Constantinople (an event of the 4th Crusade) after the completion of the town's cathedral. The cathedral contains a tomb in its crypt that it maintains still holds a portion of the relics of the apostle. A golden reliquary which originally housed his skull and another one used for processions through Amalfi on holy days can also be seen.


title: Amalfi

text: The structure of the arsenal consists of two large stone-built halls with vaulting supported by repeated pointed arches. The vaulting rests on ten piers, originally there were twenty two, the missing twelve and the structure they supported having been lost to centuries of coastal erosion. The main function of the arsenal was the building, repair and storage of warships. Amalfitan war-galleys were among the largest to be found in the Mediterranean during the Early Middle Ages. The building now contains architectural and sculptural remains, a row-barge used in the Historical Regatta, a number of models of ships and it also acts as a venue for visual art exhibitions. Starting from December 2010, the Ancient Arsenals of Amalfi host the Compass Museum on the premises of the two aisles of the building, which were spared by the Amalfi seaquake of 1343.


title: Amalfi

text: The Museum of Handmade Paper, located in Mill Valley in the northern part of the modern town, celebrates the long-established paper making tradition in Amalfi. The town was one of the first centres of paper making in Europe, the skill having been acquired by the Amalfitans from the Arabs. The museum is housed in an ancient paper mill which was once owned by the Milano family, a family famous in Amalfi for its involvement in the production and manufacture of paper. In 1969 the building was converted into a museum as a result of the will of Nicholas Milano, the mill's then owner. The museum contains the machinery and equipment (restored and fully functional) that was once used to manufacture paper by hand.


title: Amalfi

text: The Amalfi coast is famed for its production of Limoncello liqueur and the area is a known cultivator of lemons. The correct name is "sfusato amalfitano", and they are typically long and at least double the size of other lemons, with a thick and wrinkled skin and a sweet and juicy flesh without many pips. It is common to see lemons growing in the terraced gardens along the entire Amalfi coast between February and October. Amalfi is also a known maker of a hand-made thick paper which is called "bambagina". It is exported to many European countries and to America and has been used throughout Italy for wedding invitations, visiting cards and elegant writing paper. The paper has a high quality and has been used by artists such as Giuseppe Leone, who described it: "There is a whole world that the Amalfi paper evokes and an artist who is sensitive to the suggestion of these places is aware that it is unique and exciting".


title: Amalfi

text: Three traditional events draw numerous visitors to Amalfi. First are the feast days of Saint Andrew (25–27 June, and 30 November), celebrating the city's patron saint. Then there is "Byzantine New Year's Eve" (31 August) celebrating the beginning of the New Year according to the old civil calendar of the Byzantine Empire. The third event is the Historical Regatta (first Sunday in June), a traditional rowing competition among the four best known Italian historical maritime republics: Amalfi, Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. This event is hosted by a different city every year, so it comes to Amalfi once every four years.


title: Amalfi

text: Amalfi can be reached using the SS163 Amalfitana state road, the SR366 regional road and the SP252 provincial road.


title: Amalfi

text: The port of Amalfi has passenger connections to Capri, Positano, Maiori, Minori, Cetara, and Salerno.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: The Band's Visit is a stage musical with music and lyrics by David Yazbek and a book by Itamar Moses, based on the 2007 Israeli film of the same name. The musical opened on Broadway at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre in November 2017, after its off-Broadway premiere at the Atlantic Theater Company in December 2016.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: "The Band's Visit" has received critical acclaim. Its off-Broadway production won several major awards, including the 2017 Obie Award for Musical Theatre, as well the year's New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for Best Musical. At the 72nd Tony Awards, it was nominated for 11 awards and won 10, including Best Musical. "The Band's Visit" is one of four musicals in Broadway history to win the unofficial "Big Six" Tony Awards, which include Best Musical, Best Book, Best Score, Best Actor in a Musical, Best Actress in a Musical, and Best Direction of a Musical. It won the 2019 Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: The original production premiered in Off-Broadway previews at the Atlantic Theater Company on November 11, 2016, had its official opening on December 8, 2016, and closed on January 8, 2017. The musical was developed and produced with support from the National Endowment for the Arts, the Laurents/Hatcher Foundation, and the National Alliance for Musical Theatre's National Fund for New Musicals. Harold Prince was slated to direct but withdrew due to scheduling conflicts. He was replaced by David Cromer, with choreography by Patrick McCollum, movement by Lee Sher, and starring Tony Shalhoub, Katrina Lenk, and John Cariani.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: The musical began previews on Broadway on October 7, 2017, at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre prior to an official opening on November 9, 2017.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: On September 10, 2018, the producers announced that it had recouped its $8.75 million capitalization cost.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: The musical began its first national tour at the Providence Performing Arts Center in Providence, Rhode Island on June 25, 2019. The tour will have 27 stops across North America.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: The musical had its international premiere in Manila, Philippines, with a preview performance on March 10, 2020, at the Carlos P. Romulo Auditorium. The show was scheduled to have its full opening on March 13, 2020, at the but it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The show features Menchu Lauchengco-Yulo, Rody Vera, Nino Alejandro, Reb Atadero, Steven Conde, Maronne Cruz, Rhenwyn Gabalonzo, Jep Go, Leanne Mamonong, Jill Peña, Bibo Reyes, Dean Rosen, and Floyd Tena.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: The musical will have its European premiere at the Donmar Warehouse in London directed by artistic director Michael Longhurst from 28 September to 3 December 2022.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: "The Band’s Visit" opens with a message on a projector screen that displays during the overture, reading: “Once, not long ago, a group of musicians came to Israel from Egypt. You probably didn’t hear about it. It wasn’t very important.”


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: In 1996, the Alexandria Ceremonial Police Orchestra, just arrived in Israel, are waiting in Tel Aviv's central bus station. They expect to be welcomed by a representative from a local Arab cultural organization, but no one shows up. The group's leader and conductor, the reserved and dignified Colonel Tewfiq Zakaria, gets annoyed with the behavior of Haled (the young trumpet player and ladies’ man of the band). He explains to the band that they will act with professionalism and avoid any embarrassments, lest they give their critics and sponsors ammunition against them. Tewfiq decides that the group will take the bus and instructs Haled to purchase the group's bus tickets. At the ticket office, Haled asks the clerk for a ticket to the city of Petah Tikvah, but due to his Egyptian accent, she misunderstands him and sells him tickets to the isolated desert town of "Bet Hatikvah".


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: The scene shifts to Bet Hatikvah, where the residents bemoan the boring and monotonous lives they lead in the desert ("Waiting"). When the band arrives in Bet Hatikvah to blank stares, they approach two café workers, Papi and Itzik, to ask for directions to the Arab Culture Center for their performance the next day. Unsure who these men are and what they're asking about, they call for the café's owner, a charismatic woman named Dina. Tewfiq again asks for directions to the Culture Center before Dina realizes that they think this is Petah Tikvah, and explains that this is the wrong place, and they must have taken the wrong bus ("Welcome to Nowhere"). Tewfiq gives Haled an earful for the humiliation he has caused them, then asks Dina if the band can dine at the café on what little Israeli money they have left. As the rest of the band eats, the band’s assistant conductor and clarinetist, Simon, plays his original concerto (which he never finished). Dina returns and tells the group that the next bus does not arrive until the following day. After Camal, the band’s violinist, suggests contacting the Egyptian embassy, Dina begins to understand how much of a tight spot the band is in. She offers to have her, Papi, and Itzik house them for the night; Tewfiq is hesitant, but seeing no other option, he agrees.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: Dina brings Tewfiq and Haled back to her apartment for a place to sleep. In her kitchen, Dina inquires about Alexandria and muses that the big city must make you feel like you’re alive. Haled asks her why she stays in Bet Hatikvah if she wants more out of life, and Dina tells how she was once married and naïve, but nothing panned out the way she ideally hoped ("It Is What It Is"). She asks Tewfiq if he has a wife back in Egypt, and he responds that he did at one time but not anymore, leading Dina to believe that they are in the same boat. Dina then draws their attention to the only pay phone in town, which is guarded over every night by a man (known only as the “Telephone Guy”) who obsessively waits for his girlfriend to call him, even though it has been a month. Dina convinces Tewfiq to let her show him around the town and buy him dinner, and Haled chooses to stay behind and let them enjoy each other’s company.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: Meanwhile, Itzik allows Simon and Camal to stay with him and his family, consisting of his wife Iris and their baby, as well as his father-in-law, Avrum, who is visiting for the night. Itzik and Iris sit in awkward silence at the dinner table; Itzik tells the officers that it is his wife’s birthday today, while Iris silently fumes. When asked about his café job, Itzik responds that he is in between jobs, and Iris bluntly states that her job is to “care for invalids”. Avrum tells his guests that he is a musician as well, and despite Iris’s protests brings up how he met her mother that way. Camal asks what happened to Avrum's wife, and Avrum replies that she passed away last year. Simon rebukes Camal for his prying, but Avrum insists that it is healthy for him to talk about it. He tells the story of how he met his wife many years ago at a club, and remembers how music had been the foundation for their entire relationship ("The Beat of Your Heart"). Itzik, Simon, and Camal are touched by the story, but Iris continues to eat silently, avoiding all interaction as her father reminisces.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: As Dina and Tewfiq prepare to head out, Camal uses the pay phone to call the Egyptian embassy as the Telephone Guy watches him aggressively. Papi lets the rest of the band sleep in the café while he goes out; he has been invited by his friend Zelger and Zelger’s girlfriend Anna on a double date with Anna’s cousin Julia, but suffers from anxiety about going out with her. Against Papi’s wishes, Haled tags along. Dina and Tewfiq sit down for dinner at a nearby cafeteria and quickly become the center of attention among the locals. Dina tells Tewfiq to ignore them and asks him what style of music his band plays; he claims that they are a traditional orchestra that sticks to classical Arab music. Dina recalls her childhood, and how every week she would listen to music on Egyptian radio stations from the likes of Umm Kulthum and watch Egyptian movies starring Omar Sharif. Tewfiq quotes one of the movies in question and they bond over the shared memories ("Omar Sharif"). Just then, Dina’s ex-lover Sammy enters with his family; it is implied that Dina is still having an affair with him. After an awkward greeting where Dina introduces Tewfiq, Sammy leaves with his family in a huff. Tewfiq suggests that it might be a good time for them to leave as well, but Dina decides to lighten the mood by putting on an Umm Kulthum song and having Tewfiq repeat his Omar Sharif quote.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: Back at Itzik and Iris’s apartment, Simon plays his concerto at Avrum and Itzik’s request. Itzik asks Simon why it was never completed, to which Simon replies that his life got too busy after he started it. Itzik relates to Simon’s writer’s block with a story about how as a child he missed his own birthday because he had climbed a tree, staying there all day because it was too relaxing to leave. Iris retorts that in actuality Itzik is afraid of growing up and is still hiding in his tree, and she grabs her coat and heads for the door. When Itzik tries to calm her down, Iris declares that she has fallen out of love with him, and storms outside.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: At the roller skating rink, Haled watches from afar as Papi ignores Julia and clumsily skates on his own. Papi stops a security guard from harassing Haled outside the rink, and as Julia passes him again, Papi remarks that he could never get girls the way Haled can. Upon hearing this, Haled reveals to Papi his impending arranged marriage back at home; the reason behind his Casanova attitude. Papi in turn explains his romantic anxieties to Haled, specifically that he can’t stop hearing the sea when his nerves kick in ("Papi Hears the Ocean"). After accidentally causing Julia to slip on her skates and fall down, as well as subsequently getting chewed out by Anna, Papi is petrified yet again. Haled helps to boost Papi's confidence and encourages him to “walk into the sea”, which leads to Papi and Julia finally embracing each other ("Haled's Song About Love").


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: After their dinner, Dina takes Tewfiq to "The Park", which is just a bench in the middle of Bet Hatikvah. She asks him what it is like to have an orchestra and play music for an audience. He initially has trouble describing it, but soon he begins to show her what it's like to be a conductor by allowing her to mimic his arm motions. The topic shifts and Tewfiq opens up about his late wife, who he mentions died three years ago. Dina persuades Tewfiq to sing her the song that he sang before his wife many years ago while she conducts (“Itgara’a”). Despite not being able to understand his Arabic lyrics, she remains mesmerized by him for reasons she cannot fully explain, and wonders if his visit to Bet Hatikvah was meant for her by fate ("Something Different"). Dina asks Tewfiq if he had any children with his wife, and Tewfiq tells her that they had a son together. Their conversation is interrupted when Sammy returns to chastise Dina for their interaction at dinner, causing his current wife to ask questions. Tewfiq breaks up their argument and defiantly implores Dina to forgive Sammy for his mistakes. Sammy warns Dina before exiting, and a fatigued Tewfiq demands to leave the park; Dina reluctantly agrees.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: As Camal accompanies outside the scene, Itzik sings his son to sleep, lamenting that he never follows through with his plans but his patience is what gets him through life ("Itzik's Lullaby"). Simon is still concerned about Iris leaving, but Itzik tells him that this happens often and she always returns. Soon, she does, and their son begins to cry. Simon is able to soothe the infant by playing his incomplete concerto again, this time finally finishing it. Iris has a tearful reconciliation with Itzik; Avrum takes this as his cue to leave, and Simon says goodbye to him before going to bed.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: The Egyptian embassy calls back about sending a bus and Camal responds, afterwards letting the Telephone Guy return to his post. Dina and Tewfiq approach her apartment, and Dina makes a romantic advance toward Tewfiq, telling him that she wants to live the love that their Arab songs and movies portray despite her fears and doubts. Tewfiq refuses, informing Dina that his wife died because of him. He goes on to clarify that he never understood his son and was unnecessarily harsh with him, leading his son to take his own life, breaking his wife’s heart beyond repair. Haled returns, and they all enter the apartment in silence. Tewfiq and Haled share an uncharacteristic moment of bonding before Tewfiq heads off to bed without another word. Dina looks after him as he goes and solemnly contemplates the meaning of their relationship as Haled watches on ("Something Different (Reprise)"). Haled suavely compliments her eyes, and out of impulse Dina kisses him passionately.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: Distraught, the Telephone Guy questions his devotion to his loved one as he continues to wait by the pay phone. He and the citizens of Bet Hatikvah long for the presence of a meaning to their lives as they anticipate the return to normalcy ("Answer Me"). Suddenly, just as the Telephone Guy gives up hope, the phone rings and he speaks to his girlfriend for the first time in weeks as Camal observes in contentment. The following morning, the band gathers by Dina's café as they prepare to board their bus. Dina hands Tewfiq a piece of paper with "Petah Tikvah" written on it to ensure he doesn't forget where he’s headed. Once they are gone and Dina is alone, she reiterates the message from the beginning to the audience: “Once, not long ago, a group of musicians came to Israel from Egypt. You probably didn’t hear about it. It wasn’t very important.”


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: Later that day, the band makes it to Petah Tikvah's Arab Culture Center. Once they are in their places, Tewfiq begins to conduct, and the stage goes black.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: In addition to numerous script tweaks, the musical arrangements for several songs were updated for the Broadway production. "Itzik's Lullaby", for example, was changed from a solo piece to a partial duet with Camal singing in Arabic.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: In addition, Boney M.'s cover of "Sunny" is heard in the roller rink, and Rodgers and Hart's "My Funny Valentine" is performed by Haled on the trumpet in the style of Chet Baker.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: In the review of the Off-Broadway production, the "Huffington Post" called the musical "exquisite", noting that Itamar Moses and David Yazbek have "created a small, touching show... [with] character depth and strong sense of place." "The" "New York Times" praised the cast, noting, "There’s not a performance, or a sung note, that feels out of key here... When the ensemble, led by Mr. Liberman, delivers the show’s final number, 'Answer Me,' the music takes on a transcendent harmonic shimmer that stops the heart."


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: According to "Forbes," by October 2017, the Broadway show was "making a great impression" with critics with its first seven performances. The Broadway production, which featured a revised script and score, was praised by the "Twin Cities Arts Reader" as "one of the best new musicals of the year, gifted with a beautiful score and touching performances." The "New York Times" said it was "one of the most ravishing musicals you will ever be seduced by," and also "a Broadway rarity seldom found these days outside of the canon of Stephen Sondheim: an honest-to-God musical for grown-ups." It also praised the adaptation for the bigger stage, due to an "impeccably coordinated creative team." "Deadline" also gave the musical a positive review. The review's only criticism was that seating at a far distance in the new theater made the sound somewhat muddled and sight lines limited.


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: The "Chicago Tribune" gave the "weird new Broadway musical" a very positive review and said it was a "remarkable and boundlessly compassionate and humanistic piece of theater." "Tablet Magazine" thought it was "terrific." "Entertainment Weekly" also reviewed "The Band's Visit" positively, praising Katrina Lenk's portrayal of the cafe owner Dina as "dazzling." It gave the production an A−, and said it is "understated, probably better described as charming than life-altering, but its scale reinforces the moral themes of the musical itself." The "Washington Post" observed that "producers unaffiliated with the show say they are heartened by its run," as the "almost minimalist" production was doing well despite not having what seemed to be "a lot of overt commercial potential."


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: The show has had a positive impact on Middle-Eastern actors and audiences, as many feel represented by the authentic characters that are not negative stereotypes. Ari’el Stachel, who plays Haled, acknowledges this in his speech after winning the Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical: “For so many years of my life I pretended I was not a Middle Eastern person. […] I am part of a cast of actors who never believed that they'd be able to portray their own races and we are doing that. And not only that but we're getting messages from kids all over the Middle East thanking us and telling us how transformative our representation is for them. […] I want any kid that's watching to know that your biggest obstacle may turn into your purpose."


title: The Band's Visit (musical)

text: An original Broadway cast recording was released on December 15, 2017 through Sh-K-Boom Records. It peaked at number 62 on the Top Current Album Sales chart and number three on the Cast Albums chart.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Arabic: , variously called al-Ṣūfī, al-Azdī, al-Kūfī, or al-Ṭūsī), died 806−816, is the purported author of an enormous number and variety of works in Arabic, often called the Jabirian corpus. The works that survive today mainly deal with alchemy and chemistry, magic, and Shi'ite religious philosophy. However, the original scope of the corpus was vast and diverse, covering a wide range of topics ranging from cosmology, astronomy and astrology, over medicine, pharmacology, zoology and botany, to metaphysics, logic, and grammar.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Jabir's works contain the oldest known systematic classification of chemical substances, and the oldest known instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means. His works also contain one of the earliest known versions of the sulfur-mercury theory of metals, a mineralogical theory that would remain dominant until the 18th century.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: A significant part of Jabir's writings were informed by a philosophical theory known as "the science of the balance" (Arabic: "ʿilm al-mīzān"), which was aimed at reducing all phenomena (including material substances and their elements) to a system of measures and quantitative proportions. The Jabirian works also contain some of the earliest preserved Shi'ite eschatological, soteriological and imamological doctrines, which Jabir presented as deriving from his purported master, the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: As early as the 10th century, the identity and exact corpus of works of Jabir was in dispute in Islamic scholarly circles. The authorship of all these works by a single figure, and even the existence of a historical Jabir, are also doubted by modern scholars. Instead, Jabir ibn Hayyan is thought to have been a pseudonym used by an anonymous school of Shi'ite alchemists writing in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., "The Great Book of Mercy", and "The Book of Seventy") were translated into Latin under the Latinized name Geber, and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as pseudo-Geber, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: It is not clear whether Jabir ibn Hayyan ever existed as a historical person. He is purported to have lived in the 8th century, and to have been a disciple of the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died 765). However, he is not mentioned in any historical source before c. 900, and the first known author to write about Jabir from a biographical point of view was the Baghdadi bibliographer Ibn al-Nadīm (c. 932–995). In his "Fihrist" ("The Book Catalogue", written in 987), Ibn al-Nadīm compiled a list of Jabir's works, adding a short notice on the various claims that were then circulating about Jabir. Already in Ibn al-Nadīm's time, there were some people who explicitly asserted that Jabir had never existed, although Ibn al-Nadīm himself disagreed with this claim. Jabir was often ignored by medieval Islamic biographers and historians, but especially significant is the fact that early Shi'ite biographers such as Aḥmad al-Barqī (died c. 893), Abū ʿAmr al-Kashshī (first half of the 10th century), Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī al-Najāshī (983–1058), and Abū Jaʿfar al-Ṭūsī (995–1067), who wrote long volumes on the companions of the Shi'ite Imams (including the many companions of Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq), did not mention Jabir at all.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Apart from outright denying his existence, there were also some who, already in Ibn al-Nadīm's time, questioned whether the writings attributed to Jabir were really written by him. The authenticity of these writings was expressly denied by the Bagdhadi philosopher Abū Sulaymān al-Sijistānī (c. 912–985) and his pupil Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī (c. 932–1023), though this may have been related to the hostility of both these thinkers to alchemy in general. Modern scholarly analysis has tended to confirm the inauthenticity of the writings attributed to Jabir. Much of the philosophical terminology used in the Jabirian treatises was only coined around the middle of the 9th century, and some of the Greek philosophical texts cited in the Jabirian writings are known to have been translated into Arabic towards the end of the 9th century. Moreover, an important part of the corpus deals with early Shi'ite religious philosophy that is elsewhere only attested in late 9th-century and early 10th-century sources. As a result, the dating of the Jabirian corpus to c. 850–950 has been widely accepted in modern scholarship. However, it has also been noted that many Jabirian treatises show clear signs of having been redacted multiple times, and the writings as we now have them may well have been based on an earlier 8th-century core. Despite the obscurity involved, it is not impossible that some of these writings, in their earliest form, were written by a real Jabir ibn Hayyan. In any case, it is clear that Jabir's name was used as a pseudonym by one or more anonymous Shi'ite alchemists writing in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, who also redacted the corpus as we now know it.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Jabir was generally known by the "kunya" Abū Mūsā ("Father of Mūsā"), or sometimes Abū ʿAbd Allāh ("Father of ʿAbd Allāh"), and by the "nisba"s (attributive names) al-Ṣūfī, al-Azdī, al-Kūfī, or al-Ṭūsī. His grandfather's name is mentioned by Ibn al-Nadim as ʿAbd Allāh. If the attribution of the name al-Azdī to Jabir is authentic, this would point to his affiliation with the Southern-Arabian (Yemenite) tribe of the Azd. However, it is not clear whether Jabir was an Arab belonging to the Azd tribe, or a non-Arab Muslim client ("mawlā") of the Azd. If he was a non-Arab Muslim client of the Azd, he is most likely to have been Persian, given his ties with eastern Iran (his "nisba" al-Ṭūsī also points to Tus, a city in Khurasan). According to Ibn al-Nadīm, Jabir hailed from Khurasan (eastern Iran), but spent most of his life in Kufa (Iraq), both regions where the Azd tribe was well-settled. Various late reports put his date of death between 806 (190 AH) and 816 (200 AH).


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Given the lack of independent biographical sources, most of the biographical information about Jabir can be traced back to the Jabirian writings themselves. There are references throughout the Jabirian corpus to the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died 765), whom Jabir generally calls "my master" (Arabic: "sayyidī"), and whom he represents as the original source of all his knowledge. In one work, Jabir is also represented as an associate of the Bactrian vizier family of the Barmakids, whereas Ibn al-Nadīm reports that some claimed Jabir to have been especially devoted to Jaʿfar ibn Yaḥyā al-Barmakī (767–803), the Abbasid vizier of "One Thousand and One Nights" fame. Jabir's links with the Abbasids were stressed even more by later tradition, which turned him into a favorite of the Abbasid caliph Hārūn Ar-Rashīd (c. 763–809, also of "One Thousand and One Nights" fame), for whom Jabir would have composed a treatise on alchemy, and who would have commanded the translation of Greek works into Arabic on Jabir's instigation.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Given Jabir's purported ties with both the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq and the Barmakid family (who served the Abbasids as viziers), or with the Abbasid caliphs themselves, it has sometimes been thought plausible that Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār ("Hayyan the Druggist"), a proto-Shi'ite activist who was fighting for the Abbasid cause in the early 8th century, may have been Jabir's father (Jabir's name "Ibn Hayyan" literally means "The Son of Hayyan"). Although there is no direct evidence supporting this hypothesis, it fits very well in the historical context, and it allows us to think of Jabir, however obscure, as a historical figure. However, it has recently been shown that Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār was a client ("mawlā") of the Nakhaʿ tribe, which renders it highly improbable that he should have been the father of Jabir.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: There are about 600 Arabic works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan that are known by name, approximately 215 of which are still extant today. Though some of these are full-length works (e.g., "The Great Book on Specific Properties"), most of them are relatively short treatises and belong to larger collections ("The One Hundred and Twelve Books", "The Five Hundred Books", etc.) in which they function rather more like chapters. When the individual chapters of some full-length works are counted as separate treatises too, the total length of the corpus may be estimated at 3000 treatises/chapters.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: The overwhelming majority of Jabirian treatises that are still extant today deal with alchemy or chemistry (though these may also contain religious speculations, and discuss a wide range of other topics ranging from cosmology to grammar). Nevertheless, there are also a few extant treatises which deal with magic, i.e., "the science of talismans" ("ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt", a form of theurgy) and "the science of specific properties" ("ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ", the science dealing with the hidden powers of mineral, vegetable and animal substances, and with their practical applications in medical and various other pursuits). Other writings dealing with a great variety of subjects were also attributed to Jabir (this includes such subjects as engineering, medicine, pharmacology, zoology, botany, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, astronomy and astrology), but almost all of these are lost today.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Note that Paul Kraus, who first catalogued the Jabirian writings and whose numbering will be followed here, conceived of his division of Jabir's alchemical writings (Kr. nos. 5–1149) as roughly chronological in order.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Among the surviving Jabirian treatises, there are also a number of relatively independent treatises dealing with "the science of talismans" ("ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt", a form of theurgy) and with "the science of specific properties" ("ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ", i.e., the science dealing with the hidden powers of mineral, vegetable and animal substances, and with their practical applications in medical and various other pursuits). These are:


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Writings on a wide variety of other topics were also attributed to Jabir. Most of these are lost (see below), except for:


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Although a significant number of the Jabirian treatises on alchemy and magic do survive, many of them are also lost. Apart from two surviving treatises (see immediately above), Jabir's many writings on other topics are all lost:


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: The Jabirian writings contain a number of references to Greco-Egyptian alchemists such as pseudo-Democritus (fl. c. 60), Mary the Jewess (fl. c. 0–300), Agathodaemon (fl. c. 300), and Zosimos of Panopolis (fl. c. 300), as well as to legendary figures such as Hermes Trismegistus and Ostanes, and to scriptural figures such as Moses and Jesus (to whom a number of alchemical writings were also ascribed). However, these references may have been meant as an appeal to ancient authority rather than as an acknowledgement of any intellectual borrowing, and in any case Jabirian alchemy was very different from what is found in the extant Greek alchemical treatises: it was much more systematic and coherent, it made much less use of allegory and symbols, and a much more important place was occupied by philosophical speculations and their application to laboratory experiments. Furthermore, whereas Greek alchemical texts had been almost exclusively focused on the use of mineral substances (i.e., on 'inorganic chemistry'), Jabirian alchemy pioneered the use of vegetable and animal substances, and so represented an innovative shift towards 'organic chemistry'.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: Nevertheless, there are some important theoretical similarities between Jabirian alchemy and contemporary Byzantine alchemy, and even though the Jabirian authors do not seem to have known Byzantine works that are extant today such as the alchemical works attributed to the Neoplatonic philosophers Olympiodorus (c. 495–570) and Stephanus of Alexandria (fl. c. 580–640), it seems that they were at least partly drawing on a parallel tradition of theoretical and philosophical alchemy. In any case, the writings actually used by the Jabirian authors appear to have mainly consisted of alchemical works falsely attributed to ancient philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Apollonius of Tyana, only some of which are still extant today, and whose philosophical content still needs to be determined.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: One of the innovations in Jabirian alchemy was the addition of sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) to the category of chemical substances known as 'spirits' (i.e., strongly volatile substances). This included both naturally occurring sal ammoniac and synthetic ammonium chloride as produced from organic substances, and so the addition of sal ammoniac to the list of 'spirits' is likely a product of the new focus on organic chemistry. Since the word for sal ammoniac used in the Jabirian corpus ("nošāder") is Iranian in origin, it has been suggested that the direct precursors of Jabirian alchemy may have been active in the Hellenizing and Syriacizing schools of the Sassanid Empire.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: By Jabir's time Aristotelian physics had become Neoplatonic. Each Aristotelian element was composed of these qualities: fire was both hot and dry, earth, cold and dry, water cold and moist, and air, hot and moist. In the Jabirian corpus, these qualities came to be called "natures" ("ṭabāʾiʿ"), and elements are said to be composed of these 'natures', plus an underlying "substance" ("jawhar"). In metals two of these 'natures' were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was cold and dry and gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the natures of one metal, a different metal would result. Like Zosimos, Jabir believed this would require a catalyst, an "al-iksir", the elusive elixir that would make this transformation possible – which in European alchemy became known as the philosopher's stone.


title: Jabir ibn Hayyan

text: The sulfur-mercury theory of metals, though first attested in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's "The Secret of Creation" ("Sirr al-khalīqa", late 8th or early 9th century, but largely based on older sources), was also adopted by the Jabirian authors. According to the Jabirian version of this theory, metals form in the earth through the mixing of sulfur and mercury. Depending on the quality of the sulfur, different metals are formed, with gold being formed by the most subtle and well-balanced sulfur. This theory, which is ultimately based on ancient meteorological speculations such as those found in Aristotle's "Meteorology", formed the basis of all theories of metallic composition until the 18th century.


"On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences" (, «"O kul'te lichnosti i yego posledstviyakh"»), popularly known as the "Secret Speech" (, ), was a report by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, made to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on 25 February 1956. Khrushchev's speech was sharply critical of the rule of the deceased General Secretary and Premier Joseph Stalin, particularly with respect to the purges which had especially marked the last years of the 1930s. Khrushchev charged Stalin with having fostered a leadership cult of personality despite ostensibly maintaining support for the ideals of communism. The speech was leaked to the West by the Israeli intelligence agency Shin Bet, which received it from the Polish-Jewish journalist Wiktor Grajewski.