title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: The Annals of Ulster in the early 8th century report two battles between Alt Clut and Dál Riata, at "Lorg Ecclet" (unknown) in 711, and at "the rock called Minuirc" in 717. Whether their appearance in the record has any significance or whether it is just happenstance is unclear. Later in the 8th century, it appears that the Pictish king Óengus made at least three campaigns against Alt Clut, none successful. In 744 the Picts acted alone, and in 750 Óengus may have cooperated with Eadberht of Northumbria in a campaign in which Talorgan, brother of Óengus, was killed in a heavy Pictish defeat at the hands of Teudebur of Alt Clut, perhaps at Mugdock, near Milngavie. Eadberht is said to have taken the plain of Kyle in 750, around modern Ayr, presumably from Alt Clut.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: Teudebur died around 752, and it was probably his son Dumnagual who faced a joint effort by Óengus and Eadberht in 756. The Picts and Northumbrians laid siege to Dumbarton Rock, and extracted a submission from Dumnagual. It is doubtful whether the agreement, whatever it may have been, was kept, for Eadberht's army was all but wiped out—whether by their supposed allies or by recent enemies is unclear—on its way back to Northumbria.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: After this, little is heard of Alt Clut or its kings until the 9th century. The "burning", the usual term for capture, of Alt Clut is reported in 780, although by whom and in what circumstances is not known. Thereafter Dunblane was burned by the men of Alt Clut in 849, perhaps in the reign of Artgal.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: An army, led by the Viking chiefs known in Irish as Amlaíb Conung and Ímar, laid siege in 870 to Alt Clut, a siege which lasted some four months and led to the destruction of the citadel and the taking of a very large number of captives. The siege and capture are reported by Welsh and Irish sources, and the Annals of Ulster say that in 871, after overwintering on the Clyde:


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: King Arthgal ap Dyfnwal, called "king of the Britons of Strathclyde", was killed in Dublin in 872 at the instigation of Causantín mac Cináeda. He was followed by his son Run of Alt Clut, who was married to Causantín's sister. Eochaid, the result of this marriage, may have been king of Strathclyde, or of the kingdom of Alba.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: From this time forward, and perhaps from much earlier, the kingdom of Strathclyde was subject to periodic domination by the kings of Alba. However, the earlier idea, that the heirs to the Scots throne ruled Strathclyde, or Cumbria as an appanage, has relatively little support, and the degree of Scots control should not be overstated. This period probably saw a degree of Norse, or Norse-Gael settlement in Strathclyde. A number of place-names, in particular a cluster on the coast facing the Cumbraes, and monuments such as the hogback graves at Govan, are some of the remains of these newcomers.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: In the late ninth century the Vikings almost conquered England, apart from the southern kingdom of Wessex, but in the 910s the West Saxon king Edward the Elder and his sister Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, recovered England south of the Humber. According to the "Fragmentary Annals of Ireland", Æthelflæd formed an alliance with Strathclyde and Scotland against the Vikings, and in the view of the historian Tim Clarkson Strathclyde seems to have made substantial territorial gains at this time, some at the expense of the Norse Vikings. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" states that in 920 the kings of Britain, including the king of Strathclyde (who is not named), submitted to Edward. However, historians are sceptical of the claim as Edward's power was confined to southern Britain, and they think it was probably a peace settlement which did not involve submission. The names of Strathclyde's rulers in this period are uncertain, but Dyfnwal is thought to have been king in the early tenth century, and he was probably succeeded by his son Owain before 920.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: In 927 Edward's son Æthelstan conquered Viking-ruled Northumbria, and thus became the first king of England. At Eamont Bridge on 27 July several kings accepted his overlordship, including Constantine of Scotland. Sources differ on whether the meeting was attended by Owain of Strathclyde or Owain ap Hywel of Gwent, but it could have been both. In 934 Æthelstan invaded Scotland and laid waste to the country. Owain was an ally of the Scottish king and it is likely that Strathclyde was also ravaged. Owain attested Æthelstan's charters as sub-king in 931 and 935 (charters S 413, 434 and 1792), but in 937 he joined Constantine and the Vkings in invading England. The result was an overwhelming victory for the English at the Battle of Brunanburh.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: Following the battle of Brunanburh, Owain's son Dyfnwal ab Owain became king of Strathclyde. It is likely that whereas Scotland allied with England, Strathclyde held to its alliance with the Vikings. In 945, Æthelstan's half-brother Edmund, who had succeeded to the English throne in 939, ravaged Strathclyde. According to the thirteenth-century chronicler Roger of Wendover, Edmund had two sons of Dyfnwal blinded, perhaps to deprive their father of throneworthy heirs. Edmund then gave the kingdom to King Malcolm I of Scotland in return for a pledge to defend it on land and on sea, but Dyfnwal soon recovered his kingdom. He died on pilgrimage to Rome in 975.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: If the kings of Alba imagined, as John of Fordun did, that they were rulers of Strathclyde, the death of Cuilén mac Iduilb and his brother Eochaid at the hands of Rhydderch ap Dyfnwal in 971, said to be in revenge for the rape or abduction of his daughter, shows otherwise. A major source for confusion comes from the name of Rhydderch's successor, Máel Coluim, now thought to be a son of the Dyfnwal ab Owain who died in Rome, but long confused with the later king of Scots Máel Coluim mac Cináeda. Máel Coluim appears to have been followed by Owen the Bald who is thought to have died at the battle of Carham in 1018. It seems likely that Owen had a successor, although his name is unknown.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: Some time after 1018 and before 1054, the kingdom of Strathclyde appears to have been conquered by the Scots, most probably during the reign of Máel Coluim mac Cináeda who died in 1034. In 1054, the English king Edward the Confessor dispatched Earl Siward of Northumbria against the Scots, ruled by Mac Bethad mac Findláich (Macbeth), along with an otherwise unknown "Malcolm son of the king of the Cumbrians", in Strathclyde. The name Malcolm or Máel Coluim again caused confusion, some historians later supposing that this was the later king of Scots Máel Coluim mac Donnchada (Máel Coluim Cenn Mór). It is not known if Malcolm/Máel Coluim ever became "king of the Cumbrians", or, if so, for how long.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: The Keswick area was conquered by the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria in the seventh century, but Northumbria was destroyed by the Vikings in the late ninth. In the early tenth century it became part of Strathclyde; it remained part of Strathclyde until about 1050, when Siward, Earl of Northumbria, conquered that part of Cumbria.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: Carlisle was part of Scotland by 1066, and thus was not recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book. This changed in 1092, when William the Conqueror's son William Rufus invaded the region and incorporated Cumberland into England. The construction of Carlisle Castle began in 1093 on the site of the Roman fort, south of the River Eden. The castle was rebuilt in stone in 1112, with a keep and the city walls.


title: Kingdom of Strathclyde

text: By the 1070s, if not earlier in the reign of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, it appears that the Scots again controlled Strathclyde. It is certain that Strathclyde did indeed become an appanage, for it was granted by Alexander I to his brother David, Prince of the Cumbrians, later David I, in 1107.


title: Extinct (film)

text: Extinct is a 2021 computer-animated adventure comedy film directed by David Silverman, and co-directed by Raymond S. Persi, from a screenplay by Joel Cohen, John Frink, and Rob LaZebnik. It features the voices of Rachel Bloom, Adam Devine, Zazie Beetz, Ken Jeong, Catherine O'Hara, Benedict Wong, Reggie Watts, and Jim Jefferies in a story following two flummels, an extinct rabbit-like species with holes in the center, that find themselves transported from their island home in the year 1835 to modern day Shanghai.


title: Extinct (film)

text: The film was released in Russia on February 11, 2021, then theatrically by Sky Cinema in the United Kingdom on August 20, 2021, and then was released worldwide on Netflix on November 19, 2021.


title: Extinct (film)

text: Siblings Op and Ed are flummels, fluffy rabbit-like creatures with holes in their center who are native to the Galapagos islands. The pair are ostracized by their community, due to Op's proneness to disaster. Just before Charles Darwin discovers their island during one of his voyages, Op and Ed find and fall into a large flower that teleports them to modern-day Shanghai, where they meet and befriend a poodle named Clarance. The siblings learn their species is now extinct after Darwin found the island destroyed by a volcanic eruption.


title: Extinct (film)

text: Clarance brings them to the Time Terminal, a pavilion where Clarance's owner, Dr. Chung, kept and studied the flowers and their seeds, which have time-traveling properties. Op accidentally knocks some seeds out, causing the Terminal to malfunction and sending Clarance to 1915 Antarctica, along with the seed that leads the flummels home. In Antarctica, Clarance is captured by Ernest Shackleton's expedition team. With the help of the Extinctables — a team of extinct animals composed of Dottie, a dodo; Burnie, a Tasmanian tiger; Alma, a "Macrauchenia"; and Hoss, a "Triceratops", who were bought by Dr. Chung to the Terminal — Op and Ed travel through each seed in order to find the one that can bring them home and rescue Clarance.


title: Extinct (film)

text: Following a falling out with Ed, Op returns to the flummels' time, where she attempts to warn the rest of the flummels about the volcano. Clarance imprisons her, telling her that flummels ruined his life and that he is actually behind their extinction. Clarance had been adopted by Dr. Chung, but after Dr. Chung was charmed by the adorable flummels, Clarance went Maverick, pushing Dr. Chung into one of the flowers and destroying the seed that would send him back. He then caused the flummels' extinction by planting a drone bomb. Following Ed's arrival after seeing the video Op made, they make several attempts to escape and stop the bomb, eventually deploying a seed to move the entire island into the present day. Clarance survives, but Dr. Chung arrives and sends him back to 1915 Antarctica, thanking the flummels and the Extinctables.


title: Extinct (film)

text: A year later, Op and Ed are finally accepted by their community, while Dottie surprises Ed by laying an egg shaped like a flummel. The egg hatches, but the creature inside the egg is unknown.


title: Extinct (film)

text: The film was first announced on September 3, 2019, as a new animated feature in production at Cinesite Animation directed by David Silverman with Raymond S. Persi as co-director. The announcement revealed Adam DeVine, Rachel Bloom, Zazie Beetz and Ken Jeong as cast members.


title: Extinct (film)

text: The film was released in the United Kingdom in August 20, 2021 by Sky Cinema. The film was also released in Russia theatrically on February 11, 2021. The film was released worldwide on Netflix on November 19, 2021. "Extinct" was in the Top 10 most watched English films on Netflix during the first week of its release.


title: Extinct (film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported a score of 43% based on seven reviews, with an average rating of 4.90/10. Steve Rose for "The Guardian" gave the film 2 out of 5 stars, writing that: "In the Darwinian world of kids' entertainment, "Extinct" looks like an evolutionary dead end."


title: First aid kit

text: A first aid kit or medical kit is a collection of supplies and equipment used to give immediate medical treatment, primarily to treat injuries and other mild or moderate medical conditions. There is a wide variation in the contents of first aid kits based on the knowledge and experience of those putting it together, the differing first aid requirements of the area where it may be used, and variations in legislation or regulation in a given area.


title: First aid kit

text: The international standard for first aid kits is that they should be identified with the ISO graphical symbol for first aid (from ISO 7010), which is an equal white cross on a green background.


title: First aid kit

text: Standard kits often come in durable plastic boxes, fabric pouches or in wall mounted cabinets. The type of container will vary depending on the purpose, and they range in size from wallet-sized through to a large box. It is recommended that all kits are kept in a clean dust- and damp-proof container to keep the contents safe and aseptic.


title: First aid kit

text: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sets a standard for first aid kits of being green, with a white cross, in order to make them easily recognizable to anyone requiring first aid.


title: First aid kit

text: The ISO only endorses the use of the green background and white cross, and this has been adopted as a standard across many countries and regions, including the entire EU. First aid kits are sometimes marked (by an individual or organization) with a red cross on white background, but use of this symbol by anyone but the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) or associated agency is illegal under the terms of the First Geneva Convention, which designates the red cross as a protected symbol in all countries signatory to it. One of the few exceptions is in North America, where despite the passing of the First Geneva convention in 1864, and its ratification in the United States in 1881, Johnson & Johnson has used the red cross as a mark on its products since 1887 and registered the symbol as a U.S. trademark for medicinal and surgical plasters in 1905.


title: First aid kit

text: Some first aid kits may also feature the Star of Life, normally associated with emergency medical services, but which are also used to indicate that the service using it can offer an appropriate point of care. Though not supported by the ISO, a white cross on red background is also widely recognized as a first aid symbol. However, for very small medical institutions and domestic purposes, the white cross on a plain green background is preferred.


title: First aid kit

text: Commercially available first aid kits available via normal retail routes have traditionally been intended for treatment of minor injuries only. Typical contents include adhesive bandages, regular strength pain medication, gauze and low grade disinfectant.


title: First aid kit

text: Specialized first aid kits are available for various regions, vehicles or activities, which may focus on specific risks or concerns related to the activity. For example, first aid kits sold through marine supply stores for use in watercraft may contain seasickness remedies.


title: First aid kit

text: First aid treats the ABCs as the foundation of good treatment. For this reason, most modern commercial first aid kits (although not necessarily those assembled at home) will contain a suitable infection barrier for performing artificial respiration as part of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, examples include:


title: First aid kit

text: Some first aid kits, specifically those used by event first aiders and emergency services, include bottled oxygen for resuscitation and therapy.


title: First aid kit

text: Trauma injuries, such as bleeding, bone fractures or burns, are usually the main focus of most first aid kits, with items such as bandages and dressings being found in the vast majority of all kits.


title: First aid kit

text: The use of personal protective equipment or PPE will vary by the kit, depending on its use and anticipated risk of infection. The adjuncts to artificial respiration are covered above, but other common infection control PPE includes:


title: First aid kit

text: Medication can be a controversial addition to a first aid kit, especially if it is for use on members of the public. It is, however, common for personal or family first aid kits to contain certain medications. Dependent on scope of practice, the main types of medicine are life saving medications, which may be commonly found in first aid kits used by paid or assigned first aiders for members of the public or employees, painkillers, which are often found in personal kits, but may also be found in public provision and lastly symptomatic relief medicines, which are generally only found in personal kits.


title: First aid kit

text: Besides the regular uses for first aid kits, they can be helpful in wilderness or survival situations. First aid kits can make up a part of a survival kit or a mini survival kit in addition to other tools.


title: First aid kit

text: In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires all job sites and workplaces to make available first aid equipment for use by injured employees. While providing regulations for some industries such as logging, in general the regulation lacks specifics on the contents of the first aid kit. This is understandable, as the regulation covers every means of employment, and different jobs have different types of injuries and different first-aid requirements. However, in a non-mandatory section, the OSHA regulations do refer to ANSI/ISEA Specification Z308.1 as the basis for the "suggested" minimum contents of a first aid kit. Another source for modern first aid kit information is United States Forest Service Specification 6170-6, which specifies the contents of several different-sized kits, intended to serve groups of differing size.


title: First aid kit

text: In general, the type of first aid facilities required in a workplace are determined by many factors, such as:


title: First aid kit

text: As the understanding of first aid and lifesaving measures has advanced, and the nature of public health risks has changed, the contents of first aid kits have changed to reflect prevailing understandings and conditions. For example, earlier US Federal specifications for first aid kits included incision/suction-type snakebite kits and mercurochrome antiseptic. There are many historic components no longer used today, of course; some notable examples follow. As explained in the article on snakebite, the historic snakebite kit is no longer recommended. Mercurochrome was removed in 1998 by the US FDA from the generally recognized as safe category due to concerns over its mercury content. Another common item in early 20th century first aid kits, picric acid gauze for treating burns, is today considered a hazardous material due to its forming unstable and potentially explosive picrates when in contact with metal. Examples of modern additions include the CPR face shields and specific body-fluid barriers included in modern kits to assist in CPR and to help prevent the spread of bloodborne pathogens such as HIV.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Cyclomatic complexity is a software metric used to indicate the complexity of a program. It is a quantitative measure of the number of linearly independent paths through a program's source code. It was developed by Thomas J. McCabe, Sr. in 1976.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Cyclomatic complexity is computed using the control-flow graph of the program: the nodes of the graph correspond to indivisible groups of commands of a program, and a directed edge connects two nodes if the second command might be executed immediately after the first command. Cyclomatic complexity may also be applied to individual functions, modules, methods or classes within a program.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: One testing strategy, called basis path testing by McCabe who first proposed it, is to test each linearly independent path through the program; in this case, the number of test cases will equal the cyclomatic complexity of the program.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: The cyclomatic complexity of a section of source code is the number of linearly independent paths within it—a set of paths being linearly dependent if there is a subset of one or more paths where the symmetric difference of their edge sets is empty. For instance, if the source code contained no control flow statements (conditionals or decision points), the complexity would be 1, since there would be only a single path through the code. If the code had one single-condition IF statement, there would be two paths through the code: one where the IF statement evaluates to TRUE and another one where it evaluates to FALSE, so the complexity would be 2. Two nested single-condition IFs, or one IF with two conditions, would produce a complexity of 3.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Mathematically, the cyclomatic complexity of a structured program is defined with reference to the control-flow graph of the program, a directed graph containing the basic blocks of the program, with an edge between two basic blocks if control may pass from the first to the second. The complexity is then defined as


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: An alternative formulation is to use a graph in which each exit point is connected back to the entry point. In this case, the graph is strongly connected, and the cyclomatic complexity of the program is equal to the cyclomatic number of its graph (also known as the ), which is defined as


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: This may be seen as calculating the number of linearly independent cycles that exist in the graph, i.e. those cycles that do not contain other cycles within themselves. Note that because each exit point loops back to the entry point, there is at least one such cycle for each exit point.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: For a single program (or subroutine or method), is always equal to 1. So a simpler formula for a single subroutine is


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Cyclomatic complexity may, however, be applied to several such programs or subprograms at the same time (e.g., to all of the methods in a class), and in these cases will be equal to the number of programs in question, as each subprogram will appear as a disconnected subset of the graph.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: McCabe showed that the cyclomatic complexity of any structured program with only one entry point and one exit point is equal to the number of decision points (i.e., "if" statements or conditional loops) contained in that program plus one. However, this is true only for decision points counted at the lowest, machine-level instructions. Decisions involving compound predicates like those found in high-level languages like codice_1 should be counted in terms of predicate variables involved, i.e. in this example one should count two decision points, because at machine level it is equivalent to codice_2.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Cyclomatic complexity may be extended to a program with multiple exit points; in this case it is equal to


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: An "even subgraph" of a graph (also known as an Eulerian subgraph) is one where every vertex is incident with an even number of edges; such subgraphs are unions of cycles and isolated vertices. In the following, even subgraphs will be identified with their edge sets, which is equivalent to only considering those even subgraphs which contain all vertices of the full graph.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: The set of all even subgraphs of a graph is closed under symmetric difference, and may thus be viewed as a vector space over GF(2); this vector space is called the "cycle space" of the graph. The cyclomatic number of the graph is defined as the dimension of this space. Since GF(2) has two elements and the cycle space is necessarily finite, the cyclomatic number is also equal to the 2-logarithm of the number of elements in the cycle space.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: A basis for the cycle space is easily constructed by first fixing a spanning forest of the graph, and then considering the cycles formed by one edge not in the forest and the path in the forest connecting the endpoints of that edge; these cycles constitute a basis for the cycle space. Hence, the cyclomatic number also equals the number of edges not in a maximal spanning forest of a graph. Since the number of edges in a maximal spanning forest of a graph is equal to the number of vertices minus the number of components, the formula formula_6 above for the cyclomatic number follows.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: For the more topologically inclined, cyclomatic complexity can alternatively be defined as a relative Betti number, the size of a relative homology group:


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: which is read as "the rank of the first homology group of the graph "G", relative to the terminal nodes "t"". This is a technical way of saying "the number of linearly independent paths through the flow graph from an entry to an exit", where:


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Alternatively, one can compute this via absolute Betti number (absolute homology – not relative) by identifying (gluing together) all the terminal nodes on a given component (or equivalently, draw paths connecting the exits to the entrance), in which case (calling the new, augmented graph formula_8, which is ), one obtains


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: It can also be computed via homotopy. If one considers a (connected) control-flow graph as a 1-dimensional CW complex called formula_10, then the fundamental group of formula_10 will be formula_12. The value of formula_13 is the cyclomatic complexity. The fundamental group counts how many loops there are through the graph, up to homotopy, and hence aligns with what we would intuitively expect.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: This corresponds to the characterization of cyclomatic complexity as "number of loops plus number of components".


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: In his presentation 'Software Quality Metrics to Identify Risk' for the Department of Homeland Security, Tom McCabe introduces the following categorisation to interpret cyclomatic complexity:


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: One of McCabe's original applications was to limit the complexity of routines during program development; he recommended that programmers should count the complexity of the modules they are developing, and split them into smaller modules whenever the cyclomatic complexity of the module exceeded 10. This practice was adopted by the NIST Structured Testing methodology, with an observation that since McCabe's original publication, the figure of 10 had received substantial corroborating evidence, but that in some circumstances it may be appropriate to relax the restriction and permit modules with a complexity as high as 15. As the methodology acknowledged that there were occasional reasons for going beyond the agreed-upon limit, it phrased its recommendation as "For each module, either limit cyclomatic complexity to [the agreed-upon limit] or provide a written explanation of why the limit was exceeded."


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Section VI of McCabe's 1976 paper is concerned with determining what the control-flow graphs (CFGs) of non-structured programs look like in terms of their subgraphs, which McCabe identifies. (For details on that part see structured program theorem.) McCabe concludes that section by proposing a numerical measure of how close to the structured programming ideal a given program is, i.e. its "structuredness" using McCabe's neologism. McCabe called the measure he devised for this purpose essential complexity.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: In order to calculate this measure, the original CFG is iteratively reduced by identifying subgraphs that have a single-entry and a single-exit point, which are then replaced by a single node. This reduction corresponds to what a human would do if they extracted a subroutine from the larger piece of code. (Nowadays such a process would fall under the umbrella term of refactoring.) McCabe's reduction method was later called "condensation" in some textbooks, because it was seen as a generalization of the condensation to components used in graph theory. If a program is structured, then McCabe's reduction/condensation process reduces it to a single CFG node. In contrast, if the program is not structured, the iterative process will identify the irreducible part. The essential complexity measure defined by McCabe is simply the cyclomatic complexity of this irreducible graph, so it will be precisely 1 for all structured programs, but greater than one for non-structured programs.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Another application of cyclomatic complexity is in determining the number of test cases that are necessary to achieve thorough test coverage of a particular module.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: All three of the above numbers may be equal: branch coverage formula_14 cyclomatic complexity formula_14 number of paths.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: In this example, two test cases are sufficient to achieve a complete branch coverage, while four are necessary for complete path coverage. The cyclomatic complexity of the program is 3 (as the strongly connected graph for the program contains 9 edges, 7 nodes and 1 connected component) ().


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: In general, in order to fully test a module, all execution paths through the module should be exercised. This implies a module with a high complexity number requires more testing effort than a module with a lower value since the higher complexity number indicates more pathways through the code. This also implies that a module with higher complexity is more difficult for a programmer to understand since the programmer must understand the different pathways and the results of those pathways.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Unfortunately, it is not always practical to test all possible paths through a program. Considering the example above, each time an additional if-then-else statement is added, the number of possible paths grows by a factor of 2. As the program grows in this fashion, it quickly reaches the point where testing all of the paths becomes impractical.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: One common testing strategy, espoused for example by the NIST Structured Testing methodology, is to use the cyclomatic complexity of a module to determine the number of white-box tests that are required to obtain sufficient coverage of the module. In almost all cases, according to such a methodology, a module should have at least as many tests as its cyclomatic complexity; in most cases, this number of tests is adequate to exercise all the relevant paths of the function.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: As an example of a function that requires more than simply branch coverage to test accurately, consider again the above function, but assume that to avoid a bug occurring, any code that calls either codice_3 or codice_4 must also call the other. Assuming that the results of codice_5 and codice_6 are independent, that means that the function as presented above contains a bug. Branch coverage would allow us to test the method with just two tests, and one possible set of tests would be to test the following cases:


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Neither of these cases exposes the bug. If, however, we use cyclomatic complexity to indicate the number of tests we require, the number increases to 3. We must therefore test one of the following paths:


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: A number of studies have investigated the correlation between McCabe's cyclomatic complexity number with the frequency of defects occurring in a function or method. Some studies find a positive correlation between cyclomatic complexity and defects: functions and methods that have the highest complexity tend to also contain the most defects. However, the correlation between cyclomatic complexity and program size (typically measured in lines of code) has been demonstrated many times. Les Hatton has claimed that complexity has the same predictive ability as lines of code.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Studies that controlled for program size (i.e., comparing modules that have different complexities but similar size) are generally less conclusive, with many finding no significant correlation, while others do find correlation. Some researchers who have studied the area question the validity of the methods used by the studies finding no correlation. Although this relation is probably true, it isn't easily utilizable. Since program size is not a controllable feature of commercial software, the usefulness of McCabes's number has been called to question. The essence of this observation is that larger programs tend to be more complex and to have more defects. Reducing the cyclomatic complexity of code is not proven to reduce the number of errors or bugs in that code. International safety standards like ISO 26262, however, mandate coding guidelines that enforce low code complexity.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Cyclomatic complexity may also be used for the evaluation of the semantic complexity of artificial intelligence programs.


title: Cyclomatic complexity

text: Cyclomatic complexity has proven useful in geographical and landscape-ecological analysis, after it was shown that it can be implemented on graphs of ultrametric distances.


title: K-1

text: K-1 is a professional kickboxing promotion established in 1993, well known worldwide mainly for its heavyweight division fights and Grand Prix tournaments. In January 2012, K-1 Global Holdings Limited, a company registered in Hong Kong, acquired the rights to K-1, and is the current organizer of K-1 events worldwide.


title: K-1

text: Founded in 1993 by karateka Kazuyoshi Ishii, at its height in the late 90s and the 2000s under the ownership of the Fighting and Entertainment Group (FEG), K-1 was the largest and most prestigious "Kickboxing" organization in the world. With thousands of fighters and watched by millions of fans around the world. K-1 also promoted mixed martial arts events, with some events having both kickboxing and MMA matches on their cards (such as their Dynamite!! series). However, since 2010 K-1 started to lose its status of top organization, as FEG started to have financial issues, not being able to organize big events or pay huge prize money, eventually going bankrupt, and successor holding companies have been unable to maintain events the same level of size during the FEG years.


title: K-1

text: The letter K in K-1 is officially designated as a representation of words karate, kickboxing and kung fu. Nevertheless, some reports suggest that it represents the initial K found in competing disciplines such as karate, kickboxing, kung fu, kempo, "kakutougi" (the generic Japanese term for "combat sports"), and taekwondo. Yet another theory claims that the K simply comes from "kakutougi" and the "1" component pertains to the single weight division (in earlier competition) and the champion's unique position. Nevertheless, the promotion held several tournaments under K-2 and K-3 banners from 1993 to 1995.


title: K-1

text: K-1 has its own unique ruleset different from other styles of Kickboxing. Because it has become so popular, K-1 is also seen as its own style of kickboxing and sometimes is erroneously considered as a standalone martial art/combat sport. Kickboxing governing bodies such as the ISKA and WKN have also crowned their own "K-1 rules" champions.


title: K-1

text: K-1's predecessor Seidokaikan Karate was formed in 1980 by Kazuyoshi Ishii, a former Kyokushin karate practitioner who had formed his own organization to help promote the best stand-up martial artists. Seidokaikan arranged several successful challenge events against other martial arts organizations, originally using rules based on the Kyokushin Knockdown karate rules, but gradually adapting and changing closer to kickboxing rules. In 1993, Mr. Ishii founded the K-1 organization exclusively as a kickboxing organization, closely cooperating with, but independent from Seidokaikan.


title: K-1

text: Starting in 2010, multiple stories began to surface regarding the financial troubles of K-1 and their parent company FEG. Simon Rutz, the owner of the Dutch-based kickboxing promotion It's Showtime, claimed in January 2011 that some fighters from It's Showtime had not been paid for fights in K-1.


title: K-1

text: In early 2011, FEG publicly announced that they were facing financial problems and that the organization would take some months off to restructure. Many fighters and managers spoke out against FEG due to unpaid fight purses and objections to the direction that its owner was taking K-1. It appeared that financial problems were severe, and that FEG could potentially lose ownership of K-1.


title: K-1

text: The entire K-1 brand, along with most of its trademarks, with the exception of, 'K-1 Koshien', 'K-1 MAX' and 'Dream', were sold to Japanese real estate firm, Barbizon Corporation Limited, on July 28, 2011.


title: K-1

text: In March 2012, It's Showtime announced that EMCOM Entertainment established a new company K-1 Global Holdings Ltd. in Hong Kong. K-1 Global Holdings, Ltd., became the new official owner of the K-1 brand. K-1 Global's agreement with promotion required that certain fighters signed under It's Showtime appear in upcoming K-1 Global events.


title: K-1

text: A number of events were already planned and scheduled for the 2012 calendar before new K-1 ownership took complete control of the company. It's Showtime was the promoter of the first event presented by K-1 Global Holdings Ltd., the K-1 World MAX Final 16. It took place on May 27, 2012, at the Palacio Vistalegre in Madrid, Spain.


title: K-1

text: After the event, controversy and rumors circulated over the fact that once again, fighters were not paid for their performances. Problems were compounded due to unpaid financial obligations of FEG, and the complete transfer of ownership of the K-1 name was not yet complete. As a result, the K-1 World Grand Prix scheduled for 2012 would be cancelled if these issues were not resolved.


title: K-1

text: Ultimately, K-1 Global Holdings, Ltd. was blamed for the failure of an event they did not promote. They were also accused of not paying fighters when in fact, the promoter and FEG shared responsibilities in ensuring fighters were paid. The Chairman of the new K-1 resolved the matter by paying fighters what was owed and including a 50% bonus.


title: K-1

text: It was announced in June 2012 that It's Showtime was purchased by Glory Sports International, eventually to be merged in their new promotion GLORY.


title: K-1

text: On August 10, 2012, K-1's co-promotion agreement with Romanian-based kickboxing promotion SUPERKOMBAT was announced. Eventually it was ended. Early 2013 SK president Eduard Irimia stated that its company will be independent in 2013 but will still continue to have cooperation with any interested promotion including K-1 by offering fighters.


title: K-1

text: Following the bankruptcy of K-1 Global, the rights to the K-1 brand were acquired by EMCOM Holdings under a subsidiary company called "K-1 Global Holdings Limited", which was founded in Hong Kong in August 2011.


title: K-1

text: On May 29, 2014, the launch of a K-1 World League was announced. K-1 World League acquired naming rights and exclusive license for the Japanese region from K-1 Global Holding Ltd. "K-1 World League" was subsequently renamed "K-1 World GP" on September 24, 2014.


title: K-1

text: After its formation, "K-1 World League" formally incorporated the KRUSH. Launched prior to the death of FEG, in 2009, Krush was a collaboration between K-1 and AJKF. It was seen at the time as the second tier of K-1 competition, and produced a number of future K-1 fighters such as Takeru Segawa, Tatsuya Tsubakihara and Leona Pettas, among others. K-1 would later add the KHAOS brand as well, which is seen as the third tier of competition, as a stepping stone between amateur and professional competition. K-1 maintains a number of gyms throughout Japan, from which potential kickboxers can transition from training to amateur competition to professional competition. A fighter can viably spend their entire career under the K-1 umbrella.


title: K-1

text: On January 26, 2019, Krush was renamed "K-1 KRUSH FIGHT" to further announce the connection between the two brands. However, on December 7, 2019, it was renamed back to Krush. The aim of renaming the competition back to Krush was to dispel the image of the brand as the second tier of K-1.


title: K-1

text: On September 20, 2016, "K-1 World GP" executive producer Kensaku Maeda retired, and was subsequently replaced by the Krush executive producer Mitsuru Miyata.


title: K-1

text: From June 2017 onward, "K-1 World GP" started once again started holding events at the Saitama Super Arena. It was further revealed that fighters were signed exclusively to K-1, which wasn't the case previously.


title: K-1

text: On December 17, 2018, it was announced that the former Krush and K-1 commentator and martial arts writer Takumi Nakamura would replace Mitsuru Miyata as the executive producer.


title: K-1

text: In the past every year there were dozens of other K-1 qualifying tournaments and preliminaries held around the world.


title: K-1

text: Original K-1 Grand Prix was a single event tournament held in Japan where competitors participated on invitation. By 1998, K-1 introduced the K-1 World Grand Prix format composed of K-1 Regional Elimination Tournaments (theoretically amounting to six), which qualify fighters for the K-1 World Grand Prix Final, along with licensed K-1 Fighting Network events designed to hold national preliminaries for regional qualification. However, given the fact that K-1's popularity differs greatly among six K-1 regions, which may limit the number of actual elimination tournaments or change locations. For example, K-1 attempted to gain popularity in the United States by holding two GPs, however only a few Americans have ever qualified for the Finals. In 2006 one of the American GPs was relocated to Auckland. Additionally the K-1 Paris GP lost its qualifying right in favor of Amsterdam. Eventually Amsterdam lost it in favor of Łódź, and then Łódź in favor of Bucharest.


title: K-1

text: K-1 World Grand Prix Final Eliminator ("Final 16") is an event where 16 participants compete for the final eight spots in the Final ("Final 8"). Eight participants from the Final Eliminator meet at the K-1 World Grand Prix Final. Lesser elements in the tournament format have been significantly modified in years. The final was held at Tokyo Dome from 1997 to 2006. The 2012 final took place for the first time in history outside Japan, in Zagreb, Croatia.


title: K-1

text: By 2002, K-1 started the K-1 World MAX ("Middleweight Artistic Xtreme") tournament for 70 kg (154 lb) Middleweight division, following a similar scheme to K-1 World Grand Prix (with theoretically four regional eliminators). In 2007, K-1 introduced two new title belts separate from K-1 World GP Champions, Super Heavyweight World Title for fighters over 100 kg/220 lbs and Heavyweight World Title for fighters under 100 kg/156–220 lbs.


title: K-1

text: K-1 events have been shown on the Tokyo Broadcasting System and Fuji TV. Following the reformation of K-1 under "K-1 World GP", it bounced between several different broadcasters such as GAORA SPORTS, BS Sky PerfecTV! and TV TOKYO. K-1 events are currently being broadcast by Abema TV.


title: K-1

text: Internationally, K-1 has been seen on XTM in South Korea , Combate and SporTV in Brazil , HDNet Fights in the United States, and on Eurosport in Europe.


title: K-1

text: K-1 Japan Group also operates a YouTube channel where fights, press conferences, and general media is uploaded.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Sydenham's chorea, also known as rheumatic chorea, is a disorder characterized by rapid, uncoordinated jerking movements primarily affecting the face, hands and feet. Sydenham's chorea is an autoimmune disease that results from childhood infection with Group A beta-haemolytic "Streptococcus". It is reported to occur in 20–30% of people with acute rheumatic fever and is one of the major criteria for it, although it sometimes occurs in isolation. The disease occurs typically a few weeks, but up to 6 months, after the acute infection, which may have been a simple sore throat (pharyngitis).


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Sydenham's chorea is more common in females than males, and most cases affect children between the ages of 5 and 15 years of age. Adult onset of Sydenham's chorea is comparatively rare, and the majority of the adult cases are recurrences following childhood Sydenham's chorea.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Sydenham's chorea is characterized by the abrupt onset (sometimes within a few hours) of neurological symptoms, classically chorea, which are non-rhythmic, writhing or explosive involuntary movements. Usually all four limbs are affected, but there are cases reported where just one side of the body is affected ("hemichorea"). Typical chorea includes repeated wrist hyperextension, grimacing, and lip pouting. The fingers can move as if playing the piano. There may be tongue fasciculations ("bag of worms") and "motor impersistence", for example, the "milkmaid sign" (grip strength fluctuates, as if hand milking a cow), or inability to sustain tongue protrusion (called jack-in-the-box tongue or serpentine tongue, as the tongue slides in and out of the mouth), or eye closure.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: There is usually a loss of fine motor control, which is particularly obvious in handwriting if the child is of school age. Speech is often affected (dysarthria), as is walking; legs will suddenly give way or flick out to one side, giving an irregular gait and the appearance of skipping or dancing. Underlying the abnormal movements is often low tone (hypotonia) which may not become obvious until treatment is started to suppress the chorea. In severe cases, the loss of tone and weakness predominate ("chorea paralyticum").


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: The severity of the condition can vary from just some instability on walking and difficulty with hand writing, to the extreme of being wholly unable to walk, talk, or eat.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: It is a neuropsychiatric disorder, so besides the motor problems there is classically emotional lability (mood swings, or inappropriate mood), anxiety, attention deficit. These can precede the motor symptoms.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Non-neurologic manifestations of acute rheumatic fever may be present, namely carditis (up to 70% of cases, often subclinical, so echocardiography required), arthritis, erythema marginatum, and subcutaneous nodules.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Differentiating these signs from other involuntary movements such as tics and stereotypies can be difficult, and since these things are not uncommon they can potentially co-exist. Diagnosis is often delayed and attributed to another condition such as tic disorder or conversion disorder. The controversial PANDAS (pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections) hypothesis has overlapping clinical features, but Sydenham's chorea is one of the exclusion criteria. PANDAS can present with chorea but more typically there are tics or stereotypies with a psychological component (e.g., OCD).


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Other disorders that may be accompanied by chorea include benign hereditary chorea, bilateral striatal necrosis, abetalipoproteinemia, ataxia–telangiectasia, biotin-thiamine-responsive basal ganglia disease (BTBGD), Fahr disease, familial dyskinesia–facial myokymia (Bird–Raskind syndrome) due to an ADCY5 gene mutation, glutaric aciduria, Lesch–Nyhan syndrome, mitochondrial disorders, Huntington's disease, Wilson disease, hyperthyroidism, lupus erythematosus, pregnancy (chorea gravidarum), drug intoxication and side effects of certain anticonvulsants (e.g. phenytoin) or psychotropic agents. Although some of these can similarly present in an acute way, there will typically be other neurological signs (such as ataxia or cognitive impairment), or other disease manifestations, or positive family history, which will help distinguish between them.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: One of the important manifestations of acute rheumatic fever, Sydenham's chorea is believed to be caused by an autoimmune response following infection by group A β-hemolytic streptococci.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Two cross-reactive streptococcal antigens have been identified, the M protein and N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosamine, whereby infection leads to autoantibodies being produced against host tissues (molecular mimicry) causing a variety of streptococcal related diseases including Sydenham's chorea but also rheumatic heart disease and nephritic syndrome. Autoantibodies against basal ganglia proteins have been found in Sydenham's chorea but these are non-specific. Dopamine receptor autoantibodies have been reported to correlate with clinical symptoms. Whether these antibodies represent an epiphenomenon or are pathogenic, remains to be proven.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: As with rheumatic fever, Sydenham's chorea is seen more often in less affluent communities, whether in the developing world or in aboriginal communities in the global North. High rates of impetigo are a marker for widespread streptococcal transmission.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Chorea is distinctive, if the health care provider is familiar with it. The diagnosis is then made by the typical acute onset in the weeks following a sore throat or other minor infection, plus evidence of inflammation (raised CRP and/or ESR) and evidence of recent streptococcal infection.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Further testing is directed more towards alternative diagnoses and other manifestations of rheumatic fever:


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Treatment with sodium valproate is effective for controlling symptoms, but it doesn’t speed up recovery. Haloperidol was used previously, but caused serious side effects e.g. tardive dyskinesia. Case reports exist to support carbamazepine and levetiracetam; other drugs tried include pimozide, clonidine, and phenobarbitone.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Immunosuppression is used inconsistently in Sydenham's chorea. The model of an autoimmune disorder would support its use. One randomized controlled trial of steroids from Paz, Brazil in 2006 (22 cases) showed remission reduced to 54 days from 119 days. Various other reports of use of oral or IV steroids from Israel, Italy and Brazil. Immunoglobulin has been used in Holland and South Africa. Some improvement can be seen within a few days of IV steroids. In Italy, prednisolone reduced average duration of symptoms from 9 weeks to 4 weeks, and these were severe cases. South African group found less neuropsychiatric complications at 6 months with IVIG treatment (IVIG preferred due to fear of TB reactivation).


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: A course of penicillin is usually given at diagnosis to definitively clear any remaining streptococci, but there is no evidence that this is an effective treatment. Active infection is usually cleared by diagnosis. Penicillin prophylaxis, on the other hand, is essential to treat cardiac features of rheumatic fever, even if subclinical (American Heart Association guideline). If the case is of isolated chorea, it is arguable whether cardiac risk justifies prophylaxis or not; however, it is likely to reduce recurrence.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: There are several historical case series reporting successful treatment of Sydenham's chorea by inducing fever.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Symptoms usually get worse over the course of two weeks, then stabilize, and finally begin to improve. Motor problems, including chorea, settle within an average of 2–3 months.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Recurrence seen in 16–40% of cases. Recurrence is more likely with poor compliance with penicillin prophylaxis. Intramuscular penicillin is given every 2–3 weeks superior to 4 weekly regime, and oral penicillin is also prescribed. Recurrences are sometimes associated with rise in ASO titre or other evidence of new streptococcal infection. There is no obvious clinical parameter that might predict those at risk of recurrence. More likely if failure to remit in initial 6 months, can recur with pregnancy ("chorea gravidorum"). Physical and emotional stress can trigger recurrence.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Higher recurrence rates seen in longest follow up – can recur up to 10 years after the initial episode, so might be underestimated by series with shorter follow up.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: Recurrence is usually only chorea, even if the original case was associated with rheumatic fever. There are two total reports of heart disease worsening after recurrence of chorea. The Thailand study also had 2 cases where carditis, which had improved after initial diagnosis, came back again. Some suggest that recurrent chorea is a different disease altogether.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: 10% reported long-term tremor in one study (10 years follow up). Long term neuropsychiatric difficulties are increasingly recognized (49 studies so far, especially obsessive-compulsive disorder but also attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, affective disorders, tic disorders, executive function disturbances, psychotic features, and language impairment).


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: The incidence of acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease is not declining. Recent figures quote the incidence of Acute Rheumatic Fever as 0.6–0.7/1,000 population in the United States and Japan compared with 15–21/1,000 population in Asia and Africa. The prevalence of Acute Rheumatic Fever and Sydenham's Chorea has declined progressively in developed countries over the last decades.


title: Sydenham's chorea

text: It is named after British physician Thomas Sydenham (1624–1689). The alternate eponym, "Saint Vitus Dance", is in reference to Saint Vitus, a Christian saint who was persecuted by Roman emperors and died as a martyr in AD 303. Saint Vitus is considered to be the patron saint of dancers, with the eponym given as homage to the manic dancing that historically took place in front of his statue during the feast of Saint Vitus in Germanic and Latvian cultures.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: The Tethys Ocean ( "Tēthús"), also called the Tethys Sea or the Neo-Tethys, was a prehistoric ocean that covered most of the Earth during much of the Mesozoic Era and early Cenozoic Era, located between the ancient continents of Gondwana and Laurasia, before the opening of the Indian and Atlantic oceans during the Cretaceous Period.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: It was preceded by the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, which lasted between the Cambrian and the Early Triassic, while the Neotethys formed during the Late Triassic and lasted until the early Eocene (about 50 million years ago) when it completely closed. A portion known as the Paratethys formed during the Late Jurassic, was isolated during the Oligocene (34 million years ago) and lasted up to the Pliocene (about 5 million years ago), when it largely dried out. Many major seas and lakes of Europe and Western Asia, including the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Aral Sea are thought to be remnants of the Paratethys.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: The sea was named after Tethys, who, in ancient Greek mythology, was a sea goddess, a sister and consort of Oceanus, mother of the Oceanid sea nymphs and of the world’s great rivers, lakes and fountains.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: The eastern part of the Tethys Ocean is sometimes referred to as Eastern Tethys. The western part of the Tethys Ocean is called Tethys Sea, Western Tethys Ocean, or Paratethys or Alpine Tethys Ocean. The Black, Caspian, and Aral seas are thought to be its crustal remains, though the Black Sea may, in fact, be a remnant of the older Paleo-Tethys Ocean.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: The Western Tethys was not simply a single open ocean. It covered many small plates, Cretaceous island arcs, and microcontinents. Many small oceanic basins (Valais Ocean, Piemont-Liguria Ocean, Meliata Ocean) were separated from each other by continental terranes on the Alboran, Iberian, and Apulian plates. The high sea level in the Mesozoic flooded most of these continental domains, forming shallow seas.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: As theories have improved, scientists have extended the "Tethys" name to refer to three similar oceans that preceded it, separating the continental terranes: in Asia, the Paleo-Tethys (Devonian–Triassic), Meso-Tethys (late Early Permian–Late Cretaceous), and Ceno-Tethys (Late-Triassic–Cenozoic) are recognized. None of the Tethys oceans should be confused with the Rheic Ocean, which existed to the west of them in the Silurian Period. To the north of the Tethys, the then-land mass is called Angaraland and to the south of it, it is called Gondwanaland.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: From the Ediacaran (600 ) into the Devonian (360 ), the Proto-Tethys Ocean existed and was situated between Baltica and Laurentia to the north and Gondwana to the south.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: From the Silurian (440 ) through the Jurassic periods, the Paleo-Tethys Ocean existed between the Hunic terranes and Gondwana. Over a period of 400 million years, continental terranes intermittently separated from Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere to migrate northward to form Asia in the Northern Hemisphere.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: About 250 Mya, during the Triassic, a new ocean began forming in the southern end of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. A rift formed along the northern continental shelf of Southern Pangaea (Gondwana). Over the next 60 million years, that piece of shelf, known as Cimmeria, traveled north, pushing the floor of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean under the eastern end of northern Pangaea (early / proto- Laurasia). The Neo-Tethys Ocean formed between Cimmeria and Gondwana, directly over where the Paleo-Tethys formerly rested.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: During the Jurassic period about 150 Mya, Cimmeria finally collided with Laurasia and stalled, so the ocean floor behind it buckled under, forming the Tethys Trench. Water levels rose, and the western Tethys shallowly covered significant portions of Europe, forming the first Tethys Sea. Around the same time, Laurasia and Gondwana began drifting apart, opening an extension of the Tethys Sea between them which today is the part of the Atlantic Ocean between the Mediterranean and the Caribbean. As North and South America were still attached to the rest of Laurasia and Gondwana, respectively, the Tethys Ocean in its widest extension was part of a continuous oceanic belt running around the Earth between about latitude 30°N and the Equator. Thus, ocean currents at the time around the Early Cretaceous ran very differently from the way they do today.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: Between the Jurassic and the Late Cretaceous, which started about 100 Mya, Gondwana began breaking up, pushing Africa and India north across the Tethys and opening up the Indian Ocean.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: Throughout the Cenozoic (66 million to the dawn of the Neogene, 23 Mya), a combination of the northern migration of Africa and global sea levels falling eventually led to the connections between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans across the Tethys being closed off in what is now the Middle East during the Miocene. This decoupling occurred in two steps, first around 20 Mya and another around 14 Mya.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: During the Oligocene (33.9 to 23 Mya), large parts of central and eastern Europe were covered by a northern branch of the Tethys Ocean, called the Paratethys. The Paratethys was separated from the Tethys with the formation of the Alps, Carpathians, Dinarides, Taurus, and Elburz mountains during the Alpine orogeny. During the late Miocene, the Paratethys gradually disappeared, and became an isolated inland sea.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: In Chapter 13 of his 1845 book: Roderick Murchison described a distinctive formation extending from the Black Sea to the Aral Sea in which the creatures differed from those of the purely marine period that preceded them. The Miocene deposits of Crimea and Taman, (south of the Sea of Azov) are identical with formations surrounding the present Caspian Sea, in which the univalves of freshwater origin, are associated with forms of Cardiacae and Mytili that are common to partially saline or brackish waters. This distinctive fauna has been found throughout all the enormously developed Tertiary formations of the southern and south-eastern steppes.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: On the accompanying map, Murchison shows the Aralo-Caspian Formation extending from close to the Danube delta across Crimea, up the east side of the Volga river to Samara, then south of the Urals to beyond the Aral Sea. Brackish and upper freshwater components (OSM) of the Miocene are now known to extend through the North Alpine foreland basin and onto the Swabian Jura with thickness of up to 250m; these were deposited in the Paratethys when the Alpine front was still 100km farther south.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: In 1885, the Austrian palaeontologist Melchior Neumayr deduced the existence of the Tethys Ocean from Mesozoic marine sediments and their distribution, calling his concept "Zentrales Mittelmeer" and described it as a Jurassic seaway, which extended from the Caribbean to the Himalayas.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: In 1893, the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess proposed the hypothesis that an ancient and extinct inland sea had once existed between Laurasia and the continents which formed Gondwana II. He named it the Tethys Sea after the Greek sea goddess Tethys. He provided evidence for his theory using fossil records from the Alps and Africa. He proposed the concept of "Tethys" in his four-volume work "Das Antlitz der Erde" ("The Face of the Earth").


title: Tethys Ocean

text: In the following decades during the 20th century, "mobilist" geologists such as Uhlig (1911), Diener (1925), and Daque (1926) regarded Tethys as a large trough between two supercontinents which lasted from the late Palaeozoic until continental fragments derived from Gondwana obliterated it.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: From 1920s to the 1960s, "fixist" geologists, however, regarded Tethys as a composite trough, which evolved through a series of orogenic cycles. They used the terms 'Paleotethys', 'Mesotethys', and 'Neotethys' for the Caledonian, Variscan, and Alpine orogenies, respectively. In the 1970s and '80s, these terms and 'Proto-Tethys', were used in different senses by various authors, but the concept of a single ocean wedging into Pangea from the east, roughly where Suess first proposed it, remained.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: In the 1960s, the theory of plate tectonics became established, and Suess's "sea" could clearly be seen to have been an ocean. Plate tectonics provided an explanation for the mechanism by which the former ocean disappeared: oceanic crust can subduct under continental crust.


title: Tethys Ocean

text: Tethys was considered an oceanic plate by Smith (1971); Dewey, Pitman, Ryan and Bonnin (1973); Laubscher and Bernoulli (1973); and Bijou-Duval, Dercourt and Pichon (1977).


title: Grave accent

text: The grave accent () ( or ) is a diacritical mark used to varying degrees in French, Dutch, Portuguese, Italian and many other western European languages, as well as for a few unusual uses in English. It is also used in other languages using the Latin alphabet, such as Mohawk and Yoruba, and with non-Latin writing systems such as the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets and the Bopomofo or Zhuyin Fuhao semi-syllabary. It has no single meaning, but can indicate pitch, stress, or other features.


title: Grave accent

text: For the most commonly encountered uses of the accent in the Latin and Greek alphabets, precomposed characters are available. For less-used and compound diacritics, a combining character facility is available. A free-standing version of the symbol, commonly called a backtick, also exists and has acquired other uses.


title: Grave accent

text: The grave accent first appeared in the polytonic orthography of Ancient Greek to mark a lower pitch than the high pitch of the acute accent. In modern practice, it replaces an acute accent in the last syllable of a word when that word is followed immediately by another word. The grave and circumflex have been replaced with an acute accent in the modern monotonic orthography.


title: Grave accent

text: The accent mark was called , the feminine form of the adjective (), meaning "heavy" or "low in pitch." This was calqued (loan-translated) into Latin as which then became the English word "grave".


title: Grave accent

text: A general rule in Italian is that words that end with stressed , , or must be marked with a grave accent. Words that end with stressed or may bear either an acute accent or a grave accent, depending on whether the final "e" or "o" sound is closed or open, respectively. Some examples of words with a final grave accent are ("city"), ("so/then/thus"), ("more"/"plus"), ("Moses"), and ("[he/she/it] brought/carried"). Typists who use a keyboard without accented characters and are unfamiliar with input methods for typing accented letters sometimes use a separate grave accent or even an apostrophe instead of the proper accent character. This is nonstandard but is especially common when typing capital letters: * or * instead of ("[he/she/it] is"). Other mistakes arise from the misunderstanding of truncated and elided words: the phrase ("a little"), which is the truncated version of , may be mistakenly spelled as *. Italian has word pairs where one has an accent marked and the other not, with different pronunciation and meaning—such as ("pear tree") and ("but"), and ("Pope") and ("dad"); the latter example is also valid for Catalan.


title: Grave accent

text: In Bulgarian, the grave accent sometimes appears on the vowels , , , , , and to mark stress. It most commonly appears in books for children or foreigners, and dictionaries—or to distinguish between near-homophones: (, "steam/vapour") and (, "cent/penny, money"), (, "wool") and (, "wave").


title: Grave accent

text: In Macedonian the stress mark is orthographically required to distinguish homographs (see ) and is put mostly on the vowels е and и. Then, it forces the stress on the accented word-syllable instead of having a different syllable in the stress group getting accented. In turn, it changes the pronunciation and the whole meaning of the group.


title: Grave accent

text: Ukrainian, Rusyn, Belarusian, and Russian used a similar system until the first half of the 20th century. Now the main stress is preferably marked with an acute, and the role of the grave is limited to marking secondary stress in compound words (in dictionaries and linguistic literature).


title: Grave accent

text: In Croatian, Serbian, and Slovene, the stressed syllable can be short or long and have a rising or falling tone. They use (in dictionaries, orthography, and grammar books, for example) four different stress marks (grave, acute, double grave, and inverted breve) on the letters a, e, i, o, r, and u: "à è ì ò r̀ ù". The system is identical in both Latin and Cyrillic scripts. Unicode forgot to encode R-grave when encoding the letters with stress marks.


title: Grave accent

text: In modern Church Slavonic, there are three stress marks (acute, grave, and circumflex), which formerly represented different types of pitch accent. There is no longer any phonetic distinction between them, only an orthographical one. The grave is typically used when the stressed vowel is the last letter of a multiletter word.


title: Grave accent

text: In Ligurian, the grave accent marks the accented short vowel of a word in (sound ), (sound ), (sound ) and (sound ). For , it indicates the short sound of , but may not be the stressed vowel of the word.


title: Grave accent

text: The grave accent marks the height or openness of the vowels "e" and "o", indicating that they are pronounced open: "è" (as opposed to "é" ); "ò" (as opposed to "ó" ), in several Romance languages:


title: Grave accent

text: In several languages, the grave accent distinguishes both homophones and words that otherwise would be homographs:


title: Grave accent

text: In Welsh, the accent denotes a short vowel sound in a word that would otherwise be pronounced with a long vowel sound: ' "mug" versus ' "smoke".


title: Grave accent

text: In Scottish Gaelic, it denotes a long vowel, such as ' ("subject"), compared with ' ("put"). The use of acute accents to denote the rarer close long vowels, leaving the grave accents for the open long ones, is seen in older texts, but it is no longer allowed according to the new orthographical conventions.


title: Grave accent

text: In some tonal languages such as Vietnamese, and Mandarin Chinese (when it is written in Hanyu Pinyin or Zhuyin Fuhao), the grave accent indicates a falling tone. The alternative to the grave accent in Mandarin is the numeral 4 after the syllable: pà = pa4.


title: Grave accent

text: In African languages and in International Phonetic Alphabet, the grave accent often indicates a low tone: Nobiin "jàkkàr" ("fish-hook"), Yoruba "àgbọ̀n" ("chin"), Hausa "màcè" ("woman").


title: Grave accent

text: In Emilian-Romagnol, a grave accent placed over "e" or "o" denotes both length and openness. In Emilian "è" and "ò" represent and , while in Romagnol they represent and .


title: Grave accent

text: In Portuguese, the grave accent indicates the contraction of two consecutive vowels in adjacent words (crasis). For example, instead of "a aquela hora" ("at that hour"), one says and writes "àquela hora".


title: Grave accent

text: In Hawaiian, the grave accent is not placed over another character but is sometimes encountered as a typographically easier substitute for the ʻokina: "Hawai`i" instead of "Hawaiʻi".


title: Grave accent

text: The grave accent, though rare in English words, sometimes appears in poetry and song lyrics to indicate that a usually silent vowel is pronounced to fit the rhythm or meter. Most often, it is applied to a word that ends with -ed. For instance, the word "looked" is usually pronounced as a single syllable, with the "e" silent; when written as "lookèd", the "e" is pronounced: "look-ed"). In this capacity, it can also distinguish certain pairs of identically spelled words like the past tense of learn, "learned" , from the adjective "learnèd" (for example, "a very learnèd man").


title: Grave accent

text: A grave accent can also occur in a foreign (usually French) term which has not been anglicised: for example, "vis-à-vis", "pièce de résistance" or "crème brûlée". It also may occur in an English name, often as an affectation, as for example in the case of Albert Ketèlbey.


title: Grave accent

text: The Unicode standard makes dozens of letters with a grave accent available as precomposed characters. The older ISO-8859-1 character encoding only includes the letters "à", "è", "ì", "ò", "ù", and their respective capital forms.


title: Grave accent

text: On British and American keyboards, the grave accent is a key by itself. This is primarily used to actually type the stand-alone character, though some layouts (such as US International or UK extended) may use it as a dead key to modify the following letter. (With these layouts, to get a character such as codice_1, the user can type and then the vowel. For example, to make codice_1, the user can type and then .) In territories where the diacritic is used routinely, the precomposed characters are provided as standard on national keyboards.


title: Grave accent

text: On a Mac, to get a character such as codice_1, the user can type and then the vowel. For example, to make codice_1, the user can type and then , and to make codice_5, the user can type and then . In iOS and most Android keyboards, combined characters with the grave accent are accessed by holding a finger on the vowel, which opens a menu for accents. For example, to make codice_1, the user can tap and hold and then tap or slide to . Mac versions of OS X Mountain Lion (10.8) or newer share similar functionality to iOS; by pressing and holding a vowel key to open an accent menu, the user may click on the grave accented character or type the corresponding number key displayed.


title: Grave accent

text: On a system running the X Window System, to get a character such as codice_1, the user should press followed by , then the vowel. The compose key on modern keyboards is usually mapped to a key or .


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Gerrymandering in the United States has been used to increase the power of a political party. Gerrymandering is the practice of setting boundaries of electoral districts to favor specific political interests within legislative bodies, often resulting in districts with convoluted, winding boundaries rather than compact areas. The term "gerrymandering" was coined after a review of Massachusetts's redistricting maps of 1812 set by Governor Elbridge Gerry noted that one of the districts looked like a salamander.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: In the United States, redistricting takes place in each state about every ten years, after the decennial census. It defines geographical boundaries, with each district within a state being geographically contiguous and having about the same number of state voters. The resulting map affects the elections of the state's members of the United States House of Representatives and the state legislative bodies. Redistricting has always been regarded as a political exercise and in most states, it is controlled by state legislators and sometimes the governor (in some states the governor has no veto power over redistricting legislation while in some states the veto override threshold is a simple majority). When one party controls the state's legislative bodies and governor's office, it is in a strong position to gerrymander district boundaries to advantage its side and to disadvantage its political opponents. Since 2010, detailed maps and high-speed computing have facilitated gerrymandering by political parties in the redistricting process, in order to gain control of state legislation and congressional representation and potentially to maintain that control over several decades, even against shifting political changes in a state's population. Gerrymandering has been sought as unconstitutional in many instances.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Typical gerrymandering cases in the United States take the form of partisan gerrymandering, which is aimed at favoring one political party while weakening another; bipartisan gerrymandering, which is aimed at protecting incumbents by multiple political parties; and racial gerrymandering, which is aimed at weakening the power of minority voters.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Gerrymandering can also recreate districts with the aim of maximizing the number of racial minorities to assist particular nominees, who are minorities themselves. In some other cases that have the same goal of diluting the minority vote, the districts are reconstructed in a way that packs minority voters into a smaller or limited number of districts.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: In the 20th century and afterwards, federal courts have deemed extreme cases of gerrymandering to be unconstitutional, but have struggled with how to define the types of gerrymandering and the standards that should be used to determine which redistricting maps are unconstitutional. The United States Supreme Court has affirmed in "Miller v. Johnson" (1995) that racial gerrymandering is a violation of constitutional rights and upheld decisions against redistricting that is purposely devised based on race. However, the Supreme Court has struggled when partisan gerrymandering occurs ("Vieth v. Jubelirer" (2004) and "Gill v. Whitford" (2018)). A landmark decision, "Rucho v. Common Cause" (2019), ultimately decided that questions of partisan gerrymandering represent a nonjusticiable political question, which cannot be dealt with by the federal court system. That decision leaves it to states and to Congress to develop remedies to challenge and to prevent partisan gerrymandering. Some states have created independent redistricting commissions to reduce political drivers for redistricting. The research department of the nonpartisan nonprofit anti-corruption organization RepresentUs issues a "Redistricting Report Card" which rates the level of gerrymandered distortion of congressional district maps within each state, and its research suggests that wide swaths of the public "across partisan lines" are dissatisfied with gerrymandering and are ready for substantive reforms.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Partisan gerrymandering, which refers to redistricting that favors one political party, has a long tradition in the United States.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Starting from the William Cabell Rives in mid-19th century it is often stated that it precedes the 1789 election of the First U.S. Congress: namely, that while Patrick Henry and his Anti-Federalist allies were in control of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1788, they drew the boundaries of Virginia's 5th congressional district in an unsuccessful attempt to keep James Madison out of the U.S. House of Representatives. However, in early 20th century it was revealed that this theory was based on incorrect claims by Madison and his allies, and recent historical research disproved it altogether.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: The word gerrymander (originally written "Gerry-mander") was used for the first time in the "Boston-Gazette" (not to be confused with the "Boston Gazette") on March 26, 1812, in reaction to a redrawing of Massachusetts state senate election districts under the then-governor Elbridge Gerry (1744–1814), who signed a bill that redistricted Massachusetts to benefit his Democratic-Republican Party. When mapped, one of the contorted districts to the north of Boston was said to resemble the shape of a salamander.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: The coiner of the term "gerrymander" may never be firmly established. Historians widely believe that the Federalist newspaper editors Nathan Hale, and Benjamin and John Russell were the instigators, but the historical record does not have definitive evidence as to who created or uttered the word for the first time. Appearing with the term, and helping to spread and sustain its popularity, was a political cartoon depicting a strange animal with claws, wings and a dragon-like head satirizing the map of the odd-shaped district. This cartoon was most likely drawn by Elkanah Tisdale, an early 19th-century painter, designer, and engraver who was living in Boston at the time. The word "gerrymander" was reprinted numerous times in Federalist newspapers in Massachusetts, New England, and nationwide during the remainder of 1812.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Gerrymandering soon began to be used to describe not only the original Massachusetts example, but also other cases of district-shape manipulation for partisan gain in other states. The first known use outside the immediate Boston area came in the "Newburyport Herald" of Massachusetts on March 31, and the first known use outside Massachusetts came in the "Concord Gazette" of New Hampshire on April 14, 1812. The first known use outside New England came in the "New York Gazette & General Advertiser" on May 19. What may be the first use of the term to describe the redistricting in another state (Maryland) occurred in the "Federal Republican" (Georgetown, Washington, DC) on October 12, 1812. There are at least 80 known citations of the word from March through December 1812 in American newspapers.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: The practice of gerrymandering the borders of new states continued past the Civil War and into the late 19th century. The Republican Party used its control of Congress to secure the admission of more states in territories friendly to their party. A notable example is the admission of Dakota Territory as two states instead of one. By the rules for representation in the Electoral College, each new state carried at least three electoral votes, regardless of its population.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: From time to time, other names are given the "-mander" suffix to tie a particular effort to a particular politician or group. These include "Jerrymander" (a reference to California Governor Jerry Brown), and "Perrymander" (a reference to Texas Governor Rick Perry).


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: In the 1960s, a series of "one person, one vote" cases were decided by the Supreme Court, which resulted in a mandate of redistricting in response to the results of each census. Prior to these decisions, many states had stopped redrawing their districts. As a result of the periodic need to redistrict, political conflicts over redistricting have sharply increased.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: The potential to gerrymander a district map has been aided by advances in computing power and capabilities. Using geographic information system and census data as input, mapmakers can use computers to process through numerous potential map configurations to achieve desired results, including partisan gerrymandering. Computers can assess voter preferences and use that to "pack" or "crack" votes into districts. Packing votes refers to concentrating voters in one voting district by redrawing congressional boundaries so that those in opposition of the party in charge of redistricting are placed into one larger district, therefore reducing the party's congressional representation. Cracking refers to diluting the voting power of opposition voters across many districts by redrawing congressional boundaries so that voting minority populations in each district are reduced, therefore lowering the chance of a district-oriented congressional takeover. Both techniques lead to what the Times describes as "wasted votes", which are votes that do not supply a party with any victory. These can either be a surplus of votes in one district for one party that are above the threshold needed to win, or any vote that has resulted in a loss. A study done by the University of Delaware mentions situations in which an incumbent that is required to live in the district they represent can be "hijacked" or "kidnapped" into a neighboring district due to the redrawing of congressional boundaries, subsequently placing them in districts that are more difficult for them to win in. Partisan gerrymandering oftentimes leads to benefits for a particular political party, or, in some cases, a race.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: In Pennsylvania, the Republican-dominated state legislature used gerrymandering to help defeat Democratic representative Frank Mascara. Mascara was elected to Congress in 1994. In 2002, the Republican Party altered the boundaries of his original district so much that he was pitted against fellow Democratic candidate John Murtha in the election. The shape of Mascara's newly drawn district formed a finger that stopped at his street, encompassing his house, but not the spot where he parked his car. Murtha won the election in the newly formed district.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: State legislatures have used gerrymandering along racial or ethnic lines both to decrease and increase minority representation in state governments and congressional delegations. In the state of Ohio, a conversation between Republican officials was recorded that demonstrated that redistricting was being done to aid their political candidates. Furthermore, the discussions assessed race of voters as a factor in redistricting, because African-Americans had backed Democratic candidates. Republicans apparently removed approximately 13,000 African-American voters from the district of Jim Raussen, a Republican candidate for the House of Representatives, in an attempt to tip the scales in what was once a competitive district for Democratic candidates.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: International election observers from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, who were invited to observe and report on the 2004 national elections, expressed criticism of the U.S. congressional redistricting process and made a recommendation that the procedures be reviewed to ensure genuine competitiveness of congressional election contests.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: In the lead-up to the 2010 United States elections, the Republican Party initiated a program called REDMAP, the Redistricting Majority Project, which recognized that the party in control of state legislatures would have the ability to set their congressional and legislative district maps based on the pending 2010 United States census in manner to assure that party's control over the next ten years. The Republicans took significant gains from the 2010 elections across several states, and by 2011 and 2012, some of the new district maps showed Republican advantage through perceived partisan gerrymandering. This set the stage for several legal challenges from voters and groups in the court system, including several heard at the Supreme Court level.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: In 2015, Thomas Hofeller was hired by the "Washington Free Beacon" to analyze what would happen if political maps were drawn based on the population of voting-age U.S. citizens rather than the total population. He concluded that doing so "would be advantageous to Republicans and non-Hispanic whites." Although the study was not published, it was discovered after his death in 2018. Attorney General William P. Barr and Commerce Secretary Wilbur L. Ross Jr. have refused to cooperate with an investigation into why the Trump administration added a U.S. citizenship question to the 2020 census and specifically whether it seeks to benefit Republicans as suggested by Hofeller's study.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Several state court rulings found partisan gerrymandering to be impermissible under state constitutions, and several state ballot measures passed in 2018 that require non-partisan commissions for the 2020 redistricting cycle.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Whether a redistricting results in a partisan gerrymandering has been a frequent question put to the United States court system, but which the courts have generally avoided a strong ruling for fear of showing political bias towards either of the major parties. The Supreme Court had ruled in "Davis v. Bandemer" (1986) that partisan gerrymandering violates the Equal Protection Clause and is a justiciable matter. However, in its decision, the Court could not agree on the appropriate constitutional standard against which legal claims of partisan gerrymandering should be evaluated. Writing for a plurality of the Court, Justice White said that partisan gerrymandering occurred when a redistricting plan was enacted with both the intent and the effect of discriminating against an identifiable political group. Justices Powell and Stevens said that partisan gerrymandering should be identified based on multiple factors, such as electoral district shape and adherence to local government boundaries. Justices O'Connor, Burger, and Rehnquist disagreed with the view that partisan gerrymandering claims were justiciable and would have held that such claims should not be recognized by courts. Lower courts found it difficult to apply "Bandemer", and only in one subsequent case, "Party of North Carolina v. Martin" (1992), did a lower court strike down a redistricting plan on partisan gerrymandering grounds.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: The Supreme Court revisited the concept of partisan gerrymandering claims in "Vieth v. Jubelirer" (2004). While the Court upheld that partisan gerrymandering could be justiciable, the justices were divided in this specific case as no clear standard against which to evaluate partisan gerrymandering claims emerged. Writing for a plurality, Justice Scalia said that partisan gerrymandering claims were nonjusticiable. A majority of the court would continue to allow partisan gerrymandering claims to be considered justiciable, but those justices had divergent views on how such claims should be evaluated. Justice Anthony Kennedy, in a concurrence with the plurality, offered that a manageable means to determine when partisan gerrymandering occurred could be developed, and challenged lower courts to find such means. The Court again upheld that partisan gerrymandering could be justiciable in "League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry" (2006). While the specific case reached no conclusion of whether there was partisan gerrymandering, Justice John Paul Stevens's concurrence with the plurality added the notion of partisan symmetry, in that the electoral system should translate votes to representative seats with the same efficiency regardless of party.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Opinions from "Vieth" and "League", as well as the strong Republican advantage created by its REDMAP program, had led to a number of political scholars working alongside courts to develop such a method to determine if a district map was a justiciable partisan gerrymandering, as to prepare for the 2020 elections. Many early attempts failed to gain traction the court system, focusing more on trying to show how restricting maps were intended to favor one party or disfavor the other, or that the redistricting eschewed traditional redistricting approaches. Around 2014, Nicholas Stephanopoulos and Eric McGhee developed the "efficiency gap", a means to measure the number of wasted votes (votes either far in excess of what we necessary to secure a win for a party, or votes for a party that had little chase to win) within each district. The larger the gap of wasted votes between the two parties implied the more likely that the district maps supported a partisan gerrymandering, and with a sufficiently large gap it would be possible to sustain that gap indefinitely. While not perfect, having several potential flaws when geography of urban centers were considered, the efficiency gap was considered to be the first tool that met both Kennedy's and Stevens' suggestions.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: The first major legal test of the efficiency gap came into play for "Gill v. Whitford" (2016). The District Court in the case used the efficiency gap statistic to evaluate the claim of partisan gerrymander in Wisconsin's legislative districts. In the 2012 election for the state legislature, the efficiency gap was 11.69% to 13% in favor of the Republicans. "Republicans in Wisconsin won 60 of the 99 Assembly seats, despite Democrats having a majority of the statewide vote."


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: The disparity led to the federal lawsuit "Gill v. Whitford", in which plaintiffs alleged that voting districts were gerrymandered unconstitutionally. The court found that the disparate treatment of Democratic and Republican voters violated the 1st and 14th amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The District Court's ruling was challenged and appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States, which in June 2017 agreed to hear oral arguments in the case in the 2017–2018 term of court.The case was then dismissed due to lack of standing for the plaintiffs with no decision on the merits being made. The case was then remanded for further proceedings to demonstrate standing. While previous redistricting cases before the Supreme Court have involved the Equal Protection test, this case also centers on the applicability of the First Amendment freedom of association clause.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: "Benisek v. Lamone" was a separate partisan gerrymandering case heard by the Supreme Court in the 2017 term, this over perceived Democratic-favored redistricting of Maryland's 6th congressional district, with plaintiffs trying to get a stay on the use of the new district maps prior to the October 2018 general election. The Court did not give opinions on whether the redistricting was unconstitutional, but did establish that on the basis of "Gill" that the case should be reconsidered at the District Court. The District Court did subsequently rule the redistricting was unconstitutional, and that decision was appealed again to the Supreme Court and was heard under the name "Lamone v. Benisek" alongside "Rucho" "v. Common Cause" on March 26, 2019.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Yet another partisan redistricting case was heard by the Supreme Court during the 2018 term. "Rucho v. Common Cause" deals with Republican-favored gerrymandering in North Carolina. The District Court had ruled the redistricting was unconstitutional prior to "Gill"; an initial challenge brought to the Supreme Court resulted in an order for the District Court to re-evaluate their decision in light of "Gill". The District Court, on rehearing, affirmed their previous decision. The state Republicans again sought for review by the Supreme Court which was heard alongside "Lamone v. Benisek" on March 26, 2019.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Similarly, Michigan's post-2010 redistricting had been challenged, and in April 2019, a federal court determined the Republican-led redistricting to be an unconstitutional partisan gerrymander, and ordered the state to redraw districts in time for the 2020 election. Within a week, a similar decision was arrived by a federal district court reviewing Ohio's district maps since 2012 and were declared unconstitutional as they were drawn by the Republican-majority lawmakers with "invidious partisan intent", and ordered the maps redrawn. The Republican-favored maps led Ohio's residents to vote for a statewide initiative that requires the new redistricting maps after the 2020 census to have at least 50% approval from the minority party. The Republican party sought an immediate challenge to the redistricting order, and by late May 2019, the Supreme Court ordered both the court-ordered redrawing to be put on hold until Republicans can prepare a complete petition, without commenting on the merits of the case otherwise. Additionally, observers to the Supreme Court recognized that the Court would be issuing its orders to the North Carolina and Maryland cases, which would likely affect how the Michigan and Ohio court orders would be interpreted.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: "Rucho v. Common Cause" and "Lamone v. Benisek" were decided on June 27, 2019, which, in the 5–4 decision, determined that judging partisan gerrymandering cases is outside of the remit of the federal court system due to the political questions involved. The majority opinion stated that extreme partisan gerrymandering is still unconstitutional, but it is up to Congress and state legislative bodies to find ways to restrict that, such as through the use of independent redistricting commissions.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: The Pennsylvania Supreme Court ruled in "League of Women Voters of Pennsylvania v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania" that gerrymandering was unconstitutional, ruling that the districts drawn to favor Republicans violated "free and equal" Elections Clause of the Pennsylvanian constitution and redrew the districts after the state government failed to comply with the deadline in its order to redraw. The U.S. Supreme Court denied to hear the challenge and allowed the Pennsylvania Supreme Court's maps to remain in place.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: In October 2019, a three-judge panel in North Carolina threw out a gerrymandered electoral map, citing violation of the constitution to disadvantage the Democratic Party.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Bipartisan gerrymandering, where redistricting favors the incumbents in both the Democratic and Republican parties, became especially relevant in the 2000 redistricting process, which created some of the most non-competitive redistricting plans in American history. The Supreme Court held in "Gaffney v. Cummings" (1973) that bipartisan gerrymanders are constitutionally permissible under the Equal Protection Clause.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: Racial makeup can be used as a means to create gerrymanders. There is overlap between racial and partisan gerrymandering, as minorities tend to favor Democratic candidates; the North Carolina redistricting in "Rucho v. Common Cause" was such a case dealing with both partisan and racial gerrymanders. However, racial gerrymanders can also be created without considerations of party lines.


title: Gerrymandering in the United States

text: "Negative racial gerrymandering" refers to a process in which district lines are drawn to prevent racial minorities from electing their preferred candidates.