title: Elland Road

text: Leeds United was formed shortly after City's dissolution and entered the league in the 1920–21 season. By this time, football had established itself and in its first season, the average attendance was over 16,000. As of the 2005–06 season, 42,339,944 have attended all of Leeds United's matches combined, which gives an average of 25,689. This figure is the 10th highest average in England. The table gives a summary of the attendance figures of all Leeds United's league games in every season since the turn of the century.


title: Catgirl

text: A is a female kemonomimi character with feline traits, such as , a cat tail, or other feline characteristics on an otherwise human body. Catgirls are found in various fiction genres and in particular Japanese anime and manga.


title: Catgirl

text: The oldest mention of the term "nekomusume" comes from a 1700s misemono in which a cat/woman hybrid was displayed. Stories of shape-shifting bakeneko prostitutes were popular during the Edo Period. The popularity of the "nekomusume" continued throughout the Edo and Shōwa periods, with many tales of cat/woman hybrids appearing in works such as the and .


title: Catgirl

text: In Kenji Miyazawa's 1924 work, is the first modern day example of a beautiful, cat-eared woman. In 1936, the "nekomusume" experienced a revival in "kamishibai". The first anime involving catgirls, titled "The King’s Tail" ("Ousama no Shippo"), was made in 1949 by Mitsuyo Seo. In America, the DC Comics character Catwoman first appeared in 1940, and Cheetah first appeared in 1943.


title: Catgirl

text: Catgirls were further made popular in 1978 manga series "The Star of Cottonland", by Yumiko Ōshima. By the 1990s, catgirls were common in Japanese anime and manga. Catgirls have since been featured in various media worldwide. Enough of a subculture has developed for various themed conventions and events to be held around the world, such as Nekocon.


title: Catgirl

text: Japanese philosopher Hiroki Azuma has stated that catgirl characteristics such as cat ears and feline speech patterns are examples of moe-elements. Azuma argued that although some otaku sexual expression involves catgirl imagery, few otaku have the sexual awareness to understand how such imagery can be perceived as perverted.


title: Catgirl

text: In a 2010 critique of the manga series "Loveless", the feminist writer T. A. Noonan argued that, in Japanese culture, catgirl characteristics have a similar role to that of the Playboy bunny in western culture, serving as a fetishization of youthful innocence.


title: Catgirl

text: The modern catboy refers to men, or other genders that experience some tie to masculinity, who embrace cat-like characteristics. This often includes emulation of the physical features of a cat (such as wearing cat ears or a collar), and it may also include emulation of the personality or other anthropomorphized characteristics of a cat. Catboys intersect with maidboy, femboy, genderqueer, transgender, kink, and LGBTQIA+ communities; however, individuals participating in catboy activities come from a variety of backgrounds and do so for a variety of reasons, unrestricted to those mentioned. Some catboys experience a stronger tie to the label as an identity (though others may view it as a temporary aesthetic, role, or hobby).


title: Catgirl

text: Catboys have become especially popular on social media platforms such as TikTok, and catboy thirst traps are not uncommon. As the prevalence of catboy-related media has risen in gen z pop culture, the issues of catboy fetishization and sexual objectification have become subjects of discourse in catboy, queer, and meme spaces. Outside of certain spaces, catboys may experience issues associated with their presentation or identity being viewed as social deviance from prevailing social norms. As catboys are a less well-known counterpart of the catgirl phenomenon, catboys may be met with a lack of awareness or understanding. Some catboys see themselves as allied with communities within feminist and queer spaces in the desire to secure liberation surrounding the freedom of personal self-expression.


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: Susan Tyrrell (born Susan Jillian Creamer; March 18, 1945 – June 16, 2012) was an American character actress. Tyrrell's career began in theater in New York City in the 1960s in Broadway and off Broadway productions. Her first film was "Shoot Out" (1971). She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance as Oma in John Huston's "Fat City" (1972). In 1978, Tyrrell received the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in "Andy Warhol's Bad" (1977). Her "New York Times" obituary described her as "a whiskey-voiced character actress (with) talent for playing the downtrodden, outré, and grotesque."


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: Tyrrell was born in San Francisco, California, to a British mother, Gillian (née Tyrrell; 1913–2012), and an American father, John Belding Creamer. Her mother was a socialite and member of the diplomatic corps in China and the Philippines during the 1930s and 1940s. Her father John was an agent with the William Morris Agency who represented Leo Carrillo, Loretta Young, Ed Wynn, and Carole Lombard.


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: Tyrrell spent her childhood in New Canaan, Connecticut. She was a poor student and as a teenager became estranged from her mother. Through her father's connections, Tyrrell was employed in the theatrical production of "Time Out for Ginger" (1963) starring Art Carney in New York City. Her father also persuaded "Look" magazine to follow her as she toured with the show, but he died shortly afterwards.


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: Tyrrell made her Broadway debut in 1965 as a replacement performer in the comedy "Cactus Flower". In 1968, as a member of the Repertory Theatre of Lincoln Center, she was in the cast of "King Lear" and revivals of "The Time of Your Life" (1969) and "Camino Real" (1970). Off-Broadway, Tyrrell appeared in the 1967 premiere of Lanford Wilson's "The Rimers of Eldritch" and a 1979 production of "Father's Day" at The American Place Theatre.


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: Tyrrell's television debut was in "Mr. Novak" (1964) and her film debut was in "Shoot Out" (1971). Tyrrell was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance as Oma in John Huston's "Fat City" (1972). In 1976, she played a psychotic bimbo in "I Never Promised You A Rose Garden". In 1978, she won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in "Bad.


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: Later, Tyrrell starred as Queen Doris in the indie "Forbidden Zone" (1980). She sang the film's song, "Witch's Egg". A year later, she portrayed Vera in "Tales of Ordinary Madness" (1981). From 1981 to 1982, Tyrrell starred as Gretchen Feester, in the ABC's short-lived situation comedy series "Open All Night". She then had a starring role in the exploitation horror film "Night Warning" (1981).


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: In 1983 Tyrrell played Solly in the sexploitation film "Angel" and its 1984 sequel, "Avenging Angel". Then followed roles in the adventure film "Flesh+Blood", the Vincent Price anthology horror film "From a Whisper to a Scream" (1987), the animated feature film "The Chipmunk Adventure" (1987), and "Big Top Pee-wee" (the 1988 sequel to 1985's "Pee-wee's Big Adventure"). Tyrrell took a supporting role in John Waters' "Cry-Baby" (1990).


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: In 1992, Tyrrell performed her own one-woman show, "Susan Tyrrell: My Rotten Life, a Bitter Operetta". In the late 1990s, Tyrrell had roles in the "Tales from the Crypt" episode "Comes the Dawn" (1995), the animated series "Extreme Ghostbusters" (1997), and the psychological thriller film "Buddy Boy" (1999).


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: In the 2000s, Tyrrell appeared in Bob Dylan's "Masked and Anonymous" (2003) and "The Devil's Due at Midnight" (2004). Her final appearance was in the 2012 independent film "Kid-Thing".


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: In the mid-1970s, Tyrrell had a two-year relationship with actor Hervé Villechaize and shared a home with him in the Laurel Canyon area of Los Angeles.


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: Tyrrell suffered from essential thrombocytosis, a disease of the blood. In early 2000, her disease necessitated bilateral below-knee amputations. That year, Johnny Depp hosted a benefit at the Viper Room to help defray Tyrrell's medical bills. Megan Mullally, Jack Black, and Chloe Webb attended.


title: Susan Tyrrell

text: In 2008, Tyrrell moved to Austin, Texas, to be closer to her niece. In January 2012, Tyrrell wrote in her journal, "I demand my death be joyful and I never return again." She died on June 16, 2012, in Austin. She was cremated and her ashes scattered.


title: Bathroom

text: A bathroom or washroom is a room, typically in a home or other residential building, that contains either a bathtub or a shower (or both). The inclusion of a wash basin is common. In some parts of the world e.g. India, a toilet is typically included in the bathroom; in others, the toilet is typically given a dedicated room separate from the one allocated for personal hygiene activities. In North American English the word 'bathroom' is sometimes used to refer to any room in a residence that contains a toilet, regardless of the inclusion of a bath or shower.


title: Bathroom

text: Historically, bathing was often a collective activity, which took place in public baths. In some countries the shared social aspect of cleansing the body is still important, as for example with "sento" in Japan and the "Turkish bath" (also known by other names) throughout the Islamic world.


title: Bathroom

text: The term for the place used to clean the body varies around the English-speaking world, as does the design of the room itself. A "full bathroom" is generally understood to contain a bath or shower (or both), a toilet, and a sink. An "en suite bathroom" or "en suite shower room" is attached to, and only accessible from, a bedroom. A "family bathroom", in British estate agent terminology, is a full bathroom not attached to a bedroom, but with its door opening onto a corridor. A "Jack and Jill bathroom" (or "connected bathroom") is situated between and usually shared by the occupants of two separate bedrooms. It may also have two wash basins. A "wetroom" is a waterproof room usually equipped with a shower; it is designed to eliminate moisture damage and is compatible with underfloor heating systems.


title: Bathroom

text: In the United States, there is a lack of a single definition. This commonly results in discrepancies between advertised and actual number of baths in real estate listings. Bathrooms are generally categorized as "master bathroom", containing a shower and a bathtub that is adjoining to the largest bedroom; a "full bathroom" (or "full bath"), containing four plumbing fixtures: a toilet and sink, and either a bathtub with a shower, or a bathtub and a separate shower stall; "half bath" (or "powder room") containing just a toilet and sink; and "3/4 bath" containing toilet, sink, and shower, although the terms vary from market to market. In some U.S. markets, a toilet, sink, and shower are considered a "full bath." In addition, there is the use of the word "bathroom" to describe a room containing a toilet and a basin, and nothing else.


title: Bathroom

text: In Canada, "washroom" is a frequently used term to refer to such a room, though "bathroom" is also sometimes used.


title: Bathroom

text: Some bathrooms contain a bathroom cabinet for personal hygiene products and medicines, and drawers or shelves (sometimes in column form) for storing towels and other items.


title: Bathroom

text: The design of a bathroom must account for the use of both hot and cold water, in significant quantities, for cleaning the body. The water is also used for moving solid and liquid human waste to a sewer or septic tank. Water may be splashed on the walls and floor, and hot humid air may cause condensation on cold surfaces. From a decorating point of view the bathroom presents a challenge. Ceiling, wall and floor materials and coverings should be impervious to water and readily and easily cleaned. The use of ceramic or glass, as well as smooth plastic materials, is common in bathrooms for their ease of cleaning. Such surfaces are often cold to the touch, however, and so water-resistant bath mats or even bathroom carpets may be used on the floor to make the room more comfortable. Alternatively, the floor may be heated, possibly by strategically placing resistive electric mats under floor tile or radiant hot water tubing close to the underside of the floor surface.


title: Bathroom

text: Electrical appliances, such as lights, heaters, and heated towel rails, generally need to be installed as fixtures, with permanent connections rather than plugs and sockets. This minimizes the risk of electric shock. Ground-fault circuit interrupter electrical sockets can reduce the risk of electric shock, and are required for bathroom socket installation by electrical and building codes in the United States and Canada. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, only special sockets suitable for electric shavers and electric toothbrushes are permitted in bathrooms, and are labelled as such.


title: Bathroom

text: UK building regulations also define what type of electrical fixtures, such as light fittings (i.e. how water-/splash-proof) may be installed in the areas (zones) around and above baths, and showers.


title: Bathroom

text: Bathroom lighting should be uniform, bright and must minimize glare. For all the activities like shaving, showering, grooming etc. one must ensure equitable lighting across the entire bathroom space. The mirror area should definitely have at least two sources of light at least 1 feet apart to eliminate any shadows on the face. Skin tones and hair color are highlighted with a tinge of yellow light. Ceiling and wall lights must be safe for use in a bathroom (electrical parts need to be splash proof) and therefore must carry appropriate certification such as IP44.


title: Bathroom

text: The first records for the use of baths date back as far as 3000 B.C. At this time water had a strong religious value, being seen as a purifying element for both body and soul, and so it was not uncommon for people to be required to cleanse themselves before entering a sacred area. Baths are recorded as part of a village or town life throughout this period, with a split between steam baths in Europe and America and cold baths in Asia. Communal baths were erected in a distinctly separate area to the living quarters of the village.


title: Bathroom

text: The Roman attitudes towards bathing are well documented; they built large thermal baths ("thermae"), marking not only an important social development, but also providing a public source of relaxation and rejuvenation. Here was a place where people could meet to discuss the matters of the day and enjoy entertainment. During this period there was a distinction between private and public baths, with many wealthy families having their own thermal baths in their houses. Despite this they still made use of the public baths, showing the value that they had as a public institution. The strength of the Roman Empire was telling in this respect; imports from throughout the world allowed the Roman citizens to enjoy ointments, incense, combs, and mirrors. The partially reconstructed ruins can still be seen today, for example at Roman Baths (Bath) in Bath, England, then part of Roman Britain.


title: Bathroom

text: Not all ancient baths were in the style of the large pools that often come to mind when one imagines the Roman baths; the earliest surviving bathtub dates back to 1700 B.C, and hails from the Palace of Knossos in Crete. What is remarkable about this tub is not only the similarity with the baths of today, but also the way in which the plumbing works surrounding it differ so little from modern models. A more advanced prehistoric (15th century BC and before) system of baths and plumbing is to be found in the excavated town of Akrotiri, on the Aegean island of Santorini (Thera). There, alabaster tubs and other bath fittings were found, along with a sophisticated twin plumbing system to transport hot and cold water separately. This was probably because of easy access to geothermic hot springs on this volcanic island.


title: Bathroom

text: Both the Greeks and the Romans recognized the value of bathing as an important part of their lifestyles. Writers such as Homer had their heroes bathe in warm water so as to regain their strength; it is perhaps notable that the mother of Achilles bathed him in order to gain his invincibility. Palaces have been uncovered throughout Greece with areas that are dedicated to bathing, spaces with ceramic bathtubs, as well as sophisticated drainage systems. Homer uses the word λοετρά, "loetrá", "baths", later λουτρά, "loutrá", from the verb λούειν, "loúein", to bathe. The same root finds an even earlier attestation on Linear B tablets, in the name of the River Lousios ("bathing" [river]), in Arcadia. Public baths are mentioned by the comedian Aristophanes as βαλανεία, "balaneía" (sing.: βαλανείον, "balaneíon", Latinized as "balneum", a "balneary").


title: Bathroom

text: Throughout the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, the use of public baths declined gradually in the west, and private spaces were favoured, thus laying the foundations for the bathroom, as it was to become, in the 20th century. However, increased urbanization led to the creation of more baths and wash houses in Britain.


title: Bathroom

text: Cultural historian Barbara Penner has written of the ambiguous nature of bathrooms as both the most private space and one most connected to the wider outside world.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS University of London (; the School of Oriental and African Studies) is a public research university in London, England, and a member institution of the federal University of London. Founded in 1916, SOAS is located in the Bloomsbury area of central London.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS is one of the world's leading institutions for the study of Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Its library is one of the five national research libraries in the UK. SOAS also houses the Brunei Gallery, which hosts a programme of changing contemporary and historical exhibitions from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East with the aim of presenting and promoting cultures from these regions.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS is divided into three faculties: Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Faculty of Languages and Cultures, and Faculty of Law and Social Sciences. It is home to the SOAS School of Law, which is one of the leading law schools in the UK. The university offers around 350 bachelor's degree combinations, more than 100 one-year master's degrees, and PhD programmes in nearly every department. The university has a student-staff ratio of 11:1, one of the best in the UK. The university has produced several heads of states, government ministers, diplomats, central bankers, Supreme Court judges, a Nobel Peace Prize Laureate, and many other notable leaders around the world. SOAS is a member of the Association of Commonwealth Universities.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The School of Oriental Studies was founded in 1916 at 2 Finsbury Circus, London, the then premises of the London Institution. The school received its royal charter on 5 June 1916 and admitted its first students on 18 January 1917. The school was formally inaugurated a month later on 23 February 1917 by George V. Among those in attendance were Earl Curzon of Kedleston, formerly Viceroy of India, and other cabinet officials.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The School of Oriental Studies was founded by the British state as an instrument to strengthen Britain's political, commercial, and military presence in Asia and Africa. It would do so by providing instruction to colonial administrators (Colonial Service and Imperial Civil Service), commercial managers, and military officers, as well as to missionaries, doctors, and teachers, in the language of the part of Asia or Africa to which each was being posted, together with an authoritative introduction to the customs, religions, laws, and history of the people whom they were to govern or among whom they would be working.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The school's founding mission was to advance British scholarship, science, and commerce in Africa and Asia, and to provide London University with a rival to the Oriental schools of Berlin, Petrograd, and Paris. The school immediately became integral to training British administrators, colonial officials, and spies for overseas postings across the British Empire. Africa was added to the school's name in 1938.


title: SOAS University of London

text: For a period in the mid-1930s, prior to moving to its current location at Thornhaugh Street, Bloomsbury, the school was located at Vandon House, Vandon Street, London SW1, with the library located at Clarence House. Its move to new premises in Bloomsbury was held up by delays in construction and the half-completed building took a hit during the Blitz in September 1940. With the onset of the Second World War, many University of London colleges were evacuated from London in 1939 and billeted on universities in the rest of the country. The School was, on the Government's advice, transferred to Christ's College, Cambridge.


title: SOAS University of London

text: In 1940, when it became apparent that a return to London was possible, the school returned to the city and was housed for some months in eleven rooms at Broadway Court, 8 Broadway, London SW1. In 1942, the War Office joined with the School to create a scheme for State Scholarships to be offered to select grammar and public school boys with linguistic ability to train as military translators and interpreters in Chinese, Japanese, Persian, and Turkish. Lodged at Dulwich College in south London, the students became affectionately known as "the Dulwich boys". One of these students was Charles Dunn, who became a prominent Japanologist on the faculty of the SOAS and a recipient of the Order of the Rising Sun. Others included Sir Peter Parker and Professor Ronald Dore. Subsequently, the School ran a series of courses in Japanese, both for translators and for interpreters.


title: SOAS University of London

text: In recognition of SOAS's role during the war, the 1946 Scarborough Commission (officially the "Commission of Enquiry into the Facilities for Oriental, Slavonic, East European and African Studies") report recommended a major expansion in provision for the study of Asia and the school benefited greatly from the subsequent largesse. The SOAS School of Law was established in 1947 with Professor Seymour Gonne Vesey-FitzGerald as its first head. Growth however was curtailed by following years of economic austerity, and upon Sir Cyril Philips assuming the directorship in 1956, the school was in a vulnerable state. Over his 20-year stewardship, Phillips transformed the school, raising funds and broadening the school's remit.


title: SOAS University of London

text: A college of the University of London, the School's fields include Law, Social Sciences, Humanities, and Languages with special reference to Asia and Africa. The SOAS Library, located in the Philips Building, is the UK's national resource for materials relating to Asia and Africa and is the largest of its kind in the world. The school has grown considerably over the past 30 years, from fewer than 1,000 students in the 1970s to more than 6,000 students today, nearly half of them postgraduates. SOAS is partnered with the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales (INALCO) in Paris which is often considered the French equivalent of SOAS.


title: SOAS University of London

text: In 2011, the Privy Council approved changes to the school's charter allowing it to award degrees in its own name, following the trend set by fellow colleges the London School of Economics, University College London and King's College London. All new students registered from September 2013 will qualify for a SOAS, University of London, award.


title: SOAS University of London

text: In 2012, a new visual identity for SOAS was launched to be used in print, digital media and around the campus. The SOAS tree symbol, first implemented in 1989, was redrawn and recoloured in gold, with the new symbol incorporating the leaves of ten trees, including the English Oak representing England; the Bodhi, Coral Bark Maple, Teak representing Asia; the Mountain Acacia, African Pear, Lasiodiscus representing Africa; and the Date Palm, Pomegranate and Ghaf representing the Middle East.


title: SOAS University of London

text: Dating back to at least 2005, SOAS has faced a number of accusations of systemic antisemitism and anti-Israel rhetoric by its Student Union and members of its faculty, and for failing to adequately address antisemitism on campus. A report in the "Jewish Tribune" titled SOAS as "the School Of Anti-Semitism." In 2015, the SOAS Student Union held a referendum in which its members voted to adopt the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions agenda and boycott Israel. In a motion for a "Jewish Equality Act" passed in 2017, the Student Union voted to remove a line stating, "Jewish students should be given the right to self-determination and be able to define what constitutes hatred against their group like all other minority groups." Jewish students at SOAS have reported feeling unable to express themselves in a Jewish way, and fear hate and retribution if they wear Jewish symbols or speak Hebrew on campus. In their annual "University Extreme Speakers" report, the Henry Jackson Society claims that SOAS has been responsible for hosting 70 (16%) of the 435 events that featured extremist speakers over the past three years, putting up 43 speakers who have previously made pro-jihadi or antisemitic remarks over the past year.


title: SOAS University of London

text: In December 2020 "The Guardian" reported that SOAS refunded a student £15,000 in fees after he chose to abandon his studies as a result of the "toxic antisemitic environment" he felt had been allowed to develop on campus.


title: SOAS University of London

text: In 2018 SOAS made headlines after comedian Konstantin Kisin refused to sign a "behavioural agreement" form explaining a "no tolerance policy" with regard to racism, sexism, classism, ageism, homophobia, biphobia, xenophobia, Islamophobia, anti-religion and anti-atheism when asked to perform at a fundraising gig for UNICEF at the University. The form explained those topics were not banned, but stated the topics should be discussed in a "respectful and non-abusive way" and presented in a way that is "respectful and kind".


title: SOAS University of London

text: After Kisin refused to agree to those terms and chose not to perform, the UNICEF on Campus society at SOAS apologised and clarified they did not wish to "impose that guests would have to agree to anything they do not believe in". The SOAS Students' Union said that it did not require external speakers to sign any contract before appearances, and that the UNICEF on Campus society had been "overzealous" in interpreting the guidelines.


title: SOAS University of London

text: Justifying his actions after it was revealed Kisin had agreed to similar restrictions for a different gig in 2017, he claimed he was "absolutely certain there was nothing about religion, atheism, respect or kindness in the rules [of the 2017 contract]. Had there been, I would not have agreed."


title: SOAS University of London

text: The campus is located in the Bloomsbury area of central London, close to Russell Square. It includes College Buildings (the Philips Building and the Old Building), Brunei Gallery building, 53 Gordon Square (which houses the Doctoral School) and, since 2016, the Paul Webley Wing (the North Block of Senate House). The SOAS library designed by Sir Denys Lasdun in 1973 is located in the Philips Building. The nearest Underground station is Russell Square.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The school houses the Brunei Gallery, built from an endowment from the Sultan of Brunei Darussalam, the leader of a country whose human rights abuses are ongoing, and inaugurated by the Princess Royal, as Chancellor of the University of London, on 22 November 1995. Its facilities include exhibition space on three floors, a book shop, a lecture theatre, and conference and teaching facilities. The Brunei Gallery hosts a programme of changing contemporary and historical exhibitions from Asia, Africa and the Middle East with the aim to present and promote cultures from these regions.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The Japanese-style roof garden on top of the Brunei Gallery was built during the Japan 2001 celebrations and was opened by the sponsor, Haruhisa Handa, an Honorary Fellow of the School, on 13 November 2001.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The school hosted the Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, one of the foremost collections of Chinese ceramics in Europe. The collection has been loaned to the British Museum, where it is now on permanent display in Room 95.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The SOAS Centenary Masterplan conceived the development of two new buildings and a substantial remodelling of existing space to realign and develop the entrance and two areas within the Old Building. The cost estimates for the Centenary Masterplan settle at around £73m for the total project. The full implementation of the School's Centenary Masterplan would deliver approximately 30% additional space, approximately 1,000 sq metres.


title: SOAS University of London

text: Since its foundation, the school has had nine directors. The inaugural director was the celebrated linguist Sir Edward Denison Ross. Under the stewardship of Sir Cyril Philips, the school saw considerable growth and modernisation. Under Colin Bundy in the 2000s, the school became one of the top ranked universities both domestically and internationally. In January 2021 Professor Adam Habib became director of SOAS in place of Baroness Valerie Amos, who had taken up the position of Master at University College, Oxford.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS, University of London is divided into three faculties. These are further divided into academic departments. SOAS has many Centres and Institutes, each of which is affiliated to a particular faculty.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The Faculty of Arts and Humanities houses the departments of Anthropology & Sociology, History of Art & Archaeology, History, Music, Philosophy and Religious Studies and the Centre for Media Studies. It offers courses at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, with an emphasis on Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. A gift from the Alphawood Foundation in 2013 created the Hiram W. Woodward Chair in Southeast Asian art, the David Snellgrove Senior Lectureship in Tibetan and Buddhist art, and a Senior Lectureship in Curating and Museology of Asian Art, as well as a number of scholarships for students, making the Department of Art & Archaeology a key institution at a global level in the study of Southeast Asia. The university is also a member of the Screen Studies Group, London.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The SOAS Department of Linguistics was the first ever linguistics department in the United Kingdom, founded in 1932 as a centre for research and study in Oriental and African languages. J. R. Firth, known internationally for his work in phonology and semantics, was a Senior Lecturer, Reader and Professor of General Linguistics at the school between 1938 and 1956.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The Faculty of Law and Social Sciences houses the departments of Development Studies, Economics, Financial and Management Studies, Politics and International Studies and the School of Law, as well as the London Asia-Pacific Centre for Social Science, the Centre for Gender Studies, the Centre for International Studies and Diplomacy, the Centre of Taiwan Studies and a number of department-specific centres. It offers courses at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, many with an emphasis on Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.


title: SOAS University of London

text: One of the largest individual departments, the SOAS School of Law is one of Britain's leading law schools and the sole law school in the world focusing on the study of Asian, African and Middle Eastern legal systems. The School of Law has more than 400 students. It offers programmes at the LL.B., LL.M. and MPhil/PhD levels. International students have been a majority at all levels for many years.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The SOAS School of Law has an unrivaled concentration of expertise in the laws of Asian and African countries, human rights, transnational commercial law, environmental law, and comparative law. The SOAS School of Law was ranked 15th out of all 98 British law schools by "The Guardian" League Table in 2016.


title: SOAS University of London

text: Although many modules at SOAS embody a substantial element of English common law, all modules are taught (as much as possible) in a comparative or international manner with an emphasis on the way in which law functions in society. Thus, law studies at SOAS are broad and comparative in their orientation. All students study a significant amount of non-English law, starting in the first year of the LL.B. course, where "Legal Systems of Asia and Africa" is compulsory. Specialised modules in the laws and legal systems of particular countries and regions are also encouraged, and faculty experts conduct modules in these subjects every year.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS is a centre for the study of subjects concerned with Asia, Africa and the Middle East. It trains government officials on secondment from around the world in Asian, African and Middle Eastern languages and area studies, particularly in Arabic & Islamic Studies – which combined with Hebrew formed the major bulk of classical Oriental Studies in Europe – and Mandarin Chinese. It also acts as a consultant to government departments and to companies such as Accenture and Deloitte – when they seek to gain specialist knowledge of the matters concerning Asia, Africa and the Middle East.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The school is made up of nineteen departments across three faculties: Arts and Humanities, Languages and Cultures, and Law and Social Sciences. The school focuses on small group teaching with a student-staff ratio of 11:1, one of the lowest in the UK.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The SOAS library is a library for Asian, African and Middle Eastern studies. It houses more than 1.2 million volumes and electronic resources for the study of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and attracts scholars from all over the world. The library was designated by HEFCE in 2011 as one of the UK's five National Research Libraries.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The library is housed in the Philips Building on the Russell Square campus and was built in 1973. It was designed by architect Sir Denys Lasdun, who also designed some of Britain's most famous brutalist buildings such as the National Theatre and the Institute of Education.


title: SOAS University of London

text: In 2010/11 the library underwent a £12 million modernisation programme, known as "the Library Transformation Project". The work refurbished the ground floor of the library and created new reception and entrance areas, new music practice rooms, group study rooms and a gallery exhibition space.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS being a constituent college of the University of London, its students also have access to Senate House Library, shared by other colleges such as London School of Economics and University College London, which is located just a short walk from the Russell Square campus.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The 2022 QS World University Rankings placed SOAS 10th in the world for Anthropology and 15th for Politics. The 2022 rankings placed it 2nd globally for Development Studies and 67th for Arts & Humanities. SOAS ranked 21 globally for International Students and 48 for International Faculty in the 2021 QS World University Rankings. It is ranked 391 in QS Global World Rankings 2022.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS's Department of Financial and Management Studies (DeFiMS) is ranked in the top-ten for Business Studies in the 2013 Complete University Guide's League Table. The research strength of the department has been previously recognised by the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) where 90 per cent was rated as internationally recognised, internationally excellent or world leading quality.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The results of the 2008 United Kingdom RAE took the form of profiles spread across four grade levels. Hence, there are different ways to present them and to rank the departments. In their published tables, the Times Higher and The Guardian Education chose to use an average of the profile or GPA (Grade Point Average); both rankings placed the SOAS Department of Anthropology equal second, ranking just behind Cambridge with LSE. According to the 2008 United Kingdom Research Assessment Exercise, SOAS is the national leader in the study of Asia.


title: SOAS University of London

text: A range of scholarships and awards support SOAS degree programmes, with an application process based either on academic merit or with a focus on supporting students from specific countries or connected with particular areas of study, as well as some bursaries addressing students' financial needs.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS publishes academic journals such as "The China Quarterly,""Bulletin of the School of Oriental & African Studies" and "SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research."


title: SOAS University of London

text: In , there were undergraduate students In 2012, 41% of students were over 21 and 60% were female. According to the QS World University Rankings, SOAS hosts international students from 140 countries.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS is renowned for its political scene and radical socialist politics, and was voted the most politically active university in the UK in the Which?University 2012. Recent campaigns include students for social change, women's liberty and justice for cleaners. The SOAS Marxist Society holds frequent events and encourages student voter registration.


title: SOAS University of London

text: Located in the heart of Bloomsbury, many University of London schools and institutes are close by, including Birkbeck, the Institute of Education, London Business School, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Veterinary College, the School of Advanced Study, Senate House Library and University College London.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS has multiple smaller sports teams competing in a variety of local and national leagues, as well as occasional international tournaments. SOAS clubs compete in inter-university fixtures in the British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) competition in a range of sports, including basketball, football, hockey, netball, rugby union and tennis. SOAS also participates in an annual North London Varsity tournament against London Metropolitan University.


title: SOAS University of London

text: The primary accommodation for undergraduates is Dinwiddy House, which is located on Pentonville Road. This contains 510 single en-suite rooms arranged in small cluster flats of around six rooms each. The halls are located within minutes of King's Cross St Pancras tube station and the Vernon Square campus.


title: SOAS University of London

text: A few minutes walk from Dinwiddy House and also on the Pentonville Road is Paul Robeson House, the second hall of residence. This was opened in 1998, and is named after the African-American musician Paul Robeson who studied at SOAS in the 1930s. This accommodation is occupied by postgraduate students, and those attending the international SOAS Summer schools.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS students are eligible to apply for places in the University of London intercollegiate halls of residence. The majority of these are based in Bloomsbury such as Canterbury Hall, Commonwealth Hall, College Hall, Connaught Hall, Hughes Parry Hall, International Hall and International Students House, while further afield are Nutford House in Marble Arch and Lillian Penson Hall in Paddington. A number of SOAS postgraduate students also apply for student accommodation at Goodenough College.


title: SOAS University of London

text: SOAS alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government and politics. These include Sultan Salahuddin, King of Malaysia (1999–2001), Mette-Marit, Crown Princess of Norway, Princess Ayşe Gülnev Sultan, descendant of Mehmed V Reşâd, 35th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, John Atta Mills, former President of Ghana, Luisa Diogo, former Prime Minister of Mozambique, Bülent Ecevit, former Prime Minister of Turkey.


title: SOAS University of London

text: Around the world, several national leaders and political figures are alumni: Aung San Suu Kyi, Nobel Peace Prize laureate and First and incumbent State Counsellor of Myanmar, Zairil Khir Johari, Member of the Malaysian Parliament, Amal Pepple, Minister of Lands, Housing and Urban Development in Nigeria, Aaron Mike Oquaye, Speaker of Parliament and former Minister of Communication in Ghana, Hüseyin Çelik, Turkish Minister of Education, Femi Fani-Kayode, former Nigerian Minister of Culture and Tourism and former Minister of Aviation, Kraisak Choonhavan, Former Senator in Thailand, Samia Nkrumah, Hammad Azhar, Former Pakistan Minister for Economic Affairs and Minister for Industries and Production, Ghanaian Member of Parliament and Mohamed Jameel Ahmed, 4th Vice President of the Maldives. In British politics, several current and former Members of Parliament are alumni: David Lammy, Catherine West, Tim Yeo, Ivor Stanbrook, Sir Ray Whitney, Enoch Powell.


title: Troll (film)

text: Troll is a 1986 American horror comedy film directed by John Carl Buechler and produced by Charles Band of Empire Pictures, starring Noah Hathaway, Michael Moriarty, Shelley Hack, Jenny Beck, and Sonny Bono.


title: Troll (film)

text: The Potter family – Harry Sr. and Anne with teenage son Harry Jr. and young daughter Wendy – move into a new apartment complex in San Francisco. While unpacking, Wendy is attacked by a grotesque little creature wielding a magic ring. The troll captures Wendy and takes on her appearance. After meeting the other eccentric tenants, the family notices Wendy's unusual and aggressive behavior, but they attribute her behavior to the stress of the move. The troll goes from apartment to apartment transforming the tenants into fairy tale creatures (such as goblins, nymphs and elves) and their apartments into lush forests. Concerned by his sister's behavior, Harry Jr. seeks solace in the company of a mysterious older woman named Eunice St. Clair, who reveals herself to be a witch. Long ago, she and a powerful wizard named Torok were in love. At that time, the world was divided between fairies and humans. The realms were equal and independent of each other; however, Torok and some of the fairies challenged this balance, resulting in a great war in which the humans prevailed. Torok was mutated into a troll as punishment.


title: Troll (film)

text: Torok seeks to regain his power, destroy humanity and recreate the fairy tale world he had once lived in. As Torok requires a princess, he is keeping Wendy alive. Eunice and Harry Jr. discover that all the apartments have been transformed into a part of the magical world. Eunice gives Harry Jr. a magic spear capable of killing the largest and most vicious creature in this world. Eunice is attacked by Torok and mutated into a tree stump, and Harry finds his sister trapped in a coffin of glass. Harry Jr. saves Wendy, but loses the magic spear when Torok's great batlike monster attacks.


title: Troll (film)

text: Before the monster can kill Harry Jr. and Wendy, Torok kills it himself to spare Wendy, destroying his carefully constructed fairy realm. As the magic world collapses around them, Harry Jr. and his family are given a chance to escape, leaving just as the police arrive. Eunice is restored to normal as well as she bids Harry farewell and departs. As the police investigate the house, one of them is drawn into a remaining fragment of the alternate fairy world. Torok's arm rises into view, preparing to use his ring on the cop.


title: Troll (film)

text: The film was shot back-to-back with Empire Pictures' "TerrorVision" in Italy, at the Stabilimenti Cinematografici Pontini studios near Rome. Many of the same crew worked on both productions, including Buechler as creature effects designer, Romano Albani as cinematographer, and Richard Band as composer. The two films were released a month apart from each other in the United States.


title: Troll (film)

text: The estimated budget for "Troll" was between $700,000 and $1.1 million. "Troll" opened in the U.S. on January 17, 1986, on 959 screens, earning $2,595,054 that weekend, and placing ninth on the box office charts.


title: Troll (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 30% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 3.67/10. On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 30 out of 100, based on 5 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Troll (film)

text: Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote: ""Troll" has a knowing tone that's more smart-alecky than clever. And it hovers uncomfortably between comedy and horror, without ever landing decisively in either camp". Variety gave the film a mixed review and called it a "predictable, dim-witted premise executed for the most part with surprising style". Patrick Goldstein of the Los Angeles Times described it as "a clunky, poorly executed shocker".


title: Troll (film)

text: "Troll"s plot has no relation to the film "Troll 2" or the two "Troll 3" films, which are intended to be more horror than fantasy. Its first "sequel", "Troll 2", produced under the title "Goblins", is considered one of the worst films of all time, and was retitled "Troll 2" to cash in on the success of the original. Over time, it has developed a cult following.


title: Troll (film)

text: The films "Creepers" (also known as "Contamination .7" or "The Crawlers") and "Quest for the Mighty Sword" (also known as "Ator IV", "Ator III: The Hobgoblin", or "Hobgoblins") both adopted the name "Troll 3" at some point as an alternate title, despite neither having a plot relation to the two previous "Troll" films, with the exception that the Hobgoblin in "Quest" does resemble the Goblins in "Troll 2".


title: Troll (film)

text: In August 2011, rumors circulated of another sequel. In July 2015, plans for a prequel were reported, titled "Troll: The Rise of Harry Potter Jr.", along with an animated series. The film, starring Patricia Arquette and Baxter Bartlett, was supposed to be released in 2017, with the animated series broadcast in 2018.


title: Troll (film)

text: In the mid-2000s, plans were announced for a remake with Buechler again directing. Script samples were made available online, with actors encouraged to film auditions and submit them. In 2009, Uriah Shelton was attached to play Harry Potter Jr., and Noah Hathaway was set to make an appearance as a human Torok. Issues with financing, largely because of legal issues involving the use of the name "Harry Potter", led to long delays, and Buechler's cancer diagnosis ultimately led to the project being cancelled.


title: Troll (film)

text: "Troll" was released on a double feature DVD with "Troll 2" by MGM on August 26, 2003. Scream Factory released a double feature Blu-ray of "Troll" and "Troll 2" on November 17, 2015. The first 5,000 copies included a DVD of "Best Worst Movie", the documentary about the production and legacy of "Troll 2".


title: Troll (film)

text: Since the release of the "Harry Potter" books starting in 1997, some of those involved in the film have accused J. K. Rowling of "borrowing" elements from "Troll". Producer Charles Band stated in an interview that "there are certain scenes in "Troll", not to mention the name of the main character, which predate the "Harry Potter" books by many years". In 2008, John Buechler's partner in the "Troll" remake, Peter Davy, said about "Harry Potter": "In John's opinion, he created the first "Harry Potter". J. K. Rowling says the idea just came to her. John doesn't think so".


title: Serac

text: A serac (from Swiss French "sérac") is a block or column of glacial ice, often formed by intersecting crevasses on a glacier. Commonly house-sized or larger, they are dangerous to mountaineers, since they may topple with little warning. Even when stabilized by persistent cold weather, they can be an impediment to glacier travel.


title: Serac

text: Seracs are found within an icefall, often in large numbers, or on ice faces on the lower edge of a hanging glacier. Notable examples of the overhanging glacier edge type are well-known obstacles on some of the world's highest mountains, including K2 at "The Bottleneck" and Kanchenjunga on the border of India and Nepal. Significant seracs in the Alps are found on the northeast face of Piz Roseg, the north face of the Dent d'Hérens, and the north face of Lyskamm.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Cat coat genetics determine the coloration, pattern, length, and texture of feline fur. Understanding how can be challenging because many genes are involved. The variations among cat coats are physical properties and should not be confused with cat breeds. A cat may display the coat of a certain breed without actually being that breed. For example, a Siberian could wear point coloration, the stereotypical coat of a Siamese.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The browning gene "B/b/b" codes for TYRP1 (), an enzyme involved in the metabolic pathway for eumelanin pigment production. Its dominant form, "B", will produce black eumelanin. It has two recessive variants, "b" (chocolate) and "b" (cinnamon), with "b" being recessive to both "B" and "b". Chocolate is a rich dark brown color, and is referred to as chestnut in some breeds. Cinnamon is a light reddish brown, but is sometimes not reddish at all.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The sex-linked "Orange" locus, "O/o", determines whether a cat will produce eumelanin. In cats with orange fur, phaeomelanin (red pigment) completely replaces eumelanin (black or brown pigment). This gene is located on the X chromosome. The orange allele is O, and is codominant with non-orange, o. Males can typically only be orange or non-orange due to only having one X chromosome. Since females have two X chromosomes, they have two alleles of this gene. OO results in orange fur, oo results in fur without any orange (black, brown, etc.), and Oo results in a tortoiseshell cat, in which some parts of the fur are orange and others areas non-orange. Male tortoiseshell cats are known to exist, but, as expected from the genetics involved, they are rare and often exhibit chromosomal abnormalities. In one study, less than a third of male calicos had a simple XXY Klinefelter's karyotype, slightly more than a third were complicated XXY mosaics, and about a third had no XXY component at all.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: This color is known as red by breeders. Other names include yellow, ginger, and marmalade. Red show cats have a deep orange color, but it can also present as a yellow or light ginger color. Unidentified "rufousing polygenes" are theorized to be the reason for this variance.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: "Orange" is epistatic to "nonagouti", so all red cats are tabbies. "Solid" red show cats are usually low contrast ticked tabbies.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The precise identity of the gene at the "Orange" locus is unknown. It has been narrowed down to a 3.5 Mb stretch on the X chromosome in 2009.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The "Dense pigment" gene, "D/d", codes for melanophilin ("MLPH"; ), a protein involved in the transportation and deposition of pigment into a growing hair. When a cat has two of the recessive "d" alleles (Maltese dilution), black fur becomes "blue" (appearing gray), chocolate fur becomes "lilac" (appearing light, almost grayish brown), cinnamon fur becomes fawn, and red fur becomes cream. The "d" allele is a single-base deletion that truncates the protein. If the cat has d/d genes, the coat is diluted. If the genes are D/D or D/d, the coat will be unaffected.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Tabby cats are striped due to the agouti gene. Their stripes have an even distribution of pigment, while the background is made up of banded hairs. Tabby cats usually show the following traits:


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The "Agouti" gene, with its dominant "A" allele and recessive "a" allele, controls the coding for agouti signaling protein (ASIP; ). The wild-type "A" produces the agouti shift phenomenon, which causes hairs to be banded with black and an orangish/reddish brown, this revealing the underlying tabby pattern (which is determined by the "T" alleles at the separate tabby gene). The "non-agouti" or "hypermelanistic" allele, "a", does not initiate this shift in the pigmentation pathway and so homozygotes "aa" have pigment production throughout the entire growth cycle of the hair—along its full length. As a result, the non-agouti genotype (aa) is solid and has no obvious tabby pattern (sometimes a suggestion of the underlying pattern, called "ghost striping", can be seen, especially in bright slanted light on kittens and on the legs, tail and sometimes elsewhere on adults). "Agouti" is found on chromosome A3.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: A major exception to the solid masking of the tabby pattern exists: the "O" allele of the "O/o" locus is epistatic over the "aa" genotype. That is, in red or cream colored cats, tabby striping is displayed despite the genotype at the agouti locus.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: However, some red cats and most cream cats show a fainter tabby pattern when they have no agouti allele to allow full expression of their tabby alleles. That is, in genetically red cats ("O" males and "OO" and "Oo" females) the "aa" does still have an effect, especially in dilute coats (when having "dd" genotype at the D gene locus), where the tabby pattern is sometimes not expressed except on the extremities.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The "Tabby" gene on chromosome A1 accounts for most tabby patterns seen in domestic cats, including those patterns seen in most breeds. The dominant allele "Ta" produces mackerel tabbies, and the recessive "Ta" produce classic (sometimes referred to as blotched) tabbies. The gene responsible for this differential patterning has been identified as "transmembrane aminopeptidase Q" ("Taqpep", ). A threonine to asparagine substitution at residue 139 (T139N) in this protein is responsible for producing the tabby phenotype in domestic cats. In cheetahs, a base pair insertion into exon 20 of the protein replaces the 16 C-terminal residues with 109 new ones (N977Kfs110), generating the king cheetah coat variant.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The wild-type (in African wildcats) is the mackerel tabby (stripes look like thin fishbones and may break up into bars or spots), the most common variant is the "classic" tabby pattern (broad bands, whorls, and spirals of dark color on pale background usually with bulls-eye or oyster pattern on flank). The classic tabby is most common in Iran, Great Britain and in lands that were once part of the British Empire and Persian Empire.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Spotted tabbies have their stripes broken up into spots, which may be arranged vertically or horizontally. A 2010 study suggests that spotted coats are caused by the modification of mackerel stripes, and may cause varying phenotypes such as "broken mackerel" tabbies via multiple loci. If the genes are Sp/Sp or Sp/sp the tabby coat will be spotted or broken. If it is an sp/sp gene, the tabby pattern will remain either mackerel or blotched. This gene has no effect on cats with a ticked coat.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The "Ticked" ("Ti") locus on chromosome B1 controls the generation of ticked coats, a non-patterned agouti coat having virtually no stripes or bars but still considered a tabby coat. Ticked tabbies are rare in the random-bred population, but fixed in certain breeds such as the Abyssinian and Singapura. "Ti" is the dominant allele that produces ticked coats; "Ti" is the recessive one. The causative gene for ticked tabby markings is "Dickkopf-related protein 4" ("DKK4"). Two different alleles are responsible for the "Ti" ticked tabby phenotype: a cysteine to tyrosine substitution at residue 63 (C63Y) and an alanine to valine substitution at residue 18 (A18V). Both variants are present in the Abyssinian breed, and the A18V variant is found in the Burmese breed. Stripes often remain to some extent on the face, tail, legs, and sometimes the chest ("bleeding through"). Traditionally, this has been thought to happen in heterozygotes ("TiTi") but be nearly or completely nonexistent in homozygotes ("TiTi"). The ticked tabby allele is epistatic to and therefore completely (or mostly) masks all the other tabby alleles, “hiding” the patterns they would otherwise express.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: It was once thought that "Ti" was an allele of the "Tabby" gene, called "T", dominant to all other alleles at the locus.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Tortoiseshells have patches of orange fur (pheomelanin based) and black or brown (eumelanin based) fur, caused by X-inactivation. Because this requires two X chromosomes, the vast majority of tortoiseshells are female, with approximately 1 in 3,000 being male. Male tortoiseshells can occur as a result of chromosomal abnormalities such as Klinefelter syndrome, by mosaicism, or by a phenomenon known as chimerism, where two early stage embryos are merged into a single kitten.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Tortoiseshells with a relatively small amount of white spotting are known as "tortoiseshell and white", while those with a larger amount are known in North America as calicos. Calicos are also known as tricolor cats, "mi-ke" (meaning "triple fur") in Japanese, and "lapjeskat" (meaning "patches cat") in Dutch. The factor that distinguishes tortoiseshell from calico is the pattern of eumelanin and pheomelanin, which is partly dependent on the amount of white, due to an effect of the white spotting gene on the general distribution of melanin. A cat which has both an orange and non-orange gene, Oo, and little to no white spotting, will present with a mottled blend of red/cream and black/blue, reminiscent of tortoiseshell material, and is called a tortoiseshell cat. An Oo cat with a large amount of white will have bigger, clearly defined patches of red/cream and black/blue, and is called a calico. With intermediate amounts of white, a cat may exhibit a calico pattern, a tortie pattern, or something in between, depending on other epigenetic factors. Diluted calico cats with lighter coloration are sometimes called calimanco or clouded tiger.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: A true tricolor must consist of three colors: white, a red-based color like ginger or cream, and black-based color like black or blue. Tricolor should not be mistaken for the natural gradations in a tabby pattern. The shades which are present in the pale bands of a tabby are not considered to constitute a separate color.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: White spotting and epistatic white (also known as dominant white) were long thought to be two separate genes, but in fact they are both on the KIT gene. White spotting can take many forms, from a small spot of white to the mostly-white pattern of the Turkish Van, while epistatic white produces a fully white cat. The Birman-specific recessive "gloving" trait is also located on the KIT gene.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The colorpoint pattern is most commonly associated with Siamese cats, but may also appear in any domesticated cat. A colorpointed cat has dark colors on the face, ears, feet, and tail, with a lighter version of the same color on the rest of the body, and possibly some white. The exact name of the colorpoint pattern depends on the actual color. A few examples are seal points (dark brown to black), chocolate points (warm, lighter brown), blue points (gray), lilac or frost points (silvery gray-pink), red or flame points (orange), and tortie (tortoiseshell mottling) points. This pattern is the result of a temperature sensitive mutation in one of the enzymes in the metabolic pathway from tyrosine to pigment, such as melanin; thus, little or no pigment is produced except in the extremities or points where the skin is slightly cooler. For this reason, colorpointed cats tend to darken with age as bodily temperature drops; also, the fur over a significant injury may sometimes darken or lighten as a result of temperature change. More specifically, the "albino" locus contains the gene "TYR" ().


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Although the Siamese colorpoint pattern is the most famous coloration produced by "TYR", there are color mutations at the locus. "C" is the wildtype allele resulting in full pigmentation and is completely dominant to all other known alleles at the locus. "c" is the allele associated with the Siamese colorpoint pattern. "c" is an allele most associated with Burmese cats and produces a pattern similar to the Siamese colorpoint, but with a much lower contrast. This phenotype is known as sepia. "c" and "c" are codominant, with "c"/"c" cats having an intermediate phenotype termed mink. "c" and c2 are two synonymous alleles recessive to all other alleles at the locus that cause albinism. "c" is a novel mutation in Burmese cats that results in a color pattern named mocha. Its interactions with other alleles have not yet been fully established.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The tyrosine pathway also produces neurotransmitters, thus mutations in the early parts of that pathway may affect not only pigment, but also neurological development. This results in a higher frequency of cross-eyes among colorpointed cats, as well as the high frequency of cross-eyes in white tigers.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Two distinct alleles causing blue-eyed and pink-eyed albinism respectively have been previously theorized.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The silver series is caused by the "Melanin inhibitor" gene "I/i". The dominant form causes melanin production to be suppressed, but it affects phaeomelanin (red pigment) much more than eumelanin (black or brown pigment). On tabbies, this turns the background a sparkling silver color while leaving the stripe color intact, making a silver tabby. On solid cats, it turns the base of the hair pale, making them silver smoke.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Silver agouti cats can have a range of phenotypes, from silver tabby, to silver shaded (under half the hair is pigmented), to tipped silver/chinchilla (only the very tip of the hair is pigmented). This seems to be affected by hypothetical "wide band" factors, which make the silver band at the base of the hair wider. Breeders often notate wide band as a single gene "Wb/wb", but it is most likely a polygenic trait.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: If a cat has the wide band trait but no inhibitor, the band will be golden instead of silver. These cats are known as golden tabbies. Shaded golden and tipped golden are also possible. However, there is no golden smoke, because the combination of wide band and nonagouti simply produces a solid cat.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The genetics involved in producing the ideal tabby, , shaded, or smoke cat is complex. Not only are there many interacting genes, but genes sometimes do not express themselves fully, or conflict with one another. For example, the melanin inhibitor gene in some instances does not block pigment, resulting in a grayer undercoat, or in tarnishing (yellowish or rusty fur). The greyer undercoat is less desirable to fanciers.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Likewise, poorly-expressed non-agouti or over-expression of melanin inhibitor will cause a pale, washed out black smoke. Various polygenes (sets of related genes), epigenetic factors, or modifier genes, as yet unidentified, are believed to result in different phenotypes of coloration, some deemed more desirable than others by fanciers.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Fever coat is an effect known in domestic cats, where a pregnant female cat has a fever or is stressed, causing her unborn kittens' fur to develop a silver-type color (silver-grey, cream, or reddish) rather than what the kitten's genetics would normally cause. After birth, over some weeks the silver fur is replaced naturally by fur colors according to the kitten's genetics.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: Cat fur length is governed by the "Length" gene in which the dominant form, "L", codes for short hair, and the recessive "l" codes for long hair. In the longhaired cat, the transition from anagen (hair growth) to catagen (cessation of hair growth) is delayed due to this mutation. A rare recessive shorthair gene has been observed in some lines of Persian cat (silvers) where two longhaired parents have produced shorthaired offspring.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: The "Length" gene has been identified as the fibroblast growth factor 5 (FGF5; ) gene. The dominant allele codes for the short coat is seen in most cats. Long coats are coded for by at least four different recessively inherited mutations, the alleles of which have been identified. The most ubiquitous is found in most or all long haired breeds while the remaining three are found only in Ragdolls, Norwegian Forest Cats, and Maine Coons.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: There have been many genes identified that result in unusual cat fur. These genes were discovered in random-bred cats and selected for. Some of the genes are in danger of going extinct because the cats are not sold beyond the region where the mutation originated or there is simply not enough demand for cats expressing the mutation.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: In many breeds, coat gene mutations are unwelcome. An example is the rex allele which appeared in Maine Coons in the early 1990s. Rexes appeared in America, Germany and the UK, where one breeder caused consternation by calling them "Maine Waves". Two UK breeders did test mating which indicated that this was probably a new rex mutation and that it was recessive. The density of the hair was similar to normally coated Maine Coons, but consisted only of down type hairs with a normal down type helical curl, which varied as in normal down hairs. Whiskers were more curved, but not curly. Maine Coons do not have awn hairs, and after moulting, the rexes had a very thin coat.


title: Cat coat genetics

text: There are various genes producing curly-coated or "rex" cats. New types of rex arise spontaneously in random-bred cats now and then. Some of the rex genes that breeders have selected for are:


title: Dizzy Reed

text: Darren Arthur Reed (born June 18, 1963), better known by his stage name Dizzy Reed, is an American musician and occasional actor. He is best known as the keyboardist for the hard rock band Guns N' Roses, with whom he has played, toured, and recorded since 1990.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: Aside from lead singer Axl Rose, Reed is the longest-standing member of Guns N' Roses, and was the only member of the band to remain from their "Use Your Illusion" era until the 2016 return of guitarist Slash and bass guitarist Duff McKagan.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: In 2012, Reed was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Guns N' Roses, although he did not attend the ceremony. He was also a member of the Australian-American supergroup The Dead Daisies with his Guns N' Roses bandmate Richard Fortus, ex-Whitesnake member Marco Mendoza, ex-Mötley Crüe frontman John Corabi and session drummer Brian Tichy.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: Reed was born as Darren Arthur Reed on June 18, 1963 in Hinsdale, Illinois, and was raised in Colorado. Reed was described as reclusive and introverted, however he has since denied this. His grandmother began teaching him to play the organ when he was a young child, and before he was out of elementary school, he formed small local bands.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: As an adult, Reed pursued a music career in Los Angeles. He was a founding member of the club band The Wild in the late 1980s, with whom he spent five years.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: Reed met the classic lineup of Guns N' Roses in 1985 while his band, The Wild, rehearsed in a neighboring studio. He kept in touch, and in 1990 was invited by friend Axl Rose to join their tour and subsequently for the recording of the two "Use Your Illusion" albums.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: Reed soon became an accepted member of the group and appeared on every album from "Use Your Illusion I" onward. As a member of Guns N' Roses, Reed has become well known for his keyboard, piano, and backing vocal work on such songs as "Estranged", "Live and Let Die", "November Rain", "Garden of Eden", "Civil War", "Yesterdays", and "Knockin' On Heaven's Door". In addition to playing keyboards or piano, Reed frequently provides backup on percussion and vocals during live Guns N' Roses performances of older songs, such as "Mr Brownstone", "Nightrain", "Welcome to the Jungle" and "Rocket Queen".


title: Dizzy Reed

text: Reed continues to record and play live with the current Guns N' Roses line-up, and has now been a member of Guns N' Roses longer than any other member besides Axl Rose. Although Reed did not co-write any songs during the Illusion sessions, for "Chinese Democracy" he co-wrote "Chinese Democracy", "Catcher in the Rye", "Street of Dreams", "There Was a Time", "I.R.S", and "Oh My God". It has also been confirmed that the unfinished demo that did not make the cut on "Chinese Democracy" called "Silkworms" was written by Reed himself and the band's other keyboardist Chris Pitman. The song was re-worked and released as a single under the title "ABSUЯD" in 2021.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: Outside of Guns N' Roses, Reed played on albums for his former bandmates Slash, Duff McKagan, and Gilby Clarke. He also guested on former Guns N' Roses bassist Tommy Stinson's 2004 solo effort "Village Gorilla Head". Reed is additionally a fan of Larry Norman, a pioneer of Christian music, and played on Norman's "Copper Wires" album. Most recently, he has composed music for the film scores "The Still Life", released in 2006, and "Celebrity Art Show" (2008). His debut solo album will be released on February 16, 2018.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: When he is not touring or recording with Guns N' Roses, Reed frequently tours with his hard rock cover band Hookers N' Blow, in which he plays keyboard and guitar and occasionally sings lead vocals. For his work with Hookers N' Blow, Reed was named Outstanding Keyboardist of the Year at the 2007 Rock City Awards ("Rockies"). Hookers N' Blow was also named Best Cover Band.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: Reed was a member of The Dead Daisies alongside Guns N' Roses guitarist Richard Fortus, both left the band in 2015 to focus on Guns N' Roses.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: Reed played keyboard on the 2019 album “You’re Welcome” by Cokie The Clown, a solo effort by NOFX frontman Fat Mike.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: Reed was married for 20 years to wife Lisa, an author, and special education teacher. They divorced in 2010. They have two daughters; Skye, born in 1992 and Shade born in 1996. He also has a daughter named Megan and one son (Justin Gunn-Reed born in 1988) from a previous relationship. In 2017, he also had a grandson, Riley, who is Morgan's son.


title: Dizzy Reed

text: In 2005, Reed took the unusual step of seeking admission to a college fraternity well after the traditional age of inductees, and on January 22, 2006 was admitted to the Cornell University chapter of Zeta Psi.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: The Crown Colony of Jamaica and Dependencies was a British colony from 1655, when it was captured by the English Protectorate from the Spanish Empire. Jamaica became a British colony from 1707 and a Crown colony in 1866. The Colony was primarily used for sugarcane production, and experienced many slave rebellions over the course of British rule. Jamaica was granted independence in 1962.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In late 1654, English leader Oliver Cromwell launched the "Western Design" armada against Spain's colonies in the Caribbean. In April 1655, General Robert Venables led the armada in an attack on Spain's fort at Santo Domingo, Hispaniola. However, the Spanish repulsed this poorly-executed attack, known as the Siege of Santo Domingo, and the English troops were soon decimated by disease.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Weakened by fever and looking for an easy victory following their defeat at Santo Domingo, the English force then sailed for Jamaica, the only Spanish West Indies island that did not have new defensive works. Spanish Jamaica had been a colony of Spain for over a hundred years. In May 1655, around 7,000 English soldiers landed near Jamaica's Spanish Town capital. The English invasion force soon overwhelmed the small number of Spanish troops (at the time, Jamaica's entire population only numbered around 2,500).


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In the following years, Spain repeatedly attempted to recapture Jamaica, and in response in 1657 the English Governor of Jamaica invited buccaneers to base themselves at Port Royal on Jamaica, to help defend against Spanish attacks. Spain never recaptured Jamaica, losing the Battle of Ocho Rios in 1657 and the Battle of Rio Nuevo in 1658. Governor Edward D'Oyley succeeded in persuading one of the leaders of the Spanish Maroons, Juan de Bolas, to switch sides and join the English along with his Maroon warriors. In 1660, when Don Cristobal de Ysasi realised that de Bolas had joined the English, he admitted that the Spanish no longer had a chance of recapturing the island, since de Bolas and his men knew the mountainous interior better than the Spanish and the English. Ysasi gave up on his dreams, and fled to Cuba.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: For England, Jamaica was to be the 'dagger pointed at the heart of the Spanish Empire,' although in fact it was a possession of little economic value then.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Despite the fact that Jamaica was an English colony, Cromwell increased the island's white population by sending indentured servants and prisoners captured in battles with the Irish and Scots, as well as some common criminals.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: This practice was continued under Charles II, and the white population was also augmented by immigrants from the North American mainland and other islands, as well as by the English buccaneers. But tropical diseases kept the number of whites well under 10,000 until about 1740. The white population increased, through migration from Britain, to 80,000 in the 1780s.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Although the slave population in the 1670s and 1680s never exceeded roughly 9,500, by the end of the seventeenth century imports of slaves increased the black population to at least three times the number of whites.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Beginning with the Stuart monarchy's appointment of a civil governor to Jamaica in 1661, political patterns were established that lasted well into the twentieth century. The second governor, Lord Windsor, brought with him in 1662 a proclamation from the king giving Jamaica's non-slave populace the rights of English citizens, including the right to make their own laws. Although he spent only ten weeks in Jamaica, Lord Windsor laid the foundations of a governing system that was to last for two centuries: a Crown-appointed governor acting with the advice of a nominated council in the legislature. The legislature consisted of the governor and an elected but highly unrepresentative House of Assembly.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: England gained formal possession of Jamaica from Spain in 1670 through the Treaty of Madrid. Removing the pressing need for constant defence against Spanish attack, this change served as an incentive to planting. For years, however, the planter-dominated Jamaica House of Assembly was in continual conflict with the various governors and the Stuart kings; there were also contentious factions within the assembly itself. For much of the 1670s and 1680s, Charles II and James II and the assembly feuded over such matters as the purchase of slaves from ships not run by the royal English trading company.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: The last Stuart governor, the Duke of Albemarle, who was more interested in treasure hunting than in planting, turned the planter oligarchy out of office. After the duke's death in 1688, the planters, who had fled Jamaica to London, succeeded in lobbying James II to order a return to the pre-Albemarle political arrangement and the revolution that brought William III and Mary to the throne in 1689 confirmed the local control of Jamaican planters belonging to the Assembly.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: This settlement also improved the supply of slaves and resulted in more protection, including military support, for the planters against foreign competition. This was of particular importance during the Anglo-French War in the Caribbean from 1689 to 1713. However, even though the Spaniards no longer threatened Jamaica, the early English settlers had to ward off attacks from the French. In 1694, Jean-Baptiste du Casse led a force of three warships and 29 transport ships that landed at Port Morant in eastern Jamaica, where they burnt plantations, destroyed over 50 sugar-works, kidnapped hundreds of slaves, and killed and tortured many white colonists. Du Casse then sailed down the southern coast, eventually landing at Carlisle Bay, with the object of marching on to Spanish Town. However, a militia company of planters and their slaves defeated du Casse, who then destroyed Carlisle Bay, and withdrew to St Domingue.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: When the English captured Jamaica in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled. Since 1512, though slavery was forbidden due to the laws of Burgos there were no more than 400 African "free" workers living in the island. These former Spanish citizens created three "Palenques", or settlements. Former citizens organised under the leadership of Juan de Serras allied with the Spanish guerrillas on the western end of the Cockpit Country, while those under Juan de Bolas established themselves in modern-day Clarendon Parish, Jamaica and served as a "black militia" for the English. The third chose to join those who had previously escaped from the Spanish to live and intermarry with the Arawak people. Each group of Jamaican Maroons established distinct communities of Free black people in Jamaica in the mountainous interior. They survived by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations. Over time, the Maroons came to control large areas of the Jamaican interior.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In the second half of the seventeenth century, de Serras fought regular campaigns against the English forces, even attacking the capital of Spanish Town, and he was never defeated by the English. In the early eighteenth century, Maroon forces frequently defeated the British in small-scale skirmishes. In response, the British colonial authorities dispatched the colonial militia to attack them, but the Maroons successfully fought a guerrilla campaign against them in the mountainous interior, and forced the colonial authorities to seek peace terms to end the expensive conflict.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In the early eighteenth century, English-speaking escaped Akan slaves (hailing originally from West Africa, specifically Ghana) were at the forefront of the Maroon fighting against the British. Cudjoe (or "Kojo" in the original Akan) led the Leeward Maroons in western Jamaica, while Quao (or "Yaw" in the original Akan) and Queen Nanny were the leaders of the Windward Maroons in the Blue Mountains of eastern Jamaica. The rebellion finally ended, however, with the signing of peace agreements in 1739 and 1740.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: White planters later tried to sew seeds of division among Maroon communities by pressuring them to re-capture any escaped slaves, and to protect British property in exchange for no longer being attacked by British forces. Although a small faction of the Maroons of Trelawny Town accepted these conditions (and were later re-captured and sold back into slavery, to be shipped off to Cuba and the American state of Georgia), overwhelmingly Maroon communities remained bastions of hope and freedom for escapees. Maroon warfare and continued successful attacks on plantations continued to serve as a driving force behind Britain's decision to emancipate the colony of Jamaica in later years.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Spanish resistance continued for some years after the English conquest, in some cases with the help of the Jamaican Maroons, but Spain never succeeded in retaking the island. The English established their main coastal town at Port Royal.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Under early English rule, Jamaica became a haven of privateers, buccaneers, and occasionally outright pirates: Christopher Myngs, Edward Mansvelt, and most famously, Henry Morgan.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In addition to being unable to retake their land, Spain was no longer able to provide their colonies in the New World with manufactured goods on a regular basis. The progressive irregularity of annual Spanish fleets, combined with an increasing desperation by colonies for manufactured goods, allowed Port Royal to flourish and by 1659, two hundred houses, shops, and warehouses surrounded the fort. Merchants and privateers worked together in what is now referred to as "forced trade." Merchants would sponsor trading endeavors with the Spanish while sponsoring privateers to attack Spanish ships and rob Spanish coastal towns.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: While the merchants most certainly had the upper hand, the privateers were an integral part of the operation. Nuala Zahedieh, a lecturer at the University of Edinburgh, wrote, "Both opponents and advocates of so-called 'forced trade' declared the town’s fortune had the dubious distinction of being founded entirely on the servicing of the privateers' needs and highly lucrative trade in prize commodities." She added, "A report that the 300 men who accompanied Henry Morgan to Portobello in 1668 returned to the town with a prize to spend of at least £60 each (two or three times the usual annual plantation wage) leaves little doubt that they were right".


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: The forced trade became almost a way of life in Port Royal. Michael Pawson and David Busseret wrote "...one way or the other nearly all the propertied inhabitants of Port Royal seem to have an interest in privateering." Forced trade was rapidly making Port Royal one of the wealthiest communities in the English territories of North America, far surpassing any profit made from the production of sugarcane. Zahedieh wrote, "The Portobello raid [in 1668] alone produced plunder worth £75,000, more than seven times the annual value of the island’s sugar exports, which at Port Royal prices did not exceed £10,000 at this time."


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: However, many successful privateers and buccaneers became integrally involved in the growing sugar industry, human trafficking, and the acquisition of large numbers of enslaved Africans. In the 1670s and 1680s, in his capacity as an owner of a large population of humans he kept enslaved, Morgan led three campaigns against the Jamaican Maroons of Juan de Serras. Morgan achieved some success against the Maroons, who withdrew further into the Blue Mountains, where they were able to stay out of the reach of Morgan and his forces.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: On 7 June 1692, a violent earthquake struck Port Royal. Two-thirds of the town sank into the sea immediately after the main shock. According to Robert Renny in his 'An History of Jamaica' (1807): "All the wharves sunk at once, and in the space of two minutes, nine-tenths of the city were covered with water, which was raised to such a height, that it entered the uppermost rooms of the few houses which were left standing. The tops of the highest houses, were visible in the water, and surrounded by the masts of vessels, which had been sunk along with them." Before the earthquake, the town consisted of 6,500 inhabitants living in about 2,000 buildings, many constructed of brick and with more than one storey, and all built on loose sand. During the shaking, the sand liquefied and the buildings, along with their occupants, appeared to flow into the sea.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In the immediate aftermath of the earthquake, it was common to ascribe the destruction to divine retribution on the people of Port Royal for their sinful ways. Members of the Jamaica Council declared: "We are become by this an instance of God Almighty's severe judgement." This view of the disaster was not confined to Jamaica; in Boston, the Reverend Cotton Mather said in a letter to his uncle: "Behold, an accident speaking to all our English America." After the earthquake, the town was partially rebuilt. But the colonial government was relocated to Spanish Town, which had been the capital under Spanish rule. Port Royal was devastated by a fire in 1703 and a hurricane in 1722. Most of the sea trade moved to Kingston. By the late 18th century, Port Royal was largely abandoned.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In the mid-17th century, sugarcane had been brought into the English West Indies by the Dutch, from Brazil. Upon landing in Jamaica and other islands, they quickly urged local growers to change their main crops from cotton and tobacco to sugar cane. With depressed prices of cotton and tobacco, due mainly to stiff competition from the North American colonies, the farmers switched, leading to a boom in the Caribbean economies. Sugar was rapidly becoming more popular in Britain, where it was used in cakes and to sweeten teas. In the eighteenth century, sugar replaced piracy as Jamaica's main source of income and Jamaica became the largest exporter of sugar in the British Empire. Sugar became Britain's largest import by the late eighteenth century.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: The sugar monoculture and slave-worked plantation society spread across Jamaica throughout the eighteenth century. The sugar industry was labour-intensive and the English brought hundreds of thousands of enslaved Africans to Jamaica. In 1673, there were only 57 sugar estates in Jamaica, but by 1739, the number of sugar plantations grew to 430. By 1832, the median-size plantation in Jamaica had about 150 slaves, and nearly one of every four bondsmen lived on units that had at least 250 slaves.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Jamaica eventually become one of Britain's most valuable colonies during the 18th century. During the Seven Years' War of 1756-63, the British government sought to protect Jamaica from a possible French invasion. In 1760, at the height of the war, there were 16 warships stationed in Jamaica, compared to 18 in the Leeward Islands, and only 19 vessels assigned to the whole of the North American continent.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Simon Taylor, who owned estates in the Jamaican parishes of St Thomas and St Mary, was one of the wealthiest men in the British Empire in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. During the eighteenth century, those men who survived tropical diseases, were, on average, 50 times wealthier than those who resided in the British Isles. Other notable planters in Jamaica who became wealthy as a result of owning slave plantations included Peter Beckford, France Price and Charles Ellis.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: The oppression of the enslaved Africans in Jamaica was considered by contemporaries to be amongst the most brutal in the world. Punishments heaped on enslaved African populations by white enslavers included forcing one enslaved person to defecate in the mouth of another enslaved person and then gagging the victim for several hours and forcing them to swallow it (a practice known as Derby's Dose), floggings, whippings to the point of loss of life, "pickling" which was whipping a person until there were open wounds and then placing the victim in a vat of salt and banana peppers (another part of Derby's Dose), hanging by the feet, gang rape, branding on the forehead, and more.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In 1739, Charles Leslie wrote that, "No Country excels [Jamaica] in a barbarous Treatment of Slaves, or in the cruel Methods they put them to Death."


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Jamaica's Black African population did not increase significantly in number until well into the eighteenth century, in part because the slave ships coming from the west coast of Africa preferred to first unload at the islands of the Eastern Caribbean.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In 1673, there were nearly 8,000 white colonizers in Jamaica, and over 9,000 Africans kept in slavery. By 1690, that margin increased to 10,000 white colonizers and 30,000 Africans kept enslaved. . At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the number of enslaved Africans in Jamaica did not exceed 45,000, but by 1713, the white population had declined to an estimated 7,000, while there were 55,000 enslaved Africans on the island. The population of enslaved Africans rose to about 75,000 in 1730, and passed the 100,000 mark in the 1740s. In 1778, the population of enslaved Africans passed 200,000, and by 1800 it had increased to over 300,000.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: The oppression of free Africans and free people of color increased during the early 18th century. In 1724, a white planter named William Brodrick insulted Francis Williams (poet), who also ran a school for the children of Free black people in Jamaica. Brodrick called him a "black dog", whereupon Williams reacted by calling Brodrick a "white dog" several times. Brodrick punched Williams, as a result of which his "mouth was bloody", but Williams retaliated, after which Brodrick's "shirt and neckcloth had been tore "(sic)" by the said Williams". Williams insisted that since he was a free black man, he could not be tried for assault, as would have been the case with black slaves who hit a white man, because he was defending himself.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: The Assembly, which comprised elected white enslavers, was alarmed at the success with which Williams argued his case, and secured the dismissal of Brodrick's attempts to prosecute him. Complaining that "Williams's behaviour is of great encouragement to the negroes of the island in general", the Assembly then decided to "bring in a bill to reduce the said Francis Williams to the state of other free negroes in this island". This legislation made it illegal for any black person in Jamaica to strike a white person, even in self-defence.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: After slavery was abolished in the 1830s, sugar plantations used a variety of forms of labour including workers imported from India under contracts of indenture.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Starting in the late seventeenth century, there were periodic skirmishes between the colonial militia and the Windward Maroons, alongside occasional slave revolts. In 1673 one such revolt in St. Ann's Parish of 200 enslaved Africans created the separate group of Leeward Maroons. These Maroons united with a group of Madagascars who had survived the shipwreck of a slave ship and formed their own maroon community in St. George's parish. Several more rebellions strengthened the numbers of this Leeward group. Notably, in 1690 a revolt at Sutton's plantation in Clarendon freed 400 enslaved Africans, who then joined and strengthened the Leeward Maroons. The Leeward Maroons inhabited "cockpits," caves, or deep ravines that were easily defended, even against troops with superior firepower. Such guerrilla warfare and the use of scouts who blew the abeng (the cow horn, which was used as a trumpet) to warn of approaching militiamen, which allowed the Maroons to evade, thwart, frustrate, and defeat any expeditions sent against them.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In 1728, the British authorities sent Robert Hunter to assume the office of governor of Jamaica; Hunter's arrival led to an intensification of the conflict. However, despite increased numbers, the British colonial authorities were unable to defeat the Windward Maroons. By 1739, the colonial authorities recognised that it could not defeat the Maroons, so they offered them treaties of peace instead. In the same year, the colonial authorities, led by Governor Edward Trelawny, sued for peace with the Leeward Maroon leader, Cudjoe, described by Jamaican planters as a short, almost dwarf-like man who for years fought skilfully and bravely to maintain his people's independence. Some writers maintain that during the conflict, Cudjoe became increasingly disillusioned, and quarrelled with his lieutenants and with other Maroon groups. He felt that the only hope for the future was a peace treaty with the enemy which recognized the independence of the Leeward Maroons. In 1742, Cudjoe had to suppress a rebellion of Leeward Maroons against the treaty.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In 1740, the even more rebellious Windward Maroons of the Blue Mountains also agreed to sign a treaty under pressure from both white Jamaicans and the Leeward Maroons. In exchange for securing their freedom, the Maroons were asked to agree not to harbour new runaway slaves, but rather to help catch them. This last clause in the treaty naturally caused a split between the Maroons and the rest of the black population, although from time to time runaways from the plantations still found their way into new maroon settlements, such as those run by Three Fingered Jack (Jamaica). Another provision of the agreement was that the Maroons would serve to protect the island from invaders. The latter was because the Maroons were revered by the British as skilled warriors.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Following the peace treaties of 1739–1740, virgin land was opened up to settlement, and Jamaica's economy flourished in the period of peace that followed. Five official Maroon towns were established in the aftermath of the treaties – Accompong; Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town); Nanny Town, later known as Moore Town, Scott's Hall (Jamaica), and Charles Town, Jamaica, living under their own rulers and a British supervisor known as a superintendent.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Among the population of Africans human trafficked for slavery, one was named Ancoma. In the 1750s, one captive named Ancoma escaped and formed a community made up of other escaped captives in what is now known as Saint Thomas Parish. In 1759, Ancoma was eventually killed by a Maroon woman and another woman, both his captives. However, his community continued to thrive, and probably formed the basis of the community of Jack Mansong later that century.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: The colony's enslaved Africans, who outnumbered their white captors by a ratio of 20:1 in 1800, mounted over a dozen major slave conspiracies (the majority of which were organised by Coromantins), and uprisings during the 18th century, including Tacky's revolt in May 1760.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: In that revolt, Tacky, an enslaved Akan man forced to work as slave overseer on the Frontier plantation in Saint Mary Parish, led a group of enslaved Africans in taking over the Frontier and Trinity plantations while killing their enslavers. They then marched to the storeroom at Fort Haldane, where the munitions to defend the town of Port Maria were kept. After killing the storekeeper, Tacky and his men stole nearly 4 barrels of gunpowder and 40 firearms with shot, before marching on to overrun the plantations at Heywood Hall and Esher.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: By dawn, hundreds of other enslaved Africans had joined Tacky and his followers. At Ballard's Valley, the rebels stopped to rejoice in their success. One newly freed captive from Esher decided to slip away and sound the alarm. Obeahmen (Caribbean magic practicianers) quickly circulated around the camp dispensing a powder that they claimed would protect the men from injury in battle and loudly proclaimed that an Obeahman could not be killed. Confidence was high.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Soon there were 70 to 80 mounted militia on their way along with some Maroons from Scott's Hall, who were bound by treaty to suppress such rebellions. When the militia learned of the Obeahman's boast of not being able to be killed, an Obeahman was captured, killed and hung with his mask, ornaments of teeth and bone and feather trimmings at a prominent place visible from the encampment of rebels. Many of the rebels, confidence shaken, returned to their plantations. Tacky and 25 or so men decided to fight on.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: Tacky and his men went running through the woods being chased by the Maroons and their legendary marksman, Davy the Maroon. While running at full speed, Davy shot Tacky and cut off his head as evidence of his feat, for which he would be richly rewarded. Tacky's head was later displayed on a pole in Spanish Town until a follower took it down in the middle of the night. The rest of Tacky's men were found in a cave near Tacky Falls, having committed suicide rather than going back to slavery.


title: Colony of Jamaica

text: The revolt did not end there, as other rebellions broke out all over Jamaica, many of which were attributed to Tacky's cunning and strategy. Other enslaved people learned of Tacky's revolt, which inspired unrest and disorder throughout the island. Rebels numbering about 1,200 regrouped in the unsettled mountainous forests in western Jamaica, under the leadership of a rebel slave christened Wager, but going by his African name of Apongo. They attacked eight slave plantations in Westmoreland Parish and two in Hanover Parish, killing a number of whites.