title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In 1965, Fairchild opened a semiconductor assembly plant on the Navajo Nation in Shiprock, New Mexico. At its peak, the plant employed over a thousand Navajos, the majority of whom were women. In "The Shiprock Dedication Commemorative Brochure" released by the Fairchild company, the Diné (Navajo) women circuit makers were celebrated as "culture workers who produced circuits as part of the 'reproductive' labor of expressing Navajo culture, rather than merely for wages." This claim was based on the opinion that circuits of the electronic chips had a mere resemblance with the complex geometric patterns on the Navajo rugs. Paul Driscoll, the Shiprock plant manager, spoke of the "untapped wealth of natural characteristics of the Navajo...the "inherent flexibility" and dexterity of the Indians." Although highly successful during its operation, the plant was closed in 1975. While the Fairchild corporation claims the Diné women were chosen to work in the Shiprock plant due to their "'nimble fingers'" as previously noted, the women of the Shiprock reservation were actually chosen as the workforce due to a lack of labor rights asserted by the women in addition to "cheap, plentiful workers and tax benefits".


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: Fairchild had not done well in the digital integrated circuit market. Their first line of ICs was the "micrologic" resistor–transistor logic (RTL) line which was used in the Apollo Guidance Computer. It had the advantage of being extremely simple – each inverter consisted of just one transistor and two resistors. The logic family had many drawbacks that had made it marginal for commercial purposes, and not well suited for military applications: the logic could only tolerate about 100 millivolts of noise – far too low for comfort. It was awhile before Fairchild relied on more robust designs, such as diode–transistor logic (DTL) which had much better noise margins.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: Sales due to Fairchild semiconductor division had doubled each year and by the mid-1960s comprised two-thirds of total sales of the parent company. In 1966, Fairchild's sales were second to those of Texas Instruments, followed in third place by Motorola. Noyce was rewarded with the position of corporate vice-president and hence became the "de facto" head of the semiconductor division.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: However, internal trouble at Fairchild began to surface with a drop in earnings in 1967. There was increasing competition from newer start-ups. The semiconductor division, situated in Mountain View and Palo Alto, California, was actually managed by executives from Syosset, New York, who visited the California sites once a year, even though the semiconductor division earned most of the profits of the company. Fairchild's president at that time, John Carter, had used all the profits to fund acquisitions of unprofitable ventures.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: Noyce's position on Fairchild's executive staff was consistently compromised by Sherman Fairchild's faction. Charles E. Sporck was Noyce's operations manager. Sporck was reputed to run the tightest operation in the world. Sporck, Pierre Lamond and most managers had grown upset and disillusioned with corporate focus on unprofitable ventures at the expense of the semiconductor division. Executives at the semiconductor division were allotted substantially fewer stock options compared to other divisions. In March 1967, Sporck was hired away by Peter J. Sprague to National Semiconductor. Sporck brought with him four other Fairchild personnel. Actually, Lamond had previously assembled a team of Fairchild managers in preparation to defect to Plessey, a British company. Lamond had recruited Sporck to be his own boss. When negotiations with Plessey broke down over stock options, Lamond and Sporck succumbed to Widlar's and Talbert's (who were already employed at National Semiconductor) suggestion that they look to National Semiconductor. Widlar and Talbert had earlier left Fairchild to join Molectro, which was later acquired by National Semiconductor.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In the fall of 1967, Fairchild suffered a loss for the first time since 1958 and announced write-offs of $4 million due to excess capacity, which contributed to a total loss of $7.6 million. Profits had sunk to $0.50 a share, compared to $3 a share the previous year, while the value of the stock dropped in half. In October 1967, the board ordered Carter to sell off all of Fairchild's unprofitable ventures. Carter responded to the order by resigning abruptly.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: Furthermore, Fairchild's DTL technology was being overtaken by Texas Instruments's faster TTL (transistor–transistor logic).


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: While Noyce was considered the natural successor to Carter, the board decided not to promote him. Sherman Fairchild led the board to choose Richard Hodgson. Within a few months Hodgson was replaced by a management committee led by Noyce, while Sherman Fairchild looked for a new CEO other than Noyce. In response, Noyce discreetly planned a new company with Gordon Moore, the head of R&D. They left Fairchild to found Intel in 1968 and were soon joined by Andrew Grove and Leslie L. Vadász, who took with them the revolutionary MOS Silicon Gate Technology (SGT), recently created in the Fairchild R&D Laboratory by Federico Faggin who also designed the Fairchild 3708, the world’s first commercial MOS integrated circuit using SGT. Fairchild MOS Division was slow in understanding the potential of the SGT which promised not only faster, more reliable, and denser circuits, but also new device types that could enlarge the field of solid state electronics – for example, CCDs for image sensors, dynamic RAMs, and non-volatile memory devices such as EPROM and flash memories. Intel took advantage of the SGT for its memory development. Federico Faggin, frustrated, left Fairchild to join Intel in 1970 and design the first microprocessors using SGT. Among the investors of Intel were Hodgson and five of the founding members of Fairchild.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: Sherman Fairchild hired Lester Hogan, who was the head of Motorola semiconductor division. Hogan proceeded to hire another hundred managers from Motorola to entirely displace the management of Fairchild.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: The loss of these iconic executives, coupled with Hogan's displacement of Fairchild managers demoralized Fairchild and prompted the entire exodus of employees to found new companies.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: Many of the original founders, otherwise known as the "fairchildren", had left Fairchild in the 1960s to form companies that grew to prominence in the 1970s. Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore were among the last of the original founders to leave, at which point the brain-drain of talents that had fueled the growth of the company was complete.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: A Fairchild advertisement of the time showed a collage of the logos of Silicon Valley with the annotation "We started it all".


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: It was later, in 1971, Don Hoefler popularizated the name "Silicon Valley USA" in "Electronic News". He notes he didn't invent the name. See also Gregory Gromov and "TechCrunch" 2014 update of Hoefler's article.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: Hogan's action to hire from Motorola had Motorola file a lawsuit against Fairchild, which the court then decided in Fairchild's favor in 1973. Judge William Copple ruled that Fairchild's results were so unimpressive that it was impossible to assess damages "under any theory." Hogan was dismissed as president the next year, but remained as vice chairman.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In 1973, Fairchild became the first company to produce a commercial charge-coupled device (CCD) following its invention at Bell Labs. Digital image sensors are still produced today at their descendant company, Fairchild Imaging. The CCD had a difficult birth, with the devastating effects on Fairchild of the 1973–75 recession that followed on the 1973 oil crisis.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: After Intel introduced the 8008 8-bit microprocessor, Fairchild developed the Fairchild F8 8-bit microprocessor, which was according to the CPU Museum "in 1977 the F8 was the world's leading microprocessor in terms of CPU sales."


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In 1976, the company released the first video game system to use ROM cartridges, the Fairchild Video Entertainment System (or VES) later renamed Channel F, using the F8 microprocessor. The system was successful initially, but quickly lost popularity when the Atari 2600 Video Computer System (or VCS) was released.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: By the end of the 1970s they had few new products in the pipeline, and increasingly turned to niche markets with their existing product line, notably "hardened" integrated circuits for military and space applications and isoplanar ECL products used in exotic applications like Cray Computers. Fairchild was being operated at a loss, and the bottomline subsisted mostly from licensing of its patents.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In 1979, Fairchild Camera and Instrument was purchased by Schlumberger Limited, an oil field services company, for $425 million. At this time, Fairchild's intellectual properties, on which Fairchild had been subsisting, were expiring.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In 1980, under Schlumberger management, the Fairchild Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence Research (FLAIR) was started within Fairchild Research.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: Fairchild research developed the Clipper architecture, a 32-bit RISC-like computer architecture, in the 1980s, resulting in the shipping of the C100 chip in 1986. The technology was later sold to Intergraph, its main customer.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: Schlumberger sold Fairchild to National Semiconductor in 1987 for $200 million. The sale did not include Fairchild's Test Division, which designed and produced automated test equipment (ATE) for the semiconductor manufacturing industry, nor did it include Schlumberger Palo Alto Research.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In 1997, the reconstituted Fairchild Semiconductor was reborn as an independent company, based in South Portland, Maine with Kirk Pond as CEO.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: On March 11, 1997, National Semiconductor Corporation announced the US$550 million sale of a reconstituted Fairchild to the management of Fairchild with the backing of Sterling LLC, a unit of Citicorp Venture Capital. Fairchild carried with it what was mostly the Standard Products group previously segregated by Gil Amelio.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: The Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation announced November 27, 1997, that it would acquire the semiconductor division of the Raytheon Corporation for about $120 million in cash. The acquisition was completed on December 31, 1997.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In December 1998, Fairchild announced the acquisition of Samsung's power division, which made power MOSFETs, IGBTs, etc. The deal was finalized in April 1999 for $450 million. To this day, Fairchild remains an important supplier for Samsung.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In August 1999, Fairchild Semiconductor again became a publicly traded company on the New York Stock Exchange with the ticker symbol FCS. Fairchild's South Portland, Maine and Mountaintop, Pennsylvania locations are the longest continuously operating semiconductor manufacturing facilities in the world, both operating since 1960.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: On March 19, 2001, Fairchild Semiconductor announced that it had completed the acquisition of Intersil Corporation's discrete power business for approximately $338 million in cash. The acquisition moved Fairchild into position as the second-largest power MOSFET supplier in the world, representing a 20 percent share of this $3 billion market that grew 40 percent last year.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: On September 6, 2001, Fairchild Semiconductor announced the acquisition of Impala Linear Corporation, based in San Jose, California, for approximately $6 million in stock and cash. Impala brought with it expertise in designing analog power management semiconductors for hand-held devices like laptops, MP3 players, cell phones, portable test equipment and PDAs.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: On January 9, 2004, Fairchild Semiconductor CEO Kirk Pond was appointed as a Director of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, elected by member banks to serve a three-year term.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: On April 13, 2005, Fairchild announced appointment of Mark Thompson as CEO of the corporation. Thompson would also be President, Chief Executive Officer and a member of the board of directors of Fairchild Semiconductor International. He originally joined Fairchild as Executive Vice President, Manufacturing and Technology Group.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: On March 15, 2006, Fairchild Semiconductor announced that Kirk P. Pond would retire as Chairman at the company's annual stockholders' meeting on May 3, 2006. Pond would continue as a member of the company’s board of directors. Mark Thompson (then CEO) became Chairman.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: On September 1, 2007, New Jersey-based RF semiconductor supplier Anadigics acquired Fairchild Semiconductor's RF design team, located in Tyngsboro, Massachusetts, for $2.4 million.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In April 2011, Fairchild Semiconductor acquired TranSiC, a silicon carbide power transistor company originally based in Sweden.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: On November 18, 2015, ON Semiconductor made an offer to acquire Fairchild Semiconductor for $2.4 billion (or $20 per share) after a few months of speculation that Fairchild was seeking a potential buyer.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: On April 10, 2016, Fairchild Semiconductor moved its headquarters from San Jose (3030 Orchard Pkwy.) to Sunnyvale (1272 Borregas Ave.)


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: On September 19, 2016, ON Semiconductor and Fairchild Semiconductor jointly announced that ON Semiconductor had completed its announced $2.4 billion cash acquisition of Fairchild.


title: Fairchild Semiconductor

text: In the fall of 2016, the Fairchild 'ON' Semiconductor International closed the West Jordan, Utah, manufacturing plant.


title: Golden Brooks

text: Golden Brooks is an American actress. She began her career with starring role in the Showtime comedy series, "Linc's" (1998–2000), and later has appeared in films "Timecode" (2000) and "Impostor" (2001).


title: Golden Brooks

text: From 2000 to 2008, Brooks starred as Maya Wilkes in the UPN/The CW comedy series "Girlfriends", for which she received two NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series nominations. She also has appeared in films "Motives" (2004), "Beauty Shop" (2005), "Something New" (2006) and "The Darkest Minds" (2018). In 2019, she received critical acclaim for her performance in the TNT limited drama series "I Am the Night".


title: Golden Brooks

text: Brooks was born December 1, 1970 in San Francisco, California. A classically trained dancer, she studied and taught ballet, jazz, and modern dance. She studied literature and sociology and is a graduate of UC Berkeley where she majored in Media Representation of Minorities with a minor in theater. She earned a Master's degree from Sarah Lawrence College.


title: Golden Brooks

text: In her early career, Brooks was active in the Rodney Theater Company. On television, she has appeared on "The Adventures of Pete & Pete", "Promised Land", "Linc's", and "The Jamie Foxx Show" as a girl named Nancy, whom Jamie confuses with Fancy. Brooks also appeared in a number of films, like "Hell's Kitchen", "Timecode", and "Impostor". From 1998 to 2000, she starred alongside Pam Grier in the Showtime comedy series, "Linc's".


title: Golden Brooks

text: Brooks is best known for her portrayal of the character Maya Wilkes, Joan's former sharp-tongued secretary and now acclaimed author, on the CW sitcom "Girlfriends", in which she starred alongside Tracee Ellis Ross, Persia White and Jill Marie Jones from 2000 to 2008. In 2001, she appeared in an episode of "Moesha", portraying Maya Wilkes. Brooks also directed the 2006 episode titled "Hustle & Dough," and wrote the 2007 episode titled "Snap Back," which featured guest star Erykah Badu. The character of Maya is portrayed to be several years younger than the other characters Joan, Toni, and Lynn, but, in reality, Brooks is actually the eldest of the four actors. For her performance in "Girlfriends", Brooks received BET Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series in 2004, as well as two nominations for the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series in 2003 and 2008.


title: Golden Brooks

text: Brooks has won Black Reel Awards for 2004 film "Motives", co-starring with Vivica A. Fox and Shemar Moore. She also has starred in "Beauty Shop" (2005) and "Something New" (2006). In 2008, Brooks was cast as Kim Kaswell in the Lifetime comedy-drama pilot "Drop Dead Diva", but later was replaced by Kate Levering. In 2011, she starred in the independent film "The Inheritance". In 2012, Brooks joined the cast of "Hart of Dixie" in season 2 playing Ruby Jeffries, Mayor Lavon Hayes' ex-girlfriend from high school, who runs against him for mayor. In 2014, Brooks stars as one of five leads on the TV One reality series, "Hollywood Divas".


title: Golden Brooks

text: In 2015, Brooks was cast in a recurring role of Patrick Stewart's lead character's ex-wife in the Starz comedy series, "Blunt Talk". In 2016, she was cast in a series regular role opposite Damon Wayans Sr. in the Fox pilot "Lethal Weapon". Brooks was fired from "Lethal Weapon" after the project's table read, and Keesha Sharp, her "Girlfriends" co-star, later replaced her in role.


title: Golden Brooks

text: In 2017, Brooks was cast as lead character's mother in "The Darkest Minds", a young adult dystopian thriller directed by Jennifer Yuh Nelson. She also was cast in the Paramount Network drama series "Yellowstone" starring Kevin Costner. Later she was cast in the series regular role on the TNT drama series "I Am the Night" directed by Patty Jenkins, playing mother of the lead character. She received critical acclaim for her performance in "I Am the Night". "Golden Brooks elevating every scene she's in", said Daniel Fienberg in his review for "The Hollywood Reporter". In 2019, she reunited with her "Girlfriends" co-stars Tracee Ellis Ross, Jill Marie Jones and Persia White in the episode of ABC comedy series "Black-ish".


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: The Basilica of Santa María de Guadalupe, officially called Insigne y Nacional Basílica de Santa María de Guadalupe (in English: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe) is a sanctuary of the Catholic Church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary in her invocation of Guadalupe, located at the foot of the Hill of Tepeyac in the Gustavo A. Madero borough of Mexico City. It belongs to the Primate Archdiocese of Mexico through the Guadalupana Vicariate, which since November 4, 2018, is in the care of Monsignor Salvador Martínez Ávila, who has the title of general and episcopal vicar of Guadalupe and abbot of the basilica.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: It is the most visited Marian precinct in the world, surpassed only by Saint Peter's Basilica. Although the figures cited are not uniform, annually some twenty million pilgrims visit the sanctuary, of which about nine million do so in the days around December. Every year some twenty million pilgrims visit the sanctuary, of which about nine million do so in the days around December 12, the day on which Saint Mary of Guadalupe is celebrated. Annually, the Basilica of Santa María de Guadalupe has at least twice as many visitors as the best-known Marian shrines, making it an outstanding social and cultural phenomenon.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: The temple known as the Old Basilica of Guadalupe was built by the architect Pedro de Arrieta, beginning its construction in March 1695. On May 1, 1709, it opened its doors, with a solemn novena. In 1749 it received the title of collegiate church, that is, without being a cathedral, it had its own chapter and an abbot. Its portal is freestanding and simulates a screen, the four octagonal towers on its corners (crowned with mosaics or azulejos of the type called Talavera yellow with blue border, the same as the dome of the transept) have a meaning associated with the New Jerusalem, the Golden Jerusalem, mentioned in the Apocalypse (Rev 21, 18).


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: At the beginning of the 19th century, due to the construction of the Capuchine Convent, the collegiate church suffered serious damage to walls and vaults, for which it was necessary to restore the damage and for this reason redecorate the sanctuary in Neoclassical style, disappearing the Baroque. In the sanctuary, the reform began around 1804, concluding until 1836. Between 1810 and 1822 the work was suspended due to the War of Independence. The design was made by Agustín Paz and executed by the Neoclassicist architect Manuel Tolsá.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: In 1904 the collegiate church is elevated to the rank of basilica. In times of the Cristero War a bomb exploded in the main altar, having arrived hidden inside a flower arrangement. Around 10:30 in the morning it exploded causing damage to the steps of the altar and some more damage to the stained glass windows. Nothing happened to the original ayate, only to a crucifix, which was bent and which is said to have prevented something from happening to the image of the Virgin, later causing the altar to be fixed by placing the image one meter higher.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: Due to this event, the image was replaced by a faithful copy and kept in the house of some devout people, and returned to its altar until 1929.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: It is a temple built in 1649 by Luis Lasso de la Vega. According to tradition, it housed the image of Saint Mary of Guadalupe from 1695 to 1709 —the year in which it was transferred to the temple known as the Old Basilica— and the standard of Miguel Hidalgo from 1853 to 1896. The name is due to the fact that this chapel was originally built for the cult of the indigenous population to the Virgin. The foundations of the first two temples dedicated to the Virgin that Friar Juan de Zumárraga ordered to be built in the place indicated by Saint Juan Diego, days after the declared apparition of the Virgin of Guadalupe, are preserved under it. From 1531 until his death in 1548, Juan Diego lived in this place (and his relics or remains are kept in the same place), in charge of taking care of the first temple.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: It is the parish where the miracle of fresh flowers and the first of the apparitions of Santa María de Guadalupe are remembered. A first chapel was built on the Tepeyac hill in 1666 by the will of Cristóbal de Aguirre and Teresa Pelegina. Around 1740, Father J. de Montufar ordered the construction of the current temple, next to which the chaplain's house was built. which, when enlarged, was used for exercises. Inside you can see frescoes by the muralist painter Fernando Leal, who was entrusted with narrating the history of the apparitions, and who captures the meeting of cultures and the roots of faith. In times of New Spain, this chapel was consecrated to Saint Michael the Archangel, who is always represented protecting the Virgin (Apocalypse 12, 7). According to New Spain tradition, it was Saint Michael who brought down from heaven to earth the portrait of the Virgin, painted in the heavenly workshop. At the time he was the patron saint of Mexico City. In this chapel is currently the convent of the Carmelites, a cloistered community that carries out activities related to the care of the chapel and prayer for the world. The last of its chaplains was the archpriest priest, Carlos Vargos, who served as such along with his sacristan, Mr. Diego Velázquez.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: It is one of the cemeteries of the Colonial era that are still in activity. This is located on the western side of the top of the Tepeyac hill, extending to the rear of the hill, next to the Capilla del Cerrito. The cemetery was built as a complement to the Capilla del Cerrito in 1740. In this cemetery rest the remains of different personalities in the history of Mexico, such as: Xavier Villaurrutia, Lorenzo de la Hidalga, Ángel de Iturbide (son of Agustín de Iturbide), Delfina Ortega (first wife of Porfirio Díaz), Manuel María Contreras, Rafael Lucio Nájera, Gabriel Mancera, Antonio Martínez de Castro, José María Velasco Gómez, Bernardo Reyes, Ernesto Elorduy, Ponciano Díaz, the Chimalpopoca family (related to Cuauhtémoc), the former president of Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna and his wife Dolores Tosta. The Tepeyac pantheon is considered an area of national historical monuments, for which it is protected by the law of monuments and archaeological, artistic and historical zones.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: Temple located near the eastern slope of the Tepeyac hill. It was built from 1777 to 1791 and designed by the architect Francisco Guerrero y Torres. It was built on a well of water considered miraculous, so pilgrimages to the place soon began. A large number of sick people drank and washed their wounds on the same site, so it soon became a focus of infections. To control the epidemics, direct access to the well was prevented and a simple roof was built, but the pilgrimages continued. By 1777 the decision was made to build a temple on the site.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: The particular hallmark of this small chapel, considered an architectural jewel of the Baroque style, is its shape, since its floor plan is the only one with a circular or central base built during the 18th century that is preserved in Mexico. This character allows the visitor to perceive the space little by little, as if it were hiding. The movement that the zigzag decoration gives to the dome, as well as the multiform lines used in the windows, contribute to creating this atmosphere of slow movement. All the symbols carried by the little angels painted on the dome are the Marian symbols that appear in the "Lauretana Litany", the final part of praying the rosary: mirror of virtues, tower of David, morning star, etc. Another important element of the decoration is the Juan Diego who supports the wooden pulpit.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: In 1815 the insurgent José María Morelos was allowed as his last wish to pray to the Virgin of Guadalupe in this temple before being executed in a nearby town in the current municipality of Ecatepec de Morelos.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: With the creation works of the Atrio de las Américas in the 1950s, the temple went from being immersed in the urban layout to being isolated from it, as it is seen today.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: The Convent and Parish of Santa María de Guadalupe – Capuchinas is a temple located on the eastern side of the Templo expiatorio a Cristo Rey. It was designed by the architect Ignacio Castera, on land donated by Salvador Beltrán, and built between 1792 and 1797, it was occupied by Capuchin mothers of Saint Mary of Guadalupe. The convent was founded by the servant Sor María Ana, and exclaustrated on February 26, 1863. Throughout the history of the collegiate church has housed the Blessed Virgin of Guadalupe when the temple was closed for any reason, be it reform or remodeling. Due to the instability of the subsoil, the building was suffering from differential subsidence, so it had to be intervened between 1976 and 1982 with control piles, correcting the sinking of the temple, although the convent still finds itself with a considerable sinking.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: The Historical Archive of the Basilica of Guadalupe is a collection of mainly New Spanish documents, divided into three branches: Clavería, Parish and Particular Secretary. It also houses the Musical Archive and Library, with scores by colonial 131 Mexican authors, 77 Italians, 23 Spanish and other nationalities. Within the complex is the Lorenzo Boturini Theological Library, with 70 years of active history and more than 22,000 volumes today.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: The museum, opened in 1941, in the north wing of Las Capuchinas Convent, houses an important collection of New Spanish art made up of nearly 4,000 cultural assets, many of them unique and unrepeatable, including paintings, sculptures, jewelry, gold and silver work, and others. It has works by the most important painters of New Spain, highlighting those of Cristóbal de Villalpando, Miguel Cabrera, Matías de Arteaga y Alfaro, Juan Correa, Juan Cordero, José de Ibarra, Sebastián López de Arteaga, Nicolás Rodríguez Juárez, Baltasar de Echave Ibía and José de Alcíbar. Its hall has more than 2,000 ex-votos dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe and is a space for temporary exhibitions.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: Its construction began with the laying of the first stone on March 25, 1695, and ended in April 1709. The architect Pedro de Arrieta was the designer of this new temple for the Virgin. It has four octagonal towers at each of its corners, fifteen vaults and an octagonal dome with a lantern covered in Talavera yellow and blue. In 1749 it received the title of collegiate church, a designation given to certain Catholic temples that allows them to be managed both pastorally and administratively by a group of priests called "cabildo".


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: At the beginning of the 19th century, and due to the construction of the Capuchin convent on the east side, the temple suffered serious damage, for which it had to be repaired, and due to this reason it had a total change inside. The Baroque style disappeared and was replaced by the Neoclassical, with an altar designed by José Agustín Paz and Manuel Tolsá. Due to the appointment in 1887 of Pope Leo XIII of the Pontifical Coronation of the Virgin, again suffering from the construction on a fragile ground, the collegiate church was intervened again, replacing the altarpiece with a white Carrara marble altar, designed by Juan Agea Salomé Pina and carved by Carlo Nicoli, covered with a canopy of Scottish granite columns weighing 4 tons each and a bronze vault. The entire interior of the church was also restored and enlarged, placing five monumental paintings on its walls with passages from Guadalupan history. The works concluded on October 12, 1895.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: In 1904, the collegiate church was elevated to the rank of basilica, by papal decision. The papal coronation was on December 12 of that same year.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: It is a building located to the west of the Atrio de las Américas and to the south of the Tepeyac hill. The building was built as a result of the need to house the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe and allow access to a greater number of pilgrims, since the instability of the old temple had made it dangerous for use. The new building was designed by the architects: José Luis Benlliure, Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Alejandro Schoenhofer, Friar Gabriel Chávez de la Mora, Antonio S. Gómez Palacio and Javier García Lascuráin. Its construction began in 1974 during the mandate of Monsignor Guillermo Schulenburg as abbot of the basilica, having hired Lic. Odilón Ramírez Pelayo, who was the lawyer of the Basilica of Guadalupe for many years and who carried out all the pertinent legal procedures for the acquisition of the land where the New Basilica of Guadalupe would later be built. Likewise, it was Lic. Odilón Ramírez Pelayo who contacted the architects who would design the building of the New Basilica of Guadalupe, and who even managed the construction of the small chapel dedicated to the New Basilica of Guadalupe that is located inside the St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City. On October 12, 1976, when the work was finished, the Guadalupe image was taken in a solemn procession to its new sanctuary. Having a circular shape to symbolize the tent that housed the Ark of the Covenant on its march through the desert, the building was built with reinforced concrete for the roof structure, and with copper sheets for the roof covering, the which, being oxidized, give it a characteristic green color.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: In 1980, Monsignor Guillermo Schulenburg, abbot of the basilica, asked Pedro Medina Guzmán for a mural painting for the tabernacle, which was finished at the end of the same year called "The gift of the Resurrection". As well as the murals found in the crypts with the theme of the apparitions of the Virgin of Guadalupe to San Juan Diego.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: It has seven entrances to the front, above which there is an open chapel, from which mass can be celebrated for those present in the atrium, with a certain reminiscence of the atriums of the 16th century. Above this chapel is a monumental cross, and above it and at the top of the roof is a monogram of Mary with another cross in the center. To prevent settlement of the land recorded in the other surrounding buildings, this was built using 344 control piles, the work of engineer Manuel González Flores.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: The fact that the interior is circular and free of supports (that is, self-supporting) makes it possible for the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe to be seen from all the interior points of the basilica. This image is behind the altar, under a cross of important dimensions, on a wall with a finish similar to the ceiling. For better visibility of the image, a walkway was built under the altar with conveyor belts, which allows visitors to appreciate it in the best possible way. The altar has a different finish, made of marble and is at various levels above the assembly, with the aim of highlighting that sector of the floor plan.


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: This venue has received the visit of heads of state, athletes, politicians, artists and Catholic leaders or some Christian denomination, to name a few. His Holiness Pope Saint John Paul II also received a visit on five occasions in the years 1979, 1990 (on the occasion of the beatification of Saint Juan Diego), 1993, 1999 (at the close of the Synod of Bishops of America) and 2002 (for the canonization of Saint Juan Diego).


title: Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: In February 2016, Pope Francis also received his holiness, officiating a mass at the main altar of the Basilica of Guadalupe.


title: Air Peace

text: Air Peace is a private Nigerian airline founded in 2013 with its head office in Ikeja, Lagos State, Nigeria, the flag carrier and the largest airline of Nigeria and West Africa. Air Peace, which provides passenger and charter services, serves the major cities of Nigeria and flies to several West African destinations and the Middle East. The airline also established a subsidiary, Air Peace Hopper, in 2018.


title: Air Peace

text: Air Peace was founded in 2013 by Nigerian lawyer and businessman Allen Onyema. Onyema claims that he started the airline with the intention of using it as an engine to provide economic opportunities to Nigerian youth. The airline began operations with Dornier 328s and Boeing 737s. In 2017, the first international route to Kotoka International Airport in Accra, Ghana was launched. By 2018, Air Peace had the largest market share in the domestic airline market in Nigeria. That same year, the airline took delivery of its first Boeing 777s, and it commenced flights to Sharjah in 2019. Flights to Johannesburg, South Africa commenced in 2020.


title: Air Peace

text: Following an outbreak of xenophobic violence against foreign nationals in South Africa in September 2019, Air Peace offered to evacuate Nigerian citizens for free. Over 300 persons took advantage of this offer and traveled on board chartered Boeing 777 flights from Johannesburg to Lagos.


title: Air Peace

text: In 2019, the US Department of Justice issued an indictment against Air Peace founder and CEO Allen Onyema on the grounds of money laundering and bank fraud. Onyema was accused of falsifying documents used for the purchase of aircraft for Air Peace and using those to fund purchases of luxury cars and high-end shopping. Onyema denies these allegations. As of May 2022, a trial is set to begin in August 2022.


title: Air Peace

text: In December 2021, Air Peace indulged in a controversy with the General Civil Aviation Authority of the UAE. As per the reports, the Emirates turned down the airlines' request for three slots instead of one at the Sharjah International Airport in the UAE, calling it "unreasonable." The UAE authorities said that Air Peace should consider flying the other two flights to any of the other airports in the country. However, Air Peace condemned the Emirati claims, accusing its officials of falsehood. The airline also called for an apology from the UAE, along with a retraction. Prior to issue, the Nigerian government had reduced the slots of Dubai-based Emirates from 21 to one, following which Emirates Airline also suspended all its flights to Abuja and Lagos. The matter came as a threat to the diplomatic relations between the two countries. A diplomatic crisis was averted after Dubai Airports allocated slots at Dubai for Air Peace.


title: Air Peace

text: In May 2022, Air Peace announced a plan to halt all domestic and regional flights, along with other airlines such as Max Air, Arik Air, Ibom Air, United Nigeria Airlines, and others, citing staffing and the rising costs of jet fuel. However, that plan was abandoned after government officials stepped in to aid the airlines affected.


title: Air Peace

text: As of April 2021, Air Peace flies to the following destinations in Nigeria, west Africa, South Africa and United Arab Emirates.


title: Air Peace

text: On January 31, 2020, Air Peace announced two new destinations in India and Israel would be activated before the end of the year. Air Peace also operated ad hoc charter flights from Lagos to Montego Bay in Jamaica during the Christmas 2020 season.


title: Air Peace

text: In April 2021, the Chief Operations Officer of Air Peace stated that 17 of their aircraft were grounded for maintenance reasons, thus reducing the carrier's operational fleet to just 8 aircraft.


title: Air Peace

text: In 2019, the Accident Investigation Bureau (Nigeria) accused Air Peace of persistent failure to report serious incidents and accidents involving its aircraft. Some issues cited by the AIB included failure to report incidents that resulted in structural damage and erasure of Cockpit Voice Recorders prior to reporting incidents. The airline's management was cited for "willfully [failing] to comply" with the Bureau's regulations, and it was further stated that the management "lacks the full understanding of the statutory mandates".


title: Dry needling

text: Dry needling, also known as trigger point dry needling and intramuscular stimulation, is a treatment technique used by various healthcare practitioners, including physical therapists, physicians, and chiropractors, among others. Acupuncturists usually maintain that dry needling is adapted from acupuncture, but others consider dry needling as a variation of trigger point injections. It involves the use of either solid filiform needles or hollow-core hypodermic needles for therapy of muscle pain, including pain related to myofascial pain syndrome. Dry needling is mainly used to treat myofascial trigger points, but it is also used to target connective tissue, neural ailments, and muscular ailments. The American Physical Therapy Association defines dry needling as a technique used to treat dysfunction of skeletal muscle and connective tissue, minimize pain, and improve or regulate structural or functional damage.


title: Dry needling

text: There is conflicting evidence regarding the effectiveness of dry needling. Some results suggest that it is an effective treatment for certain kinds of muscle pain, while other studies have shown no benefit compared to a placebo; however, not enough high-quality, long-term, and large-scale studies have been done on the technique to draw clear conclusions about its efficacy. Currently, dry needling is being practiced in the United States, Europe, Australia, and other parts of the world.


title: Dry needling

text: The origin of the term "dry needling" is attributed to Janet G. Travell. In her 1983 book, "Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: Trigger Point Manual", Travell uses the term "dry needling" to differentiate between two hypodermic needle techniques when performing trigger point therapy. However, Travell did not elaborate on the details on the techniques of dry needling; the current techniques of dry needling were based on the traditional and western medical acupuncture.


title: Dry needling

text: The two techniques Travell described are the injection of a local anesthetic and the mechanical use of a hypodermic needle without injecting a solution. Travell preferred a, 1.5-in hypodermic needle for trigger point therapy and used this needle for both injection therapy and dry needling. Travell never used an acupuncture needle. Travell had access to acupuncture needles but reasoned that they were far too thin for trigger point therapy. She preferred hypodermic needles because of their strength and tactile feedback: "A 22-gauge, 3.8-cm (1.5-in) needle is usually suitable for most superficial muscles. In hyperalgesic patients, a 25-gauge, 3.8-cm (1.5-in) needle may cause less discomfort, but will not provide the clear feeling of the structures being penetrated by the needle and is more likely to be deflected by the dense contraction knots that are the target... A 27-gauge needle, 3.8-cm (1.5-in) needle is even more flexible; the tip is more likely to be deflected by the contraction knots and it provides less tactile feedback for precision injection".


title: Dry needling

text: The solid filiform needle used in dry needling is regulated by the FDA as a Class II medical device described in the code titled "Sec. 880.5580 Acupuncture needle is a device intended to pierce the skin in the practice of acupuncture". Per the Food and Drug Act of 1906 and the subsequent amendments to said act, the FDA definition applies to how the needles can be marketed and does not mean that acupuncture is the only medical procedure where these needles can be used. Dry needling using such a needle contrasts with the use of a hollow hypodermic needle to inject substances such as saline solution, botox or corticosteroids to the same point.


title: Dry needling

text: The founder of Integrative Systemic Dry Needling (ISDN), Yun-Tao Ma, has been spearheading the "dry needling" movement in the United States. Ma states, "Although ISDN originated in traditional Chinese methods, it has developed from the ancient empirical approach to become modern medical art rooted in evidence-based thinking and practice." Ma also states that, "Dry needling technique is a modern Western medical modality that is not related to traditional Chinese acupuncture in any way. Dry needling has its own theoretical concepts, terminology, needling technique and clinical application."


title: Dry needling

text: The American Academy of Orthopedic Manual Physical Therapists states:Dry needling is a neurophysiological evidence-based treatment technique that requires effective manual assessment of the neuromuscular system. Physical therapists are well trained to utilize dry needling in conjunction with manual physical therapy interventions. Research supports that dry needling improves pain control, reduces muscle tension, normalizes biochemical and electrical dysfunction of motor end plates, and facilitates an accelerated return to active rehabilitation.Dry needling for the treatment of myofascial (muscular) trigger points is based on theories similar, but not exclusive, to traditional acupuncture; both acupuncture and dry needling target the trigger points, which is a direct and palpable source of patient pain. A high degree of correspondence is reported between myofascial trigger point dry needling and . Acupuncture and dry needling are similar in the underlying phenomenon and neural processes between trigger points and acupuncture points. There is a high degree of correspondence between published locations of trigger points and classical acupuncture points for the relief of pain. Dry needling, and its treatment techniques and desired effects, would be most directly comparable to the use of 'a-shi' points in acupuncture. However, dry needling theory only begins to describe the complex sensation referral patterns that have been documented as "channels" or "meridians" in Chinese Medicine. What further distinguishes dry needling from traditional acupuncture is that it does not use the full range of traditional theories of Chinese Medicine which is used to treat not only pain, but also other non-musculoskeletal issues that often cause pain. The distinction between trigger points and acupuncture points for the relief of pain is blurred.


title: Dry needling

text: Technique for dry needling depends on which tissue is being targeted and what the overall objective of the treatment is. For example, one of the most common treatment objectives for dry needling, myofascial trigger points (TrPs), differs physiologically from treatments for scar tissue, connective tissue issues, and other medical issues.


title: Dry needling

text: In the treatment of trigger points for persons with myofascial pain syndrome, dry needling is an invasive procedure in which a filiform needle is inserted into the skin and muscle directly at a myofascial trigger point. A myofascial trigger point consists of multiple, hyperirritable contraction knots related to the production and maintenance of the pain cycle; essentially, myofascial trigger points will generate much local pain upon stimulation or irritation. Deep dry needling for treating trigger points was first introduced by Czech physician Karel Lewit in 1979. Lewit had noticed that the success of injections into trigger points in relieving pain was apparently unconnected to the analgesic used.


title: Dry needling

text: Dry needling can be divided into categories in terms of depth of penetration: deep and superficial dry needling. Deep dry needling will inactivate myofascial triggers points by provoking a local twitch response (LTR), which is an involuntary spinal cord reflex in which the muscle fibers in the taut band of muscle contract. The LTR indicates the proper placement of the needle in a trigger point. Dry needling that elicits LTRs improves treatment outcomes, and may work by activating endogenous opioids. The activation of the endogenous opioids is for an analgesic effect using the Gate Control Theory of Pain. In addition, deep dry may also decrease pain, increase range of motion, and minimize myofascial trigger point irritability. In regards to the factor of pain reduction, relief occurs at four central levels: local pain, spinal pain through nerves, brain stem pain, and higher brain center pain.


title: Dry needling

text: The relief of myofascial trigger points has been more highly researched than relief of connective tissues, muscle fascia, muscle tension, and scar tissue; however, the American Physical Therapy Association claims that there potentially may be some benefits of dry needling on these ailments according to some available evidence. The APTA also disclaims that dry needling should not be used as a standalone procedure, but should be used in conjunction with other treatment methods, including manual soft tissue mobilization, neuromuscular re-education, functional retraining, and therapeutic exercises. Once the needle is inserted, one can manually or electrically stimulate the filiform needle depending for the desired effect of treatment.


title: Dry needling

text: There is currently no standardized form of dry needling. There is a general scarcity of extensive research in the field. Many studies published about dry needling are not randomized, contain small sample sizes, and have high dropout rates. A review recommended the usage of dry needling, compared to sham or placebo, for decreasing pain immediately after treatment and at 4 weeks in patients with upper quarter myofascial pain syndrome. However, the authors caution that "the limited number of studies performed to date, combined with methodological flaws in many of the studies, prompts caution in interpreting the results of the meta-analysis performed". Similarly, a second review of dry needling found insufficient high-quality evidence for the use of direct dry needling for short and long-term pain and disability reduction in patients with musculoskeletal pain syndromes. The same review reported that robust evidence validating the clinical diagnostic criteria for trigger point identification or diagnosis is lacking and that high-quality studies demonstrate that manual examination for the identification and localization of a trigger point is neither valid nor reliable between-examiners.


title: Dry needling

text: Three more recent reviews reached similar conclusions: little evidence supporting the use of trigger point dry needling to treat upper shoulder pain and dysfunction, evidence not robust enough to draw a clear conclusion about safety and efficacy, and that dry needling for the treatment of myofascial pain syndrome in the lower back appeared to be a useful addition to standard therapies, but stated clear recommendations could not be made because the published studies were small and of low quality. However, a retrospective analysis of 2,910 dry needling interventions as reported by Mabry, et al. identified no reported safety events when dry needling was performed by physical therapists.


title: Dry needling

text: Dry needling is considered invasive. Invasive treatments are associated with infections, cutaneous infections, and sterility, which can be avoided, however, by using good technique. Nonetheless, the procedure is increasing in popularity despite the unanswered questions regarding its overall effectiveness and safety. Mild adverse events following dry needling are commonly bleeding, bruising, and pain. Severe adverse effects include pneumothorax, injury to the central nervous system and spine, and blood-borne infection transmission. The American Medical Association made a press release in 2016 that said physical therapists and other non-physicians practicing dry needling should – at a minimum – have standards that are similar to the ones for training, certification, and continuing education that exist for acupuncture. AMA board member Russell W. H. Kridel, MD: "Lax regulation and nonexistent standards surround this invasive practice. For patients' safety, practitioners should meet standards required for licensed acupuncturists and physicians."


title: Dry needling

text: The debated distinction between dry needling and acupuncture has become a controversy because it relates to an issue of scope of practice of various professions. Acupuncturists claim that dry needling is a form of acupuncture that does not fall in the scope of physical therapists, chiropractors, or the majority of other healthcare professionals; whereas those healthcare professionals claim dry needling is not acupuncture, but rather a procedure that is rooted in biomedical modern sciences. To become a certified acupuncturist requires hundred of hours spent in educational programs, national level exams, and good professional standings. On the other hand, to be certified in dry needling requires continued education or a certification program that is not yet regulated with strict standards; in addition, there is a general lack of policymakers, evaluation systems, or healthcare standards governing the technique of dry needling.


title: Dry needling

text: Many physical therapists and chiropractors have asserted that they are not practicing acupuncture when dry needling; however, much of dry needling research has been done with reference to acupuncture. They assert that much of the basic physiological and biomechanical knowledge that dry needling utilizes is taught as part of their core physical therapy and chiropractic education and that the specific dry needling skills are supplemental to that knowledge and not exclusive to acupuncture. Many acupuncturists have argued that dry needling appears to be an acupuncture technique requiring minimal training that has been re-branded under a new name (dry needling). Whether dry needling is considered to be acupuncture depends on the definition of acupuncture, and it is argued that trigger points do not correspond to acupuncture points or meridians. They correspond by definition to the ad hoc category of 'a-shi' acupoints. It is important to note that this category of points is not necessarily distinct from other formal categories of acupoints. In 1983, Janet Travell described trigger point locations as 92% in correspondence with known acupuncture points. In 2006, a journal article concluded that the two point systems are in over 90% agreement. In 2009, Dorsher and Fleckenstein conclude that the strong (up to 91%) consistency of the distributions of trigger point regions’ referred pain patterns to acupuncture meridians provides evidence that trigger points most likely represent the same physiological phenomenon as acupuncture points in the treatment of pain disorders.


title: Dry needling

text: An article in Acupuncture Today further corroborates the 92% correspondence of trigger points to acupuncture points. In 2011, The Council of Colleges of Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine published a position paper describing dry needling as an acupuncture technique.


title: Dry needling

text: The North Carolina Acupuncture Licensing Board has published a position statement asserting that dry needling is acupuncture and thus is covered by the North Carolina Acupuncture Licensing law, and is not within the present scope of practice of Physical Therapists. The Attorney General was asked for an opinion by the North Carolina Acupuncture Licensing Board which he gave in 2011: "In our opinion, the Board of Physical Therapy Examiners may determine that dry needling is within the scope of practice of physical therapy if it conducts rulemaking under the Administrative Procedure Act and adopts rules that relate dry needling to the statutory definition of practice of physical therapy." However, the North Carolina Rules Review Committee of the legislative branch found that the North Carolina Physical Therapy Board had no statutory authority for the proposed rule. The Physical Therapy board subsequently decided that they had the right to declare dry needling within scope anyway "The Board believes physical therapists can continue to perform dry needling so long as they possess the requisite education and training required by N.C.G.S. § 90–270.24(4), but there are no regulations to set the specific requirements for engaging in dry needling."


title: Dry needling

text: In January 2014, The Oregon Court of Appeals ruled that the Oregon Board of Chiropractic Examiners did not have the statutory authority to include dry needling in the scope of practice for chiropractors in that state. The ruling did not address whether chiropractors have the medical expertise to use dry needling or whether the training they were being given was adequate. Pending further discussion of training requirements the Oregon Physical Therapist Licensing Board has advised all Oregon physical therapists against practicing dry needling. They have not changed their ruling that dry needling is within the scope of practice for Oregon Physical Therapists.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi (Punjabi, ; born 1 November 1945) is a Pakistani politician from a Punjabi Jatt family. who is the President of Pakistan Muslim League (Q) a conservative centrist to centre-right-nationalist party & the 19th current Chief Minister of Punjab, in office since 27 July 2022. He has been a member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab since August 2018.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: He served as the first and only Deputy Prime Minister of Pakistan in 2013. After a successful campaign in the 2002 general elections, he became the Chief Minister of Punjab and held this position until 2007. In 2008, he served as the leader of the opposition in the National Assembly of Pakistan for short time. He was a member of the National Assembly from 2008 to May 2018. He has also been the Speaker of the Provincial Assembly of Punjab from 2018 to 2022. He is the president of the Punjab Division of Pakistan Muslim League (Q).


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi was born 1 November 1945<ref name="pildat1/dob"></ref><ref name="dawn/25june2012"></ref> in Gujrat, Punjab to the industrialist Chaudhry Manzoor Elahi Warraich. Elahi was born into Punjabi Jat family of Warraich clan.<ref name="pildat/dob"></ref> He hails from a family of politicians<ref name="dawn/30april2013"></ref> and industrialists of Gujrat. Chaudhary received his early education from Forman Christian College, Lahore until 1967 and later attended Watford College of Technology from where he received his Diploma in Industrial Management.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: He is married to the daughter of his uncle Chaudhry Zahoor Elahi. He has two sons, Moonis Elahi and Rasikh Elahi.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: Elahi began his political career after being elected as the chairman of the district council of Gujrat<ref name="dawn/29nov2002"></ref> for the four years in 1983.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: He served as Provincial Minister for Local Government and Rural Development for a period of eight years from 1985 to 1993.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: He was elected as a member of the Provincial Assembly of Punjab for the first time in 1985, second time in 1988, third time in 1990, and fourth time in 1993.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: He also served as the acting leader of the opposition in the Provincial Assembly of Punjab from 1993 to 1996, in the absence of Shahbaz Sharif who had gone to the United Kingdom for medical treatment.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: Several cases were registered against Elahi during Benazir Bhutto's government in 1993-1996 and he was sent to Adiala Jail where he spent several months.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: It was reported that Nawaz Sharif had promised Elahi that if PML-N won the 1997 Pakistani general election, Elahi would be made the chief minister of Punjab. However, when PML-N won the 1997 general elections, Nawaz appointed his brother Shahbaz Sharif as the Chief Minister of Punjab. To avoid the impression that Elahi was unhappy with this decision of Nawaz Sharif. Elahi supported Shahbaz Sharif for the position of Chief Minister however decided not to join the provincial cabinet of Shahbaz Sharif.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: He was re-elected as a member of the Provincial Assembly of Punjab for the fifth time in 1997 and was elected as the speaker of Provincial Assembly of Punjab in 1997 where he remained until June 2001.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: Following the 1999 coup he was detained by the National Accountability Bureau on corruption charges. Charges were dropped following an agreement they made to defect from the Pakistan Muslim League (N) with whom he had been part of until the ouster of the PML-N government and assist President Pervez Musharraf in building PML-Q.<ref name="thenews/7dec2010"></ref>


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: He was re-elected as a member of the Provincial Assembly of Punjab for the sixth time in 2002 Pakistani general election.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: Following the elections, Elahi was appointed as the chief minister of Punjab for the first time where he served from October 2002 until the dissolution of the provincial government in October 2007.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: In the 2008 Pakistani general election, Elahi was elected as the member of the National Assembly of Pakistan for the first time and as the member of the Provincial Assembly of Punjab for the seventh time.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: PML-Q nominated Elahi as its candidate for the post of prime ministers of Pakistan following the 2008 general elections.<ref name="dawn/4dec2010"></ref>


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: In 2008, he was made the Leader of the Opposition in the National Assembly, however he quit this post later that year.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: In 2011, the ceremonial post of deputy prime minister of Pakistan was created to appoint Elahi as the first deputy prime minister of Pakistan having no powers even in the absence of the prime minister of Pakistan.<ref name="dawn/26june2012"></ref>


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: In 2013 Pakistani general election, Elahi ran for seat of National Assembly from the NA-105 Gujrat constituency and won it defeating candidates of PPP and PML-N.<ref name="dawn/12may2013"></ref>


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: He was re-elected to the National Assembly as a candidate of PML-Q from Constituency NA-65 and NA-69 in 2018 Pakistani general election. In the same election, he was re-elected to the Provincial Assembly of Punjab as a candidate of PML-Q from Constituency PP-30 (Gujrat-III). Following his successful election, he abandoned his national assembly seats in favor of the provincial assembly seat. He was named by Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) and PML-Q as their joint candidate for the office of Speaker of the Provincial Assembly of Punjab. On 16 August 2018, he was re-elected as Speaker of the Punjab Assembly. He received 201 votes against his opponent Muhammad Iqbal Gujjar who secured 147 votes.


title: Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi

text: In March 2022, Imran Khan nominated Pervez Elahi as a candidate for the post of Chief Minister of Punjab Province after the resignation of Usman Buzdar due no confidence motion against him.


title: Crop

text: A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. When the plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or hydroponics. Crops may include macroscopic fungus (e.g. mushrooms) and marine macroalga (e.g. seaweed), some of which are grown in aquaculture.


title: Crop

text: Most crops are harvested as food for humans or fodder for livestock. Some crops are gathered from the wild often in a form of intensive gathering (e.g. ginseng, yohimbe, and eucommia).


title: Crop

text: Important non-food crops include horticulture, floriculture and industrial crops. Horticulture crops include plants used for other crops (e.g. fruit trees). Floriculture crops include bedding plants, houseplants, flowering garden and pot plants, cut cultivated greens, and cut flowers. Industrial crops are produced for clothing (fiber crops e.g. cotton), biofuel (energy crops, algae fuel), or medicine (medicinal plants).


title: Crop

text: The importance of a crop varies greatly by region. Globally, the following crops contribute most to human food supply (values of kcal/person/day for 2013 given in parentheses): rice (541 kcal), wheat (527 kcal), sugarcane and other sugar crops (200 kcal), maize (corn) (147 kcal), soybean oil (82 kcal), other vegetables (74 kcal), potatoes (64 kcal), palm oil (52 kcal), cassava (37 kcal), legume pulses (37 kcal), sunflower seed oil (35 kcal), rape and mustard oil (34 kcal), other fruits, (31 kcal), sorghum (28 kcal), millet (27 kcal), groundnuts (25 kcal), beans (23 kcal), sweet potatoes (22 kcal), bananas (21 kcal), various nuts (16 kcal), soybeans (14 kcal), cottonseed oil (13 kcal), groundnut oil (13 kcal), yams (13 kcal). Note that many of the globally apparently minor crops are regionally very important. For example, in Africa, roots & tubers dominate with 421 kcal/person/day, and sorghum and millet contribute 135 kcal and 90 kcal, respectively.


title: Crop

text: In terms of produced weight, the following crops are the most important ones (global production in thousand metric tonnes):


title: Crop

text: Cropping is not simply planting and letting it grow, there are various methods of cropping that are used in the agricultural industry. Such as mono cropping, crop rotation, sequential cropping, and mixed intercropping. Each method of cropping have their purposes and possibly disadvantages to them as well. Himanshu Arora defines mono cropping as where a field only grows one specific crop year round. Mono Cropping has its disadvantages, according to Himanshu Arora, such as the risk of the soil losing its fertility. Following mono cropping, another method of cropping is relay cropping. According to the National Library of Medicine, Relay cropping may solve a number of conflicts such as inefficient use of available resources, controversies in sowing time, fertilizer application, and soil degradation. The result coming from the use of relay cropping is higher crop output. In the United States, corn is the largest crop produced, and soybean follows in at second, according to the government of Alberta. Referring to a map given by the Government of Alberta, the most popular region to grow these popular crops are in the inner states of the U.S., it is where the crops are most successful in output.


title: Beerus

text: It has been stated that Beerus is capable of destroying entire universes by Whis. Often seen destroying planets at a whim, Beerus' two sole desires are, being quite a gourmet, enjoying food he likes to eat and fighting opponents whom he considers as worthy. The latter ultimately leads him to look for the Super Saiyan God who turns out to be one of the Saiyans now living on Earth. Eventually, Goku, with the help of the other Saiyans, transforms into the Super Saiyan God and fights Beerus, just to be defeated by the God of Destruction. Having enjoyed the match, Beerus spares both Goku and the Earth, saying that Goku was the second strongest opponent he ever faced; the first being his caretaker and martial arts teacher, Whis.


title: Beerus

text: The development of Beerus's characters first started sometime in 2011. His name and voice actors, along with the film's poster, were officially revealed in December 2012 in "Weekly Shōnen Jump"'s first issue of 2013; Beerus, the God of Destruction voiced by Kōichi Yamadera. The film poster displays Super Saiyan Goku combating the God of Destruction Beerus, with Whis floating showered in light in the background. The character was in the initial draft of the "Battle of Gods", though Toriyama notes Beerus was changed completely despite his liking of the concept.


title: Beerus

text: The name "Beerus" was taken from the word "virus", though Toriyama mistakingly believed the word meant "beer", which began the naming pun used for Whis during production of "Battle of Gods", and later future Gods of Destruction and attendants after alcoholic beverages.


title: Beerus

text: In the following week's issue, he revealed that Beerus's design is based on a cat and his clothes based on Egyptian garments. Beerus's design was partially based on a Cornish Rex cat that had lived with Toriyama at the time of design work, the cat miraculously recovering from an illness and the veterinarian joked that it was demonic. Toei initially had the character to resemble a lizard, Toriyama changing it entirely to a cat. Beerus was planned to use either a spoon or fork in combatting the heroes, the idea being overturned when Tadayoshi Yamamuro, the animation director on "Battle of Gods", considered it difficult for Beerus to fight that way and made the suggestion of chopsticks instead.


title: Beerus

text: The April issue of "V Jump" teased about a new Super Saiyan transformation being in the film, titled "Super Saiyan God", saying that 39 years ago, the Oracle Fish told Beerus that the Super Saiyan God would appear before him, and that this forms the basis for the beginning of the movie's story. In "Weekly Shōnen Jump" issue #14 of 2013, Toriyama said that the plot for "Battle of Gods" began two years ago with ideas for the God of Destruction and Super Saiyan God, and that he got deeply involved in the story in order to keep it in-line with the series' original tone so kids could enjoy it.


title: Beerus

text: In the English Funimation dub, Beerus is voiced by Jason Douglas. Douglas interpreted voice director Chris Sabat as believing Beerus's voice was "similar in tone" to Douglas' prior role in "Borderlands 2" as Krieg. Douglas found out he had earned the role through his agent. In the Bang Zoom! Entertainment English language dub, produced for Toonami Asia and is exclusive to Southeast Asia and India, he is voiced by John DeMita.


title: Beerus

text: Beerus possesses strength capable of easily destroying the universe. During his first fight with Super Saiyan God Goku, the clashing of the two's fists created ripples which traveled through the macrocosmos of Universe 7, and was said to be able to destroy the universe if it continued. It was also revealed after the fight that Beerus was holding back a considerably huge amount of his power and had an ability to neutralize any mortal's energy. In Chapter 28 of the Dragon Ball Super manga, Beerus is shown to have the imperfect version of Ultra Instinct, which was showcased as he dodged the attacks of every other God of Destruction. Some of Beerus's unique attacks include , where he creates a small sun-like ball of energy in between his hands, raises his arms, and quickly enlarges the ball before launching it, along with "Destruction before Creation", where he surrounds himself in an aura resembling a sun prior to releasing an energy wave. Beerus's strongest technique, can be used to completely obliterate objects and entities within the universe. Hakai is able to instantly destroy the body and even souls of mortals and low-tier Gods, which can be seen in action when Beerus uses the technique on Zamasu and the ghost of Dr. Mashirito. Although the technique is first seen being used by Beerus, all Gods of Destruction can utilize the ability. Similarly to other Gods of Destruction and Supreme Kais, Beerus is life linked to the East Supreme Kai, where if one dies then so will the other. This amounts to a weakness given East Supreme Kai's vast inferiority in strength to Beerus. Due to the East Supreme Kai being killed in the alternate timeline, while assisting Trunks in facing Dabura, the version of Beerus that exists there dies during his sleep.


title: Beerus

text: Beerus awakens from a 39-year sleep and goes in search of a Super Saiyan God whom he saw in his dream, his search bringing him to Goku whom he easily defeats despite his opponent being in Super Saiyan 3 form. Beerus then reaches Earth to inquire about the Super Saiyan God myth from Vegeta, expressing disappointment in him yet participates in Bulma's birthday party to enjoy Earth's cuisine. Beerus is mostly calm until Majin Buu refuses to share the remaining pudding with him, resulting in the furious Beerus effortlessly defeating Buu, Gotenks, Gohan, Android 18, Piccolo, and Tenshinhan in combat. After defeating Vegeta upon provoking him for a retaliating backhand on Bulma, Beerus is convinced to spare Earth momentarily by Goku to give them time to find a way of making a Super Saiyan God appear. The group uses the Dragon Balls to summon Shenron, who reveals to the group that the Super Saiyan God is created when five pure-hearted Saiyans channeling their heart into a sixth Saiyan. Unfortunately, only five Saiyans exist on planet Earth, but Videl reveals that she is pregnant, with the unborn child counting as the sixth Saiyan to complete the ritual. The Saiyans and Videl perform the ritual, transforming Goku into a Super Saiyan God. Beerus duels him in a battle that affects the entire universe. But even after Goku lost after his Super Saiyan God power fades, Beerus notes Goku's remaining power. Later, he decides to spare him and the Earth, pretending to fall into a deep sleep.


title: Beerus

text: Beerus is retroactively established, over the course of the "Dragon Ball Super" series, to be involved in past events in the "Dragon Ball" universe which are previously left unexplained or lacking in context. For example, Beerus is revealed to be the one who sealed Old Supreme Kai into the Z Sword and destroyed North Kaiō's planet, with only the small planet where he now lives remaining, both acts being out of anger over squabbles. He also instigated Frieza to destroy Planet Vegeta after he felt disrespected by King Vegeta.


title: Beerus

text: During Frieza's resurrection and subsequent battle with the heroes, Beerus observes the fight and assures a worried Frieza that he will not get involved in his fight with the Saiyans, although he warns the tyrant to stay away from his ice cream. After Goku defeats Frieza, Beerus sets up a tournament between his Universe 7 and his twin brother Champa's Universe 6. After Universe 7 wins, Beerus wishes for the population of Universe 6's Earth to be restored. Beerus, Whis and Goku travel to Universe 10 to meet with Gowasu and Zamasu after gaining a clue about Goku Black's identity; when Zamasu is discovered to be planning to kill Gowasu, Beerus confronts and erases him. Beerus then destroys the already deceased Dr. Mashirito. Beerus tries preventing Goku from using a button to summon the Omni-King, which sets up the Tournament of Power. After the tournament, Beerus confronts the Omni-King when he asked Goku for his future plans and then leaves his sight in fear.


title: Beerus

text: In the "" movie, Beerus only takes a nap in Bulma's vacation place before looking after her daughter while she helps Goku's group find the Seven-Star Dragon Ball.


title: Beerus

text: In "", he wakes up from a nap to find that Broly, Cheelai, and Lemo had moved to his planet to avoid Freeza's counterwrath, and decides to let them stay after tasting Lemo's cooking. He also becomes infatuated with Cheelai, much to Whis' amusment.


title: Beerus

text: Beerus has appeared in several "Dragon Ball" games, the first being "Dragon Ball Heroes". In the 2015 game "Dragon Ball Xenoverse", Beerus pretends to be possessed by Demigra before revealing gods are immune to his powers, Beerus then engaging him in battle with the player and after besting him fighting the player and Trunks with Whis in a test, Beerus allowing the player to defeat Demigra after he passes, staying awake long enough to see the player overcome Demigra in battle. Beerus also serves as a mentor, teaching his moves to the player. In the 2016 sequel "Dragon Ball Xenoverse 2", Beerus becomes angered by the bad taste of the pudding made by the Supreme Kai of Time, causing Whis and the player to have to subdue him. Beerus and Whis leave Earth while Frieza is attacking it when contacted by the Supreme Kai of Time, allowing Frieza to destroy Earth without Whis' prevention and the pair discovering they have been deceived by Towa. Beerus and the player fight Whis before Beerus and Whis depart from the main story. Beerus also appears as a playable character in "Dragon Ball FighterZ". English YouTuber and rapper KSI released a song in late 2018 called "Beerus". It was later found to be the second single on the April 2019 collaborative album "New Age" by KSI and Randolph.


title: Beerus

text: Reception to Beerus has been mixed to positive. Reviewer Nathan Farrugla saw Beerus as being "an interesting villain", citing his nature being unpredictable and varying motives. Jason Douglas' voice work as Beerus in the English Funimation dub was also praised.


title: Beerus

text: IGN found Beerus to be similar to previous villains in the franchise in being "over-the-top". Theron Martin of Anime News Network found the fight between Goku and Beerus to be lacking in distinctiveness.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: Gregg Bissonette (born June 9, 1959) is an American jazz and rock drummer and vocalist. He is the brother of bassist Matt Bissonette, with whom he frequently collaborates. He has played on albums by dozens of recording artists, including David Lee Roth's first three solo albums.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: One of Bissonette's first recordings was on jazz trumpet legend Maynard Ferguson's "Live from San Francisco" in 1983. Brother Matt was also in the band and on the recording. He later appeared on Brandon Fields' "The Other Side of the Story" in 1985. It featured David Garfield on keyboards. A few years later Bissonette would start playing shows with Fields, Garfield and Steve Lukather on guitar and with John Peña on bass as Los Lobotomys. These shows took place at the Baked Potato, a jazz club and restaurant in Los Angeles, California, playing rock, Latin, and jazz.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: Bissonnette got his big break joining former Van Halen frontman David Lee Roth. The band included guitarist Steve Vai and future Mr. Big bassist Billy Sheehan. During 1985-1992 Gregg appeared on all three US Billboard 200 hit albums "Eat 'Em and Smile" (no.4) "Skyscraper" (no.6) and "A Little Ain't Enough" (no.18) and the subsequent world tours.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: In 1990 and 1993, Bissonette released drum videos "Private Lesson" and "Playing, Reading & Soloing with a Band", respectively. "Private Lesson" covers a variety of topics including double bass drumming, rudiments (with a backsticking technique from the snare drum solo "Tornado" by Mitch Markovich), playing with a metronome and brushes.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: In late 1995, Toto was beginning their "Tambu" tour when Simon Phillips developed back problems. Phillips asked Bissonette to fill in for him during the tour's first leg.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: He played drums on one track on Santana's album "Supernatural" (1999). In 2007, he recorded on the album "La La Land" by Daniel Glen Timms.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: In 2001 he was set to play on the Electric Light Orchestra's Zoom Tour Live with his brother Matt on Bass. The tour was cancelled after one televised performance at the CBS Television City on PBS.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: Bissonette started playing double drums with Ringo Starr in 2003 in his band Ringo and The Roundheads. This band also included his brother Matt Bissonette on bass. Gregg has been a member of Ringo Starr and his All Starr Band since. (2008-present)


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: In 2013 Bissonette released his 3rd solo album where he plays drums and sings called "Warning Will Robinson". This album also features his brother Matt on bass and backing vocals.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: Bissonette played on Steve Lukather's 2021 album, "I Found the Sun Again". With 8 songs on the album, he played 7 songs while Ringo Starr played 1.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: 2021 was the release of The Reddcoats debut album. The album features Gregg and Matt Bissonette on drums and bass with Andy Timmons on guitar, Wally Minko on keyboards and Mike Medina on percussion.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: Also in 2021 was the release of the debut album of The Red Locusts, again with Gregg on drums and his brother Matt on bass with Rick Springfield on guitar and vocals.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: Bissonette can be heard on a number of rock instrumental and progressive rock albums, including "The Extremist" by Joe Satriani, "Temporal" by Shadrane, "Deep Forest" by Deep Forest, "Bass Invader" by Martin Motnik, "Inner Galactic Fusion Experience" by Richie Kotzen, "Shadow King" by Steve Fister, "Revolution Road" by Rocket Scientists, "In the Eye of Time" by Vox Tempus, "Bug Alley" and the soundtrack to the movie "The Endless Summer II" by Gary Hoey.


title: Gregg Bissonette

text: In 2012, Bissonette played drums on several tracks featured on Docker's Guild's album "The Mystic Technocracy: Season 1: The Age of Ignorance", the progressive rock space opera masterminded by the French-American musician, teacher, and ethno-musicologist Douglas R. Docker.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) is a type of non-coding RNA which is the primary component of ribosomes, essential to all cells. rRNA is a ribozyme which carries out protein synthesis in ribosomes. Ribosomal RNA is transcribed from ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and then bound to ribosomal proteins to form small and large ribosome subunits. rRNA is the physical and mechanical factor of the ribosome that forces transfer RNA (tRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA) to process and translate the latter into proteins. Ribosomal RNA is the predominant form of RNA found in most cells; it makes up about 80% of cellular RNA despite never being translated into proteins itself. Ribosomes are composed of approximately 60% rRNA and 40% ribosomal proteins by mass.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Although the primary structure of rRNA sequences can vary across organisms, base-pairing within these sequences commonly forms stem-loop configurations. The length and position of these rRNA stem-loops allow them to create three-dimensional rRNA structures that are similar across species. Because of these configurations, rRNA can form tight and specific interactions with ribosomal proteins to form ribosomal subunits. These ribosomal proteins contain basic residues (as opposed to acidic residues) and aromatic residues (i.e. phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan) allowing them to form chemical interactions with their associated RNA regions, such as stacking interactions. Ribosomal proteins can also cross-link to the sugar-phosphate backbone of rRNA with binding sites that consist of basic residues (i.e. lysine and arginine). All ribosomal proteins (including the specific sequences that bind to rRNA) have been identified. These interactions along with the association of the small and large ribosomal subunits result in a functioning ribosome capable of synthesizing proteins.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Ribosomal RNA organizes into two types of major ribosomal subunit: the large subunit (LSU) and the small subunit (SSU). One of each type come together to form a functioning ribosome. The subunits are at times referred to by their size-sedimentation measurements (a number with an "S" suffix). In prokaryotes, the LSU and SSU are called the 50S and 30S subunits, respectively. In eukaryotes, they are a little larger; the LSU and SSU of eukaryotes are termed the 60S and 40S subunits, respectively.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: In the ribosomes of prokaryotes such as bacteria, the SSU contains a single small rRNA molecule (~1500 nucleotides) while the LSU contains one single small rRNA and a single large rRNA molecule (~3000 nucleotides). These are combined with ~50 ribosomal proteins to form ribosomal subunits. There are three types of rRNA found in prokaryotic ribosomes: 23S and 5S rRNA in the LSU and 16S rRNA in the SSU.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: In the ribosomes of eukaryotes such as humans, the SSU contains a single small rRNA (~1800 nucleotides) while the LSU contains two small rRNAs and one molecule of large rRNA (~5000 nucleotides). Eukaryotic rRNA has over 70 ribosomal proteins which interact to form larger and more polymorphic ribosomal units in comparison to prokaryotes. There are four types of rRNA in eukaryotes: 3 species in the LSU and 1 in the SSU. Yeast has been the traditional model for observation of eukaryotic rRNA behavior and processes, leading to a deficit in diversification of research. It has only been within the last decade that technical advances (specifically in the field of Cryo-EM) have allowed for preliminary investigation into ribosomal behavior in other eukaryotes. In yeast, the LSU contains the 5S, 5.8S and 28S rRNAs. The combined 5.8S and 28S are roughly equivalent in size and function to the prokaryotic 23S rRNA subtype, minus expansion segments (ESs) that are localized to the surface of the ribosome which were thought to occur only in eukaryotes. However recently, the Asgard phyla, namely, Lokiarchaeota and Heimdallarchaeota, considered the closest archaeal relatives to Eukarya, were reported to possess two supersized ESs in their 23S rRNAs. Likewise, the 5S rRNA contains a 108‐nucleotide insertion in the ribosomes of the halophilic archaeon "Halococcus morrhuae".


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: A eukaryotic SSU contains the 18S rRNA subunit, which also contains ESs. SSU ESs are generally smaller than LSU ESs.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: SSU and LSU rRNA sequences are widely used for study of evolutionary relationships among organisms, since they are of ancient origin, are found in all known forms of life and are resistant to horizontal gene transfer. rRNA sequences are conserved (unchanged) over time due to their crucial role in the function of the ribosome. Phylogenic information derived from the 16s rRNA is currently used as the main method of delineation between similar prokaryotic species by calculating nucleotide similarity. The canonical tree of life is the lineage of the translation system.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: LSU rRNA subtypes have been called ribozymes because ribosomal proteins cannot bind to the catalytic site of the ribosome in this area (specifically the peptidyl transferase center, or PTC).


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: The SSU rRNA subtypes decode mRNA in its decoding center (DC). Ribosomal proteins cannot enter the DC.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: The structure of rRNA is able to drastically change to affect tRNA binding to the ribosome during translation of other mRNAs. In 16S rRNA, this is thought to occur when certain nucleotides in the rRNA appear to alternate base pairing between one nucleotide or another, forming a "switch" that alters the rRNA's conformation. This process is able to affect the structure of the LSU and SSU, suggesting that this conformational switch in the rRNA structure affects the entire ribosome in its ability to match a codon with its anticodon in tRNA selection as well as decode mRNA.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Ribosomal RNA's integration and assembly into ribosomes begins with their folding, modification, processing and assembly with ribosomal proteins to form the two ribosomal subunits, the LSU and the SSU. In Prokaryotes, rRNA incorporation occurs in the cytoplasm due to the lack of membrane-bound organelles. In Eukaryotes, however, this process primarily takes place in the nucleolus and is initiated by the synthesis of pre-RNA. This requires the presence of all three RNA polymerases. In fact, the transcription of pre-RNA by RNA polymerase I accounts for about 60% of cell's total cellular RNA transcription. This is followed by the folding of the pre-RNA so that it can be assembled with ribosomal proteins. This folding is catalyzed by endo- and exonucleases, RNA helicases, GTPases and ATPases. The rRNA subsequently undergoes endo- and exonucleolytic processing to remove external and internal transcribed spacers. The pre-RNA then undergoes modifications such as methylation or pseudouridinylation before ribosome assembly factors and ribosomal proteins assemble with the pre-RNA to form pre-ribosomal particles. Upon going under more maturation steps and subsequent exit from the nucleolus into the cytoplasm, these particles combine to form the ribosomes. The basic and aromatic residues found within the primary structure of rRNA allow for favorable stacking interactions and attraction to ribosomal proteins, creating a cross-linking effect between the backbone of rRNA and other components of the ribosomal unit. More detail on the initiation and beginning portion of these processes can be found in the "Biosynthesis" section.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Universally conserved secondary structural elements in rRNA among different species show that these sequences are some of the oldest discovered. They serve critical roles in forming the catalytic sites of translation of mRNA. During translation of mRNA, rRNA functions to bind both mRNA and tRNA to facilitate the process of translating mRNA's codon sequence into amino acids. rRNA initiates the catalysis of protein synthesis when tRNA is sandwiched between the SSU and LSU. In the SSU, the mRNA interacts with the anticodons of the tRNA. In the LSU, the amino acid acceptor stem of the tRNA interacts with the LSU rRNA. The ribosome catalyzes ester-amide exchange, transferring the C-terminus of a nascent peptide from a tRNA to the amine of an amino acid. These processes are able to occur due to sites within the ribosome in which these molecules can bind, formed by the rRNA stem-loops. A ribosome has three of these binding sites called the A, P and E sites:


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: In prokaryotes, much work has been done to further identify the importance of rRNA in translation of mRNA. For example, it has been found that the A site consists primarily of 16S rRNA. Apart from various protein elements that interact with tRNA at this site, it is hypothesized that if these proteins were removed without altering ribosomal structure, the site would continue to function normally. In the P site, through the observation of crystal structures it has been shown the 3' end of 16s rRNA can fold into the site as if a molecule of mRNA. This results in intermolecular interactions that stabilize the subunits. Similarly, like the A site, the P site primarily contains rRNA with few proteins. The peptidyl transferase center, for example, is formed by nucleotides from the 23S rRNA subunit. In fact, studies have shown that the peptidyl transferase center contains no proteins, and is entirely initiated by the presence of rRNA. Unlike the A and P sites, the E site contains more proteins. Because proteins are not essential for the functioning of the A and P sites, the E site molecular composition shows that it is perhaps evolved later. In primitive ribosomes, it is likely that tRNAs exited from the P site. Additionally, it has been shown that E-site tRNA bind with both the 16S and 23S rRNA subunits.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes can be broken down into two subunits, one large and one small. The exemplary species used in the table below for their respective rRNAs are the bacterium "Escherichia coli" (prokaryote) and human (eukaryote). Note that "nt" represents the length of the rRNA type in nucleotides and the "S" (such as in "16S) represents Svedberg units.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: S units of the subunits (or the rRNAs) cannot simply be added because they represent measures of sedimentation rate rather than of mass. The sedimentation rate of each subunit is affected by its shape, as well as by its mass. The nt units can be added as these represent the integer number of units in the linear rRNA polymers (for example, the total length of the human rRNA = 7216 nt).


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Gene clusters coding for rRNA are commonly called "ribosomal DNA" or rDNA (note that the term seems to imply that ribosomes contain DNA, which is not the case).


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: In prokaryotes a small 30S ribosomal subunit contains the 16S ribosomal RNA. The large 50S ribosomal subunit contains two rRNA species (the 5S and 23S ribosomal RNAs). Therefore it can be deduced that in both bacteria and archaea there is one rRNA gene that codes for all three rRNA types :16S, 23S and 5S.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA, 23S ribosomal RNA, and 5S rRNA genes are typically organized as a co-transcribed operon. As shown by the image in this section, there is an internal transcribed spacer between 16S and 23S rRNA genes. There may be one or more copies of the operon dispersed in the genome (for example, "Escherichia coli" has seven). Typically in bacteria there are between one and fifteen copies.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: The 3' end of the 16S ribosomal RNA (in a ribosome) recognizes a sequence on the 5' end of mRNA called the Shine-Dalgarno sequence.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: In contrast, eukaryotes generally have many copies of the rRNA genes organized in tandem repeats. In humans, approximately 300–400 repeats are present in five clusters, located on chromosomes 13 (RNR1), 14 (RNR2), 15 (RNR3), 21 (RNR4) and 22 (RNR5). Diploid humans have 10 clusters of genomic rDNA which in total make up less than 0.5% of the human genome.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: It was previously accepted that repeat rDNA sequences were identical and served as redundancies or failsafes to account for natural replication errors and point mutations. However, sequence variation in rDNA (and subsequently rRNA) in humans across multiple chromosomes has been observed, both within and between human individuals. Many of these variations are palindromic sequences and potential errors due to replication. Certain variants are also expressed in a tissue-specific manner in mice.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Mammalian cells have 2 mitochondrial (12S and 16S) rRNA molecules and 4 types of cytoplasmic rRNA (the 28S, 5.8S, 18S, and 5S subunits). The 28S, 5.8S, and 18S rRNAs are encoded by a single transcription unit (45S) separated by 2 internally transcribed spacers. The first spacer corresponds to the one found in bacteria and archaea, and the other spacer is an insertion into what was the 23S rRNA in prokaryotes. The 45S rDNA is organized into 5 clusters (each has 30–40 repeats) on chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22. These are transcribed by RNA polymerase I. The DNA for the 5S subunit occurs in tandem arrays (~200–300 true 5S genes and many dispersed pseudogenes), the largest one on the chromosome 1q41-42. 5S rRNA is transcribed by RNA polymerase III. The 18S rRNA in most eukaryotes is in the small ribosomal subunit, and the large subunit contains three rRNA species (the 5S, 5.8S and 28S in mammals, 25S in plants, rRNAs).


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: The tertiary structure of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) has been resolved by X-ray crystallography. The secondary structure of SSU rRNA contains 4 distinct domains—the 5', central, 3' major and 3' minor domains. A model of the secondary structure for the 5' domain (500-800 nucleotides) is shown.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: As the building-blocks for the organelle, production of rRNA is ultimately the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of a ribosome. In the nucleolus, rRNA is synthesized by RNA polymerase I using the specialty genes (rDNA) that encode for it, which are found repeatedly throughout the genome. The genes coding for 18S, 28S and 5.8S rRNA are located in the nucleolus organizer region and are transcribed into large precursor rRNA (pre-rRNA) molecules by RNA polymerase I. These pre-rRNA molecules are separated by external and internal spacer sequences and then methylated, which is key for later assembly and folding. After separation and release as individual molecules, assembly proteins bind to each naked rRNA strand and fold it into its functional form using cooperative assembly and progressive addition of more folding proteins as needed. The exact details of how the folding proteins bind to the rRNA and how correct folding is achieved remains unknown. The rRNA complexes are then further processed by reactions involving exo- and endo-nucleolytic cleavages guided by snoRNA (small nucleolar RNAs) in complex with proteins. As these complexes are compacted together to form a cohesive unit, interactions between rRNA and surrounding ribosomal proteins are constantly remodeled throughout assembly in order to provide stability and protect binding sites. This process is referred to as the "maturation" phase of the rRNA lifecycle. The modifications that occur during maturation of rRNA have been found to contribute directly to control of gene expression by providing physical regulation of translational access of tRNA and mRNA. Some studies have found that extensive methylation of various rRNA types is also necessary during this time to maintain ribosome stability.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: The genes for 5S rRNA are located inside the nucleolus and are transcribed into pre-5S rRNA by RNA polymerase III. The pre-5S rRNA enters the nucleolus for processing and assembly with 28S and 5.8S rRNA to form the LSU. 18S rRNA forms the SSUs by combining with numerous ribosomal proteins. Once both subunits are assembled, they are individually exported into the cytoplasm to form the 80S unit and begin initiation of translation of mRNA.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Ribosomal RNA is non-coding and is never translated into proteins of any kind: rRNA is only transcribed from rDNA and then matured for use as a structural building block for ribosomes. Transcribed rRNA is bound to ribosomal proteins to form the subunits of ribosomes and acts as the physical structure that pushes mRNA and tRNA through the ribosome to process and translate them.


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Synthesis of rRNA is up-regulated and down-regulated to maintain homeostasis by a variety of processes and interactions:


title: Ribosomal RNA

text: Similar to eukaryotes, the production of rRNA is the rate-limiting step in the prokaryotic synthesis of a ribosome. In "E. coli," it has been found that rRNA is transcribed from the two promoters P1 and P2 found within seven different "rrn" operons. The P1 promoter is specifically responsible for regulating rRNA synthesis during moderate to high bacterial growth rates. Because the transcriptional activity of this promoter is directly proportional to the growth rate, it is primarily responsible for rRNA regulation. An increased rRNA concentration serves as a negative feedback mechanism to ribosome synthesis. High NTP concentration has been found to be required for efficient transcription of the "rrn" P1 promoters. They are thought to form stabilizing complexes with RNA polymerase and the promoters. In bacteria specifically, this association of high NTP concentration with increased rRNA synthesis provides a molecular explanation as to why ribosomal and thus protein synthesis is dependent on growth-rate. A low growth-rate yields lower rRNA / ribosomal synthesis rates while a higher growth rate yields a higher rRNA / ribosomal synthesis rate. This allows a cell to save energy or increase its metabolic activity dependent on its needs and available resources.