title: Philosophical skepticism

text: The historical Buddha asserted certain doctrines as true, such as the possibility of nirvana; however, he also upheld a form of skepticism with regards to certain questions which he left "un-expounded" ("avyākata") and some he saw as "incomprehensible" ("acinteyya"). Because the Buddha saw these questions (which tend to be of metaphysical topics) as unhelpful on the path and merely leading to confusion and "a thicket of views", he promoted suspension of judgment towards them. This allowed him to carve out an epistemic middle way between what he saw as the extremes of claiming absolute objectivity (associated with the claims to omniscience of the Jain Mahavira) and extreme skepticism (associated with the Ajñana thinker Sanjaya Belatthiputta).


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: Later Buddhist philosophy remained highly skeptical of Indian metaphysical arguments. The Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna in particular has been seen as the founder of the Madhyamaka school, which has been in turn compared with Greek Skepticism. Nagarjuna's statement that he has "no thesis" ("pratijña") has parallels in the statements of Sextus Empiricus of having "no position". Nagarjuna famously opens his magnum opus, the "Mulamadhyamakakarika", with the statement that the Buddha claimed that true happiness was found through dispelling 'vain thinking' (prapañca, also "conceptual proliferation").


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: According to Richard P. Hayes, the Buddhist philosopher Dignaga is also a kind of skeptic, which is in line with most early Buddhist philosophy. Hayes writes:


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: ...in both early Buddhism and in the Skeptics one can find the view put forward that man's pursuit of happiness, the highest good, is obstructed by his tenacity in holding ungrounded and unnecessary opinions about all manner of things. Much of Buddhist philosophy, I shall argue, can be seen as an attempt to break this habit of holding on to opinions.


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: Scholars like Adrian Kuzminski have argued that Pyrrho of Elis (ca. 365–270) might have been influenced by Indian Buddhists during his journey with Alexander the Great.


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: The Cārvāka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) school of materialism, also known as Lokāyata, is a distinct branch of Indian philosophy. The school is named after Cārvāka, author of the Bārhaspatya-sūtras and was founded in approximately 500 BCE. Cārvāka is classified as a "heterodox" (nāstika) system, characterized as a materialistic and atheistic school of thought. This school was also known for being strongly skeptical of the claims of Indian religions, such as reincarnation and karma.


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: While Jain philosophy claims that is it possible to achieve omniscience, absolute knowledge (Kevala Jnana), at the moment of enlightenment, their theory of anekāntavāda or 'many sided-ness', also known as the principle of relative pluralism, allows for a practical form of skeptical thought regarding philosophical and religious doctrines (for un-enlightened beings, not all-knowing arihants).


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: According to this theory, the truth or the reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth. Jain doctrine states that, an object has infinite modes of existence and qualities and, as such, they cannot be completely perceived in all its aspects and manifestations, due to inherent limitations of the humans. Anekāntavāda is literally the doctrine of non-onesidedness or manifoldness; it is often translated as "non-absolutism". Syādvāda is the theory of conditioned predication which provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that epithet “Syād” be attached to every expression. Syādvāda is not only an extension of Anekānta ontology, but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own force. As reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term “syāt” should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement. For Jains, fully enlightened beings are able to see reality from all sides and thus have ultimate knowledge of all things. This idea of omniscience was criticized by Buddhists such as Dharmakirti.


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: Zhuang Zhou (莊子，"Master Zhuang") was a famous ancient Chinese Taoism philosopher during the Hundred Schools of Thought period. Zhuang Zhou demonstrated his skeptical thinking through several anecdotes in the preeminent work Zhuangzi attributed to him:


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: Through these anecdotes in Zhuangzi, Zhuang Zhou indicated his belief in the limitation of language and human communication and the inaccessibility of universal truth. This establishes him as a skeptic. But he was by no means a radical skeptic: he only applied skeptical methods partially, in arguments demonstrating his Taoist beliefs. He held the Taoist beliefs themselves dogmatically.


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: Wang Chong () was the leading figure of the skeptic branch of the Confucianism school in China during the first century CE. He introduced a method of rational critique and applied it to the widespread dogmatism thinking of his age like phenomenology (the main contemporary Confucianism ideology that linked all natural phenomena with human ethics), state-led cults, and popular superstition. His own philosophy incorporated both Taoism and Confucianism thinkings, and it was based on a secular, rational practice of developing hypotheses based on natural events to explain the universe which exemplified a form of naturalism that resembled the philosophical idea of Epicureans like Lucretius.


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: "The Incoherence of the Philosophers", written by the scholar Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), marks a major turn in Islamic epistemology. His encounter with skepticism led Ghazali to embrace a form of theological occasionalism, or the belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present will of God.


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: In the autobiography Ghazali wrote towards the end of his life, "The Deliverance From Error" ("Al-munqidh min al-ḍalāl" ), Ghazali recounts how, once a crisis of epistemological skepticism was resolved by "a light which God Most High cast into my breast...the key to most knowledge," he studied and mastered the arguments of Kalam, Islamic philosophy, and Ismailism. Though appreciating what was valid in the first two of these, at least, he determined that all three approaches were inadequate and found ultimate value only in the mystical experience and spiritual insight he attained as a result of following Sufi practices. William James, in "Varieties of Religious Experience", considered the autobiography an important document for "the purely literary student who would like to become acquainted with the inwardness of religions other than the Christian", comparing it to recorded personal religious confessions and autobiographical literature in the Christian tradition.


title: Philosophical skepticism

text: Recordings of Aztec philosophy suggest that the elite classes believed in an essentially panentheistic worldview, in which teotl represents a unified, underlying universal force. Human beings cannot truly perceive teotl due to its chaotic, constantly changing nature, just the "masks"/facets it is manifested as.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Charles Rennie Mackintosh (7 June 1868 – 10 December 1928) was a Scottish architect, designer, water colourist and artist. His artistic approach had much in common with European Symbolism. His work, alongside that of his wife Margaret Macdonald, was influential on European design movements such as Art Nouveau and Secessionism and praised by great modernists such as Josef Hoffmann. Mackintosh was born in Glasgow and died in London. He is among the most important figures of Modern Style (British Art Nouveau style).


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Charles Rennie Mackintosh was born at 70 Parson Street, Townhead, Glasgow, on 7 June 1868, the fourth of eleven children and second son of William McIntosh, a superintendent and chief clerk of the City of Glasgow Police. He attended Reid's Public School and the Allan Glen's Institution from 1880 to 1883. William's wife Margaret Mackintosh née 'Rennie' grew up in the Townhead and Dennistoun (Firpark Terrace) areas of Glasgow.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: He changed the spelling of his name from 'McIntosh' to 'Mackintosh' for unknown reasons, as his father did before him, around 1893. Confusion continues to surround the use of his name with 'Rennie' sometimes incorrectly substituted for his first name of 'Charles'. The modern use of 'Rennie Mackintosh' as a surname is also incorrect and he was never known as such in his lifetime; 'Rennie' being a middle name (his mother's maiden name) which he used often in writing his name. Signatures took various forms including 'C.R. Mackintosh' and 'Chas. R. Mackintosh.' The usage of "Rennie Mackintosh" to refer to him is therefore incorrect and he should instead be referred to as "Charles Rennie Mackintosh" or "Mackintosh". Mackintosh is also sometimes referred to affectionately as 'Toshie', a nickname seen in correspondence and other contemporary literature written by friends and family members.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Mackintosh entered the architectural profession in 1884 as an apprentice to John Hutchinson in Glasgow and in the evenings studied at Glasgow School of Art (situated then in Sauchiehall Street) where he became a prize-winning student. In 1889 he joined


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Honeyman and Keppie (John Honeyman and John Keppie) major architectural practice as a draughtsman and designer, where in 1901 he became a partner.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: His early design work as a draughtsman and lead designer can be seen from 1893 in the interior of Craigie Hall, Dumbreck, and in the new saloon and gallery of Glasgow Art Club, 185 Bath Street for which he signed the drawings.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Around 1892, Mackintosh met fellow artist Margaret Macdonald at the Glasgow School of Art. He and fellow student Herbert MacNair, also an apprentice at Honeyman and Keppie, were introduced to Margaret and her sister Frances MacDonald by the head of the Glasgow School of Art, Francis Henry Newbery, who saw similarities in their work. Margaret and Charles married on 22 August 1900. The couple had no children. MacNair and Frances also married the previous year. The group worked collaboratively and came to be known as "The Four", and were prominent figures in Glasgow Style art and design. Mackintosh and Margaret married, setting up their first home in Mains Street on Blythswood Hill, the street later being renamed as Blythswood Street, Glasgow. Subsequently, they moved to Southpark Avenue, close to Glasgow University.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: In the early 1910s the partnership known from 1901 as Honeyman, Keppie & Mackintosh declined in profitability, and in 1913 Mackintosh resigned from the partnership and attempted to open his own practice.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Mackintosh lived most of his life in the city of Glasgow, located on the banks of the River Clyde. During the Industrial Revolution the city had one of the greatest production centres of heavy engineering and shipbuilding in the world. As the city grew and prospered, a faster response to the high demand for consumer goods and arts was necessary. Industrialized, mass-produced items started to gain popularity. Along with the Industrial Revolution, Asian style and emerging modernist ideas also influenced Mackintosh's designs. When the Japanese isolationist regime softened, they opened themselves to globalisation resulting in notable Japanese influence around the world. Glasgow's link with the eastern country became particularly close with shipyards at the River Clyde being exposed to Japanese navy and training engineers. Japanese design became more accessible and gained great popularity. In fact, it became so popular and so incessantly appropriated and reproduced by Western artists, that the Western world's fascination and preoccupation with Japanese art gave rise to the new term Japonisme or Japonism.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: This style was admired by Mackintosh because of its restraint and economy of means rather than ostentatious accumulation; its simple forms and natural materials rather than elaboration and artifice; and its use of texture and light and shadow rather than pattern and ornament. In the old western style, furniture was seen as ornament that displayed the wealth of its owner; the value of the piece was established according to the length of time spent creating it. In the Japanese arts furniture and design focused on the quality of the space, which was meant to evoke a calming and organic feeling to the interior.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: At the same time a new philosophy concerned with creating functional and practical design was emerging throughout Europe: the so-called "modernist ideas". The main concept of the Modernist movement was to develop innovative ideas and new technology: design was concerned with the present and the future, rather than with history and tradition. Heavy ornamentation and inherited styles were discarded. Even though Mackintosh became known as the 'pioneer' of the movement, his designs were far removed from the bleak utilitarianism of Modernism. His concern was to build around the needs of people: people seen, not as masses, but as individuals who needed not a machine for living in but a work of art. Mackintosh took his inspiration from his Scottish upbringing and blended them with the flourish of Art Nouveau and the simplicity of Japanese forms.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: While working in architecture, Charles Rennie Mackintosh developed his own style: a contrast between strong right angles and floral-inspired decorative motifs with subtle curves (for example, the Mackintosh Rose motif), along with some references to traditional Scottish architecture. The project that helped make his international reputation was the Glasgow School of Art (1897–1909). During the early stages of the Glasgow School of Art Mackintosh also completed the Queen's Cross Church project in Maryhill, Glasgow. This is considered to be one of Mackintosh's most mysterious projects. It is the only church by the Glasgow-born artist to be built and is now the Charles Rennie Mackintosh Society headquarters.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Like his contemporary Frank Lloyd Wright, Mackintosh's architectural designs often included extensive specifications for the detailing, decoration, and furnishing of his buildings. The majority, if not all, of this detailing and significant contributions to his architectural drawings were designed and detailed by his wife Margaret Macdonald whom Charles had met when they both attended the Glasgow School of Art. Their work was shown at the eighth Vienna Secession Exhibition in 1900.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Mackintosh's architectural career was a relatively short one, but of significant quality and impact. All his major commissions were between 1895 and 1906, including designs for private homes, commercial buildings, interior renovations and churches.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Although moderately popular (for a period) in his native Scotland, most of Mackintosh's more ambitious designs were not built. Designs for various buildings for the 1901 Glasgow International Exhibition were not constructed, neither was his "Haus eines Kunstfreundes" (Art Lover's House) of the same year. He competed in the 1903 design competition for Liverpool Cathedral, but failed to gain a place on the shortlist (the winner was Giles Gilbert Scott).


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: "The House for An Art Lover (1901)" was built in Bellahouston Park, Glasgow after his death (1989–1996).


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: "An Artist's Cottage and Studio (1901)", known as "The Artist's Cottage", was completed at Farr by Inverness in 1992. The architect was Robert Hamilton Macintyre acting for Dr and Mrs Peter Tovell. Illustrations can be found on the RCAHMS Canmore site.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: The first of the unexecuted "Gate Lodge, Auchinbothie (1901)" sketches was realised as a mirrored pair of gatehouses to either side of the Achnabechan and The Artist's Cottage drives, also at Farr by Inverness. Known as "North House" and "South House", these were completed 1995–7.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Mackintosh's architectural output was small, but he did influence European design. Popular in Austria and Germany, his work received acclaim when it was shown at the Vienna Secession Exhibition in 1900. It was also exhibited in Budapest, Munich, Dresden, Venice and Moscow.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Mackintosh, his future wife Margaret MacDonald, her sister Frances MacDonald, and Herbert MacNair met at evening classes at the Glasgow School of Art (see above). They became known as a collaborative group, "The Four", or "The Glasgow Four", and were prominent members of the "Glasgow School" movement. The group exhibited in Glasgow, London and Vienna, and these exhibitions helped establish Mackintosh's reputation. The so-called "Glasgow" style was exhibited in Europe and influenced the Viennese Art Nouveau movement known as "Sezessionstil" (in English, the Vienna Secession) around 1900. Mackintosh also worked in interior design, furniture, textiles and metalwork. Much of this work combines Mackintosh's own designs with those of his wife, whose flowing, floral style complemented his more formal, rectilinear work. Blackie commissioned him in the 1920s to work on bindings for their publications. One of these works was an abstract design that was intended for a new uniform of G. A. Henty's novels. It was instead used for "Yarns on the Beach" by Henty, and for a series entitled "The Boys and Girls Bookshelf", c. 1926. Both Newbolt and Floyer speculate that Mackintosh may have designed the cover for another series by Blackie.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Later in life, disillusioned with architecture, Mackintosh worked largely as a watercolourist, painting numerous landscapes and flower studies (often in collaboration with Margaret, with whose style Mackintosh's own gradually converged). They moved to the Suffolk village of Walberswick in 1914. There Mackintosh was suspected of being a German spy and briefly arrested in 1915 during World War I.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: By 1923, the Mackintoshes had moved to Port Vendres, a Mediterranean coastal town in southern France with a warm climate that was a comparably cheaper location in which to live. Mackintosh had entirely abandoned architecture and design and concentrated on watercolour painting. He was interested in the relationships between man-made and naturally occurring landscapes and created a large portfolio of architecture and landscape watercolour paintings. Many of his paintings depict Port Vendres, a small port near the Spanish border, and the landscapes of Roussillon. The local Charles Rennie Mackintosh Trail details his time in Port Vendres and shows the paintings and their locations. The couple remained in France for two years, before being forced to return to London in 1927 due to illness.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: That year, Charles Rennie Mackintosh was diagnosed with tongue cancer and throat cancer. This is clearly described in the letters he was writing to his wife from France. A brief recovery prompted him to leave the hospital and convalesce at home for a few months. Mackintosh was admitted to a nursing home where he died on 10 December 1928 at the age of 60. He was cremated the next day at Golders Green Crematorium in London. His ashes were scattered, in accordance with his wishes, over the Mediterranean at Port Vendres from one of the rocks he had painted.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Mackintosh's work grew in popularity in the decades following his death. A number of posthumous presentations of his designs have been implemented. The Mackintosh House ( 1981 ) is a dedicated structure by William Whitfield to house the reconstructed interiors of the Mackintoshes former Glasgow home (sited nearby and demolished in 1963). The house forms an integral part of The University of Glasgow's Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery home to the world's largest collection of Mackintosh's work. The Artist's Cottage project, three unrealised designs from 1901, were constructed as interpretations near Inverness in 1992 and 1995. The House for an Art Lover was built in Glasgow's Bellahouston Park in 1996 as an interpretation of a design competition portfolio by Mackintosh and Macdonald from 1901.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: The Glasgow School of Art building (now "The Mackintosh Building") is cited by architectural critics as among the finest buildings in the UK. On 23 May 2014 the building was ravaged by fire. The library was destroyed, but firefighters managed to save the rest of the building. On 15 June 2018, about a year before completion of the restoration of the building the School was again struck by fire. This second fire caused catastrophic damage, effectively destroying all the interiors and leaving the outer walls so structurally unstable that large sections of them had to be taken down to prevent uncontrolled collapse. Such was the global concern that a public commitment to faithfully rebuild The Mackintosh Building was made post-fire by then Director of The Glasgow School of Art, Tom Inns.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: The Charles Rennie Mackintosh Society encourages greater awareness of the work of Mackintosh as an architect, artist and designer. The rediscovery of Mackintosh as a significant figure in design has been attributed to the designation of Glasgow as European City of Culture in 1990, and exhibition of his work which accompanied the year-long festival. His enduring popularity since has been fuelled by further exhibitions and books and memorabilia which have illustrated aspects of his life and work. The growth in public interest has led to refurbishment of long-neglected buildings and increased public access: Scotland Street School Museum housed in Mackintosh's 1906 school building opened in 1990. 78 Derngate Northampton opened as a visitor attraction in 2003. The Willow Tea Rooms re-opened following an extensive restoration in 2018.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City held a major retrospective exhibition of Charles Rennie Mackintosh's works from 21 November 1996 to 16 February 1997. In conjunction with the exhibit were lectures and a symposium by scholars, including Pamela Robertson of the Hunterian Art Gallery, Glasgow art gallery owner Roger Billcliffe, and architect J. Stewart Johnson, and screening of documentary films about Mackintosh.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: Charles Rennie Mackintosh was commemorated on a series of banknotes issued by the Clydesdale Bank in 2009; his image appeared on an issue of £100 notes.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: In 2012, one of the largest collections of art by Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Glasgow Four Glasgow School was sold at auction in Edinburgh for £1.3m. The sale included work by Mackintosh's sister-in-law Frances Macdonald and her husband Herbert MacNair.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: In July 2015 it was announced that Mackintosh's designs for a tearoom would be reconstructed to form a display in Dundee's new V&A museum. Although the original building which housed the tearoom on Glasgow's Ingram Street was demolished in 1971 the interiors had all been dismantled and put into storage. The restored "Oak Room" was revealed when V&A Dundee opened to the public on 15 September 2018.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: In June 2018, a mural depicting Mackintosh and using elements of his distinctive style was created in Glasgow to honour the 150th anniversary of the artist's birth. It is made by Glasgow street artist, Rogue One and commissioned by the Radisson Red.


title: Charles Rennie Mackintosh

text: From 1986 until 1992, InterCity locomotive 86226 was named "Charles Rennie Mackintosh". In March 2018, Virgin Trains West Coast named 390008 "Charles Rennie Mackintosh".


title: Barracuda (song)

text: "Barracuda" is a song by American rock band Heart, released in 1977 on their third studio album, "Little Queen", and was released as the album's lead single. The song peaked at number 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. In 2007, the song was included as a playable track in the music video game "". In 2009, "Barracuda" was named the 34th Best Hard Rock Song of All Time by VH1.


title: Barracuda (song)

text: The song was included on the compilation albums "Greatest Hits/Live" (1980), "" (1997), "Greatest Hits" (1998), "The Essential Heart" (2002), "Love Alive" (2005), "" (2008) and "Strange Euphoria" (2012), and on the live albums "Rock the House Live!" (1991), "The Road Home" (1995), "Alive in Seattle" (2003) and "Live in Atlantic City" (2019).


title: Barracuda (song)

text: Ann Wilson revealed in interviews that the song was about Heart's anger towards Mushroom Records, who as a publicity stunt released a made-up story of an incestuous affair involving Ann and her sister Nancy Wilson. The song particularly focuses on Ann's rage towards a male radio promoter who came up to her after a concert asking how her "lover" was. She initially thought he was talking about her boyfriend, band manager Michael Fisher. After he revealed he was talking about her sister Nancy, Ann became outraged, went back to her hotel room, and wrote the original lyrics of the song.


title: Barracuda (song)

text: Producer Mike Flicker added that Mushroom Records was so obtuse in the contract negotiations that Heart decided to discard the album they were working on, "Magazine"—which the label still released in an unfinished form—and instead sign with the newly formed Portrait Records to make another record, "Little Queen". As Flicker put it, "'Barracuda' was created conceptually out of a lot of this record business bullshit. Barracuda could be anyone from the local promotion man to the president of a record company. That is the barracuda. It was born out of that whole experience."


title: Barracuda (song)

text: In a March 2019 interview with Gear Factor, Nancy Wilson revealed that the guitar riff for "Barracuda" was inspired by the riff from Nazareth's cover of the Joni Mitchell song "This Flight Tonight". Wilson said:


title: Barracuda (song)

text: We've been opening for a band called Nazareth in Europe and also for Queen. And Nazareth had a hit with a Joni Mitchell song that they covered [in 1973] called 'This Flight Tonight' that had kind of that riff.


title: Barracuda (song)

text: So we kind of borrowed that. And we made it into 'Barracuda.' And we saw the guys from Nazareth later and they were pissed. 'You took our riff!'.


title: Barracuda (song)

text: But that's kind of what everybody – you borrow from what you love and then you make it your own. It's one of those sounds too, it's one of those guitar tones that I'm still trying to figure out what we did. [Laughs] It's hard to re-create.


title: Barracuda (song)

text: "Barracuda" has been labeled by reviewers as heavy metal and hard rock. Upon the song's release, it became Heart's second top-20 entry in the United States, peaking at number 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, spending 20 weeks on the chart.


title: Barracuda (song)

text: "Cash Box" called it "an aggressive rocker, tempered with sparkling production and Ann Wilson's alluring lead vocal.."


title: Barracuda (song)

text: "Barracuda" was played at the 2008 Republican National Convention in reference to John McCain's running mate, Sarah Palin, who claims she was known as "Sarah Barracuda" as a high school basketball star (and as "Sarracuda" after the convention, a play on her name). The Wilson sisters disapproved, as they disagreed with Palin's politics, and sent a cease-and-desist letter to John McCain's campaign, despite the McCain campaign's claim to have lawfully purchased rights to use the song.


title: Barracuda (song)

text: In an appearance on a Seattle talk show, song co-writer and lead guitarist Roger Fisher announced he was thrilled with the RNC's use of the song, because it both resulted in royalties for the band and gave them an opportunity to publicly point out that he is a "staunch" supporter of Barack Obama. Michael Derosier, a co-writer of the song and the band's drummer on the recording, also supports the use of the song by the RNC. The McCain campaign continued to use the song, despite Nancy Wilson's statement to "Entertainment Weekly" that "Sarah Palin's views and values in no way represent us as American women."


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The Canton of Geneva, officially the Republic and Canton of Geneva (; ; ; ; ), is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of forty-five municipalities and the seat of the government and parliament is in the City of Geneva.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Geneva is the French-speaking westernmost canton of Switzerland. It lies at the western end of Lake Geneva and on both sides of the Rhone, its main river. Within the country, the canton shares borders with Vaud to the east, the only adjacent canton. However, the borders of the canton are essentially international, with the French region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. As is the case in several other Swiss cantons (Ticino, Neuchâtel, and Jura), Geneva is referred to as a republic within the Swiss Confederation.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: One of the most populated cantons, Geneva is considered one of the most cosmopolitan regions of the country. As a center of the Calvinist Reformation, the city of Geneva has had a great influence on the canton, which essentially consists of the city and its suburbs. Notable institutions of international importance based in the canton are the University of Geneva, the United Nations, the International Committee of the Red Cross and CERN.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: This article focuses on the history of the canton of Geneva, which begins in 1815, and some of the context leading to modern borders and events after that date. For more detail on the history of Geneva prior to that year, refer to the history of the city of Geneva. However, as a preliminary, it should be recalled that the Canton of Geneva, whose official name is the Republic and Canton of Geneva, succeeded to the Republic of Geneva.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The Republic of Geneva existed, depending on sources, either from 1534, or from 30 November 1541, when the General Council ratified the ecclesiastical ordinances of John Calvin, until 26 April 1798, when it was annexed by France, and then from 31 December 1813, until 19 May 1815, during the Restoration of the Republic. It was given a constitution () in 1543, and it effectively functioned as a Protestant theocracy. The Republic of Geneva reinforced its alliance to the Protestant cantons of the Swiss Confederacy, becoming an "everlasting ally" in 1584.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Compared to other urban cantons of Switzerland (Zurich, Berne, Basel before it split, Fribourg, Lucerne), Geneva's geographical size is relatively small.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Geneva was controlled by the Allobroges tribe until 121 BC. It was then annexed to the Roman Empire in 121 BC and remained part of it until 443, after which the Burgundians took over the city. In 532, the land controlled by Burgundians became part of the Frankish Empire and the area of the mondern-day canton became a part of the Kingdom of Burgundy in 888.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Some of the most important nobles began to offer some lands to the Church, such as in 912 when Eldegarde (probably a Countess in an area near Nyon) gave up her lands in the area of Satigny which eventually became the Mandement, or in 962 when Queen Berthe offered lands in Saint-Genis. The income of the Kingdom suffered from these transfers of lands and, in an attempt to stop the process, in 995 King Rudolph III tried to withdraw the hereditary rights away from some of his nobles. However, the King was defeated in this power struggle, and this led to a weakening of the central power. As the King weakened, some of his local officers such as the Counts rejected his authority and even opposed him. Several independent fiefdoms emerge from this time, including the County of Geneva.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: In 1032 Rudolph III dies without an heir. The Kingdom of Burgundy then reverts to HRE Conrad II, who tries to re-assert control of the lands by rallying the nobles who opposed Rodolph III. In exchange for his loyalty, Gerold, count of Geneva, obtains full powers over his County, becomes a direct vassal of the Emperor and so his lands became part of the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: However, the counts of Geneva had to share their power over the city of Geneva with the Prince-Bishopric of Geneva. From 1078 to 1129, Count Aymon I was in a very good position, as his brother Guy de Faucigny had become the bishop of Geneva. Aymon took advantage of this situation by transferring the administration of some of the lands away from the Diocese of Geneva to the priory of Saint-Victor, of whom he was the protector at the request of the Bishop, and siphons the resources of the priory to himself.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The successors of Guy de Faucigny were outraged by this situation, specially Bishop Humbert de Grammont, and request the restitution of the churches transferred to the administration of the Count. Pope Callixtus II pressures Aymon going as far as excommunicating him. The Count repents, and greets the Bishop on the border of his County in Seyssel as the Bishop was on his way back to Geneva from Vienne, whose Bishop had been tasked by the Pope to mediate in the conflict. There, they conclude a treaty (the Traité de Seyssel), whereby the Count restitutes to the Bishop of Geneva some of the churches whose rights and revenues he had acquired. Although this treaty did not fully solve the conflict, which only got fully resolved by the treaty of Saint-Sigismond in 1156 which confirmed all the provisions, it marked an important step for Geneva as the count also gave up his temporal rights over the City of Geneva to the Bishop. It is some time around 1219 that the Counts of Geneva completely quit the city and move their capital to Annecy.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: This is important for the future evolution of the canton of Geneva, as for the first time there was a complete separation of the ruling of the city of Geneva from the ruling of its hinterlands.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: At the same time, the county was in a continuous power struggle with the House of Savoy. After the death of antipope count Robert in 1394, the county passes to the house of Thoire-Villars. Eventually they lost in the struggle, and the County of Geneva disappears when it is sold to Amadeus VIII of Savoy for 45,000 gold francs on 5 August 1401. The count of Savoy then restarts the conflict with the Bishops of Geneva as he intends to retake control of the city and make it the count's capital. He initially fails in this task, but Amadeus VIII manages to get elected as antipope Felix V in 1439. When Bishop François de Metz dies in 1444, Amadeus becomes the administrator of the bishopric and becomes "de facto", but not "de jure", ruler of the city.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: When he renounced his position as Pope, he kept a degree of control over the city, and succeeded in agreeing that the future Bishops of Geneva must be designated by the house of Savoy. Two of his grandchildren became Bishops, and it was at this time that Genevans, fearing for their Independence, first concluded a treaty of alliance () in 1477 with the Swiss cantons of Berne and Fribourg, but not without reprisals by Duke Charles III against those who organised the alliance. For a time, the city was divided between those who supported the Duke (the "Mammelus") and those whose supported the Swiss Confederation (the ). In 1525, Charles III, in the “Council of the Hallebardes” forced the city authorities to promise to not form an alliance with the Swiss. However, the Eidguenots negotiated a new alliance with Berne and Fribourg, concluded in 1526. At the time there were few Protestants in Geneva, but after the alliance with Berne, which had already fully adopted the reformation, some Genevans were attracted to Protestantism, led by preachers such as Guillaume Farel. A few years later, in 1533, the Catholic Bishop of Geneva Pierre de la Baume finally quit Geneva, and all the assets of the church in the city and its lands were confiscated by the secular authorities.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Charles III took advantage of this situation to attempt to conquer the city in 1535–36, but an army of Bernese in alliance with France defeated Savoy and occupied the lands of the Savoy in the Genevan basin (including all the Pays de Gex). On 21May 1536, the General Council of Geneva fully adopted the reformation; with this decision the commune of Geneva merged with new institutions, including the territories that depended on the Bishop, the "mandements". This act of independence marked the birth of the Republic of Geneva, then still mostly confined to the city and the few medieval territories gifted to the Bishops, the largest of which were Satigny, Peney, and an area around modern-day Jussy.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The son of Charles III, Emmanuel Philibert, defeated the army of French king Henri II in the battle of Saint-Quentin in 1557 and recovered the lands conquered by the French. However, Berne did not participate in the initial negotiations, and only in the Treaty of Lausanne of 1564 did Savoy recover the lands around Geneva, while losing forever the Pays de Vaud to Berne. Until his death, Emmanuel-Philibert practiced tolerance with his non-Catholic subjects and largely respected the "" principle for Geneva. However, his son, Charles Emmanuel I began plotting against Protestants and employed mercenaries to intimidate the Protestants converted by Bernese preachers. In response, Geneva intermittently occupied the Pays de Gex from 1589, but the city was finally forced to abandon it when France defeated Savoy and annexed the Pays de Gex for itself in the Treaty of Lyon of 1601. This marked the point where most of Geneva's hinterland was divided between two different strong states along the Rhone banks: the Kingdom of France on the east, and the Duchy of Savoy on the west.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: This event largely explains why, unlike the Swiss urban cantons mentioned in the introduction, Geneva was unable to expand geographically, as its borders were dominated by those two powerful states which, at the same time, and since the failed attempt of 1602 to take the city, largely respected Geneva's independence protected by its strong walls, guaranteed by its alliance with the Protestant cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy of Zurich and Berne, and respected by France, an ally of the old Swiss confederacy.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Since then, no major changes occurred in Geneva's borders until 1749. In an effort to rationalise the borders marked by the medieval territories gifted to the Bishops in the Middle Ages, the Republic and France exchanged territories in that year: Geneva swapped its rights over Challex, Thoiry, Fenières, and some enclaves it possed in the Pays de Gex, for Chancy, Avully, and Russin. In a similar treaty with Savoy in 1754, Geneva received from Savoy Cartigny, Jussy, Vandoeuvres, Gy, and some other smaller territories, in exchange for its rights on Carouge, Veyrier, Onex, Lancy, Bossey, Presinge, and others.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: During the baroque and classical periods, Europe saw the emergence of several planned towns. Save for the reconstruction of towns destroyed by fires (such as Schwyz in 1642, Sion in 1788, or La Chaux-de-Fonds in 1794), Switzerland did not jump on this trend mostly circumscribed to the large monarchies and princely states. However, the desire to possess or weaken Geneva by France and Savoy provides two good examples of this urban planning, both of which are now Genevan towns. In the 18th century under Louis XV, France intended to build a large port city in Versoix to deviate the traffic en route to Lake Geneva and from there to the Swiss confederation. The city, intended for around 30,000 inhabitants, would have been bigger than Geneva (by then the largest Swiss city) and included large squares and ports. Voltaire, who had settled in Ferney, was particularly rejoiced about the idea of ruining Geneva. However, opposition from Berne to a new fortified town in its border in Pays de Gex, and budgetary problems in France, finally stopped the project of which few items finally were built and survive. A more lasting project was launched by Savoy in 1777, which transformed Carouge into the gateway to the northern provinces and conferred the village the status of city in 1786. The planned city was particularly innovative in the way that streets were symmetrically laid and by the total absence of fortifications.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The French Revolution reached Geneva in 1792, and in February 1794, the Republic gave itself a new, revolutionary constitution which proclaimed the equality of all citizens. Like many men from the Lumières, Robespierre idealised the Old Swiss Confederation as the home of William Tell, the land where men had already freed themselves from feudal lords. Although misguided, this means that he was mostly favourable to respect the confederation's neutrality. However, after the death of Robespierre in July of the same year, there was a counter-revolution, which gained the upper hand by 1796.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Robespierre's death prompted the French invasion of 1798, and the annexation of Geneva which became the capital of the French . The Napoleonic army left Geneva on 30 December 1813, and on the next day the return of the Republic () was proclaimed.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Following these events that transformed Switzerland under the Helvetic Republic, Geneva joined the Swiss Confederation in 1815 as the 22nd canton. The territory of the present canton of Geneva was largely established as a result of the Congress of Vienna, in order to provide contiguity between the city of Geneva and its satellite territories established during the previous negotiations with France and Savoy, such as the Mandement, and to physically join the canton to the rest of Switzerland.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: During the negotiations, the authorities were split between those who sought to maximise the gain in territory for the new canton at the expense of France and Sardinia, and the conservatives who wanted to minimise the gain in territory to avoid including a large number of Catholics in the new canton. The former were led by Charles Pictet de Rochemont, a Genevan statesmen and diplomat. The conservatives, formed largely of old Genevan aristocracy, were led by Joseph des Arts who in addition preferred to keep Geneva's independence. However, in the end neither side got what they wanted as larger events dominated the situation.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Charles Pictet de Rochemont was tasked with the negotiations with the powers in Paris and later Vienna. In his initial plans presented to the Emperor Alexander I, he suggested a new canton extending from the summits of the Jura surrounding the city (Crêt de la Neige), all the way to mount Salève and les Voirons. This, therefore, included the Pays de Gex and all the lands in the Genevan basin. In part of these negotiations, it was even suggested to transfer the area of Porrentruy to France in exchange for the Pays de Gex. However, Louis XVIII was adamantly opposed to transferring catholic subjects to the "Protestant Rome", so France did not have to cede any territory to Geneva in the Peace of Paris in May 1814. Only after the return of Napoleon and the second Treaty of Paris Geneva could achieve limited territorial gains to link to the canton to Vaud and break the isolation of the enclaves in the Mandement. One town in particular, Ferney, continues to act today as a bottleneck in the connection to the rest of the country, as France was emotionally attached to the chosen home of Voltaire and refused to cede it. The negotiations with France were concluded by the Treaty of Paris of 1815, whereby the canton added the current municipalities of Versoix (which provided the geographical link with neighbouring Vaud), Collex-Bossy, Pregny-Chambésy, Vernier, Meyrin and Grand-Saconnex.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: In similar negotiations with the Kingdom of Sardinia, Charles Pictet de Rochemont pursued the acquisition of the lands adjoining Geneva and included the slopes of mount Salève. However, Turin opposed this demand as the area contained the important road linking Thonon-les-Bains and the Faucigny with Annecy. In the end, the diplomat managed to swap this demand, as well as a demand for a longer portion of the coastline of the lake, for a large gain in territory from Chancy to Geneva (what is now the Campagne), as well as lands around the mandement of Jussy. These negotiations were concluded by the Treaty of Turin of 1816 with Sardinia, from which the new canton gained the present municipalities of Laconnex, Soral, Perly-Certoux, Plan-les-Ouates, Bernex, Aire-la-Ville, Onex, Confignon, Lancy, Bardonnex, Troinex, Veyrier, Chêne-Thônex, Puplinge, Presinge, Choulex, Meinier, Collonge-Bellerive, Corsier, Hermance, Anières, and Carouge.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: In total, the canton added 159 square kilometres of territory, settled with over 16,000 inhabitants, mostly catholic and rural. At the time, the city and its possessions had 29,000 inhabitants.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Initially, many of the new villages were grouped together by the Genevan government. For example, the hamlets of Avusy, Soral, and Laconnex formed one single municipality. The same occurred to Bernex, Onex, and Confignon, or to Plan-les-Ouates, Bardonnex, Perly, and Certoux (the four villages formed 'Compèsieres'). However, the Paris and Turin treaties did not deal with the issue of common land in those villages (nor with the issue of common land that was now separated by international borders). This resulted into tensions as villagers did not want to share their local common land with villagers from the same municipality as the distribution of land and the resulting revenue was highly uneven. A cantonal law from 5 February 1849 required municipal acts be voted by counsellors, and to identify in the minutes the position of each counsellor and the reason for their vote. This increased transparency but it led to tensions related to the placement of schools, townhalls and other public buildings and services in addition to the issue on communal lands. Eventually, these tensions led to the separation of those villages in the second half of the 19th century, which led to the present-day municipal borders for those newly acquired lands.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The last municipal border change occurred in 1931. As a result of a push towards the rationalisation of resources following the 1920s economic crisis, the municipalities that formed the ancient urban part of the Republic of Geneva (Eaux-Vives, le Petit-Saconnex, Plainpalais, and Geneva) merged to form the modern city of Geneva.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: In 1956, as a result of the planned expansion of Geneva Airport, both countries agreed to exchange a piece of territory to fit in the new runway, affecting the French municipality of Ferney-Voltaire.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The last change of the canton's borders occurred in 2003, when the construction of the border crossing in the new section of highway linking the Swiss A1 to the French A41 required an exchange of territories. Land was transferred from the municipality of Bardonnex, to St-Julien-en-Genevois. To compensate for the loss of Genevan soil, the municipality of Soral gained territory from Viry and St-Julien.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Cross border cooperation began only a century after the creation of the canton. In 1913, an agreement was sealed between Switzerland and France to build the Chancy-Pougny electric dam. Completed in 1925 to supply energy to the steel mills in Creusot, it began to supply electricity to the Services Industriels de Genève by 1958.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Cross-border working movements had existed in Geneva since the Middle Ages and the city was traditionally more open to immigration than others. Around the year 1700, Swiss cities and their allies such as Geneva, had two types of residents: the bourgeois, who held political rights (and a minority of whom formed the patrician class), and the inhabitants, who had no say in the ruling of the city. Amongst the latter, there were the 'established', who had full residence permits, and the 'tolerated' with time-limited permits. The proportion of bourgeois over the total residents in Basle was 70% in 1795; 61% in Zurich in 1780, and 26% in Geneva in 1781. The proportion of 'inhabitants' in Zurich in 1795 was of 8%, whereas in Geneva, a more liberal city, it was 46% in 1764. Note that the remaining residents were 'foreigners', people from other villages and cities.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Building on the liberal roots, in 1882 a convention allowed French citizens a certain degree of freedom to work in Switzerland and vice versa. However, the 1950s and 1960s were years of very high economic growth in Geneva. This led to an increasing need to employ workers from across the border, from Pays de Gex and the Haute-Savoie - from 6,750 workers in 1966 to 22,500 in 1972. Since Geneva refused to participate in the Franco-Swiss agreements for the distribution of income taxes levied on cross border workers of 1935 and 1966 that covered all the other cantons, the municipalities from the neighbouring French regions were increasingly suffocated by the need to finance public equipment for a population that did not financially contribute to the budgets. This situation led to a first grouping of municipalities to defend their interests, the “Association de Communes Frontalières”. Acknowledging the problem, Geneva agreed in 1973 to transfer 3.5% of the gross income of those workers directly to the French municipalities, equivalent to around CHF330 million/year nowadays.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Cooperation increased following the 1980 Madrid accords on the Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation. However, it was the 2002 agreement on the free movement of people between the European Union and Switzerland that had a bigger impact on Geneva's economy and society. The number of cross-border workers increased from 35,000 in 2002 to 92,000 in 2020. This vastly increased the need for cooperation, notably in transportation. It led to the creation of the “Agglomeration Franco-Valdo-Genevoise”, later renamed “Grand Genève“ in 2012, which roughly corresponds in geographical extension to the 1-million inhabitants metropolitan area of Geneva extending beyond the cantonal borders across Vaud, Ain, and Haute-Savoie. Its major achievements include the push towards the construction and operation of the Léman Express rail network and the projected extensions of the tpg tram network to Annemasse, St-Julien-en-Genevois, and Ferney-Voltaire.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The current coat of arms, adopted from the city of Geneva, represent the union of the semi-eagle originating from the two-headed eagle from the Holy Roman Empire, in which Geneva formed part in the Middle Ages, and the gold key from the coat of arms of the bishopric of Geneva, symbolising the Key of St. Peter, patron saint of the cathedral. The bishop was a direct vassal of the emperor and he exercised in his name the temporal power over the city. Symbolising the union of spiritual and mortal powers, the coat of arms were adopted by the citizens of Geneva in 1387. The old colours of Geneva were grey and black and changed to black and purple in the 17th century. Gold and red began to be used from the 18th century.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The crest with the sun and the ΙΗΣ inscription, denoting the first three letters of the Greek name of Jesus, exists since the 15th century but was used on the coat of arms until the 16th century.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The motto of Geneva, Post Tenebras Lux, stands in Latin for "light after darkness", appears in the Vulgate version of Job 17:12. The phrase was adopted as the Calvinist motto later by the entire Protestant Reformation and by Geneva.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Geneva is the flattest canton of Switzerland, with a height difference of only 184 metres between its lowest and highest point. However, it is surrounded across its borders by the numerous mountains of the Jura and Alpine foothills, notably the Crêt de la Neige and its neighbour Le Reculet (the highest, and second-highest peaks of the Jura, respectively), the Salève, the Voirons, and La Dôle (in Vaud territory). The area of the canton of Geneva is .


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The canton of located in the extreme west of Switzerland. Excluding the exclave of the municipality of Céligny, the canton shares 95% of its border with France: 103 km out a total of 107.5 km, the remaining 4.5 km are shared with Vaud.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Geneva is surrounded by the French departments of the Ain to its west, and that of the Haute Savoie to the East and South, and the canton of Vaud to the north.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The canton is located in the Genevan basin. The region is bordered by the Lake Geneva and traversed by the major rivers of the Rhone flowing out of the lake and the Arve, whose source is located in the Mont-Blanc region. It is encircled by the Jura on its north-west; by the Vuache to its west, split from the Jura by the Rhone valley and protected by the Fort l'Écluse; by the Mont-de-Sion to the South; by the Salève to the south-east, a mountain locals refer to as the "mountain of Genevans" despite being located in France due to its easy access and proximity; and to the east are the Alps, whose highest peak, the Mont-Blanc, is often visible from many parts of the canton.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: To the north-east of Salève, in Monniaz (municipality of Jussy), is located the highest point of the canton at 516 metres above sea level. The lowest point of the canton is along the Rhône south of Chancy at 332 metres.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The canton contains both the urban landscape of the city of Geneva and its surrounding towns, and a well-preserved rural landscape. The Mandement, in the north-west of the canton, is a partial valley dug by the river Allondon, a tributary of the Rhone, and regrouping the major wine-making towns of Satigny, Russin, and Dardagny. The Verbois dam built over the Rhone in that area supplies around 15% of the electricity needs of the canton and it links the Mandement to Champagne, on the opposite side of the river, between the towns of Russin and Aire-la-Ville.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Chancy, the westernmost municipality of Switzerland, is located in Champagne. The slope raises gently from the Rhone towards the main town of the region, Bernex, culminating in the Signal at 509.9 metres, the second-highest point of the canton. This region contains several historical villages such as Sézegnin, Athenaz, Avusy, Laconnex, Soral, Cartigny, and Avully, transferred to Geneva from the Duchy of Savoy in 1815.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: At its narrowest point, the canton measures 2.1 km between the lake in Vegneron and the French border in Ferney-Voltaire. As this is the only territory connecting the canton towards the rest of Switzerland, this small piece of land is crossed by the main railway towards Lausanne and Neuchâtel; the A1 highway and its interchange; several roads; the international airport; two high-voltage electric lines; a gaz pipeline; an oil pipeline; and a bicycle path.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The canton of Geneva is not divided into any administrative districts. There were 13 cities with a population of over 10,000 as of :


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The constitution of the canton was established in 1847 and has since been amended several times. The cantonal executive government (Conseil d'État) has seven members, who are elected for five years.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The legislature, the Grand Council (Grand Conseil), has 100 seats, with deputies elected for four years at a time.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: In a similar way to what happens at the Federal level, any change to the Constitution is subject to compulsory referendum. In addition, any law can be subject to a referendum if it is demanded by 7,000 persons entitled to vote, and 10,000 persons may also propose a new law.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: In 2019 the Republic and Canton of Geneva gained a seat and sent a total of 12 representatives to the National Council. The federal election held on 20 October 2019 did result in an electoral breakthrough for the Green Party (PES/GPS) which for the first time was the most popular party with a vote share of 24.6%. The Liberals (PLR/FDP) were relegated to the second place, losing 2.6% of their vote share and a seat in the National Council. Two mandates were also allotted to the Social Democratic Party (PS/SP) and the UDC/SVP receiving 14.7% or 13.7% respectively. The Christian Democratic People's Party (PDC/CVP) managed to hold their seat with 7.7% while the coalition gained 7.4% of the votes and a seat. The election also resulted in the Geneva Citizens' Movement (MCG) losing their only seat with a decreased vote share of 5.4% compared to 7.9% in 2015. Voter turnout decreased to 38.2%, the lowest recorded among all cantons in 2019.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The last elections to the Council of States (Switzerland) were held in two rounds taking place on 20 October 2019 and 10 November 2019 within the federal elections. The election resulted in two new members being seated after the second round of voting. Councillor Lisa Mazzone of the Green Party (PES/GPS) was elected with 45,998 votes and councillor Carlo Sommaruga, member of the Social Democratic Party (PS/SP) was elected with 41,839 votes. Outgoing councillors were Liliane Maury Pasquier of the Social Democratic Party and Robert Cramer of the Green Party which were both first elected in 2007. Both parties therefore maintained their representation in the council.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The population of the canton (as of ) was . In 2013, the population included 194,623 foreign-born residents, from 187 different nations, comprising 40.1% of the total population.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The population of the canton, , contained 168,505 people originally from Geneva (35.4%) and 112,878 Swiss from other cantons (23.7%). About 73% of foreign-born residents were from Europe (EU28: 64.4%), 9.1% from Africa, 9.0% from the Americas, and 8.5% from Asia. Including people holding multiple citizenship, 54.4% of people living in Geneva held a foreign passport.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: In 2014, the predominant language of Geneva was French, spoken by 81.04% of the population at home; the next largest home languages were English (10.84%), Portuguese (9.89%), Spanish (7.82%) and German (5.32%); respondents were permitted to report more than one language.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: As home of John Calvin's Reformation, the canton of Geneva has traditionally been a Protestant Christian stronghold. However, during the 19th and 20th centuries, the Roman Catholic population of the canton increased dramatically, largely due to the expansion of the border in 1815 towards Catholic areas and to immigration from Catholic European countries; their community numbered 220,139 people or 44.5% . Roman Catholics now outnumber members of the Swiss Reformed Church (65,629 people or 13.3% ) in the canton by far; . The surrounding regions of France are mostly Roman Catholic.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: In 2012, 5.4% of the Genevan population (aged 15 years and older) belonged to other Christian groups, 5.5% were Muslims, and 5.9% belonged to other religious groups. The remainder of the population was religiously unaffiliated or did not answer the census question.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Despite its relatively small size compared to other Swiss cantons, the canton of Geneva generates the fourth largest GDP of the country (CHF 50bn), behind the cantons of Zurich (CHF 143bn), Berne (CHF 78bn), and Vaud (CHF 54bn), and enjoys the third-largest GDP per capita in the country behind Basel-City and Zug


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Geneva's economy is largely service-driven. The canton consistently ranks as one of the strongest global financial centres. Three main sectors dominate the financial sector: commodity trading; trade finance, and wealth management.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Around a third of the world's free traded oil, sugar, grains and oil seeds is traded in Geneva. Approximately 22% of the world's cotton is traded in the Lake Geneva region. Other major commodities traded in the canton include steel, electricity, or coffee. Large trading companies have their regional or global headquarters in the canton, such as Trafigura, Cargill, Vitol, Gunvor, BNP Paribas, or Mercuria Energy Group, in addition to being home to the world's second largest shipping company, Mediterranean Shipping Company. Commodity trading is sustained by a strong trade finance sector, with large banks such as BCGE, Banque de Commerce et de Placements, BCV, Crédit Agricole, Credit Suisse, ING, Société Générale, and UBS, all having their headquarters in the area for this business.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Wealth management is dominated by non-publicly listed banks, particularly Pictet, Lombard Odier, Union Bancaire Privée, Edmond de Rothschild Group, Mirabaud Group, Dukascopy Bank, Bordier & Cie, Banque SYZ, or REYL & Cie. In addition, the canton is home to the largest concentration of foreign-owned banks in Switzerland, such as HSBC Private Bank, JPMorgan Chase, Bank of China, Barclays, or Arab Bank.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Behind the financial sector, the next largest major economic sector is watchmaking, dominated by luxury firms Rolex, Richemont, Patek Philippe, and others, whose factories are mostly concentrated in the municipalities of Plan-les-Ouates and Meyrin.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Trade finance, wealth management, and watchmaking, approximately contribute two-thirds of the corporate tax paid in the canton


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Other large multinationals are also headquartered in the canton, such as Firmenich (in Satigny), and Givaudan (in Vernier), the world's two largest manufacturers of flavours, fragrances and active cosmetic ingredients; SGS, the world's largest inspection, verification, testing and certification services company; Alcon (in Vernier), a company specialising in eye-care products; Temenos, a large banking software provider; or the local headquarters for Procter & Gamble, Japan Tobacco International, or L'Oréal.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Although they do not directly contribute to the local economy, the canton of Geneva is also host to the world's largest concentration of international organisations and UN agencies, such as the Red Cross, the World Health Organization, the World Trade Organization, the International Telecommunication Union, the World Intellectual Property Organization, the World Meteorological Organization, and the International Labour Organization, as well as the European headquarters of the United Nations.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Its international mindedness, well-connected airport, and centrality in the continent, also make Geneva a good destination for congresses and trade fairs, of which the largest two are the Geneva Motor Show and Watches & Wonders, both held in Palexpo.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Agriculture is commonplace in the hinterlands of Geneva, particularly wheat and wine. Despite its relatively small size, the canton produces around 10% of the Swiss wine and has the highest vineyard density in the country. The largest strains grown in Geneva are gamay, chasselas, pinot noir, gamaret, and chardonnay.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Geneva is linked to the rest of Switzerland with trains operated by the Swiss Federal Railways, with main lines towards Brig in the canton of Valais via Lausanne, to St. Gallen via Lausanne, Fribourg, Bern and Zurich or alternatively via Neuchâtel on the Jura Foot Railway, and to Lucerne.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: Since 1984 the French high-speed trains (TGV) serve Geneva, with services connecting to Paris and as far as Marseille, operated by TGV Lyria, a joint company owned by the SNCF and the Swiss Federal Railways. The SNCF also operates regional train services to Lyon.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The public transport of Geneva is operated by Transports Publics Genevois, which on average carry a total of 200 million passengers per year on its extensive network of trams, trolleybuses, buses, and boats, and by Lemanis, which operates the suburban rail network, the Léman Express. All the operators of the region operate under Unireso, so any ticket is valid in all the network within the canton as well as in France.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: After the inauguration of the missing rail link between Geneva and the border French city of Annemasse and the creation of the Léman Express in 2019, many secondary bus routes were re-designed as feeders to the new train stations. Soon after the opening of the rail network and prior to the COVID-19 crisis in 2020, it had met all its expectations in terms of passenger numbers with 25,000 daily users. Several municipalities of the canton, especially those in the Mandement (Satigny, Russin, Dardagny), and those on the right-bank of the lake (from Chambésy to Versoix) rely heavily on the rail for their commuting.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The tram network is also an important element of cohesion of the canton, linking the city of Geneva to its dense urban surroundings formed by large municipalities such as Lancy, Meyrin, Vernier, Onex or Bernex. Several extensions of the network are planned for the near future, including an extension towards the French city of Saint-Julien-en-Genevois via Plan-les-Ouates, and towards Grand Saconnex near the airport.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: In 1964, the first Swiss motorway, the A1, was built between Geneva and Lausanne as part of the investments carried out for the Swiss national exposition of 1964, and later it was extended all the way to the border with Austria. The canton is also linked to the French motorway system with the A40 autoroute, offering a speedy access to the Mont Blanc tunnel.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The main educational institution is the University of Geneva, founded in 1559 by John Calvin. It was originally called "Schola Genevensis". The original buildings are no longer used by the university, and are now used by Collège Calvin.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The public system starts from the age of 4 in one of the 165 primary schools of the canton. This is followed in one of the 19 cycle d'orientation from the ages of 12 to 15. Students then choose to follow an academic route in one of the 11 collèges, or an apprenticeship/general studies in one of the 14 specialised schools.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: In addition, the canton's private schools have a good reputation for academic excellence. Many of these schools, such as the International School of Geneva, and Institut Florimont, also offer the International Baccalaureate. This programme was founded in Geneva in the 1960s and it is still headquartered in the canton.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: The "Jeûne genevois" is a public holiday specific to Geneva, celebrated on the Thursday following the first Sunday of September.


title: Canton of Geneva

text: "L'Escalade", or Fête de l'Escalade (from escalade, the act of scaling defensive walls), is an annual festival held in December in Geneva, Switzerland, celebrating the defeat of the surprise attack by troops sent by Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy during the night of 11–12 December 1602 (Old style). The celebrations and other commemorative activities are usually held on 12 December or the closest weekend.


title: Dictionnaire Infernal

text: The Dictionnaire infernal () is a book on demonology, describing demons organised in hierarchies. It was written by Jacques Collin de Plancy and first published in 1818. There were several editions of the book; perhaps the most famous is the 1863 edition, which included sixty-nine illustrations by Louis Le Breton depicting the appearances of several of the demons. Many but not all of these images were later used in S. L. MacGregor Mathers's edition of "The Lesser Key of Solomon".


title: Dictionnaire Infernal

text: "Dictionnaire Infernal" was first published in 1818 and then divided into two volumes, with six reprints—and many changes—between 1818 and 1863. This book attempts to provide an account of all the knowledge concerning superstitions and demonology.


title: Dictionnaire Infernal

text: Influenced by Voltaire, Collin de Plancy initially did not believe in superstition. For example, the book reassures its contemporaries as to the torments of Hell: "To deny that there are sorrows and rewards after death is to deny the existence of God; since God exists, it must be necessarily so. But only God could know the punishments meted out to the guilty, or the place that holds them. All the catalogues made herebefore are only the fruit of a more or less disordered imagination. Theologians should leave to the poets the depiction of Hell, and not themselves seek to frighten minds with hideous paintings and appalling books" (p. 164).<ref name="XLII/KWS 37/Dictionnaire infernal"></ref>


title: Dictionnaire Infernal

text: The skepticism of Collin de Plancy increasingly subsided over time. By the end of 1830 he was an enthusiastic Roman Catholic, to the consternation of his former admirers. In later years, De Plancy rejected and modified his past works, thoroughly revising his "Dictionnaire Infernal" to conform with Roman Catholic theology. This influence is most clearly seen in the sixth and final 1863 edition of the book, which is decorated with many engravings and seeks to affirm the existence of the demons. de Plancy collaborated with Jacques Paul Migne, a French priest, to complete a "Dictionary of the occult sciences or theological Encyclopaedia", which is described as an authentic Roman Catholic work.


title: Dictionnaire Infernal

text: Many articles written in the "Dictionnaire Infernal" illustrate the author's vacillation between rationalism, faith, and willingness to believe without evidence. For example, he admits the possible effectiveness of chiromancy, while rejecting cartomancy: "It is certain that chiromancy, and especially physiognomy, have at least some plausibility: they draw their predictions from signs which relate to features which distinguish and characterize people; of lines which the subjects carry with themselves, which are the work of nature, and that someone can believe significant, since they are unique to each individual. But the cards, merely human artifacts, not knowing either the future, nor the present, nor the past, have nothing of the individuality of the person consulting them. For a thousand different people they will have the same result; and consulted twenty times about the same subject, they will produce twenty contradictory productions" (p. 82).


title: 2010s in fashion

text: The 2010s were defined by hipster fashion, athleisure, a revival of austerity-era period pieces and alternative fashions, swag-inspired outfits, 1980s-style neon streetwear, and unisex 1990s-style elements influenced by grunge and skater fashions. The later years of the decade witnessed the growing importance in the western world of social media influencers paid to promote fast fashion brands on Pinterest and Instagram.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Popular global fashion brands of the decade included Abercrombie and Fitch, Adidas, Balenciaga, Ben Sherman, Burberry, Christian Dior, Coach, DSquared2, Dorothy Perkins, Fashion Nova, Forever 21, Gucci, H&M, Hollister, Hugo Boss, Lacoste, Louis Vuitton, Marks and Spencer, Michael Kors, Monsoon Accessorize, Nike, Nine West, Off-White, River Island, Supreme, Topman, Topshop, Uniqlo, Under Armour, and Vans.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: The leading European and American designers of the early 2010s included Nicolas Ghesquière, Miuccia Prada, Frida Giannini, Marc Jacobs, Phoebe Philo, and Karl Lagerfeld. Notable Asian fashion designers include Louie Mamengo and Michael Cinco.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Top female international models include Gisele Bündchen, Lara Stone, Raquel Zimmermann, Karlie Kloss, Kaia Gerber, Adut Akech, Adriana Lima, Joan Smalls, Natasha Poly, Liu Wen, Anja Rubik, Freja Beha Erichsen, Mariacarla Boscono, Suki Waterhouse, Lindsey Wixson, Arizona Muse, Saskia de Brauw, Behati Prinsloo, Lily Aldridge, Lais Ribeiro, Irina Shayk, Elsa Hosk, Martha Hunt, Constance Jablonski, Catherine McNeil, Monika Jagaciak, Emily DiDonato, Jessica Hart, Rosie Huntington-Whiteley, Gigi Hadid, Kendall Jenner, Karmen Pedaru, Mica Argañaraz, Candice Swanepoel, Cara Delevingne, Vanessa Axente, Cameron Russell, Amanda Murphy, Julia Nobis, Edie Campbell, Lexi Boling, Imaan Hammam, Binx Walton, Edita Vilkeviciute, Andreea Diaconu, Aymeline Valade, Fei Fei Sun, Iselin Steiro, Anais Mali, Anne Vyalitsyna, Jourdan Dunn, Toni Garrn, Jamie Bochert, Daphne Groeneveld, Rianne van Rompaey, and Anna Ewers.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Top male international models include Sean O'Pry, David Gandy, Clément Chabernaud, Baptiste Giabiconi, Garrett Neff, Arthur Kulkov, Noah Mills, Will Chalker, Evandro Soldati, Adam Senn, Francisco Lachowski, Andrés Velencoso, Simon Nessman, Mathias Lauridsen, Marlon Teixeira, and younger men like Lucky Blue Smith or Brooklyn Beckham.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: The early 2010s saw many recycled fashions from the 1950s, 1970s, and 1980s as designers from stores like Topshop replicated original vintage clothing. In the United States, it was popular to wear Gucci, Chanel, or Versace designer clothing, and neon colors such as pink, green, teal, black, purple, magenta, and yellow.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Popular tops for American, British, and Australian women aged 20–50 included tunics, 1980s style baseball jackets, oversized cardigans, western shirts, 2fer and layered shirts and tees, dresses and shirts worn with belts, Abercrombie and Fitch hoodies until 2012, Perfecto motorcycle jackets customized with studs, floral camisoles worn with matching boyshorts, and sundresses. European women wore sparkly dresses, baggy one-size-fits-all Empire line skirts, blouses and dresses, and lace, figure-hugging white organza maxi dresses inspired by Pippa Middleton.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: From 2010 to 2012 many late 2000s fashion trends remained popular in Europe, the United States, East Asia, Israel, and South America, especially acid wash skinny jeans, geometric or galaxy printed crew neck sweatshirts and leggings, "trouser-dresses", romper suits, preppy pastel colored skinny jeans, metallic dresses, and capri pants cropped at the ankle. Possibly due to the poor economy in the early years, the midi skirt and the maxi skirt were the most common skirt and dress styles, with the hemline standards being the longest they had been since The Great Depression.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: From late 2011 onward, 1990s inspired fashion began to make a comeback in the UK, US, Philippines, India, and Australasia among teen girls and young women aged 15–30. Popular upper apparel included Christmas sweaters, T-shirts with blazers, plaid, oversized flannel shirts worn or tied around the waist, oversized T-shirts, padded gilets, Penshoppe skater skirts (in the Philippines), skorts, crew neck sweaters, T-shirts bearing the word Nerd or Geek, destroyed acid wash Balmain jeans, and crop tops. In the UK and the US, popular bottom apparel includes skinny jeans, leggings, parachute pants, railroad stripe pants or skirts, boyfriend jeans. High-waisted bottoms, such as pants, shorts, skirts, and bathing suits also became the standard for women's fashion in the 2010s, as opposed to the low rise trend that was popular throughout the 2000s.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Desirable footwear from 2012 to 2015 included flat sandals, black, white or multicolored Vans, Keds as worn in ads by Mischa Barton, Ariana Grande and Taylor Swift, TOMS Shoes, Chucks, Sperry top-siders boat shoes, flat knee high riding boots, Uggs, moccasins, Hunter boots brand rain boots, one strap sandals, furry slip-on Puma sandals, Ballerina flats, cavalier boots, gladiator sandals, wedge heel-style sneakers, flip-flops, combat boots, Doc Martens, and The Timberland Company hiking boots.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Other popular trends of the early and mid 2010s included Aztec and Navajo inspired patterns featuring diamonds and triangles, especially on T-shirts, socks, handbags, panties, pullovers, and other knitwear. In addition, young American women began wearing feather earrings, beaded bracelets, sneakers resembling moccasins, ponchos, vests and jackets made from striped Mexican blanket material, despite the connotations of cultural appropriation. These tribal inspired garments, made popular by Urban Outfitters and Ralph Lauren, typically came in bright colors like red, yellow, turquoise, blue, and orange.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Many fashion trends from the early years of the decade, especially the 1980s influences and the 1960s inspired indie, neo-hippie and boho chic looks, remained relevant in the US and Europe as far as 2017. This included skinny jeans, tunics, floral print dresses, midi and maxi skirts, motorcycle jackets, western shirts, red and blue geometric print blouses, patterned and solid colored tights, overalls, jogger pants, flat boots, stiletto shoes, Nike Tempo shorts, pastel and neon colored shorts, ballet flats, and combat boots. Popular colors from 2015 to 2016 included mauve, cream, eggplant, lime green, and warm grey. In the UK, modestwear combined with elements of hip-hop fashion became popular among many young Muslim women, with long skirts decorated with lace and beaded embroidery, colourful floral hijabs, halal cosmetics free from animal products, knee length grey cardigan sweaters worn over leggings, white trenchcoats worn with baggy pants, keffiyehs worn as headscarves, black satin gowns worn with a long shawl collar overcoat, purple kaftan dresses worn with high heeled shoes, and abayas with retro 1980s inspired zigzag patterns.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Continuing on from the late 2000s, Fashion in India moved away from traditional clothes like the saree and glamorous Bollywood style dresses in favor of a more Westernized style that incorporated navy pants, blazers, leather jackets, waistcoats and androgynous military jackets. Popular casual footwear included leather dress boots, stiletto heels, platform sandals, and open toe pumps. Cream, grey, blue and orange Kurta dresses with side slits decorated with pink or purple embroidery and synthetic jewels were worn with jeans or leggings, T shirts, tank tops and bat wing sleeve blouses were paired with traditional silk salwar pajamas or short shorts, and the large hoop earrings declined in popularity in favor of smaller minimalist gold jewelry.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: By the mid-2010s, neon colors were out of style in Europe, America, and Australia. More subdued colors became popular such as burgundy, mustard yellow, olive green, mauve, and blush pink. Bright colors were also replaced by black, white, various shades of gray, and charcoal first on the catwalk, and later as street fashion. Black and white Polka dot dresses underwent a revival in China and North Korea. This trend had spread to Middle Eastern countries like Turkey, Iran and the United Arab Emirates by 2016, with Italian brand Dolce and Gabbana launching a range of black and white hijabs and abayas decorated with lace daisies, roses and lemons.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Monochromatic clothing trends from 2013 to 2017 included black and white lace dresses, lace blouses, jackets and dresses with peter pan collars, white Adidas Superstar sneakers with black or gold stripes, houndstooth or geometric patterned blazers, black or nude slip dresses, T-shirt dresses, white babydoll dresses, bodycon midi dresses, black and white striped "Beetlejuice" style slim-fit pants, long black velvet blazers decorated with silver braid, tuxedo jackets (often having contrasting black velvet or satin lapels), crop tops, oversized coats, striped culottes, loose Capri pants and palazzo pants, patent leather gladiator sandals, romper suits, sheer black tops worn over bralettes, puffer jackets and vests, knee-length skirts, pencil skirts, black and white geometric printed leggings, and cuffed boyfriend jeans. Denim declined in popularity in the US, with black or grey yoga pants, leggings, and slim-fit jogger pants replacing them. From 2013, small bucket backpacks in colorful prints such as aztec, polka dot, and floral were popular, mirroring the small backpack trend in the 1990s, but by 2015, these small backpacks were largely replaced by Herschel zip-up backpacks with brown diamond patches on the front.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Loom bands, bracelets woven from brightly colored rubber bands, were seen as both a global fashion statement and a children's fad. In France, Ireland and America, 1990s-inspired Choker necklaces featuring colored glass beads, silver chain link, artificial diamonds, Swarovski crystals, lace, velvet, and black or red leather had returned to popularity. By 2016, Chokers were also worn as an attachment to dresses and shirts, as a high-neck style and with shoulders exposed also known as "cold shoulder". Small and dainty jewelry replaced the large amounts of bracelets and statement necklaces that were popular at the beginning of the decade.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Another brief fad of the mid-2010s included the unisex onesie suit (like One-piece). Originally envisioned as pajamas, onesies were often purchased as a gag gift, and worn as casual streetwear by some younger women in the UK, Australia, and the US, including Amy Childs, Kourtney Kardashian, and Holly Carpenter.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: The early to mid 2010s witnessed a revival of grunge fashion in America with more of an "edgy" interest of denim ripped jeans and ripped jackets, flannels, animal print coats, printed t-shirts which were frequently color or stone faded, black combat boots, biker boots, and leather motorbike jackets.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Beginning in 2013, there was a revival of late 1960s and early 70s bohemian fashions in the US, UK, India, and France, notably of bell bottom style pants, Birkenstocks, gypsy blouses, palazzo pants, dresses with cutouts, lace-up tops, crocheted crop tops, sweaters and halternecks, and Bardot off the shoulder tops. The lace up trend was also highly popular with footwear, largely because of Tunisian shoe designer Azzedine Alaia. In America, women favored white, black, camel, warm grey, or blush sweater dresses, thin turtlenecks popularized by The Kardashians, catsuits, jumpsuits, playsuits or rompers, high necked Victorian inspired lace dresses, and leather, tan, or olive green duster coats. Solid wedge heels, Stuart Weitzman knee boots, platform shoes and perspex heels, also known as the "nothing shoe" became a popular trend in 2016.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: From 2017 to 2021, the brightly colored beige, red, green, brown and orange 1970s revival fashions began to replace the grey and monochromatic 1990s inspired streetwear in Britain, India, North America and France. Particularly popular were the sheepskin coats, moon boots, flared double breasted trouser suits in black, purple, pink, cream, grey, and navy blue tartan, baggy floral maxi dresses, blue gingham dresses, applique cropped wide leg jeans, denim jackets with embroidered red roses, multicolored tie dye skirts, baby blue and China print dresses worn with black tights, pale denim shirt dresses worn unbuttoned over blouses and light wash jeans, white sneakers, leopardskin coats, Marks and Spencer gold dresses with bows, distressed jeans, peacoats, brown granny boots, neon green, tangerine, or pale dusky pink midi-dresses, white peplum dresses reminiscent of those worn by Princess Leia, leather jackets in red, purple, green, blue, tan or black, slightly flared jeans, white and blue floral print shirt dresses, loosely woven plaid blouses, pleats, ruffles, stripes, mismatched earrings popularised by Kate Moss, mandarin collar tops, purple dresses with puffball sleeves, leather or PVC miniskirts, translucent yellow or orange cold shoulder blouses, oversized paisley, suede or black vinyl handbags, embroidered long sleeve T-shirts, throws, Cowichan sweaters, fringed shift dresses, wraps, gold brocade blazers, ponchos, fur lined parkas, silver sequined cocktail dresses, denim skirts, geometric print blouses, floral Brigitte Bardot minidresses and blouses with flouncy sleeves, kimono jackets made from the same brightly colored silk as aloha shirts, leather safari blazers, jumper dresses, slim fitting capri pants, babydoll dresses, knee boots, flat ankle boots with tights, or crew or knee socks slouched down over tights, leggings, jeggings, or skinny jeans. Also seen are snakeskin or sequinned pants, cold shoulder tops, peasant blouses, oversized hoop earrings, velvet blazers and dresses in pink, cobalt blue, red, navy, gold, and forest green, fur vests, Jeremy Corbyn caps, camel wool coats, hot pants, tunics, army green parkas, rainbow striped sweaters, sunflower print maxi dresses, PVC jackets, black velvet Nehru jackets with gold braid, ghillies, Grecian sandals, red, white, salmon, lavender or orange crocheted jumpers, and Swedish Fjällräven Kånken rucksacks in colors such as mustard, navy, forest green, and dusty pink. Although shirt collars remained relatively small, by 2019 these began to be replaced in the UK by overized Revere collars reminiscent of disco fashion. The pantywaist tops previously fashionable as sportswear in the late 1970s and early 1980s, started to commonly replace T-shirts in the UK, US and South Africa, especially among pop stars and models like Candice Swanepoel, Emily Ratajkowski, Nicki Minaj, and Beyoncé, whose one-off bodysuits were modified from vintage Adidas and Chicago Bulls jerseys. By way of Alessandro Michele of Gucci's creative direction, flat mule shoes, clear shoes, sandals and orange, brown or pink mule heels reminiscent of those worn by Barbie dolls started making a resurgence in Italy and Americas from early 2017 onwards, sometimes featuring tiger embroidery, florals, beadwork, or furry lining.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Another emerging trend of 2018–19, popularized by Calvin Klein, Coach, Alexander McQueen and Tommy Hilfiger, took inspiration from 1970s blue collar Americana, especially the clothing worn by biker chicks, cowgirls, hard rock fans, and small town inhabitants of the "American heartland". Faded red, pale blue, black, and off white were particularly desirable colors. Common items in Britain and America included pale denim jeans, "mom" jeans, stacked waist denim, skirts and jackets, black or white clutch bags, Western shirts, jackets dresses, and even sneakers with Old West inspired floral embroidery, capri pants, suede fringed bags, Khloe Kardashian's Good American brand jeans, black or dark blue denim miniskirts, dungarees, shortalls, oversized silver belt buckles, 90s inspired scrunchies worn in the hair and as a wristband, biker jackets in black, grey or brown, bandanas, red or blue gingham skirts and primark dresses, black dresses and sweaters with stars and stripes motifs, black or white T-shirts, sandals decorated with black, white and orange beads, low cowboy boots, white shoes, black leather jackets, and shirts featuring graffiti, throwback sports logos, rose motifs, vintage advertising brands, 1950s cartoon characters, and old school tattoo designs like tigers, eagles, hearts, skulls, revolvers and snakes which were typically more subdued than the garish Ed Hardy designs of the early 2010s.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: By 2017, it had also become fashionable for younger middle-class women in Britain, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Denmark, and Finland to wear more "grown up" or normcore styles, in reaction to the previous mismatched hipster fashions and the athleisure trend of 2014 which mixed traditional formal wear with high end sportswear. Longer plaid skirts, billowing white blouses, vintage sheer black stockings with garterbelts, bias cut midi skirts, pale blue belted trenchcoats, Argyle sweaters, silk blouses, sensible flat shoes and sandals, straight leg jeans, long powder blue coats worn with matching pillbox hats, traditional style wool or silk scarves, blue or red paisley Nehru collar coats of the type popularised by Zara, nude pantyhose, bows similar to those worn by Margaret Thatcher, black velvet, blush and blue denim mule slippers with bows, and baggy black capri pants became popular in the UK in response to perceived sexualised and misogynistic dress codes in many workplaces (especially the compulsory wearing of high heels), and also due to the influence of Kate Middleton and celebrity early adopters like Victoria Beckham who sought a more professional looking image in the winter of 2016. Skinny jeans began to be replaced by straight leg jeans designed to follow the contours of the body, and other accessories that declined in popularity included chokers, gaudy brand labels, ripped jeans, patches, and pin badges due to their childish connotations.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Neon colors and elaborate T-shirts were popular for much of the early 2010s, especially graphic print hoodies, novelty socks, red or blue skinny jeans, studded belts with large buckles, and Ed Hardy T-shirts embellished with rhinestones.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Many styles from the late 2000s remained fashionable in Europe, Australasia, and the Americas, with brands such as Polo Ralph Lauren and J Crew being well favored. Popular tops for men aged 20–50 included shawl collar cardigans, V-neck T-shirts, acid wash denim work shirts, cable knit pullovers, Tartan flannel Western shirts with snap fastenings, grunge style padded tartan overshirts in red, navy blue or dark green, throwback basketball or baseball uniforms, denim jackets, Aloha shirts, car coats, 1930s style linen sportcoats, brown or black brogues, and black leather jackets like the Schott Perfecto motorcycle jacket.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: In the summer of 2011, 1980s and 1990s inspired fashion made a comeback in the UK among men. This included bright colored short shorts, jeans shorts with a stone wash or acid wash, shorter 7, 6, and 5 inch inseam shorts from mid 2010s on, shirts with Aztec patterns, Mayan patterns, camouflage prints or 19animal prints, flannel shirts, high top sneakers, snapback hats, and gaudy wristwatches.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: In the Americas, the trend caught on in both Summer 2011 and Spring 2013. The Grunge look had made a comeback due to the influence of Steves Peeps, an artist from Boston. upper items of clothing include bomber jackets, black leather jackets, crombie overcoats, padded tartan overshirts, crewneck sweatshirts, oversized flannel shirts, throwback basketball or baseball uniforms, and preppy Nantucket Reds. Other popular accessories of the early to mid 2010s included Doc Martens, The Timberland Company, combat boots, Converse All Stars, Sperry Top-Siders, Ugg boots, Nike Elite crew socks, snapback hats,brown Oxford shoes, and classic Nike trainers. Maroon baseball jackets and ringer Tees featuring a specific sports team's logo were particularly popular in the Philippines due to the widespread media coverage of the UAAP Games athletes.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: The business casual look of the 1990s and early 2000s remained common in many parts of the Americas, with jeans, loafers, boat shoes and sneakers being seen as acceptable to wear in the workplace. The decline in the formality of men's fashion that started in the 1960s continued until 2012, with men wearing informal clothing on a regular basis, even at work or while travelling, as an apparent extension of Beau Brummell's older idea that gentlemen shouldn't try to outshine the ladies for attention. This contrasted to Britain, Italy, Europe, and parts of the US, where more formal "Mad Men"-inspired business clothing such as slim-fitting grey two piece suits had made a comeback in the workplace during the early 2010s. At this time, tweed cloth sportcoats became acceptable town wear, and business suits imitated the broad shouldered, form fitting styles of the 1920s, sometimes with contrasting lapel piping.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: From 2013 to 2015, men's fashion was heavily influenced by the improving economy and fashion-conscious cities such as London, New York City, Paris, and Milan, and incorporated elements of hip-hop fashion, luxury fashion, sportswear, athleisure and skater apparel. Bright colors, studded belts and retro styled graphic prints (especially 1960s–80s advertising logos, classic rock bands, and the loud Ed Hardy shirts) went out of style in favor of plain black, white, beige, taupe, gray, marl, burgundy, and various shades of dark green. Common clothing items in the Americas, Britain and Russia included tailored marl sweatpants, jersey shirts, chunky hiking boots with thick soles, bomber jackets, hoodies with Cyrillic lettering, shirts with constructivist motifs, fake fur, tracksuits, leather jackets, denim jackets, DHL T-shirts, thick oversized anoraks, unstructured blazers, double-breasted sportcoats, shorts riding above the knee (toward a 5" inseam, down from 15"), drop crotch pants, slim fitting jogger pants, and deep red, gold, white, black and silver high tops. Sales in floral print clothing designs for men more than doubled amongst fashion retailers between 2013 and 2014.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: From 2013 to 2016, workwear became a significant trend in Britain, Ireland and the Americas. Besides the cardigan sweaters, knit caps, flat caps, dark denim jackets, waxed jackets, yellow fishermens macs, and flannel shirts previously popularised by indie kids, Grenson brogues, oxblood Red Wing work boots and the grandfather collar shirt emerged as a semi-casual fashion item in western cultures. In China and Europe, retro feiyue martial arts sneakers in red, white and blue made a comeback.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Common accessories include Ray-Ban wayfarer sunglasses, paisley scarfs, teashade glasses, tortoise shell glasses, snake skin or plaited leather belts, flat caps, newsboy caps, bum bags, trilbys, and pork pie hats.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: In the UK, Italy, Australia and US, many professional men wear grey mohair or houndstooth office suits, usually with two-button fastening, a single vent, and narrow lapels inspired by the American TV show "Mad Men", "Hannibal", and Daniel Craig as James Bond. Businessmen in Asian countries like the Philippines generally followed the trend, but dispensed with the necktie in favor of a semi-formal, simple shirt better suited to the hot tropical climate. As part of the general 1980s revival, the waistcoat made a comeback as part of the three piece suit in Europe and the US. In the early 2010s these suits were mostly charcoal grey, shiny steel grey and silver (especially in Australia and America), but by 2014 these were joined by air force blue, navy blue, midnight blue, and sky blue.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: In the UK, US and Germany, the suits of the mid-2010s often featured checks, houndstooth, Glen plaid, bird's eye, Prince of Wales plaid cloth, or windowpane tweed, and the stripes on pinstripe suits became narrower and more closely spaced. Popular footwear of spring 2016 included round toed Oxford shoes, loafers, and Chelsea boots. Thin ties remained the norm, but the simple notch lapels of 2010 were increasingly replaced by shawl collars and peak lapels on single breasted three piece suits. By 2016, the black and silver digital wristwatches of the early 2010s had gone out of style among professional men in favor of classic oversized analog wristwatches with round black, gold or white faces and traditional brown, tan or black leather straps.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: Continuing on from the 2000s, fur ushanka and Astrakhan caps were often worn at wintertime formal occasions in Russia, Georgia, Kashmir, and Pakistan as both a symbol of national pride, and as a means of rejecting the excesses of Westernising globalization. In Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, however, the wearing of traditional dress such as the Astrakhan cap, kurta and pajama began to decline among professionals in favor of a Western style suit and tie, as part of a wider backlash against Hamid Karzai's regime.


title: 2010s in fashion

text: The mid-2010s witnessed the beginnings of Africa's own haute couture due to increased restriction on secondhand mitumba clothing in Kenya and Uganda. Contemporary clothing in Africa is often cut to unisex Western patterns but uses indigenous fabric associated with folk costume, such as a sportcoat made from striped kikoy fabric, a shirt made from kente cloth, or the silk Madiba shirts popularised in South Africa by Nelson Mandela. At the same time, some aspects of traditional attire such as wooden jewelry or the Dashiki were worn by expatriate Africans in the West, African Americans, and some liberal white Americans.