title: Power amplifier classes

text: The purpose of the output filter is to smooth the pulse stream to an analog signal, removing the high-frequency spectral components of the pulses. The frequency of the output pulses is typically ten or more times the highest frequency in the input signal to amplify, so that the filter can adequately reduce the unwanted harmonics and accurately reproduce the input.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: The main advantage of a class-D amplifier is power efficiency. Efficiency over 90% is achievable with MOSFETs and >80% is fairly common. Because the output pulses have a fixed amplitude, the switching elements (usually transistors such as MOSFETs, but vacuum tubes, and at one time bipolar transistors, were used) are switched either completely on or completely off, rather than operated in linear mode. A MOSFET generally operates with the lowest on-state resistance when fully on and thus (excluding when fully off) has the lowest power dissipation when in that condition. Compared to an equivalent class-AB device, a class-D amplifier's lower losses permit the use of a smaller heat sink for the MOSFETs while also reducing the amount of input power required, allowing for a lower-capacity power supply design. Therefore, class-D amplifiers are typically smaller than an equivalent class-AB amplifier.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: Another advantage of the class-D amplifier is that it can operate from a digital signal source without requiring a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) to convert the signal to analog form first. If the signal source is in digital form, such as in a digital media player or computer sound card, the digital circuitry can convert the binary digital signal directly to a pulse-width modulation signal that is applied to the amplifier, simplifying the circuitry considerably.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: A class-D amplifier with moderate output power can be constructed using regular CMOS logic process, making it suitable for integration with other types of digital circuitry. Thus it is commonly found in System-on-Chips with integrated audio when the amplifier shares a die with the main processor or DSP.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: While class-D amplifiers are widely used to control motors, they are also used as power amplifiers. Though if the signal is not already in a pulse modulated format prior to amplification, it must first be converted, which may require additional circuitry. Switching power supplies have even been modified into crude class-D amplifiers (though typically these only reproduce low-frequencies with acceptable accuracy).


title: Power amplifier classes

text: High-quality class-D audio power amplifiers have now appeared on the market. Dynamic range of 118dB in a high-end consumer product was seen in the year 2009. Most, however, remain closer to 100dB dynamic range at this time [2022] due to practical cost considerations. These designs have been said to rival traditional AB amplifiers in terms of quality. An early use of class-D amplifiers was high-power subwoofer amplifiers in cars. Because subwoofers are generally limited to a bandwidth of no higher than 150 Hz, switching speed for the amplifier does not have to be as high as for a full range amplifier, allowing simpler designs. Class-D amplifiers for driving subwoofers are relatively inexpensive in comparison to class-AB amplifiers.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: The letter "D" used to designate this amplifier class is simply the next letter after "C" and, although occasionally used as such, does not stand for "digital". Class-D and class-E amplifiers are sometimes mistakenly described as "digital" because the output waveform superficially resembles a pulse-train of digital symbols, but a class-D amplifier merely converts an input waveform into a continuously pulse-width modulated analog signal. (A digital waveform would be pulse-code modulated.)


title: Power amplifier classes

text: Other amplifier classes are mainly variations of the previous classes. For example, class-G and class-H amplifiers are marked by variation of the supply rails (in discrete steps or in a continuous fashion, respectively) following the input signal. Wasted heat on the output devices can be reduced as excess voltage is kept to a minimum. The amplifier that is fed with these rails itself can be of any class. These kinds of amplifiers are more complex, and are mainly used for specialized applications, such as very high-power units. Also, class-E and class-F amplifiers are commonly described in literature for radio-frequency applications where efficiency of the traditional classes is important, yet several aspects deviate substantially from their ideal values. These classes use harmonic tuning of their output networks to achieve higher efficiency and can be considered a subset of class C due to their conduction-angle characteristics.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: The class-E amplifier is a highly efficient tuned switching power amplifier used at radio frequencies. It uses a single-pole switching element and a tuned reactive network between the switch and the load. The circuit obtains high efficiency by only operating the switching element at points of zero current (on to off switching) or zero voltage (off to on switching) which minimizes power lost in the switch, even when the switching time of the devices is long compared to the frequency of operation.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: The class-E amplifier is frequently cited to have been first reported in 1975. However, a full description of class-E operation may be found in the 1964 doctoral thesis of Gerald D. Ewing. Interestingly, analytical design equations only recently became known.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: In push–pull amplifiers and in CMOS, the even harmonics of both transistors just cancel. Experiment shows that a square wave can be generated by those amplifiers. Theoretically square waves consist of odd harmonics only. In a class-D amplifier, the output filter blocks all harmonics; i.e., the harmonics see an open load. So even small currents in the harmonics suffice to generate a voltage square wave. The current is in phase with the voltage applied to the filter, but the voltage across the transistors is out of phase. Therefore, there is a minimal overlap between current through the transistors and voltage across the transistors. The sharper the edges, the lower the overlap.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: While in class D, transistors and the load exist as two separate modules, class F admits imperfections like the parasitics of the transistor and tries to optimise the global system to have a high impedance at the harmonics. Of course there must be a finite voltage across the transistor to push the current across the on-state resistance. Because the combined current through both transistors is mostly in the first harmonic, it looks like a sine. That means that in the middle of the square the maximum of current has to flow, so it may make sense to have a dip in the square or in other words to allow some overswing of the voltage square wave. A class-F load network by definition has to transmit below a cutoff frequency and reflect above.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: Any frequency lying below the cutoff and having its second harmonic above the cutoff can be amplified, that is an octave bandwidth. On the other hand, an inductive-capacitive series circuit with a large inductance and a tunable capacitance may be simpler to implement. By reducing the duty cycle below 0.5, the output amplitude can be modulated. The voltage square waveform degrades, but any overheating is compensated by the lower overall power flowing. Any load mismatch behind the filter can only act on the first harmonic current waveform, clearly only a purely resistive load makes sense, then the lower the resistance, the higher the current.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: Class F can be driven by sine or by a square wave, for a sine the input can be tuned by an inductor to increase gain. If class F is implemented with a single transistor, the filter is complicated to short the even harmonics. All previous designs use sharp edges to minimise the overlap.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: There are a variety of amplifier designs that enhance class-AB output stages with more efficient techniques to achieve greater efficiency with low distortion. These designs are common in large audio amplifiers since the heatsinks and power transformers would be prohibitively large (and costly) without the efficiency increases. The terms "class G" and "class H" are used interchangeably to refer to different designs, varying in definition from one manufacturer or paper to another.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: Class-G amplifiers (which use "rail switching" to decrease power consumption and increase efficiency) are more efficient than class-AB amplifiers. These amplifiers provide several power rails at different voltages and switch between them as the signal output approaches each level. Thus, the amplifier increases efficiency by reducing the wasted power at the output transistors. Class-G amplifiers are more efficient than class AB but less efficient when compared to class D, however, they do not have the electromagnetic interference effects of class D.


title: Power amplifier classes

text: Class-H amplifiers create an infinitely variable (analog) supply rail. They are sometimes referred to as rail trackers. This is done by modulating the supply rails so that the rails are only a few volts larger than the output signal "tracking" it at any given time. The output stage operates at its maximum efficiency all the time. This is due to the circuit ability to keep the rail transistors (T2 and T4) in cutoff until a music voltage peak is of a sufficient magnitude to require the additional voltage from the + and - 80 V supplies. Refer to the schematic figure. The class H amplifier can actually be thought of as two amplifiers in series. In the schematic example shown by the figure, +/- 40 V rail amplifiers can produce about 100 watts continuous into an 8-ohm load. If the output signal is operating below 40 volts, the amplifier only has the losses associated with a 100 W amplifier. This is because the Class H upper devices T2 and T4 are only used when the music signal is between 100 and 400 watts output. The key to understanding this efficiency without churning the actual numbers is that we have a 400-watt-capable amplifier but with the efficiency of a 100-watt amplifier. This is because the waveforms of music contain long periods under 100 watts and contain only brief bursts of up to 400 watts in other words, the losses at 400 watts are for brief time periods. If this example were drawn as a class AB with just the 80 V supplies in place of the 40 V supplies, the T1 and T3 transistors would need to be in conduction throughout the 0 V to 80 V signal with the corresponding losses all through the wave period - not just the brief high energy bursts. To achieve this rail tracking control, T2 and T4 act as current amplifiers, each in series with its low voltage counterpart T1 and T3. The purpose of T2 and T3 is to allow back-biasing diode D2 when the amplifier output is at a positive peak (above 39.3 V) and back biasing D4 when the output is at negative peak less than -39.3 V. During the musical peaks from 100 to 400 watts, the +/-40 V rails source no current as all the current comes from the +/-80 V rails. This figure is too simplistic, however, as it will not actually control the T2 and T4 transistors at all. This is because the D1 and D3 diodes which are intended to provide a path for the output voltage back into the upper devices are always reverse biased. They are drawn backwards. In place of these diodes, a voltage amplifier with gain which uses vout as its input would be needed in an actual design. There is another reason for this gain requirement between vout and T2 base in an actual class H design and that is to assure that the signal applied to the T2 is always "ahead" of the Vout signal so it can never "catch up" with the rail tracker. The rail tracker amplifier might have a 50 V/µs slew rate while the AB amplifier might have only a 30 V/µs slew rate in order to guarantee this.


title: Phase diagram

text: A phase diagram in physical chemistry, engineering, mineralogy, and materials science is a type of chart used to show conditions (pressure, temperature, volume, etc.) at which thermodynamically distinct phases (such as solid, liquid or gaseous states) occur and coexist at equilibrium.


title: Phase diagram

text: Common components of a phase diagram are "lines of equilibrium" or "phase boundaries", which refer to lines that mark conditions under which multiple phases can coexist at equilibrium. Phase transitions occur along lines of equilibrium. Metastable phases are not shown in phase diagrams as, despite their common occurrence, they are not equilibrium phases.


title: Phase diagram

text: Triple points are points on phase diagrams where lines of equilibrium intersect. Triple points mark conditions at which three different phases can coexist. For example, the water phase diagram has a triple point corresponding to the single temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid, and gaseous water can coexist in a stable equilibrium ( and a partial vapor pressure of ).


title: Phase diagram

text: The solidus is the temperature below which the substance is stable in the solid state. The liquidus is the temperature above which the substance is stable in a liquid state. There may be a gap between the solidus and liquidus; within the gap, the substance consists of a mixture of crystals and liquid (like a "slurry").


title: Phase diagram

text: The simplest phase diagrams are pressure–temperature diagrams of a single simple substance, such as water. The axes correspond to the pressure and temperature. The phase diagram shows, in pressure–temperature space, the lines of equilibrium or phase boundaries between the three phases of solid, liquid, and gas.


title: Phase diagram

text: The curves on the phase diagram show the points where the free energy (and other derived properties) becomes non-analytic: their derivatives with respect to the coordinates (temperature and pressure in this example) change discontinuously (abruptly). For example, the heat capacity of a container filled with ice will change abruptly as the container is heated past the melting point. The open spaces, where the free energy is analytic, correspond to single phase regions. Single phase regions are separated by lines of non-analytical behavior, where phase transitions occur, which are called phase boundaries.


title: Phase diagram

text: In the diagram on the right, the phase boundary between liquid and gas does not continue indefinitely. Instead, it terminates at a point on the phase diagram called the critical point. This reflects the fact that, at extremely high temperatures and pressures, the liquid and gaseous phases become indistinguishable, in what is known as a supercritical fluid. In water, the critical point occurs at around "T" = , "p" = and "ρ" = 356 kg/m.


title: Phase diagram

text: The existence of the liquid–gas critical point reveals a slight ambiguity in labelling the single phase regions. When going from the liquid to the gaseous phase, one usually crosses the phase boundary, but it is possible to choose a path that never crosses the boundary by going to the right of the critical point. Thus, the liquid and gaseous phases can blend continuously into each other. The solid–liquid phase boundary can only end in a critical point if the solid and liquid phases have the same symmetry group.


title: Phase diagram

text: For most substances, the solid–liquid phase boundary (or fusion curve) in the phase diagram has a positive slope so that the melting point increases with pressure. This is true whenever the solid phase is denser than the liquid phase. The greater the pressure on a given substance, the closer together the molecules of the substance are brought to each other, which increases the effect of the substance's intermolecular forces. Thus, the substance requires a higher temperature for its molecules to have enough energy to break out of the fixed pattern of the solid phase and enter the liquid phase. A similar concept applies to liquid–gas phase changes.


title: Phase diagram

text: Water is an exception which has a solid-liquid boundary with negative slope so that the melting point decreases with pressure. This occurs because ice (solid water) is less dense than liquid water, as shown by the fact that ice floats on water. At a molecular level, ice is less dense because it has a more extensive network of hydrogen bonding which requires a greater separation of water molecules. Other exceptions include antimony and bismuth.


title: Phase diagram

text: At very high pressures above 50 GPa (500 000 atm), liquid nitrogen undergoes a liquid-liquid phase transition to a polymeric form and becomes denser than solid nitrogen at the same pressure. Under these conditions therefore, solid nitrogen also floats in its liquid.


title: Phase diagram

text: where Δ"H" is the heat of fusion which is always positive, and Δ"V" is the volume change for fusion. For most substances Δ"V" is positive so that the slope is positive. However for water and other exceptions, Δ"V" is negative so that the slope is negative.


title: Phase diagram

text: In addition to temperature and pressure, other thermodynamic properties may be graphed in phase diagrams. Examples of such thermodynamic properties include specific volume, specific enthalpy, or specific entropy. For example, single-component graphs of temperature vs. specific entropy ("T" vs. "s") for water/steam or for a refrigerant are commonly used to illustrate thermodynamic cycles such as a Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle, or vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.


title: Phase diagram

text: Any two thermodynamic quantities may be shown on the horizontal and vertical axes of a two-dimensional diagram. Additional thermodynamic quantities may each be illustrated in increments as a series of lines – curved, straight, or a combination of curved and straight. Each of these iso-lines represents the thermodynamic quantity at a certain constant value.


title: Phase diagram

text: It is possible to envision three-dimensional (3D) graphs showing three thermodynamic quantities. For example, for a single component, a 3D Cartesian coordinate type graph can show temperature ("T") on one axis, pressure ("p") on a second axis, and specific volume ("v") on a third. Such a 3D graph is sometimes called a "p"–"v"–"T" diagram. The equilibrium conditions are shown as curves on a curved surface in 3D with areas for solid, liquid, and vapor phases and areas where solid and liquid, solid and vapor, or liquid and vapor coexist in equilibrium. A line on the surface called a triple line is where solid, liquid and vapor can all coexist in equilibrium. The critical point remains a point on the surface even on a 3D phase diagram.


title: Phase diagram

text: An orthographic projection of the 3D "p"–"v"–"T" graph showing pressure and temperature as the vertical and horizontal axes collapses the 3D plot into the standard 2D pressure–temperature diagram. When this is done, the solid–vapor, solid–liquid, and liquid–vapor surfaces collapse into three corresponding curved lines meeting at the triple point, which is the collapsed orthographic projection of the triple line.


title: Phase diagram

text: Other much more complex types of phase diagrams can be constructed, particularly when more than one pure component is present. In that case, concentration becomes an important variable. Phase diagrams with more than two dimensions can be constructed that show the effect of more than two variables on the phase of a substance. Phase diagrams can use other variables in addition to or in place of temperature, pressure and composition, for example the strength of an applied electrical or magnetic field, and they can also involve substances that take on more than just three states of matter.


title: Phase diagram

text: One type of phase diagram plots temperature against the relative concentrations of two substances in a binary mixture called a "binary phase diagram", as shown at right. Such a mixture can be either a solid solution, eutectic or peritectic, among others. These two types of mixtures result in very different graphs. Another type of binary phase diagram is a "boiling-point diagram" for a mixture of two components, i. e. chemical compounds. For two particular volatile components at a certain pressure such as atmospheric pressure, a boiling-point diagram shows what vapor (gas) compositions are in equilibrium with given liquid compositions depending on temperature. In a typical binary boiling-point diagram, temperature is plotted on a vertical axis and mixture composition on a horizontal axis.


title: Phase diagram

text: A two component diagram with components A and B in an "ideal" solution is shown. The construction of a liquid vapor phase diagram assumes an ideal liquid solution obeying Raoult's law and an ideal gas mixture obeying Dalton's law of partial pressure. A tie line from the liquid to the gas at constant pressure would indicate the two compositions of the liquid and gas respectively.


title: Phase diagram

text: A simple example diagram with hypothetical components 1 and 2 in a non-azeotropic mixture is shown at right. The fact that there are two separate curved lines joining the boiling points of the pure components means that the vapor composition is usually not the same as the liquid composition the vapor is in equilibrium with. See Vapor–liquid equilibrium for more information.


title: Phase diagram

text: In addition to the above-mentioned types of phase diagrams, there are many other possible combinations. Some of the major features of phase diagrams include congruent points, where a solid phase transforms directly into a liquid. There is also the peritectoid, a point where two solid phases combine into one solid phase during cooling. The inverse of this, when one solid phase transforms into two solid phases during cooling, is called the eutectoid.


title: Phase diagram

text: A complex phase diagram of great technological importance is that of the iron–carbon system for less than 7% carbon (see steel).


title: Phase diagram

text: The x-axis of such a diagram represents the concentration variable of the mixture. As the mixtures are typically far from dilute and their density as a function of temperature is usually unknown, the preferred concentration measure is mole fraction. A volume-based measure like molarity would be inadvisable.


title: Phase diagram

text: A system with three components is called a ternary system. At constant pressure the maximum number of independent variables is three – the temperature and two concentration values. For a representation of ternary equilibria a three-dimensional phase diagram is required. Often such a diagram is drawn with the composition as a horizontal plane and the temperature on an axis perpendicular to this plane. To represent composition in a ternary system an equilateral triangle is used, called Gibbs triangle (see also Ternary plot).


title: Phase diagram

text: The temperature scale is plotted on the axis perpendicular to the composition triangle. Thus, the space model of a ternary phase diagram is a right-triangular prism. The prism sides represent corresponding binary systems A-B, B-C, A-C.


title: Phase diagram

text: Polymorphic and polyamorphic substances have multiple crystal or amorphous phases, which can be graphed in a similar fashion to solid, liquid, and gas phases.


title: Phase diagram

text: Some organic materials pass through intermediate states between solid and liquid; these states are called mesophases. Attention has been directed to mesophases because they enable display devices and have become commercially important through the so-called liquid-crystal technology. Phase diagrams are used to describe the occurrence of mesophases.


title: Ashton Irwin

text: Ashton Fletcher Irwin (born 7 July 1994) is an Australian musician, best known as the drummer of the pop rock band 5 Seconds of Summer. Since 2014, 5 Seconds of Summer have sold more than 10 million albums, sold over 2 million concert tickets worldwide, and the band's songs streams surpass 7 billion, making them one of the most successful Australian musical exports in history.


title: Ashton Irwin

text: Ashton Fletcher Irwin was born on 7 July 1994 in Hornsby, New South Wales. His father, who is an American, left the family when Irwin was two years old. His mother, Anne-Marie, struggled with alcoholism, and as a result, he spent his childhood "hanging out with drunk people at pubs". He later elaborated, "My upbringing is […] interesting, I didn't have a father, my mom has struggled with alcoholism my whole life. I've grown up kind of bringing other people up…I've had to be relentlessly positive, and I have a very depressed mind". Irwin frequently moved houses as a child, mainly residing in Richmond and Windsor. Irwin's mother "didn't have a lot of money" and as a result, Irwin would "struggle to eat from week to week".


title: Ashton Irwin

text: Irwin's uncle was a drummer in a death-metal band and his step-father played drums in a punk-rock band. Irwin learned how to play drums at nine years old after asking his step-father to teach him. Irwin helped raise his younger siblings, half-brother Harry and half-sister Lauren, whilst attending Richmond High School, from which he graduated in 2012. During his high school years, prior to the formation of 5 Seconds of Summer, Irwin formed a jazz-funk band called "Swallow the Goldfish" with his classmates. Ultimately departing from the band, Irwin pursued a year of higher education at a TAFE college, studying music, before choosing to leave due to his commitment to 5 Seconds of Summer.


title: Ashton Irwin

text: In late 2011, Irwin received a Facebook message from friend and future band-mate, Michael Clifford, asking if Irwin was interested in casually playing music with him, Calum Hood and Luke Hemmings. Irwin agreed, eventually joining the trio in posting song covers on Hemmings' YouTube channel, and forming the 5 Seconds of Summer lineup. After months of posting song covers together, the band began attracting interest from major music labels and publishers and signed a publishing deal with Sony/ATV Music Publishing. Irwin has since released four studio albums with the band, each met with worldwide success: "5 Seconds of Summer" (2014), "Sounds Good Feels Good" (2015), "Youngblood" (2018), and "Calm" (2020).


title: Ashton Irwin

text: Apart from the band, Irwin has song-written and provided instrumentation for other artists, including Andy Black, The Faim and Makeout.


title: Ashton Irwin

text: On 23 September 2020, Irwin announced the release of his debut solo album, titled "Superbloom", which was released on 23 October 2020. It was preceded by the single, "Skinny Skinny", a track about issues concerning body image, something Irwin says he has "never confronted in a creative form". Irwin stated that ""Superbloom" explores my inner philosophies and feelings about the walk of life I have found myself on". He reiterated: "It brings me the greatest joy of all that I am in a band that allows me to create freely inside and outside of it".


title: Ashton Irwin

text: Irwin has been open about his struggles with alcoholism and is an advocate for mental health. In 2018, Irwin admitted that during 5 Seconds of Summer's two-year break, he dealt "with [his] feelings in the beginning [of the hiatus] with just alcohol". In April 2020, Irwin revealed that, at the time, he had been sober for ten months. During the band's 2019 tour, Irwin documented, via his social media accounts, ice baths he partook in before each show as an affirmation of overcoming his substance abuse.


title: Ashton Irwin

text: Irwin previously dated model Bryana Holly, with the pair dating for a year before splitting in June 2016. In 2018, Irwin began an on-again off again relationship with fashion blogger and photographer, Kaitlin Blaisdell.


title: Ashton Irwin

text: In 2017, it was reported that Irwin bought a five-bedroom mansion in the Hollywood Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles. In 2018, it was reported that Irwin had bought a second property, a penthouse, in West Hollywood. As of 2020, Irwin's net-worth is estimated to be $25 million (USD).


title: Daughters (band)

text: Daughters is an American rock band formed in 2002, in Providence, Rhode Island. The band's current line-up consists of vocalist Alexis Marshall, guitarist Nicholas Andrew Sadler, drummer Jon Syverson, and bassist Samuel Moorehouse Walker.


title: Daughters (band)

text: The band started out as a grindcore outfit, developing their sound with each album, with later albums often described as noise rock. In 2018 the band signed to Ipecac Records and released the album "You Won't Get What You Want", which released to universal critical acclaim, with many critics naming it one of the best albums of the year. It marks a significant departure from the band's earlier style, with relatively more conventional song structures and vocals.


title: Daughters (band)

text: Prior to forming Daughters, vocalist Alexis S.F. Marshall, guitarist Jeremy Wabiszczewicz and drummer Jon Syverson played in the American grindcore band As the Sun Sets. Following its disbandment, Marshall, Wabiszczewicz and Syverson went on to form Daughters along with guitarist Nicholas Andrew Sadler and bassist Pat Masterson. As the Sun Sets' final release, "8949", contained an insert which had a message from the band on it. The message said "...This is As the Sun Sets' final recording. March 21st, 2002, the sun set for the last time. March 22nd, 2002, we begin anew as Daughters". Marshall has since revealed that the announcement in "8949" was a mistake and it was not meant to be put into the EP's liner notes, since he saw Daughters as a new band and he didn't want people to see Daughters as a continuation of As the Sun Sets.


title: Daughters (band)

text: On March 25, 2002 (only three days after the band officially formed) Daughters released their debut EP, "Daughters", through City of Hell Records. Daughters played their first show in late May at the Munch House in Providence, RI. Daughters played alongside Backstabbers Inc. and Dead and Gone. In October, 2002 Daughters focused on writing new material for their debut album. On August 12, 2003, Daughters released their debut album "Canada Songs", through Robotic Empire.


title: Daughters (band)

text: In June, 2004 Daughters released its first live album, "Live at CBGB", through City of Hell. The album contained a new song, "Boner X-Ray". In July 2004 "Boner X-Ray" was later released for free as a download from Daughters' website, a studio version of the song would also appear on Daughters' upcoming album, "Hell Songs" under the title "X-Ray". In mid-2005 Daughters signed to Hydra Head Records. While touring throughout 2004 and 2005 Daughters played many early versions of the songs that would appear on "Hell Songs", such as, "Feisty Snake-Woman", "Boner X-Ray", "Fiery Wolves", "Crotch Buffet" and "Fuck Whisperer". Daughters entered the studio in March, 2006 to begin recording their next album at Mad Oak Recording Studios. In May, 2006 the band released details about the album such as its title, producer, recording studio and the track list. On August 8, 2006, Daughters released their second album "Hell Songs", through Hydra Head.


title: Daughters (band)

text: The writing process of the band's third album started three years prior to the album's release, Sadler has said he would take song ideas and riffs to bandmate Syverson "to hash them out". Recording for Daughters' third album began in late April, 2009, and the tracking process was finished by June. In August, Daughters had abruptly broken up. After finishing recording for the album Marshall and Sadler got in an argument resulting in Marshall leaving the band. The rest of the band decided to call a hiatus, expecting Marshall to re-join the band at some point. Sadler continued with mastering the record, finalizing the artwork and worked with artist Dave Fisher on a trailer video. Sadler said that he "was essentially trying to keep the band alive for who-knows-what" and "hoping [Marshall] would come back or maybe in few years we would start playing again." Marshall decided that he wanted to rejoin the band, but that Sadler should be replaced. This caused bassist Samuel M. Walker to leave the band. This led to the band's break-up.


title: Daughters (band)

text: The disbandment was never officially announced, and no one outside of Daughters knew about the breakup before the end of 2009. Some months after the disbandment, Marshall and Syverson reconnected and decided to continue with the band. Stating "We started this band and we're the only two people who have been through it consistently, so there was no reason to stop altogether and throw the whole thing away." Marshall continued to say the pair have "no plans to replace anybody, but we're not ruling out the idea that people could come in here and if it works out, they'll stay." Sadler has said "From my perspective, I don't think I'll ever play with Daughters again - I've been through way too much stress and I'm in a way better place with writing and being in a band with Fang Island. With the new album, I think we ended on a really good note with Daughters and if [Marshall] carries it beyond that then I'm happy for him and that's cool. So I didn't really leave, the band just fell apart. In some way, I guess I was kicked out by the guy who quit. (laughs) I don't know where that leaves me or the band, but I'm using that as an excuse to step out officially."


title: Daughters (band)

text: The band performed a one-off secret show at Rhode Island School of Design in Providence, where they played most of the songs from their upcoming album. This was the first and only time Daughters played songs off their self-titled album before their reunion in 2013. Despite the "break-up", Daughters released their third album "Daughters" on March 9, 2010, through Hydra Head. The band's management announced there would not be any tour in support of the album. Looking back on the album Sadler said "This album really caught up with us. People were getting a little older, the whole band was extremely poor from touring over the years, so life outside the band really caught up with us and it became hard to really do anything. I'm very proud of this record just because we were able to make it, you know? It was a real struggle."


title: Daughters (band)

text: Marshall has credited Andy Low of Robotic Empire for reuniting Daughters. While Marshall and Sadler were not speaking to each other, Low told them both that one wanted to see the other. However, neither member had actually expressed any feelings to Low about wanting to see the other. Not knowing this, they both reluctantly agreed to have dinner together. They found out during the dinner that Low had tricked them to get them to talk to each other again. The situation was described by Marshall: "We sat down and had dinner and within 15 minutes we started talking about plans. We just needed to be in the same room I guess." He then went on to say, "It felt that enough time had gone by that any issues that Nick and I had had been not necessarily forgotten but they didn't seem that important anymore."


title: Daughters (band)

text: Speaking about Daughters' reunion Marshall stated the band had been talking about it for a while. He also mentioned how fans would regularly ask him "what was going on with Daughters" while he was on tour with his other band Fucking Invincible. He stated "It's crazy. People are actually still into it" referring to Daughters. When Marshall got home from touring with Fucking Invincible he sent out a group text to the other members of Daughters saying, "People are interested in us doing something. We shouldn't fuck around. We should just go out and play some shows, because this writing thing is taking way longer than it was supposed to. Let's not concern ourselves with that; let's just play some shows and things will happen after that. Everything will happen by itself once we get in the mindset of being in Daughters and being with each other."


title: Daughters (band)

text: On September 13, 2013, Daughters reformed for one show in Rhode Island. Owing to popular demand, a second show was added on September 15. Although at the time no further official statements had been made, ever since the reunion the band has had heavy activity on social media and had been recording "bits and pieces" and making demos. In the summer of 2014 the band started recording at Providence-based studio, Machines With Magnets. In July, 2014 during these recording sessions the band hinted at new material on Facebook. However, all recordings from this session were shelved because the band were unhappy with the outcome, with Marshall claiming they "forced it" and that the recordings ended up sounding "unfinished". Sadler has said the recordings were shelved so the band could "experiment with new ideas."


title: Daughters (band)

text: In 2015, Daughters posted a photo on Facebook of its members at recording studio Machines With Magnets. In September 2016, the band announced via Instagram that they will "Record, once again, during [their upcoming tour] with no real agenda nor timeline for release." On this tour, Daughters played the new song, "Long Road, No Turns". In a June 2017 interview Marshall said he expects Daughters to release their fourth studio album by the end of the year. On December 28 and 29, Daughters and Code Orange supported The Dillinger Escape Plan on their final two shows. In April 2018, Daughters reported that the recordings of the guitars for their upcoming album were complete.


title: Daughters (band)

text: On July 13, 2018, Daughters released "Satan in the Wait", the lead single from their upcoming album on Ipecac Recordings. Its title, "You Won't Get What You Want", was revealed on August 17 along with its second single, "The Reason They Hate Me", which was described as "noisier and more abrasive" than the lead single. The third single, "Long Road, No Turns", was released on October 2, which "Rolling Stone" praised for being "another unique beast: off-kilter rhythms pierce through a seething veneer of distortion and Marshall, his voice sounding crystal clear, sings about making mistakes and coming undone."


title: Daughters (band)

text: "You Won't Get What You Want" was released on October 26. It received universal critical acclaim and placed on numerous publications' year-end lists. The band's first career music video, for "Less Sex", came out on January 14, 2019 and was directed by former Daughters guitarist Jeremy Wabiszczewicz.


title: Daughters (band)

text: In October 2021, Marshall was accused of abuse by his ex-girlfriend Kristin Hayter, who performs under the alias Lingua Ignota. Hayter elaborated on the allegations in December, alleging that Marshall committed rape and mental abuse during their relationship from July 2019 to June 2021. Marshall denied the allegations and announced that he would investigate legal options.


title: Daughters (band)

text: Days before Hayter released her impact statement in December fully documenting the abuse allegations against Marshall, Daughters announced on Patreon that they were "pressing pause on Daughters activity for the immediate future", canceling a pair of scheduled January 2022 shows at New York City's (Le) Poisson Rouge.


title: Daughters (band)

text: Daughters' early material was primarily described as grindcore, while their later material has been described as noise rock. Daughters have also been described as industrial rock, no wave, math rock, mathcore, post-punk, experimental rock, math metal, alternative metal, art-rock and art-metal. Sadler has said that he has always disagreed with Daughters being described as a math rock or mathcore band, stating "[Daughters has] always been a kind of calculated band, but not in a math rock way. None of us are classically trained at all and I don't think anyone in Daughters has taken a lesson in anything. The music just comes out that way and it's always been the nature of the band."


title: Daughters (band)

text: With the release of the band's second album, "Hell Songs", Marshall's vocal style had noticeably changed from high-pitched screams to a singing style that over the years has been compared to David Yow, Nick Cave and Michael Gira and also has been described as "Elvis Presley being tortured" and "Jerry Lee Lewis on hallucinogenic drugs." Marshall explained the reason for the change in vocals saying "It's intimidating [to be in this band]. These guys can play. I don't want to be like, 'You guys be impressive and I'll just scream.' We're not a band like that. Our music is not like that, so why should the singing be like other bands?"


title: Aida (musical)

text: Aida (also known as "Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida") is a musical based on the opera of the same name written by Antonio Ghislanzoni with music by Giuseppe Verdi. It has music by Elton John, lyrics by Tim Rice, and book by Linda Woolverton, Robert Falls, and David Henry Hwang, and was originally produced by Walt Disney Theatrical.


title: Aida (musical)

text: "Aida" premiered on Broadway on March 23, 2000, running for 1,852 performances until September 5, 2004. It was nominated for five Tony Awards and won four, including Best Original Score. It was also named by "Time" as one of the top ten theatre productions of the year.


title: Aida (musical)

text: The original Broadway cast recording won the Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album. A song from the show, "Written in the Stars", recorded by Elton John and LeAnn Rimes, reached No. 2 in the "Billboard" US adult contemporary music chart.


title: Aida (musical)

text: The show is based on Giuseppe Verdi's Italian-language opera of the same name, the libretto of which was written by Antonio Ghislanzoni. The musical originated from a children's storybook version of Verdi's opera written by the soprano Leontyne Price. The book featured illustrations by Leo and Diane Dillon. In 1994 the book rights were acquired by the Walt Disney Company for a proposed animated feature film. However, Elton John chose not to pursue another animated project after "The Lion King" so Disney executives suggested a Broadway adaptation instead. Despite his opinion that "opera people can be very elitist", John, along with Tim Rice, immediately signed on.


title: Aida (musical)

text: In the Egyptian wing of a modern museum, a man and a woman touring the exhibit catch each other's eyes. A statue of Amneris, a female Pharaoh, comes to life ("Every Story Is a Love Story") and transports them to Ancient Egypt, where Radames, captain of the Egyptian army, and his men are returning from an expedition through the land of Egypt's long-time enemy, Nubia ("Fortune Favors the Brave"). When his soldiers capture a group of Nubian women, he is captivated by one of the women, Aida, who tries to free herself by out-dueling one of his soldiers. Radames forces her to wash his back, but she refuses, saying that although the Egyptians took everything from the Nubians, they will never take their spirit ("The Past Is Another Land"). Radames saves Aida's companions from the copper mines (and certain death) by sending them to the palace groundskeeper instead. He also ensures Aida serves as a handmaiden to his betrothed, Princess Amneris. Radames' father, Chief Minister Zoser, greets his son with news that the Pharaoh is dying, and Radames must prepare to become the next ruler of Egypt ("Another Pyramid"). Unbeknownst to Radames, his father is poisoning the Pharaoh in order to accelerate Radames' ascension to the throne.


title: Aida (musical)

text: Radames' Nubian servant, Mereb, is a young man who has learned the tricks of survival in Egypt. While delivering Aida to the princess, Mereb recognizes her as the daughter of the Nubian king under whom he had served during his days in Nubia. She commands him to keep her identity a secret, lest the Egyptians kill her ("How I Know You"). Presented to Amneris, Aida is liked immediately, and she perceives that the Princess' love of fashion only serves as a mask of her insecurities ("My Strongest Suit"). At a banquet, Amneris and Radames learn from the Pharaoh that they are to marry in seven days, leaving the captain distraught that his days as an explorer have ended ("Fortune Favors the Brave (Reprise)"). Together, he and Aida share their dreams and regrets ("Enchantment Passing Through").


title: Aida (musical)

text: Later that night, Amneris worries about her father's illness, and finds in Aida someone who understands and encourages her ("My Strongest Suit (Reprise)"). Bursting into his fiancée's chamber, Radames steals a moment with Aida to share his growing attraction to her. Aida is taken by Mereb to the Nubian camp, where she reluctantly submits to her people's pleas to lead them ("Dance of the Robe"). When she implores Radames to help the Nubians, he opens his heart by giving his possessions to them ("Not Me") and declaring his love for Aida ("Elaborate Lives"). Unable to fight her feelings any longer, she falls into his embrace. Their bliss is interrupted by news that Radames' armies have captured Amonasro, king of Nubia and also Aida's father. Unable to comfort her, Radames leaves Aida in distress. Rallying her people, Aida assures them that Nubia will never die ("The Gods Love Nubia").


title: Aida (musical)

text: Amneris, Radames, and Aida are entangled in conflicted loyalties and emotions ("A Step Too Far"): Amneris is afraid that Radames's affection for her is waning, Radames worries his love for Aida could end his life as he knows it, and Aida fears she might be a traitor to her people as she loves Radames. Aida and Mereb bribe their way into Amonasro's prison cell, where she is reunited with her father. Mereb hatches a plan to escape with the king during the commotion of Amneris' wedding. To save her father and her nation, Aida must betray the man she loves ("Easy as Life"). Meanwhile, Zoser discovers Radames' affair and warns his son that it could cost him the throne, but Radames no longer shares his father's ambitions ("Like Father, Like Son"). After an emotional bout with his son, Zoser orders his men to find Aida and kill her.


title: Aida (musical)

text: At the Nubian camp, Aida receives a written apology from Radames for the thoughtless way he acted upon hearing of Amonasro's capture ("Radames' Letter") and for his lack of showing affection. When Egyptian soldiers arrive seeking Aida, another Nubian, Nehebka, sacrifices herself so that the princess can live. Now even more determined to leave Radames forever, Aida goes to say good-bye to him over Mereb's objections ("How I Know You (Reprise)"). Radames informs Aida that he is calling off the wedding. Aida knows that this would ruin her father's escape and tells him he must go through with it ("Written in the Stars"). Radames agrees, on condition that she escapes to freedom on a boat he will provide. The heartbroken lovers part, but Amneris has overheard their entire conversation and tries to face the fact that her upcoming marriage is a sham ("I Know the Truth").


title: Aida (musical)

text: News of Amonasro's escape disrupts Amneris' wedding. Radames learns the truth of Aida's identity when he arrives at the docks just as she is about to board his boat with her father. Although he is angry that Aida hid this from him, she says she never lied about loving him. In the ensuing chaos, Mereb is mortally wounded by Zoser, and Radames makes possible Amonasro's escape by cutting the rope tied to the dock, but Aida stays with Radames and a dying Mereb. Zoser flees, and Mereb dies in the arms of his kind master and beloved princess. Radames and Aida are then arrested for treason. At the ensuing trial, Pharaoh announces Zoser's apprehension and sentences both Aida and Radames to be buried alive. Amneris foreshadows her role as a future Pharaoh by convincing her father to let the lovers die in the same tomb, an act of mercy for two people she has come to love. Facing death, Aida looks to Radames for strength ("Elaborate Lives (Reprise)"). As they are slowly deprived of light and air ("Enchantment Passing Through (Reprise)"), Radames swears he will search through a hundred lifetimes to find her again if he has to.


title: Aida (musical)

text: Back in the contemporary museum, the spirit of Amneris reveals that as she became Pharaoh, "the lovers' deaths gave birth to a reign of peace" between Egypt and Nubia. She watches as the modern man and woman are strangely drawn to each other. They are the reincarnations of Aida and Radames, finding each other in a new beginning ("Every Story is a Love Story (Reprise)").


title: Aida (musical)

text: "Aida" was originally conceived for production as an animated musical film by Disney executives, who wanted to do another project with the collaborative team of Sir Elton John and Sir Tim Rice, following the success enjoyed by the animated film "The Lion King". It was John's idea to develop the story directly as a musical, and a first reading was presented to Disney executives on April 1, 1996. John also recorded multiple demos of the original songs, which were never released but were widely bootlegged. Early readings featured Simone (Aida), Hank Stratton (Radames) and Sherie Rene Scott (Amneris). It took years from first reading to the first full production presentation in September 1998 in Atlanta. One of the many issues was what to call the musical.


title: Aida (musical)

text: "Elaborate Lives: The Legend of Aida" had its world premiere at the Alliance Theatre in Atlanta, Georgia, where it ran from September 16 to November 8, 1998. The Atlanta production featured Heather Headley (Aida), Hank Stratton (Radames) and Sherie Rene Scott (Amneris). The production featured several songs which were cut from the final production. The original Atlanta staging conceived of the play with a nearly empty set, displaying only a six-ton gold pyramid-shaped set piece in the center. Driven by hydraulic controls, the pyramid's sides and bottom could be turned and rotated to suggest various locations. However, the piece - constructed at a price of nearly $10 million - frequently broke down, and a new production designer was hired for restaging in Chicago. Nothing of the original Atlanta set design remained in the new production.


title: Aida (musical)

text: A new, revised production opened on November 12, 1999, at the Cadillac Palace in Chicago, and ran through January 9, 2000. "Aida" producers made substantial changes to its team for the Chicago production. From the Atlanta staging, only Headley as Aida and Rene Scott as Amneris remained in principal roles. Ensemble members Raymond Rodriguez, Kenya Massey and Kyra Little remained from the Atlanta staging as well. Adam Pascal joined the cast as Radames, starting with the Chicago run. Robert Falls took over as director in Chicago, replacing Robert Jess Ross, and set designer Bob Crowley replaced Stanley A. Meyer. Also part of the new Chicago team was choreographer Wayne Cilento. The Chicago production featured one number "Our Nation Holds Sway", originally performed near the beginning of both act 1 and act 2, which was cut from the final Broadway production.


title: Aida (musical)

text: During the Chicago run at the Cadillac Theatre, on November 13, 1999, a set mishap during the final moments of the performance injured stars Headley and Pascal. According to an eyewitness report, while the two actors were being conveyed in a suspended boxlike ‘tomb’ at the climax of the show, the set-piece fell from its support, eight feet above the stage. A subsequent press release from the show's publicist stated that Headley and Pascal sustained minor injuries and were taken to Northwestern Memorial Hospital for examination. Both were released from the hospital a few hours later. From then on, the tomb remained on the ground.


title: Aida (musical)

text: The musical, now titled "Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida", premiered on Broadway at the Palace Theatre on March 23, 2000 and closed on September 5, 2004 after 30 previews and 1,852 performances. The run puts it at the 39th longest run in Broadway history. The Broadway production was directed by Robert Falls and choreographed by Wayne Cilento, with scenery and costume design by Bob Crowley, lighting design by Natasha Katz, and sound design by Steve C. Kennedy. Considered by its producers to be a financial success, "Aida" on Broadway recovered its investment in 99 weeks, and generated a profit of $12 million.


title: Aida (musical)

text: Heather Headley originated the title role of Aida, and won both the Tony Award and the Drama Desk Award for Best Actress in a Musical in 2000 for her performance; Headley also received broad critical acclaim. Adam Pascal played the role of Radames in both the OBC and closing productions of "Aida" on Broadway. Sherie René Scott, who was with the project since its first workshop, originated the role of Amneris, and was named the Most Promising Actress in 2000 for her performance (Clarence Derwent Award). The cast also included Tyrees Allen (Amonasro), John Hickok (Zoser), Daniel Oreskes (Pharaoh), Damian Perkins (Mereb), and Schele Williams (Nehebka).


title: Aida (musical)

text: Pop stars, including Deborah Cox, Toni Braxton and Michelle Williams played the title role of Aida during its run on Broadway, as well as Maya Days, Saycon Sengbloh, Lisa Simone and Merle Dandridge. Notable replacements for Radames included Will Chase, Patrick Cassidy, Richard H. Blake, William Robert Gaynor, and Matt Bogart. Notable replacements for Amneris included Idina Menzel, Jessica Hendy, Mandy Gonzalez, Felicia Finley, Taylor Dayne and Lisa Brescia. Notable replacements for Zoser were Micky Dolenz and Donnie Kehr. Notable Replacements for Mereb were J. Marshall Evans and Julian Bass.


title: Aida (musical)

text: "Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida" had a critically acclaimed US National tour from March 2001 to 2003. The show received eight nominations and won five awards in 2002. including Best Musical, Best Actress (Lisa Simone), and Best Actor (Patrick Cassidy) from the National Broadway Theatre Awards (now called "Touring Broadway Awards"). The National tour also featured Kelli Fournier (Amneris). Notable replacements included Jeremy Kushnier (Radames) and Lisa Brescia (Amneris).


title: Aida (musical)

text: The musical also had a non-equity US national tour during 2006–07 featuring Marja Harmon (Aida), Casey Elliott (Radames), and Leah Allers (Amneris). This production had a revised script by David Henry Hwang authorized by Disney. The new script was considered to be more serious and darker, with much of the shticky and comedic elements removed from Amneris' character especially. “Strongest Suit” was staged as a scene in which Aida helped Amneris choose her outfit for the evening instead of a random fashion show. The scene prior to “Strongest Suit (Reprise)” was revised with Aida teaching Amneris how to thread, adding more a sense of bond between the women and also humbling Amneris in wanting to learn something new and not just 'be a princess.' Introduced to the plot was the revelation that Radames' mother was a prostitute and that Zoser treated her as such, and fought and schemed for Radames to achieve his position of Captain of Pharaoh's armies.


title: Aida (musical)

text: The first international production of "Aida" ran in Scheveningen, Netherlands. The show ran from October 10, 2001, to August 3, 2003, and was performed in Dutch. This production featured Chaira Borderslee (Aida), Bastiaan Ragas (Radames) and Antje Monteiro (Amneris). There have been also productions of "Aida" in Germany, Switzerland, Japan, South Korea, Uruguay, Poland, Singapore, Australia, Philippines, Mexico, Croatia, Peru, Argentina, Estonia, Canada, Hungary, Brazil, Sweden, Denmark, China, Israel and the Czech Republic. Aida was premiered in New Zealand at St Peter's School (Cambridge) (May 2012, at St Peter's College, Auckland (in 2013) and at Saint Kentigern College, Auckland in (2012). The original Japanese production has re-opened and is currently playing in Osaka, Japan.


title: Aida (musical)

text: "Aida" has been translated into 16 languages: German, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Dutch, Spanish, Estonian, French, Hungarian, Croatian, Portuguese, Swedish, Danish, Hebrew, Czech and Polish (in 2019).


title: Aida (musical)

text: "Aida" was due to play in Jerusalem, Israel in January–February 2014 at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem Beit Hillel theatre, directed by Michael Berl.


title: Aida (musical)

text: "Aida" has been produced twice in Lima, Peru at "Colegio Villa María"'s Trinity Hall. It was first produced in 2005, receiving praise from the Peruvian media. It was staged for a second time in 2015. In both occasions directed by Manuel Ramírez-Gastón, "Aida" is one of Villa María's critically acclaimed productions of the past ten years.


title: Aida (musical)

text: "Aida" has never been staged professionally in London or elsewhere in the UK – home of both its composer and lyricist – although it has been available for amateur licensing since 2011. Its first major performance in the UK was in March 2013 at the ADC Theatre by the Cambridge University Musical Theatre Society.


title: Aida (musical)

text: Elton John's score for "Aida" is stylistically eclectic. "Another Pyramid" is a modern reggae number; "My Strongest Suit" draws heavily on Motown, "The Gods Love Nubia" draws on gospel. There are numbers, e.g., "Not Me", "Elaborate Lives", "A Step Too Far", "Written in the Stars", that reflect Elton John's pop style. There is also a strong influence of African music, notably in "Dance of the Robe" and "Easy as Life". These styles are used without much attention to historical authenticity; rather, there is a mix of African (mostly West African), Indian and Middle Eastern influences. Probably the nearest stylistic parallel to the work as a whole is to Elton John's "The Lion King", another musical with strong emphasis on ethnically diverse stylistic influences.


title: Aida (musical)

text: Among the songs cut from the production after previews and workshops were two songs that made up the final sequence of the play: a reprise of "Fortune Favors The Brave" entitled "The Two Must Die", and then a final death duet for Aida and Radames, entitled "The Messenger". These songs were replaced with reprises of "Elaborate Lives", "Enchantment Passing Through" and "Every Story Is A Love Story".


title: Aida (musical)

text: Leontyne Price's original storybook version of the show had first been acquired by Disney with the intention that it should become an animated film, but it was never made. It was believed for a time that concept art existed for this proposed animated feature. However, the artist of that piece Ben Balistreri has stated that "This was nothing more than a class assignment given out by Frank Terry when I was at Cal Arts back in 1996... Frank brought in a newspaper clipping that Disney and Elton John were going to do an animated musical of "Aida" and our assignment was to create a line-up of the main characters and give them all Disney style sidekicks."


title: Aida (musical)

text: Following the success of the stage version, Disney began planning a major live-action motion picture adaptation. In July 2007, it was reported that Beyoncé was attached to portray the title role, alongside Christina Aguilera as Amneris. However, no further reports of the adaptation's production have surfaced since.


title: Aida (musical)

text: In 2020, the song "My Strongest Suit" was covered by Lucy Hale, Ashleigh Murray, Julia Chan and Jonny Beauchamp on the first season of the television series "Katy Keene" in the episode "Chapter Five: Song for a Winter's Night".


title: Conflict resolution

text: Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of conflict and retribution. Committed group members attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively communicating information about their conflicting motives or ideologies to the rest of group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding certain beliefs) and by engaging in collective negotiation. Dimensions of resolution typically parallel the dimensions of conflict in the way the conflict is processed. Cognitive resolution is the way disputants understand and view the conflict, with beliefs, perspectives, understandings and attitudes. Emotional resolution is in the way disputants feel about a conflict, the emotional energy. Behavioral resolution is reflective of how the disputants act, their behavior. Ultimately a wide range of methods and procedures for addressing conflict exist, including negotiation, mediation, mediation-arbitration, diplomacy, and creative peacebuilding.


title: Conflict resolution

text: The term "conflict resolution" may also be used interchangeably with "dispute resolution", where arbitration and litigation processes are critically involved. The concept of conflict resolution can be thought to encompass the use of nonviolent resistance measures by conflicted parties in an attempt to promote effective resolution.


title: Conflict resolution

text: There are a plethora of different theories and models linked to the concept of conflict resolution. A few of them are described below.


title: Conflict resolution

text: There are many examples of conflict resolution in history, and there has been a debate about the ways to conflict resolution: whether it should be forced or peaceful. Conflict resolution by peaceful means is generally perceived to be a better option. The conflict resolution curve derived from an analytical model that offers a peaceful solution by motivating conflicting entities. Forced resolution of conflict might invoke another conflict in the future.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Conflict resolution curve (CRC) separates conflict styles into two separate domains: domain of competing entities and domain of accommodating entities. There is a sort of agreement between targets and aggressors on this curve. Their judgements of badness compared to goodness of each other are analogous on CRC. So, arrival of conflicting entities to some negotiable points on CRC is important before peace building. CRC does not exist (i.e., singular) in reality if the aggression of the aggressor is certain. Under such circumstances it might lead to apocalypse with mutual destruction.


title: Conflict resolution

text: The curve explains why nonviolent struggles ultimately toppled repressive regimes and sometimes forced leaders to change the nature of governance. Also, this methodology has been applied to capture conflict styles on the Korean Peninsula and dynamics of negotiation processes.


title: Conflict resolution

text: The dual concern model of conflict resolution is a conceptual perspective that assumes individuals' preferred method of dealing with conflict is based on two underlying themes or dimensions: concern for self (assertiveness) and concern for others (empathy).


title: Conflict resolution

text: According to the model, group members balance their concern for satisfying personal needs and interests with their concern for satisfying the needs and interests of others in different ways. The intersection of these two dimensions ultimately leads individuals towards exhibiting different styles of conflict resolution. The dual model identifies five conflict resolution styles or strategies that individuals may use depending on their dispositions toward pro-self or pro-social goals.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Relational dialectics theory (RDT), introduced by Leslie Baxter and Barbara Matgomery (1988), explores the ways in which people in relationships use verbal communication to manage conflict and contradiction as opposed to psychology. This concept focuses on maintaining a relationship even through contradictions that arise and how relationships are managed through coordinated talk. RDT assumes that relationships are composed of opposing tendencies, are constantly changing, and tensions arises from intimate relationships.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Strategy of conflict, by Thomas Schelling, is the study of negotiation during conflict and strategic behavior that results in the development of "conflict behavior". This idea is based largely on game theory. In "A Reorientation of Game Theory", Schelling discusses ways in which one can redirect the focus of a conflict in order to gain advantage over an opponent.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Within peace and conflict studies a definition of conflict resolution is presented in Peter Wallensteen's book "Understanding Conflict Resolution":


title: Conflict resolution

text: The "conflicting parties" concerned in this definition are formally or informally organized groups engaged in intrastate or interstate conflict.


title: Conflict resolution

text: 'Basic incompatibility' refers to a severe disagreement between at least two sides where their demands cannot be met by the same resources at the same time.


title: Conflict resolution

text: One theory discussed within the field of peace and conflict studies is conflict resolution mechanisms: independent procedures in which the conflicting parties can have confidence. They can be formal or informal arrangements with the intention of resolving the conflict. In "Understanding Conflict Resolution" Wallensteen draws from the works of Lewis A. Coser, Johan Galtung and Thomas Schelling, and presents seven distinct theoretical mechanisms for conflict resolutions:


title: Conflict resolution

text: According to conflict database Uppsala Conflict Data Program's definition war may occur between parties who contest an incompatibility. The nature of an incompatibility can be territorial or governmental, but a warring party must be a "government of a state or any opposition organization or alliance of organizations that uses armed force to promote its position in the incompatibility in an intrastate or an interstate armed conflict". Wars can conclude with a peace agreement, which is a "formal agreement... which addresses the disputed incompatibility, either by settling all or part of it, or by clearly outlining a process for how [...] to regulate the incompatibility." A ceasefire is another form of agreement made by warring parties; unlike a peace agreement, it only "regulates the conflict behaviour of warring parties", and does not resolve the issue that brought the parties to war in the first place.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Peacekeeping measures may be deployed to avoid violence in solving such incompatibilities. Beginning in the last century, political theorists have been developing the theory of a global peace system that relies upon broad social and political measures to avoid war in the interest of achieving world peace. The Blue Peace approach developed by Strategic Foresight Group facilitates cooperation between countries over shared water resources, thus reducing the risk of war and enabling sustainable development.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Conflict resolution is an expanding field of professional practice, both in the U.S. and around the world. The escalating costs of conflict have increased use of third parties who may serve as a conflict specialists to resolve conflicts. In fact, relief and development organizations have added peace-building specialists to their teams. Many major international non-governmental organizations have seen a growing need to hire practitioners trained in conflict analysis and resolution. Furthermore, this expansion has resulted in the need for conflict resolution practitioners to work in a variety of settings such as in businesses, court systems, government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and educational institutions throughout the world.


title: Conflict resolution

text: According to the Cambridge dictionary, a basic definition of "conflict" is: "an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles." Conflicts such as disagreements may occur at any moment, being a normal part of human interactions. The type of conflict and its severity may vary both in content and degree of seriousness; however, it is impossible to completely avoid it. Actually, conflict in itself is not necessarily a negative thing. When handled constructively it can help people to stand up for themselves and others, to evolve and learn how to work together to achieve a mutually satisfactory solution. But if conflict is handled poorly it can cause anger, hurt, divisiveness and more serious problems.


title: Conflict resolution

text: If it is impossible to completely avoid conflict as it was said, the possibilities to experience it are usually higher particularly in complex social contexts in which important diversities are at stake. Specially because of this reason, speaking about conflict resolution becomes fundamental in ethnically diverse and multicultural work environments, in which not only "regular" work disagreements may occur but in which also different languages, worldviews, lifestyles and ultimately value differences may diverge.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Conflict resolution is the process by which two or more parties engaged in a disagreement, dispute or debate reach an agreement resolving it. It involves a series of stages, involved actors, models and approaches that may depend on the kind of confrontation at stake and the surrounded social and cultural context. However, there are some general actions and personal skills that may be very useful when facing a conflict to solve (independently of its nature), e.g. an open minded orientation able to analyze the different point of views and perspectives involved, as well as an ability to empathize, carefully listen and clearly communicate with all the parts involved. Sources of conflict may be so many, depending on the particular situation and the specific context, but some of the most common include:


title: Conflict resolution

text: Personal differences such as values, ethics, personalities, age, education, gender, socioeconomic status, cultural background, temperament, health, religion, political beliefs, etc. Thus, almost any social category that serves to differentiate people may become an object of conflict when it does negatively diverge with people who do not share it. Clashes of ideas, choices or actions. Conflict occurs when people does not share common goals, or common ways to reach a particular objective (e.g. different work styles). Conflict occurs also when there is direct or indirect competition between people or when someone may feel excluded from a particular activity or by some people within the company. Lack of communication or poor communication are also significant reasons to start a conflict, to misunderstand a particular situation and to create potentially explosive interactions.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Although different conflicts may require different ways to handle them, this is a list of fundamental strategies that may be implemented when handling a conflictive situation:


title: Conflict resolution

text: A conflict is a common phenomenon in the workplace; as mentioned before, it can occur because of the most different grounds of diversity and under very different circumstances. However, it is usually a matter of interests, needs, priorities, goals or values interfering with each other; and, often, a result of different perceptions more than actual differences. Conflicts may involve team members, departments, projects, organization and client, boss and subordinate, organization needs vs. personal needs, and they are usually immersed in complex relations of power that need to be understood and interpreted in order to define the more tailored way to manage the conflict. There are, nevertheless, some main approaches that may be applied when trying to solve a conflict that may lead to very different outcomes to be valued according to the particular situation and the available negotiation resources:


title: Conflict resolution

text: When one of the conflict's parts firmly pursues his or her own concerns despite the resistance of the other(s). This may involve pushing one viewpoint at the expense of another or maintaining firm resistance to the counterpart's actions; it is also commonly known as "competing".


title: Conflict resolution

text: Forcing may be appropriate when all other, less forceful methods, do not work or are ineffective; when someone needs to stand up for his/her own rights (or the represented group/organization's rights), resist aggression and pressure. It may be also considered a suitable option when a quick resolution is required and using force is justified (e.g. in a life-threatening situation, to stop an aggression), and as a very last resort to resolve a long-lasting conflict.


title: Conflict resolution

text: However, forcing may also negatively affect the relationship with the opponent in the long run; may intensified the conflict if the opponent decides to react in the same way (even if it was not the original intention); it does not allow to take advantage in a productive way of the other side's position and, last but not least, taking this approach may require a lot of energy and be exhausting to some individuals.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Collaboration involves an attempt to work with the other part involved in the conflict to find a win-win solution to the problem in hand, or at least to find a solution that most satisfies the concerns of both parties. The win-win approach sees conflict resolution as an opportunity to come to a mutually beneficial result; and it includes identifying the underlying concerns of the opponents and finding an alternative which meets each party's concerns. From that point of view, it is the most desirable outcome when trying to solve a problem for all partners.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Collaborating may be the best solution when consensus and commitment of other parties is important; when the conflict occurs in a collaborative, trustworthy environment and when it is required to address the interests of multiple stakeholders. But more specially, it is the most desirable outcome when a long-term relationship is important so that people can continue to collaborate in a productive way; collaborating is in few words, sharing responsibilities and mutual commitment. For parties involved, the outcome of the conflict resolution is less stressful; however, the process of finding and establishing a win-win solution may be longer and should be very involving.


title: Conflict resolution

text: It may require more effort and more time than some other methods; for the same reason, collaborating may not be practical when timing is crucial and a quick solution or fast response is required.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Different from the win-win solution, in this outcome the conflict parties find a mutually acceptable solution which partially satisfies both parties. This can occur as both parties converse with one another and seek to understand the other's point of view. Compromising may be an optimal solution when the goals are moderately important and not worth the use of more assertive or more involving approaches. It may be useful when reaching temporary settlement on complex issues and as a first step when the involved parties do not know each other well or have not yet developed a high level of mutual trust. Compromising may be a faster way to solve things when time is a factor. The level of tensions can be lower as well, but the result of the conflict may be also less satisfactory.


title: Conflict resolution

text: If this method is not well managed, and the factor time becomes the most important one, the situation may result in both parties being not satisfied with the outcome (i.e. a lose-lose situation). Moreover, it does not contribute to building trust in the long run and it may require a closer monitoring of the kind of partially satisfactory compromises acquired.


title: Conflict resolution

text: This technique consists on not addressing the conflict, postpone it or simply withdrawing; for that reason, it is also known as Avoiding. This outcome is suitable when the issue is trivial and not worth the effort or when more important issues are pressing, and one or both the parties do not have time to deal with it. Withdrawing may be also a strategic response when it is not the right time or place to confront the issue, when more time is needed to think and collect information before acting or when not responding may bring still some winnings for at least some of the involves parties. Moreover, withdrawing may be also employed when someone know that the other party is totally engaged with hostility and does not want (can not) to invest further unreasonable efforts.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Withdrawing may give the possibility to see things from a different perspective while gaining time and collecting further information, and specially is a low stress approach particularly when the conflict is a short time one. However, not acting may be interpreted as an agreement and therefore it may lead to weakening or losing a previously gained position with one or more parties involved. Furthermore, when using withdrawing as a strategy more time, skills and experiences together with other actions may need to be implemented.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Smoothing is accommodating the concerns of others first of all, rather than one's own concerns. This kind of strategy may be applied when the issue of the conflict is much more important for the counterparts whereas for the other is not particularly relevant. It may be also applied when someone accepts that he/she is wrong and furthermore there are no other possible options than continuing an unworthy competing-pushing situation. Just as withdrawing, smoothing may be an option to find at least a temporal solution or obtain more time and information, however, it is not an option when priority interests are at stake.


title: Conflict resolution

text: There is a high risk of being abused when choosing the smoothing option. Therefore, it is important to keep the right balance and to not give up one own interests and necessities. Otherwise, confidence in one's ability, mainly with an aggressive opponent, may be seriously damaged, together with credibility by the other parties involved. Needed to say, in these cases a transition to a Win-Win solution in the future becomes particularly more difficult when someone.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Relationships between organizations, such as strategic alliances, buyer-supplier partnerships, organizational networks, or joint ventures are prone to conflict. Conflict resolution in inter-organizational relationships has attracted the attention of business and management scholars. They have related the forms of conflict (e.g., integrity-based vs. competence-based conflict) to the mode of conflict resolution and the negotiation and repair approaches used by organizations. They have also observed the role of important moderating factors such as the type of contractual arrangement, the level of trust between organizations, or the type of power asymmetry.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances—standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to be wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law, mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation can be somewhat predicted and explained by the social structure—or social geometry—of the case.


title: Conflict resolution

text: In order for actual conflict to occur, there should be an expression of exclusive patterns which explain why and how the conflict was expressed the way it was. Conflict is often connected to a previous issue. Resolution refers to resolving a dispute to the approval of one or both parties, whereas management is concerned with an ongoing process that may never have a resolution. Neither is considered the same as conflict transformation, which seeks to reframe the positions of the conflict parties.


title: Conflict resolution

text: When personal conflict leads to frustration and loss of efficiency, counseling may prove helpful. Although few organizations can afford to have professional counselors on staff, given some training, managers may be able to perform this function. Nondirective counseling, or "listening with understanding", is little more than being a good listener—something often considered to be important in a manager.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Sometimes simply being able to express one's feelings to a concerned and understanding listener is enough to relieve frustration and make it possible for an individual to advance to a problem-solving frame of mind. The nondirective approach is one effective way for managers to deal with frustrated subordinates and coworkers.


title: Conflict resolution

text: There are other, more direct and more diagnostic, methods that could be used in appropriate circumstances. However, the great strength of the nondirective approach lies in its simplicity, its effectiveness, and that it deliberately avoids the manager-counselor's diagnosing and interpreting emotional problems, which would call for special psychological training. Listening to staff with sympathy and understanding is unlikely to escalate the problem, and is a widely used approach for helping people cope with problems that interfere with their effectiveness in the workplace.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Conflict resolution as both a professional practice and academic field is highly sensitive to cultural practices. In Western cultural contexts, such as Canada and the United States, successful conflict resolution usually involves fostering communication among disputants, problem solving, and drafting agreements that meet underlying needs. In these situations, conflict resolvers often talk about finding a mutually satisfying ("win-win") solution for everyone involved.


title: Conflict resolution

text: In many non-Western cultural contexts, such as Afghanistan, Vietnam, and China, it is also important to find "win-win" solutions; however, the routes taken to find them may be very different. In these contexts, direct communication between disputants that explicitly addresses the issues at stake in the conflict can be perceived as very rude, making the conflict worse and delaying resolution. It can make sense to involve religious, tribal, or community leaders; communicate difficult truths through a third party; or make suggestions through stories. Intercultural conflicts are often the most difficult to resolve because the expectations of the disputants can be very different, and there is much occasion for misunderstanding.


title: Conflict resolution

text: In a 2017 blog post on "the ocean model of civilization" for the British Academy, Nayef Al-Rodhan argued that greater transcultural understanding is critical for global security because it diminishes 'hierarchies' and alienation, and avoids dehumanization of the 'other'.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Conflict resolution has also been studied in non-humans, including dogs, cats, monkeys, snakes, elephants, and primates. Aggression is more common among relatives and within a group than between groups. Instead of creating distance between the individuals, primates tend to be more intimate in the period after an aggressive incident. These intimacies consist of grooming and various forms of body contact. Stress responses, including increased heart rates, usually decrease after these reconciliatory signals. Different types of primates, as well as many other species who live in groups, display different types of conciliatory behavior. Resolving conflicts that threaten the interaction between individuals in a group is necessary for survival, giving it a strong evolutionary value. These findings contradict previous existing theories about the general function of aggression, i.e. creating space between individuals (first proposed by Konrad Lorenz), which seems to be more the case in conflicts between groups than it is within groups.


title: Conflict resolution

text: In addition to research in primates, biologists are beginning to explore reconciliation in other animals. Until recently, the literature dealing with reconciliation in non-primates has consisted of anecdotal observations and very little quantitative data. Although peaceful post-conflict behavior had been documented going back to the 1960s, it was not until 1993 that Rowell made the first explicit mention of reconciliation in feral sheep. Reconciliation has since been documented in spotted hyenas, lions, bottlenose dolphins, dwarf mongoose, domestic goats, domestic dogs, and, recently, in red-necked wallabies.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Universities worldwide offer programs of study pertaining to conflict research, analysis, and practice. Conrad Grebel University College at the University of Waterloo has the oldest-running peace and conflict studies (PACS) program in Canada. PACS can be taken as an Honors, 4-year general, or 3-year general major, joint major, minor, and diploma. Grebel also offers an interdisciplinary Master of Peace and Conflict Studies professional program. The Cornell University ILR School houses the Scheinman Institute on Conflict Resolution, which offers undergraduate, graduate, and professional training on conflict resolution. It also offers dispute resolution concentrations for its , JD/MILR, MPS, and MS/PhD graduate degree programs. At the graduate level, Eastern Mennonite University's Center for Justice and Peacebuilding offers a Master of Arts in Conflict Transformation, a dual Master of Divinity/MA in Conflict Transformation degree, and several graduate certificates. EMU also offers an accelerated 5-year BA in Peacebuilding and Development/MA in Conflict Transformation. Additional graduate programs are offered at Georgetown University, Johns Hopkins University, Creighton University, the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, and Trinity College Dublin. George Mason University's Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter School for Peace and Conflict Resolution offers BA, BS, MS, and PhD degrees in Conflict Analysis and Resolution, as well as an undergraduate minor, graduate certificates, and joint degree programs. Nova Southeastern University also offers a PhD in Conflict Analysis & Resolution, in both online and on-campus formats.


title: Conflict resolution

text: Conflict resolution is a growing area of interest in UK pedagogy, with teachers and students both encouraged to learn about mechanisms that lead to aggressive action and those that lead to peaceful resolution. The University of Law, one of the oldest common law training institutions in the world, offers a legal-focused master's degree in conflict resolution as an LL.M. (Conflict resolution).


title: Conflict resolution

text: Tel Aviv University offers two graduate degree programs in the field of conflict resolution, including the English-language International Program in Conflict Resolution and Mediation, allowing students to learn in a geographic region which is the subject of much research on international conflict resolution.


title: Conflict resolution

text: The Nelson Mandela Center for Peace & Conflict Resolution at Jamia Millia Islamia University, New Delhi, is one of the first centers for peace and conflict resolution to be established at an Indian university. It offers a two-year full-time MA course in Conflict Analysis and Peace-Building, as well as a PhD in Conflict and Peace Studies.


title: Conflict resolution

text: In Sweden Linnaeus University, Lund University and Uppsala University offer programs on bachelor, master and/or doctoral level in Peace and Conflict Studies. Uppsala University also hosts its own Department of Peace and Conflict Research, among other things occupied with running the conflict database UCDP (Uppsala Conflict Data Program).


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: The Social Democratic Party (, ; PSD) is a liberal-conservative political party in Portugal. Commonly known by its colloquial initials PSD, on ballot papers its initials appear as its official form PPD/PSD, with the first three letters coming from the party's original name, the Democratic People's Party (, PPD). A party of the centre-right, the PSD is one of the two major parties in Portuguese politics, its rival being the Socialist Party (PS) on the centre-left.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: The PSD was founded in 1974, two weeks after the Carnation Revolution and in 1976 adopted its current name. In 1979, the PSD allied with centre-right parties to form the Democratic Alliance and won that year's election. After the 1983 general election, the party formed a grand coalition with the Socialist Party, known as the Central Bloc, before winning the 1985 general election under new leader Aníbal Cavaco Silva, who shifted the party to the right. Cavaco Silva served as Prime Minister for ten years, instituting major economic liberalisation and winning two landslide victories. After he stepped down, the PSD lost the 1995 election. The party was returned to power under José Manuel Durão Barroso in 2002, but was defeated in the 2005 election. The party was able to return to power after the 2011 elections and four years later was able to win a plurality in the 2015 legislative election, winning 107 seats in the Assembly of the Republic in alliance with the CDS – People's Party, but being unable to form a minority government. The current leader, Luís Montenegro was elected on 28 May 2022.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: Originally a social-democratic party, the PSD became the main centre-right, conservative party in Portugal. The PSD is a member of the European People's Party and the Centrist Democrat International. Until 1996, the PSD belonged to the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party and Liberal International. The party publishes the weekly "Povo Livre" ("Free People") newspaper.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: The Social Democratic Party was born on 6 May 1974, when Francisco Sá Carneiro, Francisco Pinto Balsemão and Joaquim Magalhães Mota publicly announced the formation of what was then called the PPD, the Democratic People's Party (). On 15 May, the party's first headquarters were inaugurated in Largo do Rato, Lisbon. This was followed, on 24 June, by the formation of the first Political Committee, consisting of Francisco Sá Carneiro, Francisco Pinto Balsemão, Joaquim Magalhães Mota, Barbosa de Melo, Mota Pinto, Montalvão Machado, Miguel Veiga, Ferreira Júnior, António Carlos Lima, António Salazar Silva, Jorge Correia da Cunha, Jorge Figueiredo Dias and Jorge Sá Borges.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: The publication was founded, its first issue being published on 13 July 1974, led by its first two directors, Manuel Alegria and Rui Machete. The PPD's first major meeting was held in the , Lisbon, on 25 October, and a month later the party's first official congress took place.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: On 17 January 1975, 6300 signatures were sent to the Supreme Court so that the party could be approved as a legitimate political entity, which happened a mere eight days later.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: In 1975, the PPD applied unsuccessfully to join the Socialist International, with its membership attempt vetoed by the Socialist Party.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: Alberto João Jardim was the co-founder of the Madeiran branch of the PSD, and governed the autonomous archipelago for decades, running as a member of the party.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: The Social Democratic Party participated in a number of coalition governments in Portugal between 1974 and 1976, following the Carnation Revolution. This is seen as a transitional period in Portuguese politics, in which political institutions were built and took time to stabilize. In 1979, the PSD formed an electoral alliance, known as the Democratic Alliance (AD), with the Democratic and Social Centre (now called the People's Party, CDS-PP) and a couple of smaller right-wing parties. The AD won the parliamentary elections towards the end of 1979, and the PSD leader, Francisco Sá Carneiro, became Prime Minister. The PSD would be part of all governments until 1995. The AD increased its parliamentary majority in new elections called for 1980, but was devastated by the death of Sá Caneiro in an air crash on 4 December 1980. Francisco Pinto Balsemão took over the leadership of both the Social Democratic Party and the Democratic Alliance, as well as the Prime Ministership, but lacking Sá Carneiro's charisma, he was unable to rally popular support.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: The Democratic Alliance was dissolved in 1983, and in parliamentary elections that year, the PSD lost to the Socialist Party (PS). Falling short of a majority, however, the Socialists formed a grand coalition, known as the Central Bloc, with the PSD. Many right-wingers in the PSD, including Aníbal Cavaco Silva, opposed participation in the PS-led government, and so, when Cavaco Silva was elected leader of the party on 2 June 1985, the coalition was doomed.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: The PSD won a plurality (but not a majority) in the general election of 1985, and Cavaco Silva became Prime Minister. Economic liberalization and tax cuts ushered in several years of economic growth. After a motion of no confidence was approved, early elections were called for July 1987, which resulted in a landslide victory for the PSD, who captured 50.2 percent of the popular vote and 148 of the 250 parliamentary seats – the first time that any political party in Portugal had mustered an absolute majority in a free election. While the PSD had been very popular going into the election, the size of its victory far exceeded the party's most optimistic projections. A strong economy, growing above 7% in 1988, ushered a big convergence between Portugal and other EU countries.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: The PSD won a historic third term in the 1991 election, with a slightly higher vote share than four years earlier. However, continuing high levels of unemployment and a lower economy, after 1993, eroded the popularity of the Cavaco Silva government.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: Cavaco Silva stepped down as leader in January 1995. In the following month, in the PSD congress, the party elected Fernando Nogueira as leader. The PSD lost the 1995 election to the PS. In 1996, Cavaco Silva ran for the presidency of the republic, but he failed to defeat former Lisbon Mayor Jorge Sampaio. Sampaio won 53.9% to Cavaco's 46.1%. The party, for the first time in 16 years, was out of government. The party was again defeated in the 1999 elections. The party, however, made a big comeback in the 2001 local elections by winning several cities, like Lisbon, Porto and Sintra, from the PS and, some, against all odds and predictions. This PSD result led the then Prime Minister António Guterres (PS) to resign and the country was led to snap general elections on March 2002.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: The PSD made a comeback in 2002 by defeating the PS by 40% to 38% margin, however, despite falling short of a majority, the PSD won enough seats to form a coalition with the CDS-PP, and the PSD leader, José Manuel Durão Barroso, became Prime Minister. Durão Barroso later resigned his post to become President of the European Commission, leaving the way for Pedro Santana Lopes, a man with whom he was frequently at odds, to become leader of the party and Prime Minister.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: In the parliamentary election held on 20 February 2005, Santana Lopes led the PSD to its worst defeat since 1983. With a negative swing of more than 12% percent, the party won only 75 seats, a loss of 30. The rival Socialist Party had won an absolute majority, and remained in government after the 2009 parliamentary election, albeit without an absolute majority, leaving the PSD in opposition.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: The PSD-supported candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva won the Portuguese presidential elections in 2006 and again in 2011. After the 2005 elections, Luís Marques Mendes was elected leader of the party. Internal infighting weakened Marques Mendes and, in September 2007, Marques Mendes was defeated by Luís Filipe Menezes by a 54% to 42% margin. Menezes was also incapable of dealing with his internal opposition and, after just six months in the job, Menezes resigned. On 31 May 2008, Manuela Ferreira Leite became the first female leader of a Portuguese major party. She won 38% of the votes, against the 31% of Pedro Passos Coelho and the 30% of Pedro Santana Lopes.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: In the European Parliament election held on 7 June 2009, the PSD defeated the governing socialists, capturing 31.7% of the popular vote and electing eight MEPs, while the Socialist Party only won 26.5% of the popular vote and elected seven MEPs.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: Although this was expected to be a "redrawing of the electoral map", the PSD has still defeated later that year, though the PS lost its majority. Pedro Passos Coelho was elected leader in March 2010, with 61% of the votes.


title: Social Democratic Party (Portugal)

text: Growing popular disenchantment with the government's handling of the economic crisis coupled with the government's inability to secure the support of other parties to implement the necessary reforms to address the crisis, forced the Socialist Party Prime Minister José Sócrates to resign, leading to a fresh election on 5 June 2011. This resulted in a non-absolute majority for the PSD, leading to a coalition government with the CDS-PP, which served a full term until the 2015 general election. During this term, many austerity policies were put into practice to reduce the budget deficit but, ultimately, created unemployment and a recession that lasted until mid 2013. Since that date, the economy recovered starting to grow between 1 and 2% per trimester.