title: Brabham

text: Tauranac did not enjoy designing sports cars and could only spare a small amount of his time from MRD's very successful single-seater business. Only 14 sports car models were built between 1961 and 1972, out of a total production of almost 600 chassis. The BT8A was the only one built in any numbers, and was quite successful in national level racing in the UK in 1964 and 1965. The design was "stretched" in 1966 to become the one-off BT17, originally fitted with the 4.3-litre version of the Repco engine for Can-Am racing. It was quickly abandoned by MRD after engine reliability problems became evident.


title: Brabham

text: Brabham was considered a technically conservative team in the 1960s, chiefly because it persevered with traditional spaceframe cars long after Lotus introduced lighter, stiffer monocoque chassis to Formula One in 1962. Chief designer Tauranac reasoned that monocoques of the time were not usefully stiffer than well designed spaceframe chassis, and were harder to repair and less suitable for MRD's customers. His "old fashioned" cars won the Brabham team the 1966 and 1967 championships, and were competitive in Formula One until rule changes forced a move to monocoques in 1970.


title: Brabham

text: Despite the perceived conservatism, in 1963 Brabham was the first Formula One team to use a wind tunnel to hone its designs to reduce drag and stop the cars lifting off the ground at speed. The practice became the norm in only the early 1980s, and is possibly the most important factor in the design of modern cars. Towards the end of the 1960s, teams began to exploit aerodynamic downforce to push the cars' tyres down harder on the track and enable them to maintain faster speeds through high-speed corners. At the 1968 Belgian Grand Prix, Brabham was the first, alongside Ferrari, to introduce full width rear wings to this effect.


title: Brabham

text: The team's most fertile period of technical innovation came in the 1970s and 1980s when Gordon Murray became technical director. During 1976, the team introduced carbon-carbon brakes to Formula One, which promised reduced unsprung weight and better stopping performance due to carbon's greater coefficient of friction. The initial versions used carbon-carbon composite brake pads and a steel disc faced with carbon "pucks." The technology was not reliable at first; in 1976, Carlos Pace crashed at at the Österreichring circuit after heat build-up in the brakes boiled the brake fluid, leaving him with no way of stopping the car. By 1979, Brabham had developed an effective carbon-carbon braking system, combining structural carbon discs with carbon brake pads. By the late 1980s, carbon brakes were used by all competitors in almost all top level motor sports.


title: Brabham

text: Although Brabham experimented with airdams and underbody skirts in the mid-1970s, the team, like the rest of the field, did not immediately understand Lotus's development of a ground effect car in 1977. The Brabham BT46B "Fan car" of 1978, generated enormous downforce with a fan, which sucked air from beneath the car, although its claimed use was for engine cooling. The car raced only once in the Formula One World Championship—Niki Lauda winning the 1978 Swedish Grand Prix—before a loophole in the regulations was closed by the FIA.


title: Brabham

text: Although in 1979 Murray was the first to use lightweight carbon fibre composite panels to stiffen Brabham's aluminium alloy monocoques, he echoed his predecessor Tauranac in being the last to switch to the new fully composite monocoques. Murray was reluctant to build the entire chassis from composite materials until he understood their behaviour in a crash, an understanding achieved in part through an instrumented crash test of a BT49 chassis. The team did not follow McLaren's 1981 MP4/1 with its own fully composite chassis until the "lowline" BT55 in 1986, the last team to do so. This technology is now used in all top level single seater racing cars.


title: Brabham

text: For the 1981 season the FIA introduced a minimum ride height for the cars, intended to slow them in corners by limiting the downforce created by aerodynamic ground effect. Gordon Murray devised a hydropneumatic suspension system for the BT49C, which allowed the car to settle to a much lower ride height at speed. Brabham was accused of cheating by other teams, although Murray believes that the system met the letter of the regulations. No action was taken against the team and others soon produced systems with similar effects.


title: Brabham

text: At the 1982 British Grand Prix, Brabham reintroduced the idea of re-fuelling and changing the car's tyres during the race, unseen since the 1957 Formula One season, to allow its drivers to sprint away at the start of races on a light fuel load and soft tyres. After studying techniques used at the Indianapolis 500 and in NASCAR racing in the United States, the team was able to refuel and re-tyre the car in 14 seconds in tests ahead of the race. In 1982 Murray felt the tactic did little more than "get our sponsors noticed at races we had no chance of winning," but in 1983 the team made good use of the tactic. Refuelling was banned for 1984, although it reappeared between 1994 and 2009, but tyre changes have remained part of Formula One.


title: Brabham

text: The fan car and hydropneumatic suspension exploited loopholes in the sporting regulations. In the early 1980s, Brabham was accused of going further and breaking the regulations. During 1981, Piquet's first championship year, rumours circulated of illegal underweight Brabham chassis. Driver Jacques Laffite was among those to claim that the cars were fitted with heavily ballasted bodywork before being weighed at scrutineering. The accusation was denied by Brabham's management. No formal protest was made against the team and no action was taken against it by the sporting authorities.


title: Brabham

text: From 1978, Ecclestone was president of the Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA), a body formed by the teams to represent their interests. This left his team open to accusations of having advance warning of rule changes. Ecclestone denies that the team benefited from this and Murray has noted that, contrary to this view, at the end of 1982 the team had to abandon its new BT51 car, built on the basis that ground effect would be permitted in 1983. Brabham had to design and build a replacement, the BT52, in only three months. At the end of the 1983 season, Renault and Ferrari, both beaten to the Drivers' Championship by Piquet, protested that the Research Octane Number (RON) of the team's fuel was above the legal limit of 102. The FIA declared that a figure of up to 102.9 was permitted under the rules, and that Brabham had not exceeded this limit.


title: Brabham

text: On 4 June 2009, Franz Hilmer confirmed that he had used the name to lodge an entry for the 2010 Formula One season as a cost-capped team under the new budget cap regulations. The Brabham family was not involved and announced that it was seeking legal advice over the use of the name. The team's entry was not accepted, and the Brabham family later obtained legal recognition of their exclusive rights to the Brabham brand.


title: Brabham

text: In September 2014, David Brabham—the son of Brabham founder Sir Jack Brabham—announced the reformation of the Brabham Racing team under the name Project Brabham, with plans to enter the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship and 2015 24 Hours of Le Mans in the LMP2 category using a crowdsourcing business model. The company also expressed interest in returning to Formula One, but did not have the financial capacity to do so.


title: Brabham

text: In 2019, Brabham Automotive announced its goal to enter the 2021 FIA World Endurance Championship using a BT62 in the GTE class. The team competed in the 2019 GT Cup Championship. It also entered the final two races of the 2019 Britcar Endurance Championship, winning on its debut.


title: Brabham

text: In 2021, Brabham Automotive debuted their BT63 GT2 car at the season finale of the 2021 GT2 European Series.


title: Brabham

text: All race and championship results are taken from the Official Formula 1 Website. 1962 Season review. www.formula1.com. Retrieved 27 April 2006


title: Cassander

text: Cassander ( ; c. 355 BC – 297 BC) was king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia from 305 BC until 297 BC, and "de facto" ruler of southern Greece from 317 BC until his death.


title: Cassander

text: A son of Antipater and a contemporary of Alexander the Great, Cassander was one of the Diadochi who warred over Alexander's empire following the latter's death in 323 BC. Cassander later seized the crown by having Alexander's son and heir Alexander IV murdered. In governing Macedonia from 317 BC until 297 BC, Cassander restored peace and prosperity to the kingdom, while founding or restoring numerous cities (including Thessalonica, Cassandreia, and Thebes); however, his ruthlessness in dealing with political enemies complicates assessments of his rule.


title: Cassander

text: In his youth, Cassander was taught by the philosopher Aristotle at the Lyceum in Macedonia. He was educated alongside Alexander the Great in a group that included Hephaestion, Ptolemy and Lysimachus. His family were distant collateral relatives to the Argead dynasty.


title: Cassander

text: Cassander is first recorded as arriving at Alexander the Great's court in Babylon in 323 BC, where he had been sent by his father, Antipater, most likely to help uphold Antipater's regency in Macedon, although a later contemporary who was hostile to the Antipatrids suggested that Cassander had journeyed to the court to poison the King.


title: Cassander

text: As Antipater grew close to death in 319 BC, he transferred the regency of Macedon not to Cassander, but to Polyperchon, possibly so as not to alarm the other Diadochi through an apparent move towards dynastic ambition, but perhaps also because of Cassander's own ambitions. Cassander rejected his father's decision, and immediately went to seek the support of Antigonus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus as his allies. Waging war on Polyperchon, Cassander destroyed his fleet, put Athens under the control of Demetrius of Phaleron, and declared himself Regent in 317 BC. After Olympias’ successful move against Philip III later in the year, Cassander besieged her in Pydna. When the city fell two years later, Olympias was killed, and Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxane confined at Amphipolis.


title: Cassander

text: Cassander associated himself with the Argead dynasty by marrying Alexander's half-sister, Thessalonica, and he had Alexander IV and Roxanne poisoned in either 310 BC or the following year. By 309 BC, Polyperchon began to claim that Heracles was the true heir to the Macedonian inheritance, at which point Cassander bribed him to have the boy killed. After this, Cassander's position in Greece and Macedonia was reasonably secure, and he proclaimed himself king in 305 BC. In 307–304 BC he fought the so-called Four–Years' War against Athens. In 304 BC, his rival Antigonus Monophthalmus sent his son Demetrius Poliorcetes to aid Athens against Cassander. Demetrius succeeded in driving Cassander from central Greece and created a Hellenic League, "the League of Corinth", against him. In the winter of 303–302 BC, Cassander opened negotiations with Antigonus with a view to establish peace, but Antigonus refused. At this Cassander turned to Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus and convinced them to reform the coalition of 314–311 against Antigonus. In early 302 BC, Cassander sent one of his generals, Prepelaus, with an army from Macedon to join Lysimachus in an invasion of Antigonus's territory in Asia-Minor. Cassander himself marched with the main Macedonian field army into Thessaly to stop Demetrius from advancing into Macedon. Demetrius invaded Thessaly with a numerically superior force, Cassander stopped his advance by refusing to give battle and fortifying his positions. Lysimachus and Prepalaus had been very successful in Asia-Minor and Seleucus was marching with an army to join them. In the spring of 302 BC, Antigonus marched with an army from Syria into Asia-Minor to confront his enemies; he confronted Lysimachus and drove him from Phrygia. Antigonus realizing that the war would probably have to be decided in a major battle in Asia-Minor recalled Demetrius from Thessaly. With Demetrius gone Cassander sent part of his army with his brother, Pleistarchus, to join Prepalaus, Lysimachus and Seleucus in Asia-Minor. In 301 BC, the combined armies of Lysimachus, Seleucus, Prepalaus and Pleistarchus faced the combined armies of Antigonus and Demetrius at Ipsus. After the Battle of Ipsus in which Antigonus was killed, Cassander was undisputed in his control of Macedon; however, he had little time to savour the fact, dying of dropsy in 297 BC.


title: Cassander

text: Cassander's dynasty did not live much beyond his death, with his son Philip dying of natural causes, and his other sons Alexander and Antipater becoming involved in a destructive dynastic struggle along with their mother. When Alexander was ousted as joint king by his brother, Demetrius I took up Alexander's appeal for aid and ousted Antipater, killed Alexander V and established the Antigonid dynasty. The remaining Antipatrids, such as Antipater II Etesias, were unable to re-establish the Antipatrids on the throne.


title: Cassander

text: Cassander stood out amongst the Diadochi in his hostility to Alexander's memory. As Cassander and the other diadochi struggled for power, Alexander IV, Roxana, and Alexander's supposed illegitimate son Heracles were all executed on Cassander's orders, and a guarantee to Olympias to spare her life was not respected.


title: Cassander

text: Cassander's decision to restore Thebes, which had been destroyed under Alexander, was perceived at the time to be a snub to the deceased King. It was later even said that he could not pass a statue of Alexander without feeling faint. Cassander has been perceived to be ambitious and unscrupulous, and even members of his own family were estranged from him.


title: Cassander

text: Of more lasting significance was Cassander's refoundation of Therma into Thessalonica, naming the city after his wife. Cassander also founded Cassandreia upon the ruins of Potidaea.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Joel Wachs (, ; born March 1, 1939) is an American former politician and lawyer. He is the president of the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts in New York City. He was a member of the Los Angeles City Council for 30 years, where he was known for his promotion of the arts, support of gay causes, advocacy of rent control and other economic measures.


title: Joel Wachs

text: The unmarried Wachs was a closeted gay man until he was preparing to run for mayor in 1999 at the age of 60. He was asked by Bill Rosendahl, the openly gay moderator of a public affairs television show, "Are you a gay man?" Wachs responded: "I am and I'm very proud of what I've done for the community, and I'm also very proud of the fact that what I've done for the community is what I've done for all communities."


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs was born on March 1, 1939, in Scranton, Pennsylvania, the son of Hannah (Stahler) and Archie Wachs, a teacher. His father was a Jewish immigrant from Poland who ran a grocery and butcher shop. The younger of two sons, Joel "suffered from hay fever so severe that at the height of the ragweed season, his parents sat him in the shop's cold storage room, in a fur coat, to help him breathe". They moved to Los Angeles when Wachs was ten, where his family became wealthy with a chain of inexpensive ladies' clothing stores. He grew up in Vermont Knolls, between 79th and 83rd streets and Vermont and Normandie Avenue.


title: Joel Wachs

text: He attended Horace Mann Junior High School and Washington High School, followed by the University of California, Los Angeles, where the "gregarious" Wachs was president of his freshman and junior classes, and of the student body. He earned a degree at Harvard Law School and a Master of Laws in taxation from New York University. When in Los Angeles, he lived in Studio City.


title: Joel Wachs

text: After completing his education, Wachs was an attorney with the Los Angeles firm of Gray, Binkley & Pfaelzer (later became Kadison, Pfaelzer, Woodard & Quinn) and practiced law for five years. He told a reporter in 1991, "I didn't love practicing tax law ... the result of my efforts was finding ways to save rich people money. And I didn't find that satisfying."


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs served on the Los Angeles City Council from July 1, 1971, to September 28, 2001, when his resignation took effect. His 30 years on the council were surpassed only by John Ferraro's 35 years, Ernani Bernardi's 32 years and Marvin Braude's 31.


title: Joel Wachs

text: In May 1971, Wachs, "a young political newcomer," "overwhelmed" veteran James B. Potter, Jr. in Los Angeles City Council District 2, which included portions of the Santa Monica Mountains and the San Fernando Valley. The vote was 24,704 for Wachs and 14,898 for Potter. His victory was attributed in part to his opposing a multimillion-dollar development in the mountains just north of Beverly Hills.


title: Joel Wachs

text: In 1986, a redistricting move stripped Wachs of more than 90% of his old district, and put him into a new one that ran from his home in Studio City to Sunland-Tujunga in the far northeast San Fernando Valley. He was nevertheless easily reelected in April 1987 in the realigned, more conservative district, despite the opposition of the Los Angeles Apartment Owners Association, which attacked him because of his fight for rent control. Wachs was reelected in every vote thereafter.


title: Joel Wachs

text: After ten years on the City Council, two of them as president pro-tem, Wachs was suddenly and unexpectedly elected Los Angeles City Council president in July 1981 when outgoing President John Ferraro decided to drop out of the contest against Councilwoman Pat Russell and, with Councilwoman Peggy Stevenson as a partner, put up Wachs as a candidate instead. Wachs was elected to a two-year term in an 8–7 vote, with Wachs breaking a pledge to Russell to vote for her and casting a vote for himself instead. He later described the turn of events as akin to a "Hollywood movie" and, inasmuch as Mayor Tom Bradley was soon to become a candidate for governor, he had plenty of opportunity to act as mayor when Bradley was out of town. He served for two years.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs resigned from the City Council 2001 to accept the presidency of the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts. His last day on the City Council was September 28 of that year.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs ran thrice for mayor of Los Angeles. In 1973, as a relatively unknown new city council member, he finished a distant fifth in a crowded primary in an election in which Tom Bradley eventually won his first term as Los Angeles mayor.


title: Joel Wachs

text: He ran again in 2001 and finished fourth with 11% of the vote, behind James K. Hahn, Antonio Villaraigosa and Steve Soboroff.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs was appointed vice chairman of a new National Task Force on the Arts, whose goal, he said, was "to put the arts and culture on the agenda of every city government as a mainstream economic and social concern". He said he spent one-third of his annual $43,923 salary (in 1981) on works of art for himself. In an interview, he told a reporter in 1981 that when the time came to leave the council, he could be happy practicing law, "being a maitre d' in a nice restaurant," or "heading an arts foundation". In 1987 he flew to New York City to be a part of a seven-member panel that tried to determine what to do with a 12-foot-high, 112-foot-long outdoor steel sculpture by Richard Serra titled "Tilted Arc," which had drawn complaints and was eventually demolished.


title: Joel Wachs

text: He was the author of an ordinance that requires commercial developers to set aside 1% of the value of all projects over $500,000 for cultural and artistic projects—either spending the money on their own, or depositing it with the city for such use.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs was active in strengthening Los Angeles' ordinance on outdoor advertising signs but was equally active when the city's Building and Safety Commission at first attempted to classify a proposed work by Barbara Kruger as a sign that fell under its jurisdiction. It later reversed itself and Wachs specifically compared the commission's initial decision to the prosecution of a Cincinnati museum over a show by photographer Robert Mapplethorpe.


title: Joel Wachs

text: In 2001, Wachs resigned his council seat and moved to New York City in order to serve as president of the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts. Wachs is nominally the chairman of the Andy Warhol Art Authentication Board. Wachs's salary at the charity is over $350,000 per year, which does not include generous expenses and a pension plan of approximately 20%. Although this is nearly four times the average salary for such a position, some have argued that the Warhol Foundation is unusually complex as well as being more influential than most similar organizations.


title: Joel Wachs

text: In 2010, Wachs—in his Warhol Foundation role—protested the removal of a David Wojnarowicz piece from the "Hide/Seek" exhibit at the National Portrait Gallery. The foundation had supported the exhibition with a $100,000 grant. Wachs wrote to the head of the Smithsonian Institution (NPG's parent organization), G. Wayne Clough, on behalf of the foundation's unanimous board with the "demand that the Smithsonian restore the work ... to the exhibition or the foundation would reject any future grant requests". Wachs' letter said in part, "For the arts to flourish, the arts must be free, and the decision to censor this important work is in stark opposition to our mission to defend freedom of expression wherever and whenever it is under attack." There were no signs of reinstatement of the Wojnarowicz piece by the NPG.


title: Joel Wachs

text: "Wachs defied easy categorization on the council, emerging as a populist who railed against what he saw as insider dealing in City Hall and misuse of taxpayer funds. He also was a staunch advocate for the arts and for civil rights." He was known as a "moderate to liberal Republican" but reregistered as an independent before running for mayor in 1993. He backed efforts that resulted in public financing of city elections and creation of an ethics commission.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs is sometimes cited as the originator of neighborhood councils in Los Angeles. He organized the first ones—in Studio City, Sherman Oaks, North Hollywood-Toluca Lake and the hill area south of Mulholland Drive in November 1971, choosing the first members himself from a range of backgrounds. He launched numerous studies of such councils in other cities and produced a booklet to help guide the new representative community groups in Los Angeles.


title: Joel Wachs

text: In 1971, he proposed a ban on oil drilling on the city's coastline one-half mile inland from the shore "for both esthetic and geographical safety reasons".


title: Joel Wachs

text: He was a decided advocate for rent control in an effort to keep housing affordable for the elderly and the poor.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs and Councilwoman Peggy Stevenson sponsored what Wachs called "the strongest gay rights ordinance in the U.S.," prohibiting job and housing discrimination based on sexual orientation. His measure outlawing employment discrimination against victims of AIDS was passed unanimously by the City Council, despite the fact that his mail on the subject was running heavily against it.


title: Joel Wachs

text: In 1981, Wachs called for mandatory separation of recyclable materials from regular trash before collection to cope with the city's "growing refuse-disposal crisis".


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs successfully advocated for an ordinance change that would allow artists to live and work in commercially zoned districts. He also worked to create a city Cultural Affairs Department.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs cast the only vote against a city ordinance prohibiting minors from purchasing drug paraphernalia, saying in 1983 he did not think police officers should spend their time raiding head shops.


title: Joel Wachs

text: He proposed an eventually successful idea for the city to provide a number of dog parks, where Los Angeles' nearly 200,000 licensed dogs could run free.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs emerged as the sole City Council member who helped broker an agreement that enabled Police Chief Daryl Gates to resign his post in June 1992 and retire "in an orderly fashion" after a crisis occasioned by the March 1991 beating of Rodney King and the resulting riots—as well as the issuance of a final, critical report of the police department by the Christopher Commission. Wachs and Gates forged a bond of trust, it was said, when the councilman leaped to the chief's defense after the city Police Commission briefly removed Gates in the wake of the riots.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs went to Sacramento in January 1984 to unsuccessfully argue with state prison authorities that Dan White, the San Francisco supervisor who had killed gay leader Harvey Milk and Mayor George Moscone, should be moved out of Los Angeles County, where he had been paroled after serving five years in prison for the killings.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs was credited with forging a 1997 deal with the developers of a downtown sports arena that lifted some of the onerous provisions that would have worked to the financial disadvantage of the city. In return for the concessions, he agreed to exempt the arena from a ballot measure he was preparing to require voter approval for any subsidized sports stadiums.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs was an advocate for slow-growth development and was one of the cowriters of Proposition U, along with Zev Yaroslavsky and Marvin Braude.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs was known for his boisterous personality. When he was newly elected to the Los Angeles City Council, he distributed a mock ordinance that would supposedly have taxed all male residents on the size of their genitals. Occasionally he exclaimed "This is fun!" in the middle of a committee meeting. His colleagues described him as "a human guy, a lot of heart".


title: Joel Wachs

text: In recognition of Wachs' involvement in promoting the arts, the City Council in 2002 named the intersection of Grand Avenue and Second Street as "Joel Wachs Square". It lies between the Museum of Contemporary Art and the Walt Disney Concert Hall.


title: Joel Wachs

text: Wachs is portrayed by Benny Safdie in the film "Licorice Pizza" set in 1970s San Fernando Valley. In the film, Wachs's first mayoral campaign is a plot point.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Pope Urban II (;  – 29 July 1099), otherwise known as Odo of Châtillon or Otho de Lagery, was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 12 March 1088 to his death. He is best known for convening the Council of Clermont which served as the catalyst for the Crusades.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Pope Urban was a native of France, and was a descendant of a noble family from the French commune of Châtillon-sur-Marne. Reims was the nearby cathedral school where he began his studies in 1050.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Before his papacy, Urban was the grand prior of Cluny and bishop of Ostia. As pope, he dealt with Antipope Clement III, infighting of various Christian nations, and the Muslim incursions into Europe. In 1095 he started preaching the First Crusade (1096–99). He promised forgiveness and pardon for all of the past sins of those who would fight to reclaim the holy land from Muslims and free the eastern churches. This pardon would also apply to those that would fight the Muslims in Spain. While the First Crusade resulted in occupation of Jerusalem from the Fatimids and consequent massacre of the muslim population there, Pope Urban II died before he could receive this news.


title: Pope Urban II

text: He also set up the modern-day Roman Curia in the manner of a royal ecclesiastical court to help run the Church.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Urban, baptized Eudes (Odo), was born to a family of Châtillon-sur-Marne. He was prior of the abbey of Cluny, later Pope Gregory VII named him cardinal-bishop of Ostia . He was one of the most prominent and active supporters of the Gregorian reforms, especially as legate in the Holy Roman Empire in 1084. He was among the three whom Gregory VII nominated as "papabile" (possible successors). Desiderius, the abbot of Monte Cassino, was chosen to follow Gregory in 1085 but, after his short reign as Victor III, Odo was elected by acclamation at a small meeting of cardinals and other prelates held in Terracina in March 1088.


title: Pope Urban II

text: From the outset, Urban had to reckon with the presence of Guibert, the former bishop of Ravenna who held Rome as the antipope "Clement III". Gregory had repeatedly clashed with the emperor Henry IV over papal authority. Despite the Walk to Canossa, Gregory had backed the rebel Duke of Swabia and again excommunicated the emperor. Henry finally took Rome in 1084 and installed Clement III in his place.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Urban took up the policies of Pope Gregory VII and, while pursuing them with determination, showed greater flexibility and diplomatic finesse. Usually kept away from Rome, Urban toured northern Italy and France. A series of well-attended synods held in Rome, Amalfi, Benevento, and Troia supported him in renewed declarations against simony, lay investitures, clerical marriages (partly via the "cullagium" tax), and the emperor and his antipope. He facilitated the marriage of Matilda, countess of Tuscany, with Welf II, duke of Bavaria. He supported the rebellion of Prince Conrad against his father and bestowed the office of groom on Conrad at Cremona in 1095. While there, he helped arrange the marriage between Conrad and Maximilla, the daughter of Count Roger of Sicily, which occurred later that year at Pisa; her large dowry helped finance Conrad's continued campaigns. The Empress Adelaide was encouraged in her charges of sexual coercion against her husband, Henry IV. He supported the theological and ecclesiastical work of Anselm, negotiating a solution to the cleric's impasse with King William II of England and finally receiving England's support against the Imperial pope in Rome.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Urban maintained vigorous support for his predecessors' reforms, however, and did not shy from supporting Anselm when the new archbishop of Canterbury fled England. Likewise, despite the importance of French support for his cause, he upheld his legate Hugh of Die's excommunication of King Philip over his doubly bigamous marriage with Bertrade de Montfort, wife of the Count of Anjou. (The ban was repeatedly lifted and reimposed as the king promised to forswear her and then repeatedly returned to her. A public penance in 1104 ended the controversy, although Bertrade remained active in attempting to see her sons succeed Philip instead of Louis.)


title: Pope Urban II

text: Urban II's movement took its first public shape at the Council of Piacenza, where, in March 1095, Urban II received an ambassador from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos asking for help against the Muslim Seljuk Turks who had taken over most of formerly Byzantine Anatolia. The Council of Clermont met, attended by numerous Italian, Burgundian, and French bishops. All of the sessions except the final one took place either in the cathedral of Clermont or in the suburban church of Notre-Dame-du-Port.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Though the Council was primarily focused on reforms within the church hierarchy, Urban II gave a speech on 27 November 1095 at the conclusion of the Council to a broader audience. The speech was made outside in the open air to accommodate the vast crowd that had come to hear him.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Urban II's sermon proved highly effective, as he summoned the attending nobility and the people to wrest the Holy Land, and the eastern churches generally, from the control of the Seljuk Turks. This was the speech that triggered the Crusades.


title: Pope Urban II

text: There exists no exact transcription of the speech that Urban delivered at the Council of Clermont. The five extant versions of the speech were written down some time later, and they differ widely from one another. All versions of the speech except that by Fulcher of Chartres were probably influenced by the chronicle account of the First Crusade called the "Gesta Francorum" (written c. 1101), which includes a version of it. Fulcher of Chartres was present at the Council, though he did not start writing his history of the crusade, including a version of the speech until c. 1101. Robert the Monk may have been present, but his version dates from about 1106.


title: Pope Urban II

text: As a better means of evaluating Urban's true motives in calling for a crusade to the Holy Lands, there are four extant letters written by Pope Urban himself: one to the Flemish (dated December 1095); one to the Bolognese (dated September 1096); one to Vallombrosa (dated October 1096); and one to the counts of Catalonia (dated either 1089 or 1096–1099). However, whereas the three former letters were concerned with rallying popular support for the Crusades, and establishing the objectives, his letters to the Catalonian lords instead beseech them to continue the fight against the Moors, assuring them that doing so would offer the same divine rewards as a conflict against the Seljuks. It is Urban II's own letters, rather than the paraphrased versions of his speech at Clermont, that reveal his actual thinking about crusading. Nevertheless, the versions of the speech have had a great influence on popular conceptions and misconceptions about the Crusades, so it is worth comparing the five composed speeches to Urban's actual words. Fulcher of Chartres has Urban saying that the Lord and Christ beseech and command the Christians to fight and reclaim their land.


title: Pope Urban II

text: The chronicler Robert the Monk put this into the mouth of Urban II: ... this land which you inhabit, shut in on all sides by the seas and surrounded by the mountain peaks, is too narrow for your large population; nor does it abound in wealth; and it furnishes scarcely food enough for its cultivators. Hence it is that you murder one another, that you wage war, and that frequently you perish by mutual wounds. Let therefore hatred depart from among you, let your quarrels end, let wars cease, and let all dissensions and controversies slumber. Enter upon the road to the Holy Sepulchre; wrest that land from the wicked race, and subject it to yourselves ... God has conferred upon you above all nations great glory in arms. Accordingly undertake this journey for the remission of your sins, with the assurance of the imperishable glory of the Kingdom of Heaven.


title: Pope Urban II

text: When Pope Urban had said these ... things in his urbane discourse, he so influenced to one purpose the desires of all who were present, that they cried out "It is the will of God! It is the will of God!". When the venerable Roman pontiff heard that, [he] said: "Most beloved brethren, today is manifest in you what the Lord says in the Gospel, 'Where two or three are gathered together in my name there am I in the midst of them.' Unless the Lord God had been present in your spirits, all of you would not have uttered the same cry. For, although the cry issued from numerous mouths, yet the origin of the cry was one. Therefore I say to you that God, who implanted this in your breasts, has drawn it forth from you. Let this then be your war-cry in combats, because this word is given to you by God. When an armed attack is made upon the enemy, let this one cry be raised by all the soldiers of God: It is the will of God! It is the will of God!"


title: Pope Urban II

text: Within Fulcher of Chartres account of pope Urban’s speech there was a promise of remission of sins for whoever took part in the crusade.All who die by the way, whether by land or by sea, or in battle against the pagans, shall have immediate remission of sins. This I grant them through the power of God with which I am invested.


title: Pope Urban II

text: It is disputed whether the famous slogan "God wills it" or "It is the will of God" ("deus vult" in Latin, "Dieu le veut" in French) in fact was established as a rallying cry during the Council. While Robert the Monk says so, it is also possible that the slogan was created as a catchy propaganda motto afterwards.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Urban II's own letter to the Flemish confirms that he granted "remission of all their sins" to those undertaking the enterprise to liberate the eastern churches. One notable contrast with the speeches recorded by Robert the Monk, Guibert of Nogent, and Baldric of Dol is the lesser emphasis on Jerusalem itself, which Urban only once mentions as his own focus of concern. In the letter to the Flemish he writes, "they [the Turks] have seized the Holy City of Christ, embellished by his passion and resurrection, and blasphemy to say—have sold her and her churches into abominable slavery." In the letters to Bologna and Vallombrosa he refers to the crusaders' desire to set out for Jerusalem rather than to his own desire that Jerusalem be freed from Muslim rule. It was believed that originally that Urban wanted to send a relatively small force to aid the Byzantines, however after meeting with two prominent members of the crusades Adhemar of Puy and Raymond of Saint-Guilles, Urban decided to rally a much larger force to retake Jerusalem. Urban II refers to liberating the church as a whole or the eastern churches generally rather than to reconquering Jerusalem itself. The phrases used are "churches of God in the eastern region" and "the eastern churches" (to the Flemish), "liberation of the Church" (to Bologna), "liberating Christianity [Lat. Christianitatis]" (to Vallombrosa), and "the Asian church" (to the Catalan counts). Coincidentally or not, Fulcher of Chartres's version of Urban's speech makes no explicit reference to Jerusalem. Rather it more generally refers to aiding the crusaders' Christian "brothers of the eastern shore," and to their loss of Asia Minor to the Turks.


title: Pope Urban II

text: It is still disputed what Pope Urban's motives were as evidenced by the different speeches that were recorded, all of which differ from each other. Some historians believe that Urban wished for the reunification of the eastern and western churches, a rift that was caused by the Great Schism of 1054. Others believe that Urban saw this as an opportunity to gain legitimacy as the pope as at the time he was contending with the antipope Clement III. A third theory is that Urban felt threatened by the Muslim incursions into Europe and saw the crusades as a way to unite the christian world into a unified defense against them.


title: Pope Urban II

text: The most important effect of the First Crusade for Urban himself was the removal of Clement III from Rome in 1097 by one of the French armies. His restoration there was supported by Matilda of Tuscany.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Urban II died on 29 July 1099, fourteen days after the fall of Jerusalem to the Crusaders, but before news of the event had reached Italy; his successor was Pope Paschal II.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Urban also gave support to the crusades in Spain against the Moors there. Pope Urban was concerned that the focus on the east and Jerusalem would neglect the fight in Spain. He saw the fight in the east and in Spain as part of the same crusade so he would offer the same remission of sin for those that fought in Spain and discouraged those that wished to travel east from Spain.


title: Pope Urban II

text: Urban received vital support in his conflict with the Byzantine Empire, Romans and the Holy Roman Empire from the Norman of Campania and Sicily. In return he granted Roger I the freedom to appoint bishops (the right of lay investiture), to collect Church revenues before forwarding to the papacy, and the right to sit in judgment on ecclesiastical questions. Roger I virtually became a legate of the Pope within Sicily. In 1098 these were extraordinary prerogatives that Popes were withholding from temporal sovereigns elsewhere in Europe and that later led to bitter confrontations with Roger's Hohenstaufen heirs.


title: Pasig

text: Pasig, officially the City of Pasig (), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the National Capital Region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 803,159 people.


title: Pasig

text: It is located along the eastern border of Metro Manila with Rizal province, the city shares its name with the Pasig River. A formerly rural settlement, Pasig is primarily residential and industrial, but has been becoming increasingly commercial in recent years, particularly after the construction of the Ortigas Center business district in its west. The city is home to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig, based in Pasig Cathedral, a landmark built around the same time as the town's foundation in 1573.


title: Pasig

text: Pasig was formerly part of Rizal province before the formation of Metro Manila, the national capital region of the country. The seat of government of Rizal was hosted in Pasig at the old Rizal Provincial Capitol until a new capitol was opened in Antipolo, within Rizal's jurisdiction in 2009. However, it remained as the "de jure", or official capital of the province until July 7, 2020. On June 19, 2020, President Rodrigo Duterte signed Republic Act No. 11475, which designated Antipolo as the official capital of Rizal.


title: Pasig

text: The city's name, "Pasig", is a Tagalog word which means, "a river that flows into the sea" or "sandy bank of a river".


title: Pasig

text: Etymologically, it is a word of Proto-Malayic (PM), "*pasir", or Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) / Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian (PWMP) word, "*pasiR". It is cognate with the


title: Pasig

text: meaning of "sand" in Malay (pasir) & "beach/sand" in Acehnese ("pasi") and almost similar meanings and similar spellings in other Western Malayo-Polynesian (WMP) languages.


title: Pasig

text: There are no surviving firsthand accounts of the history of Pasig before Spanish colonizers arrived in 1573 and established the settlement which they called the Ciudad-Municipal de Pasig.


title: Pasig

text: However, surviving genealogical records and folk histories speak of a thriving indigenous Tagalog community (barangay) on the banks of the Bitukang Manok river (now nearly extinct, and known as Parian Creek), which eventually became modern-day Pasig. The greatest rulers of this pre-colonial polity are named Rajah Lontok and Dayang Kalangitan by the legends, which also say that they are closely related to the pre-colonial rulers of Tondo and Maynila.


title: Pasig

text: The creek was given the name "Bitukang Manok" (Tagalog for "Chicken Gut"), due to the serpentine shape of its waterway. Among its early dwellers were ethnic Tagalogs & ethnic Han Chinese from Southern China (with their origins dating back from the Ming Dynasty), and the Indigenous Tinguian tribal nomads who migrated from the deep jungles of the Sierra Madre Mountain Range. The Bitukang Manok was once a principal tributary of the Marikina River. The Spanish colonizers called the creek "Rio de Pasig"; however, the natives still referred to it as the Bitukang Manok.


title: Pasig

text: The first stretch of the Bitukang Manok became known as the "Pariancillo" (Estero de San Agustin), where its shoreline was once settled by ethnic Chinese and Malay merchants to trade their goods with the natives, until it developed up to the 1970s as the city's main public market. Likewise, the creek contributed enormously to the economic growth of Pasig during the Spanish Colonial Era, through irrigation of its wide paddy fields, and by being the progressive center of barter trade.


title: Pasig

text: The Bitukang Manok, also known as the "Parian Creek", had once linked the Marikina River with the "Antipolo River". Before the Manggahan Floodway was built in 1986, The Parian Creek was actually connected to the Sapang Bato-Buli Creek (which serves as the boundary between Pasig's barangays Dela Paz-Manggahan-Rosario-Santa Lucia and the Municipality of Cainta), the Kasibulan Creek (situated at Vista Verde, Barangay San Isidro, Cainta), the Palanas Creek (leaving Antipolo through Barangay Muntindilao), the Bulaw Creek (on Barangay Mambungan, besides the Valley Golf and Country Club), and the Hinulugang Taktak Falls of Barangay Dela Paz (fed by the Taktak Creek passing close to the Antipolo Town Square), thus being the detached and long-abandoned Antipolo River.


title: Pasig

text: Since the early 1600s up to the period of Japanese Imperialism, over a thousand Catholic devotees coming from "Maynilad" (Manila), "Hacienda Pineda" (Pasay), "San Juan del Monte", "Hacienda de Mandaloyon" (Mandaluyong), "Hacienda Mariquina" (Marikina), "Barrio Pateros", "Pueblo de Tagig" (Taguig), and "San Pedro de Macati" (Makati), followed the trail of the Parian Creek to the Pilgrimage Cathedral on the mountainous pueblo of Antipolo, Morong (the present-day Rizal province).


title: Pasig

text: The Antipoleños and several locals from the far-reached barrios of "Poblacion de San Mateo", "Montalban" (Rodriguez), "Monte de Tanhai" (Tanay), "Santa Rosa-Oroquieta" (Teresa), and "Punta Ibayo" (Baras), had also navigated this freshwater creek once to go down to the vast "Kapatagan" (Rice plains) of lowland Pasig. Even the marian processions of the Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage passed this route back and forth eleven times.


title: Pasig

text: The creek has been also used during the British Occupation of Manila in 1762 to 1764 by the Royal British army, under the leadership of General William Draper and Vice Admiral Sir Samuel Cornish, 1st Baronet, to transport their red troops (and also the Sepoys they've brought from East India) upstream to take over the nearby forest-surrounded villages of Cainta and Taytay. They even did an ambush at the "Plaza Central" in front of the Pasig Cathedral, and turned the Roman Catholic Parish into their military headquarters, with the church's fortress-like "Campanilla" (belfry) serving as a watchtower against Spanish defenders sailing from the walled city of Intramuros via the Pasig River.


title: Pasig

text: The Sepoys backstabbed their abusive British lieutenants and sided with the combined forces of the Spanish Conquistadors (assigned by the Governor-General Simon de Anda y Salazar), local rice farmers, fisherfolk, and even Chinese traders. After the British Invasion, the Sepoys remained and intermarried with Filipina women, and that explains the Hindu features of some of today's citizens of Pasig, especially Cainta and Taytay.


title: Pasig

text: In 1742, an Augustinian friar named Fray Domingo Diaz, together with a group of wealthy "Mestizos de Sangley" (Chinese Mestizos) from Sagad, ordered a construction of a marble, roof-tiled cover bridge across the creek in the style of an oriental pagoda. It was named "Puente del Pariancillo", and a few years later, it changed to "Puente de Fray Felix Trillo", dedicated to the dynamic parochial curate of the Immaculate Conception Parish. Edmund Roberts visited Pasig in 1832.


title: Pasig

text: On the night of May 2, 1896, more than 300 revolutionary Katipuneros, led by the Supremo Gat. Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto and Pio Valenzuela, secretly gained access in this very creek aboard a fleet of seventeen "Bangkas" (canoes) to the old residence of a notable Valentin Cruz at Barangay San Nicolas, and formed the "Asamblea Magna" (mass meeting).


title: Pasig

text: Three months later on Saturday evening, August 29, about less than 2,000 working-class Pasigueños (along with a hundred Chinese "Trabajadores" (laborers) from the failed Sangley revolts of 1639 and throughout the 17th century), armed with coconuts, machetes and bayoneted muskets (some were donated by the rich Ilustrado families, while many of those guns were looted from Spanish authorities), joined the Katipunan and made a surprise attack at the "Municipio del Gobernadorcillo" (the current site of the Pasig City Hall) and its adjacent garrison of the "Guardias Civil" (Civil Guard), situated near the border of barangays Maybunga and Caniogan.


title: Pasig

text: That was the first and victorious rebellion ever accomplished by the Katipunan, and that particular event was popularly known as the "Nagsabado sa Pasig" (the Saturday Uprising on Pasig). After they had managed to successfully out-thrown the seat of Spanish government on Pasig, the Katipuneros fled immediately and advanced towards a "Sitio" located at the neighboring "Ciudad de San Juan" called "Pinaglabanan", and there they launched their second attempt to end the numerous cases of corruption made by the greedy Castilian "Encomenderos" (town officials) and "Hacienderos" (landlords), which shall be commemorated as the Battle of San Juan del Monte.


title: Pasig

text: On June 11, 1901, during the Philippine–American War, the province of Rizal was created through Act No. 137 of the Philippine Commission. Pasig was incorporated into the province of Rizal, and was designated as the capital of the new province.


title: Pasig

text: In 1939, the barrio or sitio of Ogong (Ugong Norte), which includes the present-day Libis area, was separated from Pasig to form part of the newly established Quezon City.


title: Pasig

text: After World War II, the Bitukang Manok was slowly exposing its ecological downfall. It resulted in water pollution due to rational ignorance. The worst came to the Bitukang Manok in the late 1960s when the disappearing waterway, instead of being revived was totally separated from the Marikina River, and was converted into an open sewage ditch, with its original flow now moving in reverse towards the direction of the Napindan Channel (a portion of the Pasig River bordering between the barangays Kalawaan-Pinagbuhatan and Taguig), to give way to public commercial facilities.


title: Pasig

text: Pasig was home to a number of prominent human rights advocates who became prominent during the administration of Ferdinand Marcos. One of these advocates was lawyer and publisher Augusto "Bobbit" Sanchez, whose publication "The Weekly Post" was so hardhitting that Pasig politicians came to refer to it as the "Weekly Pest." Another human rights advocate who was an early critic of Marcos' policies was opposition figure Jovito Salonga, who was first elected representative of Pasig in 1961.


title: Pasig

text: When Ferdinand Marcos' economic policy of using foreign loans to fund government projects during his second term resulted in economic crises at the beginning of the 1970s, numerous Pasigueños participated in the various protests of the time, which eventually came to be known as the First Quarter Storm. This included brothers Eman Lacaba and Pete Lacaba, who lived in nearby Pateros but studied at the Pasig Catholic College (PCC) where their mother was a teacher.


title: Pasig

text: When Marcos suspended the writ of habeas corpus in 1971, eventually declared Martial Law in September 1972, students were unable to congregate. In Pasig, one of the prominent residences that sheltered them and allowed them to meet together was the Bahay na Tisa in Barangay San Jose. Because the house was also the venue of meetings of prominent Pasig leaders who were pro-Marcos, it came to be known as Pasig's "Freedom House." The house has since been declared an Important Cultural Property by the Philippines' National Museum.


title: Pasig

text: Another prominent site in Pasig which was affected by Martial Law was the Benpres Building, which was shuttered by the Philippine Constabulary when Marcos' declaration closed down all media outlets on September 23, 1972.


title: Pasig

text: After the fall of the dictatorship, one of the first properties to be surrendered by a Marcos crony to the PCGG was the "Payanig sa Pasig" property, at the confluence of Ortigas, Meralco and Doña Julia Vargas Avenues, whose title businessman Jose Yao Campos said he was keeping under the name of the Mid-Pasig Land Development Corp (MPLDC) in lieu of Ferdinand Marcos. This was eventually sequestered by the Presidential Commission on Good Government as part of the Unexplained wealth of the Marcos family.


title: Pasig

text: On November 7, 1975, Pasig was carved out of Rizal province and became part of Metro Manila when the Metro Manila Commission (precursor of Metro Manila Authority and later Metropolitan Manila Development Authority) was created through Presidential Decree 824.


title: Pasig

text: In July 1994, Pasig was converted into a highly urbanized city through Republic Act 7829. And in December 1994, President Fidel V. Ramos signed it into law, which was ratified through a plebiscite on January 21, 1995.


title: Pasig

text: On February 4, 2006, the ULTRA Stampede, in which 71 people died, happened during the first anniversary celebration of ABS-CBN's noontime show "Wowowee", because of the prizes that were to be given away. The anniversary of the show would be held on PhilSports Arena but the event has been already canceled due to the tragedy.


title: Pasig

text: Pasig was one of the areas struck by the high flood created by Typhoon Ondoy (Ketsana) on September 26, 2009, which affected the Ortigas Avenue and the east city side of the Manggahan Floodway. It is the most destructive flood in Philippine history. Pasig is accessed by the Pasig River, wherein the waters of Marikina River channeled and the Manggahan Floodway routed to Laguna de Bay.


title: Pasig

text: In the first week of August 2012, intense monsoon rain caused the 2012 Philippines flooding, which affected again Pasig and particularly the National Capital Region (NCR), Calabarzon and the southwest part of Luzon. The nonstop eight-day monsoon rain, strengthened by Typhoon Gener, caused the Marikina River to overflow and destroyed the same places that were ruined by Typhoon Ondoy in 2009.


title: Pasig

text: On June 19, 2020, President Rodrigo Duterte signed into law Republic Act No. 11475, officially transferring the capital of the Rizal province from Pasig to Antipolo. The official publication was on June 22, 2020, and the law took effect on July 7, 2020, almost 45 years since Pasig became part of Metro Manila and around 11 years since the Rizal provincial government moved to the latter city.


title: Pasig

text: Pasig is bordered on the west by Quezon City and Mandaluyong; to the north by Marikina; to the south by Makati, the municipality of Pateros, and Taguig; and to the east by the municipalities of Cainta and Taytay in the province of Rizal.


title: Pasig

text: The Pasig River runs through it and forms its southwestern and southeastern borders with Makati and Taguig respectively, while the Marikina River forms its western border with Quezon City. The artificial Manggahan Floodway, built in 1986, begins at its confluence with the Marikina River in its northeast.


title: Pasig

text: Its barangays are grouped into two districts for city council representation purposes. The first district encompasses the southern and western sections of the city, while the second district encompasses the northern and eastern sections. Among these barangays, 27 are located on the northern side or right bank of the Pasig River while 3 (Buting, San Joaquin and Kalawaan) are located on the river's southern side or left bank.


title: Pasig

text: The dry season runs through the months of November to April, while the wet season starts in May and lasts to November. The wet season reaches its peak in the month of August. Maximum rainfall in Muntinlupa usually occurs from the month of June to September. The average annual of rainfall is with a peak of in July and a low in April. The highest temperature occurs during the month of April and May (34 degrees Celsius) while the lowest occurs during the months of January & February (24 degrees Celsius).


title: Pasig

text: The Philippines, due to its geographical location, is one of the Asian countries often affected by typhoons. It is located within the so-called "typhoon belt". Generally, typhoon season starts from June and ends in November. However, the rest of the months are not entirely free of the typhoons since they are unpredictable in nature and might enter the country anytime of the year.


title: Pasig

text: Population growth of Pasig has consistently been higher than the regional average. Thus, the percentage share of Pasig in the total population of Metro Manila has significantly increased. Its share has grown from less than 3% in 1960 to 4.5% in 1980 and then to almost 6% in 2015. Pasig's population is projected to reach one million between the 2025 and 2030 census years.


title: Pasig

text: The Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig was established in 2003 by Pope John Paul II as the diocese of the Catholic Church in the Philippines, with the Immaculate Conception Parish (Pasig Cathedral) as the seat.


title: Pasig

text: The western part of the city is where most of Pasig's financial resources are primarily concentrated. It includes numerous factories, warehouses, establishments and commercial facilities. They are primarily situated in Ortigas Center, Pasig proper and along E. Rodriguez Jr. Avenue (C-5) and Ortigas Avenue. Real estate and commercial developments along Mercedes Avenue and other areas near the city center are developing. The eastern part was mostly dominated with residential areas but numerous commercial establishments are now being developed along Marcos Highway. Per capita income (GDP) of Pasig is $12,032 per year. The barangay of San Antonio has the largest income in Pasig, second only to San Lorenzo of Makati as the largest single income-generating local government unit in the Philippines. In the arguably more significant western part of Pasig, east of the city of Mandaluyong and part of the barangay of San Antonio, lies the Ortigas Center.


title: Pasig

text: Ortigas Center is one of the top business districts in the country. Numerous high-rise office buildings, residential condominiums, commercial establishments, schools and malls are situated here. The University of Asia and the Pacific is also located here. The head office of the Integrated Bar of the Philippines was established in the district. The former headquarters of the Philippine Stock Exchange is located along ADB Avenue. San Miguel Corporation, owner of one of the largest producer of beer in Asia, also has its headquarters in the district along San Miguel Avenue. Situated along Ortigas Avenue is Crowne Plaza, a five-star hotel near Robinsons Galleria.


title: Pasig

text: Notable developments along E. Rodriguez Jr. Avenue (C-5) include Arcovia City, The Grove by Rockwell, and Ortigas East (formerly Frontera Verde), home of the Tiendesitas market. El-Pueblo, a colonial-themed commercial complex in Ortigas Center, provides new concept of cafes, restaurants and bars. Metrowalk (formerly Payanig), a commercial hub along Ortigas Avenue and Meralco Avenue, was established in 2005 and comprises shops, depot warehouses, stalls, restaurants and bars. Parklinks, a urban estate, will partly be built in Pasig near C-5.


title: Pasig

text: Pasig is governed primarily by the city mayor, the vice mayor and the city councilors. The mayor acts as the chief executive of the city while the city councilors act as its legislative body. The vice mayor, besides taking on mayoral responsibilities in case of a temporary vacancy, acts as the presiding officer of the city legislature.


title: Pasig

text: The woman represents the Mutya ng Pasig. Pasig is derived from a Hindu word meaning a body of water connecting two bodies of water. On the lower left portion is the Pasig Cathedral, the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig. The factory in lower right portion represents the prosperity and progress of the city.


title: Pasig

text: District 1: Reggie Balderrama, Volta Delos Santos, Eric Gonzales, Kiko Rustia, Pao Santiago, Simon Romulo Tantoco


title: Pasig

text: PhilSports Complex or the Philippine Institute of Sports Complex (formerly ULTRA) is a notable national sports complex of the Philippines. Located in Meralco Avenue, it is where the offices of the Philippine Sports Commission, Philippine Olympic Committee and some national sports associations are.


title: Pasig

text: The City is currently represented by Pasig City in the Maharlika Pilipinas Basketball League. The team also used to play in the now defunct Metropolitan Basketball Association as the Pasig Pirates. The team play their home games at two venues within the city, the Pasig Sports Center and the Ynares Sports Arena.


title: Pasig

text: Pasig is the location of the east end of Pasig River. It is accessed by Pasig River Ferry Service with 7 stations named after the Barangays of the city beside the river, these are the following:


title: Pasig

text: This city is also served by Santolan Station of LRT Line 2 along Marcos Highway located in Pasig–Marikina Boundary where the depot is also located.


title: Pasig

text: Long before the Manila Light Rail Transit System finally opened its services in Santolan in the Pasig–Marikina border in the early 2000s, steam train services had once served those places in the past, even before World War II.


title: Pasig

text: In Marikina, there is a street named "Daangbakal", also called by the names of "Shoe Avenue Extension", "Munding Avenue" and "Bagong Silang". There is also a similar "Daangbakal" in the San Mateo–Montalban (Rodriguez) area, and on the maps one can notice that the two roads should have been connected with each other. In fact, as the name suggests in Tagalog, these streets were once a single railway line. The two sides of the "Daangbakal" roads were once connected by a bridge in the San Mateo-Marikina border. However, as the railroad tracks have been largely ignored after the Japanese cccupation and was transformed into separate highways, the railway connection was abandoned.


title: Pasig

text: The old railroad tracks, called the Marikina Line, was connected from Tutuban station in Manila, passing through Tramo (Barangay Rosario, Pasig) coming all the way to the town of Marikina up to Montalban. On the northern end of the "Daangbakal" road in Montablan is a basketball court. That basketball court which stands today, surrounded by the Montalban Catholic Church and Cemetery, was once the railway station terminus of that particular line.


title: Pasig

text: The present-day Santo Niño Elementary School in Marikina was said to be a train depot. And also it was said that a railroad station once stood in the Marikina City Sports Park.


title: Pasig

text: The Marikina Line was completed in 1906, and continued its operation until 1936. It was said that the Imperial Japanese Army made use of this railway line during the Second World War. These railways were dismantled during the 1960s and were converted into ordinary roads.


title: Pasig

text: Today, the citizens are dependent on Tricycles, Jeepneys, Taxis, UV Express, Buses, and AUV's which contribute to the everyday unusual and unbearable traffic of Metropolitan Manila. Even now, there is uncertainty in the Northrail project, which links Manila to the northern provinces of Luzon, because of corruption within the project's construction.


title: Pasig

text: Aside from the Marikina Line, two other railways have existed before but are now removed permanently. First is the Cavite Line, which passed from Paco to Naic, Cavite, operating until 1936. Second is the Antipolo Line, which passed from Santa Mesa to Antipolo near the "Hinulugang Taktak" Falls. There is also a street named "Daangbakal" in Antipolo, where like the "Daangbakal" roads on Marikina and San Mateo, a railway line once existed. The railroad tracks also passed through what is now the Ortigas Avenue Extension. Its operation ceased in 1917.


title: Pasig

text: Along C. Raymundo Avenue lies the national headquarters of Parents for Education Foundation, Inc. which runs schools such as PAREF Southridge School, PAREF Woodrose School, PAREF Northfield School, PAREF Rosehill School, and seven other schools.


title: Pasig

text: At the heart of city proper, lies Colegio del Buen Consejo (CBC). It is one of the oldest school in Pasig and one of the educational institutions promulgated by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig.


title: Pasig

text: Pasig Catholic College (PCC) is a private sectarian college located at the heart of Pasig. Established in 1913 as a small school managed by the CICM Fathers headed by Fr. Pierre Cornelis De Brouwer at the present Immaculate Conception Cathedral of Pasig, it is considered as the city's center of Catholic educational institution of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig.


title: Pasig

text: Pasig City Science High School (PCSHS) is the second science high school in Pasig recognized by the Department of Education for bright students of the city. It is located near Rainforest, a fully restored public resort and amusement park.


title: Pasig

text: Rizal High School (RHS) is located in Pasig. Named after the Philippine national hero José Rizal, it is one of the world's largest secondary education by student population. Formerly hailed in the Guinness World Records as the largest school by overall enrolled students, it is now surpassed by the City Mississippi School (CMS) in Lucknow, India.


title: Pasig

text: Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Pasig, a local university in Kapasigan, offers degree courses for poor, bright and deserving residents of Pasig. It is established under the mayoralty of Vicente C. Eusebio in 1999.


title: Pasig

text: St. Paul College Pasig was near the Philippine Institute of Sports Complex (ULTRA). It was established in 1970 as one of the educational institutions administered by the Congregation of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres.


title: Pasig

text: University of Asia and the Pacific (UA&P) in Ortigas Center traces back to the Center for Research and Communication (CRC) which started by two Harvard graduates in 1967 as an economic and social think-tank institution. Its spiritual and doctrinal formation is entrusted to Opus Dei.


title: Pasig

text: Rizal Technological University (RTU) is a state university in Mandaluyong that have a branch campus located behind Rainforest Park in Pasig City. RTU Pasig campus is established 1994 that offered different courses in the field of Engineering, Education, Astronomy, Business and Entrepreneurship.


title: Pasig

text: MFI Foundation Inc. (formerly Meralco Foundation Institute) was located near the Ortigas Center along Ortigas Avenue. It is established in 1983 to serve and meet the industry's demand for middle-level technical manpower. As a partner of Philippine government's institution of the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (Philippines) or TESDA, it provided two main programs in the Industrial Technician Program (ITP) which targets the youth and the Technical Training and MFI Training (formerly Testing Program) for skilled workers and professionals.


title: Pasig

text: Domuschola International School (DIS) is located in Barangay Ugong and offers the International Baccalaureate PYP program for elementary students. Established in 2000 as a pre-school under the name Second Mom, it has expanded to primary and secondary education. The school is in partnership with the TAO Corporation and as of 2015, became a candidate school of the IB Diploma Program.


title: Pasig

text: Saint Gabriel International School in Sandoval Avenue is the sister school of the Chinese-based Manila Xiamen International School. It provides Mandarin Chinese classes and ESL education for local and foreign students.


title: Pasig

text: Another international school that is located in Barangay Ugong is Reedley International School. Established in 1999, this school caters kindergarten to senior high school. The school adapts three curricula- Singaporean, Filipino and American.


title: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici

text: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici (c. 1360 – February 1429) was an Italian banker and founder of the Medici Bank. While other members of the Medici family, such as Chiarissimo di Giambuono de' Medici, who served in the Signoria of Florence in 1201, and Salvestro de' Medici, who was implicated in the Ciompi Revolt of 1378, are of historical interest, it was Giovanni's founding of the family bank that truly initiated the family's rise to power in Florence. He was the father of Cosimo de' Medici and of Lorenzo the Elder; grandfather of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici; great-grandfather of Lorenzo de' Medici (the Magnificent); and the great-great-great-grandfather of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.


title: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici

text: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici was born in Florence, Italy. He was the son of Averardo de' Medici and Jacopa Spini. His father, Averardo died in 1363 with a respectable amount of wealth. This inheritance was divided among Giovanni and his four brothers, leaving Giovanni with very little. However, his uncle, Vieri de' Medici, was still a prominent banker in Florence. Vieri helped Giovanni begin his career in the Florentine banking system. He worked his way up through the ranks, eventually becoming a junior partner in the branch located in Rome. Vieri de' Medici retired in 1393 leaving the bank in the hands of Giovanni. From this point the Medici bank grew vastly and quickly. This growth culminated with the acquisition as the Chief Papal Banker, which meant that the Medici Bank now handled the accounts of the Church. The Medici family bank, which he founded in 1397, became his main commercial interest. The Medici bank under Giovanni had branches throughout the northern Italian city-states and beyond, and constituted an early "multi-national" company.


title: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici

text: Giovanni owned two wool workshops in Florence, and was a member of two guilds: the "Arte della Lana" and the "Arte del Cambio". In 1402, he served as one of the judges on the panel that selected Lorenzo Ghiberti's design for the bronzes on the doors to the Florence Baptistery. Giovanni also funded the construction of the sacristy in the Church of San Lorenzo in the year 1418. He picked Brunelleschi to be the architect and chose Donatello to create the sculptures. These are just a few of the many contributions that Giovanni made to the art world.


title: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici

text: In 1414, Giovanni bet on the permanent return of the papacy to Rome after a long period of exile and schism, and was correct; the papacy was permanently installed in Rome in 1417 under a single pope after the deliberations of the Council of Constance. Rewarding Giovanni for his support, Pope Martin V gave Giovanni's general manager control of the Apostolic Chamber. Subsequent popes also made use of the services of the Medici banks, and in addition, Giovanni was able to secure tax-farming contracts and the rights to many alum mines from the papacy. He set his family on the path to becoming one of the richest dynasties in Europe, thereby making an essential stride towards its later cultural and political prominence. One way in which he laid the groundwork for this was by marrying Piccarda Bueri, whose old and respectable family brought him a large dowry.


title: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici

text: In 1418, Giovanni Medici collaborated with one of Florence's chief nobles, Niccolò da Uzzano, to secure the release of the deposed Antipope John XXIII, who was imprisoned in Germany. De Medici paid the stiff ransom of 38,000 ducats himself, and when the former pope died the following year in Florence, de Medici sponsored the construction of his magnificent tomb in the Baptistery.


title: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici

text: Despite his growing wealth, Giovanni was diligent in his efforts not to separate the Medici family from the other citizens in Florence. He did so by continuously ensuring that he and his sons dressed and behaved like the average working-class citizens of Florence. This was in part due to his desire not to draw undue attention to himself and his family, and to ensure that, unlike other wealthy families, the Medici remained in the favour of the population. His hopes were to build a positive reputation of his family by avoiding conflicts with the law and keeping the people of Florence happy. His disposition can be understood in his writings, "Strive to keep the people at peace, and the strong places well cared for. Engage in no legal complications, for he who impedes the law shall perish by the law. Do not draw public attention on yourselves yet keep free from blemish as I leave you."


title: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici

text: Giovanni stayed at arms length from politics for much of his life, but he was urged to reluctantly accept various positions of high office throughout his life in the Signoria of Florence because of the prestige and universal popularity he enjoyed in the city. His attitude is exemplified in his writings to his son Cosimo, saying, "Do not make the government-house your work shop, but wait until you are called to it, then show your selves obedient." He served as a "Priore" in the Signoria in 1402, 1408, and 1411 and as a "Gonfaloniere" for the statutory two-month period in 1421. In 1407, he also served as the governor of the city of Pistoia.


title: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici

text: In the sphere of politics, Giovanni stayed true to his reputation and the tradition of the Medici family as champions of the people and intractable opponents of the nobility of Florence. In 1426, he exerted his considerable personal influence in the Signoria to replace Florence's inequitable and oppressive poll tax with the "Catasto". This was a more regular property tax devised by Giovanni, which lifted the tax burden from the poorer classes in Florence and made it more difficult for the nobility to evade their share. The following year he once again wielded his personal authority and influence in the Signoria to block the passage of oligarchic reforms proposed by the nobility, which would have repealed the ban on nobles serving in the Signoria, and removed some of the lesser guilds from being represented there.


title: Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici

text: When he died, di Bicci was one of the wealthiest men in Florence, as shown by his tax report of 1429. It was reported that upon his death, he was the second richest man in Florence, leaving an abundance of wealth to his son Cosimo. This wealth and banking system led to Cosimo becoming one of the wealthiest men in Europe. Also upon his death, he had become a favorite amongst the Florentine public, with even professional rival Niccolò da Uzzano. Niccolò states in a letter to Giovanni's sons that he had made the family beloved by the people and positioned them for great success. In 1420, Giovanni had given the majority of control of the bank to his two sons, Cosimo and Lorenzo. Upon his death in 1429, he was buried in the Old Sacristy of the Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence, and his wife was buried with him after her death four years later.


title: 2021 Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles

text: Two-time defending champion Novak Djokovic defeated Matteo Berrettini in the final, 6–7, 6–4, 6–4, 6–3 to win the gentlemen's singles tennis title at the 2021 Wimbledon Championships.


text: It was his sixth Wimbledon title and 20th major title overall, tying Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal's all-time record total of men's singles titles.


text: Djokovic became the first man to win the Australian Open, French Open and Wimbledon titles in the same calendar year since Rod Laver in 1969 and the first to achieve the Surface Slam (winning majors on three different surfaces in a calendar year) since Nadal in 2010. He also became the fifth man in the Open Era to win the Channel Slam (French Open/Wimbledon double).


text: Djokovic and Daniil Medvedev were in contention for the ATP No. 1 singles ranking; Djokovic retained the top ranking when Medvedev lost in the fourth round.


text: This event marked the final professional singles appearance of 20-time major champion and former world No. 1 Roger Federer; he lost in the quarterfinals to Hubert Hurkacz. Federer became the oldest man to reach the Wimbledon quarterfinals in the Open Era, and the oldest man to reach a major quarterfinal since Ken Rosewall in 1977. By winning his fourth-round match he completed 105 wins at Wimbledon. The 18 quarterfinals and 119 matches he has contested at Wimbledon are both tournament records. In the quarterfinals, Federer lost in straight sets at Wimbledon for the first time since 2002.


text: Berrettini became the first Italian man to reach a major final since Adriano Panatta at the 1976 French Open and the first to do so at Wimbledon. Zhang Zhizhen became the first Chinese man to qualify for the Wimbledon main draw in the Open Era. Márton Fucsovics became the first Hungarian to reach a men's singles major quarterfinal since Balázs Taróczy at the 1981 French Open and the first to do so at Wimbledon since József Asbóth in 1948. It was the first time since 2017 that two-time champion Andy Murray participated and the first time since 2005 that he entered via a wildcard. For the first time since 2002, the grass court seeding formula was abandoned and the standard ranking system based on the ATP rankings was permanently adopted, like at the other three majors.


text: The following are the seeded players. Seedings are based on ATP rankings as of 21 June 2021. Rankings and points are as before 28 June 2021. Players will count either their 2021 points or 50% of their 2019 points, whichever is greater.


text: † The player did not qualify for the tournament in 2019. Accordingly, points defending from the ATP Challenger Tour are deducted instead.


text: ^ Because the 2021 tournament was non-mandatory, the player substituted his 19th best result in place of the points won in this tournament.


text: The following players would have been seeded, but withdrew before the tournament began. Only half of their defending points are deducted.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County, colloquially referred to as Delco, is a county in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. It is part of the Delaware Valley and borders Philadelphia. With a population of 576,830 at the 2020 census, it is the fifth most populous county in Pennsylvania, and the third smallest in area. The county was created on September 26, 1789, from part of Chester County, and named for the Delaware River.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Its county seat is Media. Until 1850, Chester was the county seat of Delaware County and, before that, of Chester County.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County is adjacent to the city-county of Philadelphia and is included in the Philadelphia–Camden–Wilmington, PA–NJ–DE–MD Delaware Valley Metropolitan Statistical Area. Delaware County is the only county covered in its entirety by area codes 610 and 484.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County lies in the river and bay drainage area named "Delaware" in honor of Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, Governor of the nearby English colony of Virginia. The land was explored by Henry Hudson in 1609, and over the next several decades it was variously claimed and settled by the Swedes, the Dutch, and the English. Its original human inhabitants were the Lenape tribe of American Indians.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Once the Dutch were defeated and the extent of New York was determined, King Charles II of England made his grant to William Penn in order to found the colony which came to be named Pennsylvania. Penn divided his colony into three counties: Bucks, Philadelphia, and Chester. The riverfront land south of Philadelphia, being the most accessible, was quickly granted and settled. In 1789, the southeastern portion of Chester County was divided from the rest and named Delaware County for the Delaware River.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (3.5%) is water. It is the third-smallest county in Pennsylvania by area.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County is roughly diamond- or kite-shaped, with the four sides formed by the Chester County boundary to the northwest, the boundary with the state of Delaware, a portion of the "Twelve-Mile Circle") to the southwest, the Delaware River, forming the border with the state of New Jersey) to the southeast, and the city of Philadelphia and Montgomery County to the east and northeast.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: The lowest point in the state of Pennsylvania is located on the Delaware River in Marcus Hook in Delaware County, where it flows out of Pennsylvania and into Delaware. The highest point in Delaware County is 500 feet at two points southeast of Wyola in Newtown Township .


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Waterways in Delaware County generally flow in a southward direction and ultimately drain into the Delaware River. The waterways are, from west to east: the Brandywine River (forming a portion of the county's western boundary with Chester County), Naaman's Creek, Stoney Creek, Chester Creek, Ridley Creek, Crum Creek, Muckinipates Creek, Darby Creek and Cobbs Creek (forming a portion of the county's eastern boundary with Philadelphia). Crum Creek was dammed in 1931 near Pennsylvania Route 252 to fill Springton Lake (also known as Geist Reservoir), an approximately drinking water reservoir maintained by Aqua America, the county's largest lake.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County is one of four counties in the United States to border a state with which it shares the same name (the other three are Nevada County, California, Texas County, Oklahoma, and Ohio County, West Virginia).


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: As of the 2010 census, the county was 71.1% White non-Hispanic, 19.7% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American or Alaskan Native, 4.7% Asian, <0.1% Native Hawaiian, 2.0% were two or more races, and 0.9% were some other race. 3.0% of the population were of Hispanic or Latino ancestry.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: As of the 2000 census, there were 550,864 people, 206,320 households, and 139,472 families residing in the county. The population density was . There were 216,978 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 80.3% White, 14.5% African American, 0.1% Native American, 3.3% Asian, <0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. 1.5% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 24.6% were of Irish, 17.5% Italian, 10.1% German and 6.7% English ancestry.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: There were 206,320 households, out of which 31.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.8% were married couples living together, 12.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.4% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.17.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: In the county, the population was spread out, with 24.8% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 28.8% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 15.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 91.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.9 males.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: The median income for a household in the county was $50,092, and the median income for a family was $61,590. Males had a median income of $44,155 versus $31,831 for females. The per capita income for the county was $25,040. About 5.8% of families and 8.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.0% of those under age 18 and 7.1% of those age 65 or over.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Under Pennsylvania law, there are four types of incorporated municipalities: cities, boroughs, townships, and exactly one town. There are 49 municipalities in Delaware County:


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Census-designated places are geographical areas designated by the U.S. Census Bureau for the purposes of compiling demographic data. They are not actual jurisdictions under Pennsylvania law. Other unincorporated communities, such as villages, may be listed here as well.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Until the 1990s, Delaware County was regarded as a strongly Republican county. The Delaware County Republican political machine was controlled by William McClure and his son John J. McClure from 1875 to 1965. Delaware County voted for the Republican candidate in nearly every election from 1854 through 1988, one of the two exceptions being Lyndon Johnson's national landslide of 1964. As a measure of how Republican the county was, Franklin Roosevelt was completely shut out in all four of his successful campaigns for president. Even in his 46-state landslide victory of 1936, Roosevelt only got 45 percent of Delaware County's vote.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: In 1992, however, the county swung from a 21-point win for George H. W. Bush to a narrow one-point win for Bill Clinton, who became only the second Democrat to win the county in the 20th century. Clinton won it just under 10 points in 1996, coming up just short of a majority. The county has gone Democratic in every Presidential election since then by 10 points or more by progressively-increasing margins. In the 2004 election Democratic presidential candidate John Kerry won the county by 14 points. Barack Obama won it by large 21-point margins in each of his bids for president. Hillary Clinton carried it by 22 points in 2016. Joe Biden carried it in 2020 with 62 percent of the vote, his second-strongest performance in Pennsylvania. Donald Trump turned in the worst showing for a Republican in the county in over 160 years.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Driving the county's Democratic shift have been longstanding trends in voter registration advantage and demographics. In 1998, Republicans held a voter registration advantage of about 125,000, but by 2008 that advantage had shrunk to under 20,000 voters. As of the November 2021 election, Democrats enjoyed a voter registration advantage of 50,000. Propelling and compounding the voter registration shift has been a change in demographics in the county. Since the 2000 Census, the White population of the county has decreased from 80.3% to 68.5% as of the 2020 Census, while, the Black population has risen from 14.5% to 22.7%, driven by the gentrification of Philadelphia and University City neighborhood and rapid demographic shift in Upper Darby. Further increasing the shift has been the change in education level demographics in the county, as voters have become more college educated and white collar (and, in turn, less blue collar) over the past few decades.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: While the longstanding Republican registration edge has been erased, Republicans still remain competitive with Democrats at the state and local level. Most Republicans from the county tend to be fiscally conservative and socially moderate, as is the case with Republicans from most suburban Philadelphia counties. In the 2004 US Senate election, Republican Arlen Specter defeated Joe Hoeffel but Democrat Bob Casey, Jr. defeated Rick Santorum in the 2006 Senate election. All three Democratic state row office candidates carried it in 2008. In 2016, Delaware County elected all Democrats in national office elections except Republican Patrick Meehan (U.S. Representative).


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: After the election of Donald Trump in 2016, the county rapidly shifted blue as a result of increased Democratic turnout and less enthusiasm from often less conservative suburban Republicans. In the 2019 elections for the Delaware County Council, Democrats swept the board and elected Monica Taylor, Elaine P. Schaefer, and Christine Reuther, gaining control of the county Council for the first time since the Civil War. This was the first time in history that the county had an all-Democratic Council.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: As of 2020, all of Delaware County is located in the state's 5th congressional district, represented by Democrat Mary Gay Scanlon. Prior to 2019, most of Delaware County had been in the 7th congressional district. The district had been held for 20 years by Republican Curt Weldon until he was ousted by Joe Sestak, a retired admiral, in the 2006 U.S. House of Representatives election. Also in the 2006 election, Democrat Bryan Lentz unseated Republican incumbent State Representative Tom Gannon in the 161st House district. In 2010 Sestak ran for the senate seat vacated by Arlen Specter and was replaced by Republican Pat Meehan, who defeated Lentz, the Democratic candidate. Lentz was replaced in the State House by Joe Hackett, a Republican. Meehan represented the 7th district until his resignation on April 27, 2018. Before it was thrown out by a Pennsylvania Supreme Court decision in 2018, the 7th Congressional District had been regarded one of the most irregularly drawn districts in the nation.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Row officers, a term unique to Pennsylvania, are a conglomeration of elected officials defined by Article IX, Section 4 of the Pennsylvania Constitution. This unit of officers includes the position of controller, District Attorney, treasurer, sheriff, register of wills, recorder of deeds, prothonotaries, clerks of the court, and the coroner. It is thought that this term originated because these positions were arranged in a row on a typical ballot.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: The George W. Hill Correctional Facility (Delaware County Prison) is located in Thornbury Township. The jail houses pre-trial inmates and convicted persons who are serving sentences of no longer than two years less one day. It is operated by the for-profit prison corporation GEO Group, of Boca Raton, Florida. It is the only privately operated county-level correctional facility in Pennsylvania, although there are plans for it to be deprivatized as early as December 31, 2020.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: In 1963 the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Philadelphia had 48 Catholic K-8/elementary schools in Delaware County with a total of 39,695 students, which was the highest ever enrollment. From 1971 to 2012, 20 of these schools closed, with ten of them closing from 2003 to 2012. By 2012 there were 28 Catholic K-8/elementary schools in Delaware County with a total of 8,291 students. One notable private school is Friends School Haverford.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County is bisected north to south by Blue Route Interstate 476, which connects I-76 just north of the extreme northern corner of the county to I-95, which parallels the Delaware River along the southeastern edge of the county.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County is home to SEPTA's 69th Street Terminal in Upper Darby, and is served by the Norristown High Speed Line (P&W), two Red Arrow trolley lines


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: four Regional Rail Lines (the Airport Line, Wilmington/Newark Line, Media/Wawa Line, and Paoli/Thorndale Line), and a host of bus routes.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: The western portion of Philadelphia International Airport is located in Delaware County, and the county hosts some airport-related commerce such as Philadelphia's UPS terminal and airport hotels.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Harrah's Philadelphia is a harness racing track and casino (i.e., "racino") located on the Chester, Pennsylvania waterfront. It is owned by Vici Properties and operated by Caesars Entertainment.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: The city of Chester is home to the Philadelphia Union of Major League Soccer. The team plays at Subaru Park, a venue located at the base of the Commodore Barry Bridge.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County is the traditional home of women's professional soccer in the Philadelphia area. The former Philadelphia Charge of the defunct Women's United Soccer Association played at Villanova Stadium, which is located on the campus of Villanova University. The Philadelphia Independence of Women's Professional Soccer succeeded the Charge and played at Widener University's Leslie Quick Stadium in 2011.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County is the home of one of oldest baseball leagues in the country, the Delco League, which at one time was known for featuring future, former, and even current major league players who were offered more money than their current teams would pay them.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Every summer, Delaware County is home to the Delco Pro-Am, a basketball league consisting of current, future, and former NBA players as well as local standout players.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County is also the former home of a rugby league team called the Aston Bulls, a member of the American National Rugby League.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: The county itself is serviced by several newspapers, most notably the "News of Delaware County", the "Delaware County Daily Times", "The Suburban and Wayne Times", and "The Spirit", the only minority owned newspaper serving Delaware County. The "Philadelphia Inquirer" also has a significant presence, reflecting Philadelphia's influence on Delaware County and the rest of the metro. "Delaware County Magazine" is the news magazine with the largest circulation in Delaware County, reaching over 186,000 homes.


title: Delaware County, Pennsylvania

text: Delaware County has two physical geographic regions: the Piedmont and the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Most of the county has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa") while some higher northern areas have a hot-summer humid continental climate ("Dfa".). The hardiness zones are 7a and 7b.


title: Khleo Thomas

text: Khaleed "Khleo" Leon Thomas (born January 30, 1989) is an American actor, influencer, gamer, host and entrepreneur.


title: Khleo Thomas

text: Khleo first garnered recognition as Hector "Zero" Zeroni in Holes, for which he was also nominated for a best supporting actor award. He has since appeared in 21 films and 16 television roles, including Walking Tall, Roll Bounce, Hurricane Season, Sons of Anarchy, Being Mary Jane, Major Crimes, and Shameless. He has also toured alongside Bow Wow, Snoop Dogg, Ice Cube, Sean Kingston and Chris Brown.


title: Khleo Thomas

text: In 2017, Thomas created the lifestyle and apparel brand Slick Living. In 2018, Thomas created Goddess Living Among Men (GLAM), dedicated to empowering women.


title: Khleo Thomas

text: In 2019, Thomas was featured in NBA 2K19 as the Nike representative. The following year, Thomas launched his Twitch channel dedicated gaming and pop culture.


title: Khleo Thomas

text: Thomas was born in Anchorage, Alaska and lived in Germany until the age of four. He is Moroccan-Jewish and African. After his family settled in Southern California, he began acting in commercials at age six.


title: Khleo Thomas

text: In 1998, Thomas's first television appearance was on an episode of Bill Cosby's "Kids Say the Darndest Things".


title: Khleo Thomas

text: He has since starred in such films as "Friday After Next" (2002), "Holes" (2003), Going to the Mat (2004), "Walking Tall" (2004), and "Roll Bounce" (2005).


title: Khleo Thomas

text: Thomas starred in the 2003 Disney film "Holes", adapted from Louis Sachar's book of the same name. Thomas had not read the book before he was cast as Zero. To adapt to the desert climate for filming "Holes", Thomas was required to participate in physical conditioning training. He recalls, "We had to climb rope, dig holes, run, go hiking, do sit-ups and push-ups. The whole time we were thinking, why do we need this? Then we get to the desert and we understood. It was so hot, you could only be in a hole for 20 minutes at a time." Thomas sang on one of the movie soundtrack's songs, "Dig It", which originated on the six-hour round-trip bus rides that transported the actors to the set.


title: Khleo Thomas

text: In 2005 he became more involved in music after he began an association with fellow rapper/actor Bow Wow and his label LBW. He was featured on Bow Wow's fifth studio album "The Price of Fame" as well as on numerous mixtapes. He made cameo appearances in Bow Wow's "Fresh Azimiz" and "Outta My System" music videos.


title: Khleo Thomas

text: In 2006, Thomas guest-starred in "Poppin' Tags", an episode of ""; and in the season four episode of "House", "Ugly" in 2007. He co-starred in the first episode of the television series "Teachers", which was canceled after six episodes. He starred in movies such as "Remember the Daze" (2007) and "Hurricane Season" (2009). In 2010, Thomas starred in the action film "Boogie Town".


title: Khleo Thomas

text: Khleo Thomas started a Twitch page in 2020. He plays games, hosts Disney trivia contests, cosplays as the ultimate Powerline, and talks to his followers.


title: Sand casting

text: Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 60% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process.


title: Sand casting

text: Molds made of sand are relatively cheap, and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry use. In addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand. The mixture is moistened, typically with water, but sometimes with other substances, to develop the strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for molding. The sand is typically contained in a system of frames or mold boxes known as a flask. The mold cavities and gate system are created by compacting the sand around models called patterns, by carving directly into the sand, or by 3D printing.