title: Amanita

text: Edible species of "Amanita" include "Amanita fulva", "Amanita vaginata" (grisette), "Amanita calyptrata" (coccoli), "Amanita crocea", "Amanita rubescens" (blusher), "Amanita caesarea" (Caesar's mushroom), and "Amanita jacksonii" (American Caesar's mushroom).


title: Amanita

text: Inedible species of "Amanita" include "Amanita albocreata" (ringless panther), "Amanita atkinsoniana", "Amanita citrina" (false death cap), "Amanita excelsa", "Amanita flavorubescens", "Amanita franchetii", "Amanita longipes", "Amanita onusta", "Amanita rhopalopus", "Amanita silvicola", "Amanita sinicoflava", "Amanita spreta", and "Amanita volvata".


title: Amanita

text: Poisonous species include "Amanita brunnescens", "Amanita ceciliae", "Amanita cokeri" (Coker's amanita), "Amanita crenulata", "Amanita farinosa" (eastern American floury amanita), "Amanita frostiana", "Amanita muscaria" (fly agaric), "Amanita pantherina" (panther cap), and "Amanita porphyria".


title: Amanita

text: Deadly poisonous species include "Amanita abrupta", "Amanita arocheae", "Amanita bisporigera" (eastern NA destroying angel), "Amanita exitialis" (Guangzhou destroying angel), "Amanita magnivelaris", "Amanita ocreata" (western NA destroying angel), "Amanita phalloides" (death cap), "Amanita proxima", "Amanita smithiana", "Amanita subjunquillea" (East Asian death cap), "Amanita verna" (fool's mushroom), and "Amanita virosa" (European destroying angel).


title: Amanita

text: "Amanita muscaria" was widely used as an entheogen by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian-speaking peoples of the Russian Far East. There are only isolated reports of "A. muscaria" use among the Tungusic and Turkic peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of "A. muscaria" was not practiced by these peoples.


title: Amanita

text: "Amanita pantherina" contains the psychoactive compound muscimol, but is used as an entheogen much less often than its much more distinguishable relative "A. muscaria".


title: Culture shock

text: Culture shock is an experience a person may have when one moves to a cultural environment which is different from one's own; it is also the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a new country, a move between social environments, or simply transition to another type of life. One of the most common causes of culture shock involves individuals in a foreign environment. Culture shock can be described as consisting of at least one of four distinct phases: honeymoon, negotiation, adjustment, and adaptation.


title: Culture shock

text: Common problems include: information overloads, language barrier, generation gap, technology gap, skill interdependence, formulation dependency, homesickness (cultural), boredom (job dependency), ethnicity, race, skin color, response ability (cultural skill set). There is no true way to entirely prevent culture shock, as individuals in any society are personally affected by cultural contrasts differently.


title: Culture shock

text: Culture shock is experienced by students who participate in study abroad programs. Research considering the study abroad experiences states that in-country support for students may assist them in overcoming the challenges and phases of culture shock. As stated in a study by Young et al., the distress experienced by culture shock has long-lasting effects therefore, universities with well-rounded programs that support students throughout the study abroad program, including preparation and post-program assistance, can alleviate challenges posed by culture shock, allow for global development and assist with the transition back into the home culture.


title: Culture shock

text: Kalervo Oberg first proposed his model of cultural adjustment in a talk to the Women's Club of Rio de Janeiro in 1954.


title: Culture shock

text: During this period, the differences between the old and new culture are seen in a romantic light. For example, in moving to a new country, an individual might love the new food, the pace of life, and the locals' habits. During the first few weeks, most people are fascinated by the new culture. They associate with nationals who speak their language, and who are polite to the foreigners. Like most honeymoon periods, this stage eventually ends.


title: Culture shock

text: After some time (usually around three months, depending on the individual), differences between the old and new culture become apparent and may create anxiety. Excitement may eventually give way to unpleasant feelings of frustration and anger as one continues to experience unfavorable events that may be perceived as strange and offensive to one's cultural attitude. Language barriers, stark differences in public hygiene, traffic safety, food accessibility and quality may heighten the sense of disconnection from the surroundings.


title: Culture shock

text: While being transferred into a different environment puts special pressure on communication skills, there are practical difficulties to overcome, such as circadian rhythm disruption that often leads to insomnia and daylight drowsiness; adaptation of gut flora to different bacteria levels and concentrations in food and water; difficulty in seeking treatment for illness, as medicines may have different names from the native country's and the same active ingredients might be hard to recognize.


title: Culture shock

text: Still, the most important change in the period is communication: People adjusting to a new culture often feel lonely and homesick because they are not yet used to the new environment and meet people with whom they are not familiar every day. The language barrier may become a major obstacle in creating new relationships: special attention must be paid to one's and others' culture-specific body language signs, linguistic faux pas, conversation tone, linguistic nuances and customs, and false friends.


title: Culture shock

text: In the case of students studying abroad, some develop additional symptoms of loneliness that ultimately affect their lifestyles as a whole. Due to the strain of living in a different country without parental support, international students often feel anxious and feel more pressure while adjusting to new cultures—even more so when the cultural distances are wide, as patterns of logic and speech are different and a special emphasis is put on rhetoric.


title: Culture shock

text: Again, after some time (usually 6 to 12 months), one grows accustomed to the new culture and develops routines. One knows what to expect in most situations and the host country no longer feels all that new. One becomes concerned with basic living again, and things become more "normal". One starts to develop problem-solving skills for dealing with the culture and begins to accept the culture's ways with a positive attitude. The culture begins to make sense, and negative reactions and responses to the culture are reduced.


title: Culture shock

text: In the mastery stage individuals are able to participate fully and comfortably in the host culture. Mastery does not mean total conversion; people often keep many traits from their earlier culture, such as accents and languages. It is often referred to as the bicultural stage.


title: Culture shock

text: Gary R. Weaver wrote that culture shock has "three basic causal explanations": loss of familiar cues, the breakdown of interpersonal communications, and an identity crisis. Peter S. Adler emphasized the psychological causes. Tema Milstein wrote that it can have positive effects.


title: Culture shock

text: Reverse culture shock (also known as "re-entry shock" or "own culture shock") may take place—returning to one's home culture after growing accustomed to a new one can produce the same effects as described above. These are results from the psychosomatic and psychological consequences of the readjustment process to the primary culture. The affected person often finds this more surprising and difficult to deal with than the original culture shock. This phenomenon, the reactions that members of the re-entered culture exhibit toward the re-entrant, and the inevitability of the two are encapsulated in the following saying, also the title of a book by Thomas Wolfe: "You Can't Go Home Again".


title: Culture shock

text: Reverse culture shock is generally made up of two parts: idealization and expectations. When an extended period of time is spent abroad we focus on the good from our past, cut out the bad, and create an idealized version of the past. Secondly, once removed from our familiar setting and placed in a foreign one we incorrectly assume that our previous world has not changed. We expect things to remain exactly the same as when we left them. The realization that life back home is now different, that the world has continued without us, and the process of readjusting to these new conditions as well as actualizing our new perceptions about the world with our old way of living causes discomfort and psychological anguish.


title: Culture shock

text: Culture shock has many different effects, time spans, and degrees of severity. Many people are hampered by its presence and do not recognize why they are bothered.


title: Culture shock

text: There is evidence to suggest that the psychological influence of culture shock might also have physiological implications. For example, the psycho-social stress experienced during these circumstances is correlated with an early onset of puberty.


title: Culture shock

text: Culture shock is a subcategory of a more universal construct called transition shock. Transition shock is a state of loss and disorientation predicated by a change in one's familiar environment that requires adjustment. There are many symptoms of transition shock, including:


title: Italian Riviera

text: The Italian Riviera or Ligurian Riviera (; ) is the narrow coastal strip in Italy which lies between the Ligurian Sea and the mountain chain formed by the Maritime Alps and the Apennines. Longitudinally it extends from the border with France and the French Riviera (or "Côte d'Azur") near Ventimiglia (a former customs post) eastwards to Capo Corvo (also known as Punta Bianca) which marks the eastern end of the Gulf of La Spezia and is close to the regional border between Liguria and Tuscany. The Italian Riviera thus includes nearly all of the coastline of Liguria. Historically the "Riviera" extended further to the west, through what is now French territory as far as Marseille.


title: Italian Riviera

text: The Italian Riviera crosses all four Ligurian provinces and their capitals Genoa, Savona, Imperia and La Spezia, with a total length of about 350 km (218 miles). It is customarily divided into a western section, the Ponente Riviera, and an eastern section, the Levante Riviera, the point of division being the apex of the Ligurian arc at Voltri. It has about 1.6 million inhabitants, and most of the population is concentrated within the coastal area. Its mild climate draws an active tourist trade in the numerous coastal resorts, which include Alassio, Bonassola, Bordighera, Camogli, Cinque Terre, Lerici, Levanto, Noli, Portofino, Porto Venere, Santa Margherita Ligure, Sanremo, San Fruttuoso, and Sestri Levante. It is also known for its historical association with international celebrity and artistic visitors; writers and poets like Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron, Ezra Pound, and Ernest Hemingway were inspired by the beauty and spirit of Liguria.


title: Italian Riviera

text: As a tourist centre, the Italian Riviera benefits from over 300 days of sunshine per year, and is known for its beaches, colourfully painted towns, natural environment, food, and luxury villas and hotels, as well as for its popular resort facilities, major yachting and cruising areas with several marinas, festivals, golf courses, sailing, rock climbing and scenic views of centuries old farmhouses and cottages.


title: Italian Riviera

text: Industries are concentrated in and around Genoa, Savona, and along the shores of the Gulf of La Spezia. Genoa and La Spezia are Italy's leading shipyards; La Spezia is Italy's major naval base, and Savona is a major centre of the Italian iron industry. Chemical, textile, and food industries are also important.


title: Italian Riviera

text: The Riviera's centre is Genoa, which divides it into two main sections: the Riviera di Ponente (“the coast of the setting sun”), extending westwards from Genoa to the French border; and the Riviera di Levante (“the coast of the rising sun”) between Genoa and Capo Corvo.


title: Italian Riviera

text: It is known for its mild climate and its reputation for a relaxed way of life, old fishing ports, and landscapes. It has been a popular destination for travellers and tourists since the time of Byron and Percy Shelley.


title: Italian Riviera

text: Many villages and towns in the area are internationally known, such as Portofino, Bordighera, Lerici and the Cinque Terre.


title: Italian Riviera

text: The part of the Riviera di Ponente centred on Savona, is called the Riviera delle Palme (the Riviera of palms); the part centred on Sanremo, is the Riviera dei Fiori, after the long-established flower growing industry.


title: Naked Singularity (film)

text: Naked Singularity is a 2021 American black comedy crime thriller film, directed by Chase Palmer in his directorial debut, from a screenplay by Palmer and David Matthews. It is based upon the 2008 novel of the same name by Sergio De La Pava. It stars John Boyega, Olivia Cooke, Bill Skarsgård, Ed Skrein, Linda Lavin, and Tim Blake Nelson.


title: Naked Singularity (film)

text: It had its world premiere at the San Francisco International Film Festival on April 9, 2021, and was released in a limited release on August 6, 2021, prior to VOD on August 13, 2021, by Screen Media Films.


title: Naked Singularity (film)

text: "An idealistic young New York City public defender burned out by the system, on the brink of disbarment, and seeing signs of the universe collapsing all around him decides to rob a multi-million drug deal of one of his clients."


title: Naked Singularity (film)

text: In December 2018, it was announced John Boyega had joined the cast of the film, with Chase Palmer directing from a screenplay he wrote alongside David Matthews. Ridley Scott will serve as an executive producer under his Scott Free Productions banner. Dick Wolf will also serve as an executive producer. In April 2019, Olivia Cooke joined the cast of the film. In May 2019, Ed Skrein and Bill Skarsgård joined the cast of the film.


title: Naked Singularity (film)

text: It had its world premiere at the San Francisco International Film Festival on April 9, 2021. In June 2021, Screen Media Films acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released in a limited release on August 6, 2021, prior to video on demand on August 13, 2021.


title: Naked Singularity (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 26% based on 38 reviews, and an average rating of 4.70/10. The critics' consensus reads: ""Naked Singularity" has wild ambition and a talented lead on its side, but neither ingredient is enough to offset the film's clumsy jumble of tones and ideas". On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 36 out of 100 based on 12 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Seismic magnitude scales are used to describe the overall strength or "size" of an earthquake. These are distinguished from seismic intensity scales that categorize the intensity or severity of ground shaking (quaking) caused by an earthquake at a given location. Magnitudes are usually determined from measurements of an earthquake's seismic waves as recorded on a seismogram. Magnitude scales vary on what aspect of the seismic waves are measured and how they are measured. Different magnitude scales are necessary because of differences in earthquakes, the information available, and the purposes for which the magnitudes are used.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: The Earth's crust is stressed by tectonic forces. When this stress becomes great enough to rupture the crust, or to overcome the friction that prevents one block of crust from slipping past another, energy is released, some of it in the form of various kinds of seismic waves that cause ground-shaking, or quaking.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: "Magnitude" is an estimate of the relative "size" or strength of an "earthquake", and thus its potential for causing ground-shaking. It is "approximately related to the released seismic energy."


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: "Intensity" refers to the strength or force of "shaking" at a given location, and can be related to the peak ground velocity. With an isoseismal map of the observed intensities (see illustration) an earthquake's magnitude can be estimated from both the maximum intensity observed (usually but not always near the epicenter), and from the extent of the area where the earthquake was felt.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: The intensity of local ground-shaking depends on several factors besides the magnitude of the earthquake, one of the most important being soil conditions. For instance, thick layers of soft soil (such as fill) can amplify seismic waves, often at a considerable distance from the source, while sedimentary basins will often resonate, increasing the duration of shaking. This is why, in the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, the Marina district of San Francisco was one of the most damaged areas, though it was nearly 100 km from the epicenter. Geological structures were also significant, such as where seismic waves passing under the south end of San Francisco Bay reflected off the base of the Earth's crust towards San Francisco and Oakland. A similar effect channeled seismic waves between the other major faults in the area.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: An earthquake radiates energy in the form of different kinds of seismic waves, whose characteristics reflect the nature of both the rupture and the earth's crust the waves travel through. Determination of an earthquake's magnitude generally involves identifying specific kinds of these waves on a seismogram, and then measuring one or more characteristics of a wave, such as its timing, orientation, amplitude, frequency, or duration. Additional adjustments are made for distance, kind of crust, and the characteristics of the seismograph that recorded the seismogram.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: The various magnitude scales represent different ways of deriving magnitude from such information as is available. All magnitude scales retain the logarithmic scale as devised by Charles Richter, and are adjusted so the mid-range approximately correlates with the original "Richter" scale.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Most magnitude scales are based on measurements of only part of an earthquake's seismic wave-train, and therefore are incomplete. This results in systematic underestimation of magnitude in certain cases, a condition called "saturation".


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Since 2005 the International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior (IASPEI) has standardized the measurement procedures and equations for the principal magnitude scales, , , , and .


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: The first scale for measuring earthquake magnitudes, developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter and popularly known as the "Richter" scale, is actually the , label ML or M. Richter established two features now common to all magnitude scales.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: All "Local" (ML) magnitudes are based on the maximum amplitude of the ground shaking, without distinguishing the different seismic waves. They underestimate the strength:


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: The original "Richter" scale, developed in the geological context of Southern California and Nevada, was later found to be inaccurate for earthquakes in the central and eastern parts of the continent (everywhere east of the Rocky Mountains) because of differences in the continental crust. All these problems prompted the development of other scales.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Most seismological authorities, such as the United States Geological Survey, report earthquake magnitudes above 4.0 as "moment magnitude" (below), which the press describes as "Richter magnitude".


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Richter's original "local" scale has been adapted for other localities. These may be labelled "ML", or with a lowercase "l", either Ml, or M. (Not to be confused with the Russian surface-wave MLH scale.)


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Whether the values are comparable depends on whether the local conditions have been adequately determined and the formula suitably adjusted.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: In Japan, for shallow (depth < 60 km) earthquakes within 600 km, the Japanese Meteorological Agency calculates a magnitude labeled MJMA, M, or M. (These should not be confused with moment magnitudes JMA calculates, which are labeled M(JMA) or M, nor with the Shindo intensity scale.) JMA magnitudes are based (as typical with local scales) on the maximum amplitude of the ground motion; they agree "rather well" with the seismic moment magnitude in the range of 4.5 to 7.5, but underestimate larger magnitudes.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Body-waves consist of P-waves that are the first to arrive (see seismogram), or S-waves, or reflections of either. Body-waves travel through rock directly.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: The original "body-wave magnitude" – mB or m (uppercase "B") – was developed by and to overcome the distance and magnitude limitations of the scale inherent in the use of surface waves. is based on the P- and S-waves, measured over a longer period, and does not saturate until around M 8. However, it is not sensitive to events smaller than about M 5.5. Use of as originally defined has been largely abandoned, now replaced by the standardized scale.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: The mb or m scale (lowercase "m" and "b") is similar to , but uses only P-waves measured in the first few seconds on a specific model of short-period seismograph. It was introduced in the 1960s with the establishment of the "World-Wide Standardized Seismograph Network" (WWSSN); the short period improves detection of smaller events, and better discriminates between tectonic earthquakes and underground nuclear explosions.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Measurement of has changed several times. As originally defined by m was based on the maximum amplitude of waves in the first 10 seconds or more. However, the length of the period influences the magnitude obtained. Early USGS/NEIC practice was to measure on the first second (just the first few P-waves), but since 1978 they measure the first twenty seconds. The modern practice is to measure short-period scale at less than three seconds, while the broadband scale is measured at periods of up to 30 seconds.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: The regional mb scale – also denoted mb_Lg, mbLg, MLg (USGS), Mn, and m – was developed by for a problem the original M scale could not handle: all of North America east of the Rocky Mountains. The M scale was developed in southern California, which lies on blocks of oceanic crust, typically basalt or sedimentary rock, which have been accreted to the continent. East of the Rockies the continent is a craton, a thick and largely stable mass of continental crust that is largely granite, a harder rock with different seismic characteristics. In this area the M scale gives anomalous results for earthquakes which by other measures seemed equivalent to quakes in California.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Nuttli resolved this by measuring the amplitude of short-period (~1 sec.) Lg waves, a complex form of the Love wave which, although a surface wave, he found provided a result more closely related to the scale than the scale. Lg waves attenuate quickly along any oceanic path, but propagate well through the granitic continental crust, and Mb is often used in areas of stable continental crust; it is especially useful for detecting underground nuclear explosions.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Surface waves propagate along the Earth's surface, and are principally either Rayleigh waves or Love waves. For shallow earthquakes the surface waves carry most of the energy of the earthquake, and are the most destructive. Deeper earthquakes, having less interaction with the surface, produce weaker surface waves.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: The surface-wave magnitude scale, variously denoted as Ms, M, and M, is based on a procedure developed by Beno Gutenberg in 1942 for measuring shallow earthquakes stronger or more distant than Richter's original scale could handle. Notably, it measured the amplitude of surface waves (which generally produce the largest amplitudes) for a period of "about 20 seconds". The scale approximately agrees with at ~6, then diverges by as much as half a magnitude. A revision by , sometimes labeled M, measures only waves of the first second.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: A modification – the "Moscow-Prague formula" – was proposed in 1962, and recommended by the IASPEI in 1967; this is the basis of the standardized M scale (Ms_20, M(20)). A "broad-band" variant (Ms_BB, M(BB)) measures the largest velocity amplitude in the Rayleigh-wave train for periods up to 60 seconds. The M scale used in China is a variant of M calibrated for use with the Chinese-made "type 763" long-period seismograph.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Other magnitude scales are based on aspects of seismic waves that only indirectly and incompletely reflect the force of an earthquake, involve other factors, and are generally limited in some respect of magnitude, focal depth, or distance. The "moment magnitude scale" – Mw or M – developed by and , is based on an earthquake's "seismic moment", M, a measure of how much work an earthquake does in sliding one patch of rock past another patch of rock. Seismic moment is measured in Newton-meters (Nm or ) in the SI system of measurement, or dyne-centimeters (dyn-cm; ) in the older CGS system. In the simplest case the moment can be calculated knowing only the amount of slip, the area of the surface ruptured or slipped, and a factor for the resistance or friction encountered. These factors can be estimated for an existing fault to determine the magnitude of past earthquakes, or what might be anticipated for the future.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: An earthquake's seismic moment can be estimated in various ways, which are the bases of the M, M, M, M, M, M, and M scales, all subtypes of the generic M scale. See for details.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Seismic moment is considered the most objective measure of an earthquake's "size" in regard of total energy. However, it is based on a simple model of rupture, and on certain simplifying assumptions; it does not account for the fact that the proportion of energy radiated as seismic waves varies among earthquakes.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Much of an earthquake's total energy as measured by is dissipated as friction (resulting in heating of the crust). An earthquake's potential to cause strong ground shaking depends on the comparatively small fraction of energy radiated as seismic waves, and is better measured on the "energy magnitude" scale, M. The proportion of total energy radiated as seismic waves varies greatly depending on focal mechanism and tectonic environment; and for very similar earthquakes can differ by as much as 1.4 units.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Despite the usefulness of the scale, it is not generally used due to difficulties in estimating the radiated seismic energy.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: K (from the Russian word класс, "class", in the sense of a category) is a measure of earthquake magnitude in the "energy class" or "K-class" system, developed in 1955 by Soviet seismologists in the remote Garm (Tadjikistan) region of Central Asia; in revised form it is still used for local and regional quakes in many states formerly aligned with the Soviet Union (including Cuba). Based on seismic energy (K = log E, in Joules), difficulty in implementing it using the technology of the time led to revisions in 1958 and 1960. Adaptation to local conditions has led to various regional K scales, such as K and K.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: K values are logarithmic, similar to Richter-style magnitudes, but have a different scaling and zero point. K values in the range of 12 to 15 correspond approximately to M 4.5 to 6. M(K), M, or possibly M indicates a magnitude M calculated from an energy class K.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Earthquakes that generate tsunamis generally rupture relatively slowly, delivering more energy at longer periods (lower frequencies) than generally used for measuring magnitudes. Any skew in the spectral distribution can result in larger, or smaller, tsunamis than expected for a nominal magnitude. The tsunami magnitude scale, M, is based on a correlation by Katsuyuki Abe of earthquake seismic moment () with the amplitude of tsunami waves as measured by tidal gauges. Originally intended for estimating the magnitude of historic earthquakes where seismic data is lacking but tidal data exist, the correlation can be reversed to predict tidal height from earthquake magnitude. (Not to be confused with the height of a tidal wave, or "run-up", which is an intensity effect controlled by local topography.) Under low-noise conditions, tsunami waves as little as 5 cm can be predicted, corresponding to an earthquake of M ~6.5.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Another scale of particular importance for tsunami warnings is the mantle magnitude scale, M. This is based on Rayleigh waves that penetrate into the Earth's mantle, and can be determined quickly, and without complete knowledge of other parameters such as the earthquake's depth.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: M designates various scales that estimate magnitude from the "duration" or length of some part of the seismic wave-train. This is especially useful for measuring local or regional earthquakes, both powerful earthquakes that might drive the seismometer off-scale (a problem with the analog instruments formerly used) and preventing measurement of the maximum wave amplitude, and weak earthquakes, whose maximum amplitude is not accurately measured. Even for distant earthquakes, measuring the duration of the shaking (as well as the amplitude) provides a better measure of the earthquake's total energy. Measurement of duration is incorporated in some modern scales, such as and .


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: M scales usually measure the duration or amplitude of a part of the seismic wave, the "coda". For short distances (less than ~100 km) these can provide a quick estimate of magnitude before the quake's exact location is known.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Magnitude scales generally are based on instrumental measurement of some aspect of the seismic wave as recorded on a seismogram. Where such records do not exist, magnitudes can be estimated from reports of the macroseismic events such as described by intensity scales.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: One approach for doing this (developed by Beno Gutenberg and Charles Richter in 1942) relates the maximum intensity observed (presumably this is over the epicenter), denoted "I" (capital I with a subscripted zero), to the magnitude. It has been recommended that magnitudes calculated on this basis be labeled "M(I)", but are sometimes labeled with a more generic M.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Another approach is to make an "isoseismal map" showing the area over which a given level of intensity was felt. The size of the "felt area" can also be related to the magnitude (based on the work of and ). While the recommended label for magnitudes derived in this way is "M(An)", the more commonly seen label is M. A variant, M, adapted to California and Hawaii, derives the Local magnitude (M) from the size of the area affected by a given intensity. M (upper-case letter "I", distinguished from the lower-case letter in M) has been used for moment magnitudes estimated from "isoseismal intensities" calculated per .


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: "Peak ground velocity" (PGV) and "Peak ground acceleration" (PGA) are measures of the force that causes destructive ground shaking. In Japan, a network of strong-motion accelerometers provides PGA data that permits site-specific correlation with different magnitude earthquakes. This correlation can be inverted to estimate the ground shaking at that site due to an earthquake of a given magnitude at a given distance. From this a map showing areas of likely damage can be prepared within minutes of an actual earthquake.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: Many earthquake magnitude scales have been developed or proposed, with some never gaining broad acceptance and remaining only as obscure references in historical catalogs of earthquakes. Other scales have been used without a definite name, often referred to as "the method of Smith (1965)" (or similar language), with the authors often revising their method. On top of this, seismological networks vary on how they measure seismograms. Where the details of how a magnitude has been determined are unknown, catalogs will specify the scale as unknown (variously Unk, Ukn, or UK). In such cases, the magnitude is considered generic and approximate.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: An M ("magnitude determined by hand") label has been used where the magnitude is too small or the data too poor (typically from analog equipment) to determine a Local magnitude, or multiple shocks or cultural noise complicates the records. The Southern California Seismic Network uses this "magnitude" where the data fail the quality criteria.


title: Seismic magnitude scales

text: A special case is the "Seismicity of the Earth" catalog of . Hailed as a milestone as a comprehensive global catalog of earthquakes with uniformly calculated magnitudes, they never published the full details of how they determined those magnitudes. Consequently, while some catalogs identify these magnitudes as M, others use UK (meaning "computational method unknown"). Subsequent study found many of the values to be "considerably overestimated." Further study has found that most of the magnitudes "are basically for large shocks shallower than 40 km, but are basically for large shocks at depths of 40–60 km." Gutenberg and Richter also used an italic, non-bold ""M" without subscript" – also used as a generic magnitude, and not to be confused with the bold, non-italic M used for "moment magnitude" – and a "unified magnitude" m (bolding added). While these terms (with various adjustments) were used in scientific articles into the 1970s, they are now only of historical interest. An ordinary (non-italic, non-bold) capital "M" without subscript is often used to refer to magnitude generically, where an exact value or the specific scale used is not important.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: The Hundred Flowers Campaign, also termed the Hundred Flowers Movement (), was a period from 1956 to 1957 in the People's Republic of China during which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) encouraged citizens to openly express their opinions of the Communist Party. Following the failure of the campaign, CCP Chairman Mao Zedong conducted an ideological crackdown on those who criticized the party, which continued through 1959.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: During the campaign, differing views and solutions to national policy were encouraged based on the famous expression by Mao: "The policy of letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend is designed to promote the flourishing of the arts and the progress of science." The movement was in part a response to the demoralization of intellectuals, who felt estranged from the Communist Party. After this brief period of liberalization, the crackdown continued through 1957 and 1959 as an Anti-Rightist campaign against those who were critical of the regime and its ideology. Citizens were rounded up in waves by the hundreds of thousands, publicly criticized, and condemned to prison camps for re-education through labor, or even execution. The ideological crackdown re-imposed Maoist orthodoxy in public expression, and catalyzed the Anti-Rightist Movement.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: Mao had used this to signal what he had wanted from the intellectuals of the country, for different and competing ideologies to voice their opinions about the issues of the day. He alluded to the Warring States period when numerous schools of thought competed for ideological, not military, supremacy. Historically, Confucianism and Chinese Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism had gained prominence, and socialism would now face its test.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: The campaign publicly began in late 1956. In the opening stage of the movement, issues discussed were relatively minor and unimportant in the grand scheme. The Central Government did not receive much criticism, although there was a significant rise in letters of conservative advice. Premier Zhou Enlai received some of these letters, and once again realized that, although the campaign had gained notable publicity, it was not progressing as had been hoped. Zhou approached Mao about the situation, stating that more encouragement was needed from the central bureaucracy to lead the intellectuals into further discussion.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: Mao Zedong found the concept interesting and had superseded Zhou to take control. The idea was to have intellectuals discuss the country's problems in order to promote new forms of arts and new cultural institutions. Mao also saw this as the chance to promote socialism, believing that after discussion it would be apparent that socialist ideology was the dominant ideology over capitalism, even amongst non-communist Chinese, and would thus propel the development and spread of the goals of socialism.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: The beginning of the Hundred Flowers Movement was marked by a speech titled "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People", published on 27 February 1957, in which Mao displayed open support for the campaign. The speech encouraged people to vent their criticisms as long as they were "constructive" (i.e., "among the people") rather than "hateful and destructive" (i.e., "between the enemy and ourselves").Our society cannot back down, it could only progress...criticism of the bureaucracy is pushing the government towards the better.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: By the spring of 1957, Mao had announced that criticism was "preferred" and had begun to mount pressure on those who did not turn in healthy criticism on policy to the Central Government. The reception was immediate with intellectuals, who began voicing concerns without any taboo. In the period from 1 May to 7 June that year, millions of letters were pouring into the Premier's Office and other authorities.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: From May to June 1957, newspapers published a huge range of critical articles. The majority of these critiques argued that the Party had become less revolutionary and more bureaucratic. Nonetheless, most of the commentary was premised on complete acceptance of socialism and the legitimacy of the Communist Party and focused on making the existing socialist system work better.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: People spoke out by putting up posters around campuses, rallying in the streets, holding meetings for CPC members, and publishing magazine articles. For example, students at Peking University created a "Democratic Wall" on which they criticized the CPC with posters and letters. They protested CPC control over intellectuals, the harshness of previous mass campaigns such as that against counter-revolutionaries, the slavish following of Soviet models, the low standards of living in China, the proscription of foreign literature, economic corruption among party cadres, and the fact that 'Party members [enjoyed] many privileges which make them a race apart'.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: In July 1957, Mao ordered a halt to the campaign. Unexpected demands for power sharing led to the abrupt change of policy. By that time, Mao had witnessed Nikita Khrushchev denouncing Joseph Stalin and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, events which he felt threatening. Mao's earlier speech, "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People", was significantly changed and appeared later on as an Anti-Rightist piece in itself.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: The campaign made a lasting impact on Mao's ideological perception. Mao, who is known historically to be more ideological and theoretical, less pragmatic and practical, continued to attempt to solidify socialist ideals in future movements, and in the case of the Cultural Revolution, employed more violent means. Another consequence of the Hundred Flowers Campaign was that it discouraged dissent and made intellectuals reluctant to criticize Mao and his party in the future. The Anti-Rightist Movement that shortly followed, and was possibly caused by the Hundred Flowers Campaign, resulted in the persecution of intellectuals, officials, students, artists, and dissidents labeled "rightists." The campaign led to a loss of individual rights, especially for any Chinese intellectuals educated in Western centers of learning.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: The Hundred Flowers Movement was the first of its kind in the history of the People's Republic of China in that the government opened up to ideological criticisms from the general public. Although its true nature has always been questioned by historians, it can be generally concluded that the events that took place alarmed the central communist leadership. The movement also represented a pattern that has emerged from Chinese history wherein free thought is promoted by the government, and then suppressed by it. A similar surge in ideological thought would not occur again until the late 1980s, leading up to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The latter surge, however, did not receive the same amount of government backing and encouragement.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: Another important issue of the campaign was the tension that surfaced between the political center and national minorities. With criticism allowed, some of the minorities' activists made public their protest against "Han chauvinism" which they saw the informal approach of party officials toward the local specifics.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: Historians debate whether Mao's motivations for launching the campaign were genuine. Some find it possible that Mao originally had pure intentions, but later decided to utilize the opportunity to destroy criticism. Historian Jonathan Spence suggests that the campaign was the culmination of a muddled and convoluted dispute within the Party regarding how to address dissent.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: Authors Clive James and Jung Chang posit that the campaign was, from the start, a ruse intended to expose rightists and counter-revolutionaries, and that Mao Zedong persecuted those whose views were different from those of the Party. The first part of the phrase from which the campaign takes its name is often remembered as "let a hundred flowers bloom." This is used to refer to an orchestrated campaign to flush out dissidents by encouraging them to show themselves as critical of the regime, and then subsequently imprison them, according to Chang and James.


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: In "" by Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, Chang asserts that "Mao was setting a trap, and...was inviting people to speak out so that he could use what they said as an excuse to victimise them." Prominent critic Harry Wu, who as a teenager was a victim, later wrote that he "could only assume that Mao never meant what he said, that he was setting a trap for millions."


title: Hundred Flowers Campaign

text: Mao's personal physician, Li Zhisui, suggested that:[The campaign was] a gamble, based on a calculation that genuine counterrevolutionaries were few, that rebels like Hu Feng had been permanently intimidated into silence, and that other intellectuals would follow Mao's lead, speaking out only against the people and practices Mao himself most wanted to subject to reform.Professor Lin Chun characterizes the argument that the Hundred Flowers campaign was a calculated trap as a "conspiracy theory." In her analysis, the "conspiracy theory" is disputed by empirical research from archival sources and oral histories. She writes that many interpretations of the Hundred Flowers campaign "underestimate the fear on the part of Mao and party leadership over an escalating atmosphere of anticommunism within the communist world in the aftermath of the East European uprisings."


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: Muppet Treasure Island is a 1996 American musical swashbuckler comedy film directed by Brian Henson. It is the fifth theatrical film in "The Muppets" franchise.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: Adapted from the 1883 novel "Treasure Island" by Robert Louis Stevenson, similarly to its predecessor "The Muppet Christmas Carol" (1992), the key roles were played by live-action actors, with the Muppets in supporting roles. In addition to the Muppet performers in various roles, the film stars Tim Curry and introduces Kevin Bishop as Jim Hawkins.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: The film was released in the United States on February 16, 1996, by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution. It grossed $34 million on a budget of $31 million, and received generally positive reviews from critics. It is the second Muppets film to be produced by Walt Disney Pictures, whose parent company would later acquire the Muppets franchise in 2004.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: Jim Hawkins is a young orphan who lives in an inn in England with his best friends Gonzo and Rizzo. Jim listens to Billy Bones' tales about the pirate Captain Flint, who buried his treasure trove on a remote island and executed his crew so only he would own the island's map. One night, Bones' crewmate Blind Pew arrives, giving Bones the black spot. Just before dying of a heart attack, Bones gives Jim the treasure map and begs him to go after the treasure and keep it safe from pirate hands, especially a one-legged man. Just then, an army of pirates attack the inn, destroying it, but Jim, Gonzo, and Rizzo escape with the map.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: The trio takes the map to the half-wit Squire Trelawney (Fozzie Bear), who arranges a voyage to find the treasure. The boys are enlisted aboard the "Hispaniola" as cabin boys, accompanied by Trelawney, Dr. Livesey (Bunsen Honeydew), and Beaker. The ship is commanded by Captain Abraham Smollett (Kermit the Frog) and his overly strict first mate, Mr. Arrow (Sam Eagle). The boys meet the cook Long John Silver, the one-legged man whom Bones warned them of, but Jim and Silver become good friends. The ship sets sail, but Smollett is suspicious of the crew, believing them to be of shady character. After Gonzo and Rizzo are kidnapped and tortured by three of the crew who have turned out to be pirates, he has the treasure map locked up for safe keeping.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: It is revealed that Silver and the secret pirates in the crew had been part of Flint's crew and want the treasure for themselves. Silver fools Mr. Arrow into leaving the ship to test out a rowboat, says he drowned, and has his minions steal the map during Arrow's memorial service. Jim, Gonzo, and Rizzo discover Silver's treachery and inform Smollett. Arriving at Treasure Island, Smollett orders the entire crew save the officers to go ashore, planning to keep himself and non-pirate crew aboard the ship and abandon the pirates on the island. However, his plan falls through when it is discovered that Silver has kidnapped Jim to have leverage against the captain. On the island, Silver invites Jim to join them in the treasure hunt using his late father's compass. When Jim refuses, Silver forcibly takes the compass from him. Smollett, Gonzo, and Rizzo land on the island in an effort to rescue Jim. However, unbeknownst to them, Silver had hidden a squad of pirates aboard the "Hispaniola" before leaving, and they capture the ship in Smollett's absence. On the island, Smollett and the rest of the landing party are captured by the native tribe of pigs, where Smollett reunites with his jilted lover Benjamina Gunn (Miss Piggy), the tribe's queen.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: The pirates find that the cave in which Flint hid the treasure is empty, leading to a brief mutiny against Silver. Silver reveals that, even though he is a pirate, he cares for Jim and allows him to escape. After reprimanding the crew from using a page from the Bible to deliver a death sentence, Silver and his crew capture Smollett and Benjamina. Smollett is hung from a cliff to fall to his death, joined soon by Benjamina after she reveals where the treasure is hidden to save his life. Jim rescues his friends and with an alive Mr. Arrow, who portrays his own ghost to scare the pirates aboard the ship, the group regains control of the "Hispaniola" and rescues Smollett and Benjamina.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: The group engages the remaining pirates in a sword fight on the beach with Sweetums defecting to Smollett's side until only Silver is left standing, but he surrenders when he finds himself outnumbered. While the pirates are imprisoned, Silver discovers he still has Mr. Arrow's keys and tries to escape with the treasure during the night. Jim confronts him and threatens to give his position away, while Silver draws his pistol. In a tearful standoff, neither can bring themselves to follow their threats and Jim allows Silver to leave as long as they never cross paths again, much to their disappointment. Silver rows away, but not before returning Jim's compass to him and complimenting his kind heart. However, Mr. Arrow informs Jim and Smollett that the boat Silver used was not seaworthy, and Silver is later stranded on Treasure Island.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: The crew of the "Hispaniola" sails away into the sunset, but not before some scuba-diving rat tourists recover the treasure from the sea.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: Following the release of "The Muppet Christmas Carol" (1992), it was decided that the next Muppet film would be an adaptation of a classic story. Co-writer Kirk R. Thatcher stated: "There were a whole bunch of ideas out there and I was most keen [on] "Treasure Island" and a King Arthur story with medival dragons and knights, in the end we all agreed as a group that "Treasure Island" was a better story for the Muppets to take on." In the first draft, Gonzo and Rizzo were initially written to portray two characters named Jim and Hawkins, but Thatcher explained that "the studio was nervous that they couldn't hold the emotional heart of the movie, so eventually the human Jim Hawkins was written in, and we cast Gonzo and Rizzo alongside him." About a hundred actors auditioned the role of Jim Hawkins, but Kevin Bishop, who did the very first audition, received the part.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: In May 1993, Brian Henson announced that the Muppets would appear in a loose film adaptation of "Treasure Island". Filming was slated to begin in the fall in London with a tentative release date slated for spring 1994. While the film did not have a distributor at the time, Walt Disney Pictures had a first-look deal. Veteran Muppet performer Frank Oz was unavailable for most of the shooting due to scheduling conflicts with his directing career, so fellow Muppet performer Kevin Clash puppeteered his characters on set, while Oz dubbed the voices in post-production. Oz had already participated in a recorded read-through of the script; Clash used these recordings to help prompt his performances. According to Clash, Oz gave him a brief description of each of his characters prior to shooting. Oz described Miss Piggy as "a truck driver wanting to be a woman", and Fozzie Bear as somebody similar to Jerry Lewis.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: "The Muppet Treasure Island: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack" features an instrumental score by Hans Zimmer, with additional music by Nick Glennie-Smith and Harry Gregson-Williams, as well as songs written by pop songwriters Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil. The film's ending includes the reggae number "Love Power" performed by Ziggy Marley and the Melody Makers, which was released as a single and promoted with a music video featuring Marley and some Muppets with dreadlocks.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: To coincide with the film's theatrical release, a making-of documentary featuring the filmmakers and the Muppets aired on the Disney Channel on February 2, 1996. On February 14, 1996, Jim Henson Video released a direct-to-video "Muppet Sing Alongs" VHS entitled "Muppet Treasure Island", which was hosted by Kermit the Frog and featured two musical numbers from the film. On January 31, 1999, the film made its network television premiere on ABC as part of "The Wonderful World of Disney" serving as counterprogramming to Fox's coverage of Super Bowl XXXIII.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: "Muppet Treasure Island" was the second "Muppet" film co-produced and released by Walt Disney Pictures, following "The Muppet Christmas Carol". It has been made available on home video formats. Walt Disney Home Video and Jim Henson Video first released the film on VHS on September 10, 1996. During its initial home video release, it had sold an estimated 5 million VHS copies. The film was re-released on a "Special Edition" DVD in Region 1 on August 8, 2000.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: The first DVD re-release in the U.S. was on June 4, 2002, and was a fullscreen-only version. Other releases of these were in widescreen only format. The DVD release has 3 bonus features added like "Hidden Treasure Commentary", "The Tale of the Story Behind the Tail" and "Treasure Island Sing-Along" (but the menus were in widescreen format). Walt Disney Home Entertainment re-released the film on DVD on November 29, 2005, in conjunction with Kermit the Frog's 50th-anniversary celebration; this time the DVD contained both full-screen and widescreen presentations. The film made its debut on Blu-ray Disc on December 10, 2013 as part of a two-movie bundle with "The Great Muppet Caper".


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: "Muppet Treasure Island" opened on February 16, 1996 in 2,070 venues and earned $7.9 million over the weekend, ranking third at the North American box office behind the second weekend of "Broken Arrow" and fellow newcomer "Happy Gilmore". At the time, it held the record for having the biggest opening weekend gross for a Disney film in February. It ultimately grossed $34.3 million domestically.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Though less Muppet-centric than the original trilogy, "Muppet Treasure Island" is an energetic, cheerful take on Robert Louis Stevenson's classic adventure, with typically solid gags." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 64 out of 100 based on 18 reviews, indicating “generally favorable reviews.” Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average rating of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" praised the playfulness of the Muppets as keeping "the story amusingly off-kilter. The mood is perfectly in keeping with the notion of the Muppets as contemporary children dressing up and improvising their own versions of classic tales." Ken Tucker, reviewing for "Entertainment Weekly", gave the film a B+ noting that "the film is notably handsome in a dark, foreboding way. The Muppet action blends seamlessly with the human actors, and adults will be kept giggling with wittily anachronistic jokes about codependence, water-skiing, and Henry Kissinger."


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: Roger Ebert, reviewing for the "Chicago Sun-Times", gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four. While he was favorable to Tim Curry's performance, he summarized the film as being "less cleverly written, and for moi it's a near miss." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film two stars out of four writing that the film was a "boring Muppet adventure that doesn't successfully meld the Muppets into a conventional buried-treasure story. I wanted the Muppets to play themselves rather than phony pirate-related characters."


title: Muppet Treasure Island

text: The Hormel Foods Corporation (the creators of Spam) sued Jim Henson Productions for using the name "Spa'am" for one of the film's tribal pig characters. The judge dismissed their suit on September 22, 1995 after a trial for failure to prove damages, noting, "one might think Hormel would welcome the association with a genuine source of pork." When Spa'am later appeared as a racing boss in "Muppet RaceMania", he was credited as "Pig Chief".


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (shortened as Roman or the Roman Space Telescope, and formerly the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope or WFIRST) is a NASA infrared space telescope currently in development and scheduled to launch by May 2027. Roman was recommended in 2010 by the United States National Research Council Decadal Survey committee as the top priority for the next decade of astronomy. On 17 February 2016, WFIRST was approved for development and launch.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: The Roman Space Telescope is based on an existing wide field of view primary mirror and will carry two scientific instruments. The Wide-Field Instrument (WFI) is a 300.8-megapixel multi-band visible and near-infrared camera, providing a sharpness of images comparable to that achieved by the Hubble Space Telescope over a 0.28 square degree field of view, 100 times larger than imaging cameras on the Hubble. The Coronagraphic Instrument (CGI) is a high-contrast, small field of view camera and spectrometer covering visible and near-infrared wavelengths using novel starlight-suppression technology.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: Stated objectives include a search for extra-solar planets using gravitational microlensing, along with probing the chronology of the universe and growth of cosmic structure, with the end goal of measuring the effects of dark energy, the consistency of general relativity, and the curvature of spacetime.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: On 20 May 2020, NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine announced that the mission would be named the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope in recognition of the former NASA Chief of Astronomy's role in the field of astronomy. On 29 September 2021, NASA announced that Roman had passed its Critical Design Review (CDR), and that with predicted impacts from COVID-19 disruptions, the launch date would be no later than May 2027.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: As of July 2022, Roman is scheduled to be launched on a Falcon Heavy launch vehicle under a contract specifying readiness by October 2026 in support of a NASA launch commitment of May 2027.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: The original design of Roman, called WFIRST Design Reference Mission 1, was studied in 2011–2012, featuring a diameter unobstructed three-mirror anastigmat telescope. It contained a single instrument, a visible to near-infrared imager/slitless prism spectrometer.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: In 2012, another possibility emerged: NASA could use a second-hand National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) telescope made by Harris Corporation to accomplish a mission like the one planned for Roman. NRO offered to donate two telescopes, the same size as the Hubble Space Telescope but with a shorter focal length and hence a wider field of view. This provided important political momentum to the project, even though the telescope represents only a modest fraction of the cost of the mission and the boundary conditions from the NRO design may push the total cost over that of a fresh design. This mission concept, called WFIRST-AFTA (Astrophysics Focused Telescope Assets), was matured by a scientific and technical team; this mission is now the only present NASA plan for the use of the NRO telescopes. The Roman baseline design includes a coronagraph to enable the direct imaging of exoplanets.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: Several implementations of WFIRST/Roman were studied. These included the Joint Dark Energy Mission-Omega configuration, an Interim Design Reference Mission featuring a telescope, Design Reference Mission 1 with a 1.3 m telescope, Design Reference Mission 2, with a telescope, and several iterations of the AFTA configuration. In the 2015 "Final" report, Roman was considered for both geosynchronous and L2 orbits. L2 has disadvantages versus geosynchronous orbit in available data rate and propellant required, but advantages for improved observing constraints, better thermal stability, and more benign radiation environment. Some science cases (such as exoplanet microlensing parallax) are improved at L2, but the possibility of robotic servicing at either of the locations is currently unknown. By Feb 2016 it had been decided to use a halo orbit around L2.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: The project is led by a team at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. On 30 November 2018, NASA announced it had awarded a contract for the telescope. This was for a part called the Optical Telescope Assembly or OTA, and runs to 2025. This is in conjunction with the Goddard Space Flight Center for which the OTA is planned for delivery as part of this contract.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: A February 2019 description of the mission's capabilities is available in a white paper issued by members of the Roman team.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: The science objectives of Roman aim to address cutting-edge questions in cosmology and exoplanet research, including:


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: The design of the Roman Space Telescope has heritage to various proposed designs for the Joint Dark Energy Mission (JDEM) between NASA and the Department of Energy (DOE). Roman adds some extra capabilities to the original JDEM proposals, including a search for extra-solar planets using gravitational microlensing. In its present incarnation (2015), a large fraction of its primary mission will be focused on probing the expansion history of the Universe and the growth of cosmic structure with multiple methods in overlapping redshift ranges, with the goal of precisely measuring the effects of dark energy, the consistency of general relativity, and the curvature of spacetime.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: On 2 March 2020, NASA announced that it had approved WFIRST to proceed to implementation, with an expected development cost of US$3.2 billion and a maximum total cost of US$3.934 billion, including the coronagraph and five years of mission science operations.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: On 20 May 2020, NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine announced that the mission would be named the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope in recognition of the former NASA Chief of Astronomy's role in the field of astronomy.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: On 31 March 2021, the NASA Office of Inspector General (OIG) released a report that stated that the development of the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope had been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, which hit the US during a particularly important time in the telescope's development. NASA is expecting a total impact of US$400 million due to the pandemic and its effect on sub-contractors for the project. On 29 September 2021, NASA announced that Roman had passed its Critical Design Review (CDR), and that with predicted impacts from COVID-19 disruptions the launch date would be no later than May 2027.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: On 19 July 2022, NASA announced that Roman would be launched on a Falcon Heavy launch vehicle with a contract specifying readiness by October 2026 and a launch cost of approximately $255 million.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: In the fiscal year 2014, Congress provided US$56 million for Roman, and in 2015 Congress provided US$50 million. The fiscal year 2016 spending bill provided US$90 million for Roman, far above NASA's request of US$14 million, allowing the mission to enter the "formulation phase" in February 2016. On 18 February 2016, NASA announced that Roman had formally become a project (as opposed to a study), meaning that the agency intends to carry out the mission as baselined; at that time, the "AFTA" portion of the name was dropped as only that approach is being pursued. Roman is on a plan for a mid-2020s launch. The total cost of Roman at that point was expected at more than US$2 billion; NASA's 2015 budget estimate was around US$2.0 billion in 2010 dollars, which corresponds to around US$2.7 billion in real year (inflation-adjusted) dollars.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: In April 2017, NASA commissioned an independent review of the project to ensure that the mission scope and cost were understood and aligned. The review acknowledged that Roman offers "groundbreaking and unprecedented survey capabilities for dark energy, exoplanet, and general astrophysics", but directed the mission to "reduce cost and complexity sufficient to have a cost estimate consistent with the US$3.2 billion cost target set at the beginning of Phase B". NASA announced (Jan 2018) the reductions taken in response to this recommendation, and that Roman would proceed to its mission design review in February 2018 and begin Phase B by April 2018. NASA confirmed (March 2018) that the changes made to the project had reduced its estimated life cycle cost to US$3.2 billion and that the Phase B decision was on track to begin on 11 April 2018.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: In Feb 2018, the Trump administration's proposed a FY2019 budget that would have delayed the funding of the Roman (then called WFIRST), citing higher priorities within NASA and the increasing cost of this telescope. The proposed defunding of the project was met with criticism by professional astronomers, who noted that the American astronomical community had rated Roman the highest-priority space mission for the 2020s in the 2010 Decadal Survey. The American Astronomical Society expressed "grave concern" about the proposed defunding, and noted that the estimated lifecycle cost for Roman had not changed over the previous two years. However, on 22-23 March 2018, Congress approved a FY18 Roman budget in excess of the administration's budget request for that year and stated that Congress "rejects the cancellation of scientific priorities recommended by the National Academy of Sciences decadal survey process", and further directed NASA to develop new estimates of Roman's total and annual development costs. Later, the President announced he had signed the bill on 23 March 2018. NASA was funded via a FY2019 appropriations bill on February 15, 2019, with US$312 million for Roman, rejecting the President's reduced Budget Request and reasserting the desire for completion of Roman with a planning budget of US$3.2 billion.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: In March 2019, again the Trump administration proposed to defund the Roman (then called WFIRST) in its FY2020 budget proposal to Congress. In testimony on 27 March 2019, NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine hinted that NASA would continue Roman after the James Webb Space Telescope, stating "WFIRST will be a critical mission when James Webb is on orbit". In a 26 March 2019, presentation to the National Academies' Committee on Astronomy and Astrophysics, NASA Astrophysics Division Director Paul L. Hertz stated that Roman "is maintaining its US$3.2 billion cost for now... We need US$542 million in FY2020 to stay on track". At that time, it was stated that Roman would hold its Preliminary Design Review (PDR) for the overall mission in October 2019 followed by a formal mission confirmation in early 2020.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: NASA announced the completion of the Preliminary Design Review (PDR) on 1 November 2019, but warned that though the mission remained on track for a 2025 launch date, shortfalls in the Senate's FY2020 budget proposal for Roman threatened to delay it further.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: On 29 September 2021, NASA announced that Roman had successfully passed its Critical Design Review (CDR), and that with flight hardware fabrication completed by 2024 followed by mission integration, the launch date would be no later than May 2027.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: The Roman project office is located at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, and holds responsibility for overall project management. GSFC also leads the development of the Wide-Field Instrument, the spacecraft, and the telescope. The Coronagraphic Instrument is being developed at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. Science support activities for Roman are shared among Space Telescope Science Institute (Baltimore, Maryland), which is the Science Operations Center; the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, Pasadena, California; and GSFC.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: Four international space agencies, namely the French space agency CNES, German Aerospace Center (DLR), European Space Agency (ESA), and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) are (in 2019) in discussion with NASA to provide various components and science support for Roman. In 2016 NASA expressed interest in ESA contributions to the spacecraft, coronagraph and ground station support. For the coronagraph instrument, contributions from Europe and Japan are being discussed.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: In 2018 a contribution from Germany's Max Planck Institute for Astronomy was under consideration, namely the filter wheels for the star-blocking mask inside the coronagraph. In 2016 the Japanese space agency JAXA proposed to add a polarization module for the coronagraph, plus a polarization compensator. An accurate polarimetry capability on Roman may strengthen the science case for exoplanets and planetary disks, which shows polarization.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: In addition to these potential partnerships, Australia offered ground station contributions for the mission.


title: Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

text: In May 2018, NASA awarded a multi-year contract to Ball Aerospace to provide key components (the WFI Opto-Mechanical Assembly) for the Wide-Field Instrument on Roman. In June 2018, NASA awarded a contract to Teledyne Scientific and Imaging to provide the infrared detectors for the Wide-Field Instrument. On 30 November 2018, NASA announced it had awarded the contract for Optical Telescope Assembly to the Harris Corporation of Rochester, New York.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Seton Hall University (SHU) is a private Catholic research university in South Orange, New Jersey. Founded in 1856 by then-Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley and named after his aunt, Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton, Seton Hall is the oldest diocesan university in the United States.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Seton Hall consists of 9 schools and colleges, with an undergraduate enrollment of about 5,800 students and a graduate enrollment of about 4,400. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".


title: Seton Hall University

text: The university is particularly known nationally for its successful men's basketball team, which has appeared in 13 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournaments and achieved national renown after making it to the final of the 1989 tournament and losing 80–79 in overtime to the Michigan Wolverines. The basketball success and increased national television exposure has led to a sharp jump in applications from potential students and attendance at games.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Like many Catholic universities in the United States, Seton Hall arose out of the Plenary Council of American Bishops, held in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1844, with the goal of bringing Catholicism to higher education in order to help propagate the faith. The Diocese of Newark had been established by Pope Pius IX in 1853, just three years before the founding of the college, and it necessitated an institution for higher learning. Seton Hall College was formally founded on September 1, 1856, by Newark Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley, a first cousin of James Roosevelt I, father of president Franklin Roosevelt. Bishop Bayley named the institution after his aunt, Mother Elizabeth Ann Seton, who was later named the first American-born Catholic saint.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The main campus was originally in Madison, New Jersey. Reverend Bernard J. McQuaid served as the first college president (1856–1857, 1859–1868) and directed a staff of four diocesan clergy including Reverend Alfred Young, vice-president; Reverend Daniel Fisher (the second college president, 1857–1859) and five lay instructors. Initially, Seton Hall had only five students – Leo G. Thebaud, Louis and Alfred Boisaubin, Peter Meehan and John Moore. By the end of the first year, the student body had grown more than tenfold to 60. The college moved to its current location in 1860.


title: Seton Hall University

text: By the 1860s, Seton Hall College was continuing its rapid growth and began to enroll more and more students each year. However, among other difficulties, several fires on campus slowed down the growth process. The first of several strange fires in the university's history occurred in 1867 which destroyed the college's first building. Two decades later on March 9, 1886, another fire destroyed the university's main building. In the 20th century, another campus fire burned down a classroom as well as several dormitory buildings in 1909.


title: Seton Hall University

text: During the 19th century, despite setbacks, financially tight times and the American Civil War, the college continued to expand. Seton Hall opened a military science department (forerunner to the ROTC program) during the summer of 1893, but this program was ultimately disbanded during the Spanish–American War. Perhaps one of the most pivotal events in the history of Seton Hall came in 1897 when Seton Hall's preparatory (high school) and college (undergraduate) divisions were permanently separated.


title: Seton Hall University

text: James F. Kelley, then 33 years old, was appointed by the Thomas J. Walsh of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark to serve as president of Seton Hall College in July 1936, making him the nation's youngest college president. When he took office, Kelley led a liberal arts school that had an enrollment of 300. By 1937, Seton Hall established a University College. This marked the first matriculation of women at Seton Hall. Seton Hall became fully coeducational in 1968. In 1948, Seton Hall was given a license by the FCC for WSOU-FM. The construction of the Walsh Gymnasium began as part of a project initiated in 1939 that would cost $600,000 (equivalent to $ million in ).


title: Seton Hall University

text: Kelley stepped down from office at Seton Hall in March 1949 in the wake of an investigation into the by the school by the federal government that looked into potential improper sales of war surplus equipment that had been given for the school's use. He was succeeded by John L. McNulty. Enrollment at the school had grown to 6,000 by the time Kelley left office.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The college was organized into a university in 1950 following the unprecedented growth in enrollment. The College of Arts and Sciences and the schools of business, nursing and education comprised the university; the School of Law opened its doors in 1951, with Miriam Rooney as the first woman dean of law in the United States.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The Seton Hall College of Medicine and Dentistry was established in 1954 as the first medical school and dental school in New Jersey. It was located in Jersey City, adjacent to the Jersey City Medical Center, which was used for clinical education. Although the college, set up under the auspices of the Archdiocese of Newark, was a separate legal entity from the university, it had an interlocking board of trustees. The first class was enrolled in 1956 and graduated in 1960. The dental school also awarded its first degrees in 1960. From 1960 to 1964, 348 individuals received an M.D. degree. The college was sold to the state of New Jersey in 1965 for $4 million after the archdiocese could not support mounting school debt and renamed the New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry (which became the New Jersey Medical School, part of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey). That entity became part of the Rutgers University system in 2013 and now exists as the Rutgers New Jersey Medical School. Seton Hall established a new School of Medicine in partnership with Hackensack University Health Network in 2015; however, in 2020, the medical school formally separated from Seton Hall becoming the independent Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing in the next two decades, the university saw the construction and modernization of a large number of facilities and the construction of the library, science building, residence halls and the university center. Many new programs and majors were inaugurated, as were important social outreach efforts. New ties were established with the private and industrial sectors, and a growing partnership developed with federal and state governments in creating programs for the economically and educationally disadvantaged.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The 1970s and 1980s continued to be a time of growth and renewal. New business and nursing classroom buildings and an art center were opened. In 1984, the Immaculate Conception Seminary returned to Seton Hall, its original home until 1926, when it moved to Darlington (a section of Mahwah centered on a grand mansion and estate). The Recreation Center was dedicated in 1987. With the construction of four new residence halls between 1986 and 1988, and the purchase of an off-campus apartment building in 1990, the university made significant changes to account for a larger number of student residents. Seton Hall is recognized as a residential campus, providing living space for about 2100 students.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The physical development of the campus continued in the 1990s. The $20 million Walsh Library opened in 1994, and its first-class study and research resources marked the beginning of a technological transformation of Seton Hall (current university library holdings are over 500,000 volumes). The university dedicated its newest academic center in 1997, originally named Kozlowski Hall for Dennis Kozlowski, former CEO of Tyco International. Renamed Jubilee Hall following Kozlowski's criminal conviction in 2005, the building is a clear example of Seton Hall's commitment to expanding the role of information technology in higher education. All classrooms in this six-story, 126,000 square foot (12,000 m) building are wired for network and Internet connections, and many of the lecture halls are equipped with distance-learning technology. Its recreation center was originally named after Robert Brennan, but he was found guilty of securities fraud in 1994. It has since been renamed for long-time athletic director Richie Regan.


title: Seton Hall University

text: A new School of Law building and parking garage were also constructed in the 1990s as part of the revitalization of downtown Newark. Seton Hall continues to be a leader in technology in education, as well as in distance learning, with its renowned Seton World Wide program. In 1998, all incoming full-time, first-year students were issued laptop computers as part of the university's innovative and nationally recognized mobile computing program.


title: Seton Hall University

text: On January 19, 2000, an arson fire killed three and injured 54 students in Boland Hall, a freshman residence hall on the campus in South Orange. The incident, one of the deadliest in recent US history, occurred at 4:30 am, when most students were asleep. After a three-and-a-half year investigation, a 60-count indictment charged two freshmen students, Sean Ryan and Joseph LePore, with starting the fire and felony murder for the deaths that resulted. LePore and Ryan pleaded guilty to third-degree arson and were sentenced to five years in a youth correctional facility with eligibility for parole 16 months after the start of their prison terms. Consequently, the student body dedicated an area in front of Boland Hall to those that suffered from the fire called "The Remember Seal" and stronger university fire safety precautions were instituted.


title: Seton Hall University

text: On the 150th anniversary (1856–2006) of the university's founding, Seton Hall initiated the Ever Forward capital campaign to raise a total of $150 million. The campaign was the most prestigious building campaign in the university's long history. The funds were directed to many areas throughout the university, however a majority went toward building and reconstructing campus facilities and historic sites.


title: Seton Hall University

text: In fall 2007, the university opened the new $35 million Science and Technology Center, completing one of the major campaign priorities ahead of schedule. On December 17, 2007, the university announced that the campaign's fund raising goals had been met and exceeded more than two weeks ahead of the campaign's scheduled closing date.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The university has completed a host of campus renovations and new construction while attracting more students. An initial round of improvements totaling nearly $100 million concluded in 2014 with the opening of a new fitness center(now open), academic building, parking garage and expanded Aquinas Hall dormitory(now open). A second round of construction is planned for 2016 and beyond, which will adds Visitors Hall.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Seton Hall announced the formation of two additional academic units in 2015  – the School of Medicine and the College of Communication and the Arts. The medical school was established in partnership with Hackensack Meridian Health, welcoming its first class in 2018. In 2020, the School of Medicine became the first independent medical school operating under Hackensack Meridian Health. The College of Communication and the Arts was a department in the College of Arts and Sciences before being elevated in the summer of 2015.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The university, legally incorporated as "Seton Hall University, an educational corporation of New Jersey", is governed by a 16-member board of trustees. Eleven members of the board serve on it as a virtue of their positions within the university or Archdiocese of Newark. The Archbishop of Newark, who serves as the president of the board, retains the power to appoint the remaining five members of the body. Appointed members of the board serve three-year terms, until their respective successor is appointed. The board of trustees exclusively maintains the property rights of the university and provides selection of title, scope, and location of the schools and colleges of the university.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The governance of the university includes a board of regents, which is charged with the management of the university. The board has a membership of between 25 and 39 members. Six of the members are ex-officio; the board of trustees maintains the right to elect up to thirty more. Regents maintain the exclusive hiring authority over the president of the university. Previous by-laws of the university stipulated that the president must be a Roman Catholic priest.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The main campus of Seton Hall University is situated on 58 acres (23 ha) of suburban land on South Orange Avenue. It is home to nine of the 10 schools and colleges of the university. The South Orange Village center is just ½ mile (0.8 km) west of the main campus. Directly across from the main campus to the northwest are scenic Montrose Park and the Montrose Park Historic District, which is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The Eugene V. Kelly Carriage House, on the campus itself, is also NRHP-listed. The village itself dates back to 1666 preceding the establishment of Seton Hall College. Also since the beginning of the college, the South Orange Rail Station has served as an integral means to campus commuters. The main campus combines architectural styles including Roman, neo-gothic and modern. The South Orange campus became a gated community during the university's Modernization Period.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The original centerpieces of the campus were made up of three buildings built in the 19th century. Presidents, Stafford and Marshall Halls were built when the college moved from Madison to South Orange. Some of the more notable buildings on campus are:


title: Seton Hall University

text: Seton Hall's extensive recycling program is one of the highlights in the college's sustainability programming. Recycling is sometimes mandatory on campus as per New Jersey state laws. Additionally, Seton Hall celebrated Earth Day 2010, marking the event with demonstrations about composting and rainwater collection, a group hike, and an outdoor screening of the environmental documentary "HOME."


title: Seton Hall University

text: On the College Sustainability Report Card 2011, Seton Hall earned a grade of "B−". Lack of endowment transparency and green building initiatives hurt the grade, while the recycling programs were a plus.


title: Seton Hall University

text: A satellite of the main campus, the Newark Campus is home to the university's School of Law. Located at One Newark Center, the Law School and several academic centers of the university are housed in a modern 22-story skyscraper building. It is at the corner of Raymond Boulevard and McCarter Highway in the business and high-tech heart of downtown Newark, New Jersey and was completed in 1991. The Newark Campus building provides and an additional of library to the university.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The Seton Hall University School of Law was founded in 1951. It is accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA) since 1951 and is also a member of the Association of American Law Schools (AALS). Seton Hall is one of two law schools in the state of New Jersey. Seton Hall Law was founded by a woman, Miriam T. Rooney, who served as dean from 1951 to 1961. She was not only Seton Hall's first female dean, but was the first woman dean at an ABA-accredited law school in the United States. Dean Kathleen M. Boozang, who assumed the role in July 2015, is the third woman dean of Seton Hall Law.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The IHS campus located in Nutley, New Jersey is dedicated to students seeking a career in health professions. The campus is home to the School of Health and Medical Sciences and the College of Nursing.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Seton Hall University confers undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate degrees in as many as 70 academic fields. The school's academic programs are divided into 9 academic units:


title: Seton Hall University

text: Seton Hall University was ranked by "U.S. News & World Report" in 2021 as tied for 133rd in the "National Universities" category. Seton Hall University School of Law was ranked tied at 62nd best in the U.S. in 2021. The Stillman School of Business was ranked 65th of 114 undergraduate business schools in the nation by "Bloomberg Businessweek" in 2016.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Twenty-four recognized fraternity and sorority chapters are chartered at Seton Hall. About 15 percent of the student body are members of a Greek-letter organization.


title: Seton Hall University

text: In fall 2005, a group of students purporting to be an unrecognized chapter of Tau Kappa Epsilon made headlines when it was discovered that a pledge had been kidnapped and beaten for alerting university administration of the group's existence.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The school's principal newspaper is "The Setonian". The paper has school news, an entertainment section called "Pirate Life", sports, editorials, and an opinion section. The staff consists of undergraduates and publishes weekly on Thursday. The "Stillman Exchange" is the Stillman Business school's newspaper. Its stories cover ethical issues, business, and athletic stories. The " Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations" is a bi-annually published journal composed of writings by international leaders in government, the private sector, academia, and nongovernmental organizations. Undergraduate students studying Diplomacy and International Relations publish The "Diplomatic Envoy", an international news and analysis paper that releases both weekly online and monthly print editions. The "Liberty Bell", is the only political and independent newspaper on campus. Founded in 2007, it is published monthly and features news and op-ed articles about university, local, national, and international news with a focus on personal freedom. The "Liberty Bell" won the Collegiate Network's 2008–2009 award for Best New Paper, an award given to student newspapers no older than three years.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The Galleon Yearbook ceased publishing in the early 2000s. Prior to its demise, it had a significant university publication that covered topics such as events, current events and sports. In the late 80s the book won several accolades including first place in the annual Columbia Scholastic competition and its publishers national sample list. It was a mix of color and black and white for over 300 pages. It most famously captured concerts like Fleetwood Mac and Springsteen; politics including presidential candidates; and sports achievements such as the NCAA finals in 1989. Books are archived in the library and found electronically at https://scholarship.shu.edu/yearbooks/. The original name of the Seton Hall University yearbook was The White and Blue: 1924-1942, with the exception of the 1940 yearbook, which was titled The 1940 Galleon. No yearbooks were published from 1934-1938, due to the Great Depression or from 1943-1946 due to World War II. Seton Hall University resumed publication of its yearbook in 1947 under the title The Galleon but ceased publication with the 2006 issue. This last issue is a compilation of the years 2002-2006 and published by alumni.


title: Seton Hall University

text: WSOU is a non-commercial, college radio station, broadcasting at 89.5 MHz FM. The station broadcasts from the campus of Seton Hall University in South Orange, New Jersey. It is a student run station with General Manager Mark Maben at helm as a full-time faculty member. WSOU currently broadcasts in HD-RADIO. In 2007, the Princeton Review rated WSOU as the eighth-best college radio station in the nation. Industry magazine also ranked WSOU to be the top Metal format station in the nation in 2007, and Rolling Stone Magazine ranked WSOU to be one of the top 5 rock stations in the nation in 2008.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Seton Hall's television station, Pirate-TV, is located in the basement of Fahy Hall. Programming includes a daily news show and weekly sports talk and fashion/entertainment shows.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The university seal combines attributes from the Bayley coat of arms and the Seton family crest. The Seton crest dates back as early as 1216 and symbolizes Scottish nobility. Renowned crest-maker, William F. J. Ryan designed the current form of the Seton Hall crest, which is notable for its three crescents and three torteau. The motto on the seal "Hazard Zet Forward" (Hazard Zit Forward on some versions) is a combination of Norman French and archaic English meaning "at whatever risk, yet go forward". Part custom and part superstition, students avoid stepping on an engraving of the seal in the middle of the university green. It is said that students who step on the seal will not graduate on time.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The "Seton Hall University Alma Mater" was adopted as the official song of Seton Hall University. Charles A. Byrne of the class of 1937 wrote the original lyrics in 1936 and the university adopted the alma mater during the 1937 school year when the dean first read it to the student body. Some students participate in the tradition of saying "blue and white" more loudly than the rest of the alma mater.


title: Seton Hall University

text: "Onward Setonia" is Seton Hall's fight song and it is played by the University Pep Band at all home Men's and Women's basketball games, usually as the team comes onto the court and at the end of the first half and at the end of the game.


title: Seton Hall University

text: The school's sports teams are called the Pirates. They participate in the NCAA's Division I and in the Big East Conference. The college established its first basketball squad in 1903.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Seton Hall athletics is best known for its men's basketball program, which won the 1953 National Invitation Tournament (NIT); were the 1989 NCAA tournament national runners-up following a defeat to Michigan in the final, 80–79 in overtime; and are New Jersey's most successful representative during March Madness by number of wins. Seton Hall also fields varsity teams in baseball, women's basketball, men's and women's cross country running, men's and women's golf, men's and women's soccer, softball, men's and women's swimming & diving, women's tennis, and women's volleyball.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Seton Hall also has club programs participating in ice hockey, rugby union, lacrosse, and men's volleyball and soccer. All Seton Hall sports have their home field on the South Orange campus except for the men's basketball team which currently plays at the Prudential Center in Newark after previously calling the Meadowlands home, and the club ice hockey team which plays at Richard J. Codey Arena in West Orange.


title: Seton Hall University

text: Seton Hall fielded its first varsity football program from 1882 until cancellation in 1932. The university later fielded a club football team from 1965 through 1972. In 1972, the football team won a national club championship. The next year, 1973, it was reinstated as a varsity program competing at the Division III level as the university aligned its other varsity teams with the original Big East Conference in 1979. Football was ultimately canceled in permanence after the 1981 season. During this final period of varsity football sponsorship, the team was coached by Ed Manigan.


title: Emotion (Carly Rae Jepsen album)

text: Emotion (stylized as E•MO•TION) is the third studio album by Canadian singer and songwriter Carly Rae Jepsen. It was released on June 24, 2015, in Japan and on August 21, 2015, worldwide through 604, School Boy, and Interscope Records. Looking to transition from the bubblegum pop-oriented nature of her second studio album, "Kiss" (2012), Jepsen found inspiration in 1980s music and alternative styles. She enlisted a team of mainstream and indie collaborators, including Sia, Mattman & Robin, Dev Hynes, Ariel Rechtshaid, Rostam Batmanglij, Greg Kurstin, and Peter Svensson of the Cardigans, culminating in a largely synth-pop-centric effort.


title: Emotion (Carly Rae Jepsen album)

text: "Emotion" received generally favorable reviews from contemporary music critics, who praised its pop escapism, but were divided over its lyrical content. The album underperformed worldwide, debuting at number sixteen on the "Billboard" 200 with 16,153 units. However, in Jepsen's home country, it became her third top ten, peaking at number eight in Canada with 2,600 copies. The album fared better in Japan, debuting at number eight with 12,189 physical copies sold and subsequently being certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for shipments exceeding 100,000 copies.


title: Emotion (Carly Rae Jepsen album)

text: The album was preceded by the release of its lead single, "I Really Like You", which reached top five in several territories including the United Kingdom and Japan. It was followed by "Run Away with Me" and "Your Type", the former of which found renewed interest as an internet meme. Jepsen embarked on the Gimmie Love Tour in support of the album in November 2015, with a second leg commencing in February 2016. In April 2016, she toured Canada in support of the album as the opening act for Hedley on their Hello World Tour.


title: Emotion (Carly Rae Jepsen album)

text: In lieu of commercial success, "Emotion" reinvigorated Jepsen's career as an "indie darling", garnering her a cult following. The album was shortlisted for the 2016 Polaris Music Prize. A companion EP entitled "" (2016) was released on its first anniversary and features eight songs that were cut from the original project.