title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: The press majorly worked for making photo-litho transfers for Ravi Verma Press, owned by painter Raja Ravi Varma. Later, it also started the work of halftone blockmaking and printing and tri-colour printing. With the growing business, the press was shifted to Dadar, Bombay. Later in 1908, Purushottam Mavji replaced Bhandarkar as a partner and the press was renamed as "Laxmi Art Printing Works". Phalke went to Germany in 1909 to buy the necessary colour printing machinery. Though the printing business grew exponentially, the partners had increasing differences about the running of the press. Soon, Phalke decided to abandon the partnership, without availing any monetary benefits.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: After quitting "Laxmi Art Printing Works", Phalke received multiple offers from various financiers to start another printing press but he did not accept any offers. On 14 April 1911, Phalke with his elder son Bhalchandra went to see a film, "Amazing Animals", at the America India Picture Palace, Girgaon, Bombay. Surprised at seeing animals on the screen, Bhalchandra informed his mother, Saraswatibai, about his experience earlier that day. None of the family members believed them, so Phalke took his family to see the film the next day. As it was Easter, the theatre screened a film about Jesus, "The Life of Christ" (1906) by the French director Alice Guy-Blaché instead. While watching Jesus on the screen, Phalke envisioned Hindu deities Rama and Krishna instead and decided to start in the business of "moving pictures".


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: For the next one year, Phalke started collecting various film related material like catalogues, books, and movie making equipment from Europe. He bought a small film camera and reels and started showing movies at night, by focusing candle light on a lens and projecting the pictures on the wall. He watched movies every evening for four to five hours and was deprived of sleep. This put strain on his eyes and he developed cataract in both eyes. He continued working against the advice of taking rest and lost his sight completely. Ophthalmologist Dr. Prabhakar treated Phalke with the aid of three or four pairs of spectacles which helped him restore the eye sight. Phalke wished to go to London to get technical knowledge of filmmaking but had difficulties getting finances for his trip. With the help of Yashwantrao Nadkarni and Abasaheb Chitnis, he secured a sum of ten thousands by mortgaging his insurance policies worth twelve thousands. On 1 February 1912, he boarded a ship for London.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: At London, Phalke saw a nameboard of "Bioscope Cine-Weekly" near Piccadilly Circus. He was a subscriber of the weekly in India. He met its editor, Mr. Cabourn, and explained the purpose of his visit. Cabourn advised Phalke against the idea of filmmaking in India based on the unsuccessful attempts in England and suggested that the Indian climate might not be suitable as well. However, he was impressed with Phalke's dedication and introduced him to the film director, producer, and screenwriter Cecil Hepworth of Walton Studios. Hepworth allowed Phalke to visit all the departments of the studio and their workings along with the demonstration of filming. At the advice of Cabourn and Hepworth, he bought Williamson camera for fifty pounds and placed an order for Kodak raw film and a perforator. Phalke stayed in London for two months and returned to India on 1 April 1912. He founded the "Phalke Films Company" on the same day.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: After coming back from London, Phalke started looking for a spacious place for shooting the films. Soon, the family shifted from Ismail Building, Charni Road to Mathura Bhavan Bungalow, Dadar. He constructed a small glass room at the compound of the bungalow and prepared a dark room and arrangements for processing the film. Imported filmmaking equipment reached Bombay in May 1912 and Phalke set it up within four days with the help of sketch provided. He also taught his family to perforate and develop the film. To test the working of camera and projector, Phalke filmed the boys and girls in the surroundings to the satisfactory results. To demonstrate the filmmaking techniques and get financier for the feature film, Phalke decided to make a short film. He planted some peas in a pot and placed a camera in front of it. He shot one frame a day for over a month producing a film just over one minute, of the seed growing, sprouting, and changing into a climber. The short film titled "Ankurachi Wadh" ("Growth of a Pea Plant") and showed selective individuals. Some of them, including Yashwantrao Nadkarni and Narayanrao Devhare, offered Phalke a loan.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: Phalke decided to make a film based on the legends of Harishchandra and wrote the script for it. He published advertisements in various newspapers like "Induprakash" calling for the cast and crew required for the film. As no women were available to play female leads, male actors performed the female roles. Dattatraya Damodar Dabke played the lead role of King Harishchandra and Anna Salunke as Queen Taramati. Phalke's elder son Bhalchandra was assigned the role, Rohidas, son of Harishchandra and Taramati. Phalke was in-charge of the scriptment, direction, production design, make-up, editing, and film processing and Trymbak B. Telang handled the camera. The filming was completed in six months and 27 days producing a film of , about four reels.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: The film premiered at the Olympia Theatre, Bombay on 21 April 1913, and had its theatrical release on Saturday, 3 May 1913 at the Coronation Cinema, Girgaon, Bombay. It was a commercial success and laid the foundation for the film industry in the country. The film is often considered the first full-length Indian feature film with its status debated with historians considering Dadasaheb Torne's silent film "Shree Pundalik", released on 18 May 1912, the maiden Indian film. The Government of India recognises "Raja Harischandra" as the first Indian feature film.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: After the success of "Raja Harishchandra", Phalke relocated to Nashik. For his next film, he selected the mythological love story of Nala, a king of Nishadha Kingdom, and Damayanti, a princess of the Vidarbha Kingdom. In spite of completing the pre-production, the filming could not start so he started working on "Mohini Bhasmasur", based on a mythological story of Mohini, female avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu, and Bhasmasura, an asura (demon). During the same time, a travelling drama company, "Chittakarshak Natak Company", visited Nashik. Phalke requested its proprietor, Raghunathrao Gokhle, to allow two of their actresses to act in the film. Durgabai Kamat was cast as Parvati and her daughter Kamlabai Gokhale as Mohini and became first women to act in the Indian cinema. The film was long and was released on 2 January 1914 at the Olympia Theatre, Bombay. A short comedy film "Pithache Panje" ("Paws of Flour") was released as a "side attraction" with the film. Phalke made his third film "Satyavan Savitri" based on the legends of Satyavan and Savitri. The film was long and was screened on 6 June 1914. Both the films were commercially successful like "Raja Harishchandra".


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: With the success of three films, Phalke was able to repay all his debts. There was huge demand for the film copies from various theater managers in the country. Considering the tremendous response to the films, he decided to buy electronic machinery worth around and left for London on 1 August 1914, taking with him his three films. Mr. Kepburn of "Bioscope Cine-Weekly", who had helped Phalke during his first London visit, arranged some screenings of the films in London. The films were praised for their technical aspects. Various producers including Cecil Hepworth of Walton Studios requested Phalke to produce films in England. Hepworth placed an offer before Phalke to produce Indian films in England, bringing cast and crew from India whose expenses on travel, lodging and boarding, and salary would be paid by Hepworth. Phalke was offered a monthly salary of 300 pounds along with 20% of the profits. Phalke declined the offer and explained Hepworth that he would continue making films in India. Warner Brothers also offered to buy 200 film copies to which Phalke agreed. However, before the official agreements were to be signed, Phalke had to come back to India after the news about the worrisome condition of his studio.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: On returning to India, Phalke noticed that the financial condition has worsen due to ongoing World War I. His investor had stopped advancing the capital and asked to shut down the studio. He approached Yashwantrao Nadkarni and Abasaheb Chitnis for the loan to bring the equipment bought in London. They offered to pay half of the amount on short term basic. With the ongoing World War, Phalke also faced the scarcity of the raw films and decided to make a few short films. He received a loan on the security of studio and started working on "Raja Shreeyal". Though filming started, it could not be completed due to various reasons. To get capital for his next film, Phalke approached the leaders of the Swadeshi movement without any luck. He also published an advertisement in the newspapers and distributed handbills, appealing for the help assuring the repayment with interest. However, only three people responded to the advertisement. One of them published a letter in the newspaper, "Dainik Sandesh", appealing to the leaders of the Indian Home Rule movement who wanted Phalke to join the movement before any loan could be granted. Indian nationalist Bal Gangadhar Tilak tried helping Phalke through Paisa Fund Glass Works but could not succeed. During 1916, Phalke undertook a tour to raise the capital. He screened his films at the princely states of Aundh, Gwalior, Indore, Jamkhandi, and Miraj. The King of Aundh granted and the Princess of Indore provided a loan of and as a payment of his shows.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: While relocating from Bombay to Nashik, the negative film of "Raja Harishchandra" was lost, so Phalke filmed it again with "almost the same script, cast and all other things" and released it as "Satyavadi Raja Harishchandra", a long film which was screened on 3 April 1917 at Aryan Cinema, Poona. He also made a documentary "How Movies Are Made" to demonstrate the filmmaking process to the financiers but it did not help. Phalke was invited for the session of the "Bombay Provincial Congress Parishad" held at Nashik in May 1917 where Lokmanya Tilak made an appeal to help him and also visited his studio at the request of G. S. Khaparde.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: The appeal made by Tilak had desired effect and Phalke could collect sufficient capital to start a new film, "Lanka Dahan". The film depicted the episode of the burning of Lanka in the "Ramayana" and was long, about three reels. It was screened on 17 September 1917 at the Aryan Cinema, Poona. Anna Salunke played the male as well as the female character of Rama and his wife Sita. Thus, credited with playing the first dual role in Indian cinema. When the film was screened at the West End Cinema, Bombay, the shows were held from 7 A.M. to 3 A.M. next morning and it collected in ten days. According to film historian Amrit Gangar, the coins collected from the ticket counters were transported in gunny bags on bullock carts. The film was commercially successful and Phalke could repay all of his debts with its earnings.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: After the success of "Lanka Dahan", Phalke was approached by various businessmen for the partnership. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Ratanji Tata, and Sheth Manmohandas Ramji collected the capital and approached Phalke to convert the "Phalke Films Company" into a limited company, valued at . Along with the additional investment of , it was decided that in the proposed company, Phalke would have shares worth and 75% share of the profit and remaining would be distributed among other shareholders. However, the scheme could not be finalised over one of the clauses of the partnership deed. Phalke also declined the offer made by actress Fatma Begum. Among all the received offers, Phalke accepted the proposal of five Bombay-based textile industrialists which included Waman Shreedhar Apte, Laxman Balwant Phatak, Mayashankar Bhatt, Madhavji Jesingh, and Gokuldas Damodar. On 1 January 1918, the "Phalke Films Company" was converted into the "Hindustan Cinema Films Company" where Apte was appointed as managing partner, Phalke as working partner and others as financial partners.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: The debut film for the newly formed company was "Shri Krishna Janma" where Phalke's six-year-old daughter Mandakini played the lead role of Krishna. The film was long, about six reels and was screened on 24 August 1918 at the Majestic Cinema, Bombay. It was commercially successful and collected . Phalke's next film "Kaliya Mardan" depicted the episode of killing of poisonous snake, Kaliya, by Krishna. The film was released on 3 May 1919 at the Majestic Cinema, Bombay. It was commercially successful where it ran for ten months and was long, about six reels.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: Though both the films made by the "Hindustan Cinema Films Company" were commercially successful, the partners had increasing differences. Phalke did not appreciate their interference in film production and partners had concerns over the expenditure incurred and time spent by Phalke to get desired results. Phalke decided to leave the company but his advocate brought to attention the clauses from his agreement with the "Hindustan Cinema Films Company". The agreement had a span of 15 years and if Phalke decided to leave the company, he would not be given his share of profit of and would have to pay to the company. After unsuccessful attempts to resolve the differences, the partners approached Phalke's colleagues to take over his responsibilities, in case of his exit. All of them had been associated with Phalke since "Raja Harishchandra" (1913) and were trained by Phalke to handle various departments of filmmaking. With their consent, the partners signed the necessary agreements with Mama Shinde, Anna Salunke, Gajanan Sane, Trymbak B. Telang, Dattatreya Telang, and Nath Telang. With increasing dissensions developed, Phalke decided to leave the company and departed with his family for Kashi. He announced his retirement and expressed his views in an article published in "Navyug".


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: During his stay at Kashi, Phalke saw several Hindi plays by Kirloskar Natak Mandali, a travelling drama company. The professional associated with the company like Master Manhar Barve, his father Ganpatrao Barve, and its proprietor Shankar Bapuji Mujumdar and novelist Narayan Hari Apte were friends with Phalke. They had regular discussions about various aspects of drama, cinema, music, and literature. During one such meeting, Phalke expressed his desire to write a play. He completed writing a Marathi language play "Rangbhoomi" in about two and a half months. It was a satire on the then-contemporary theatre and stage conditions. Phalke also read out the play to Bal Gangadhar Tilak and G. S. Khaparde who were attending the All India Congress Committee's session held at Kashi. Both were very appreciative of the play. Phalke also organised the rehearsals of the play at the Aryan Cinema, Poona for almost a year.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: Various professional drama companies approached Phalke to stage "Rangbhoomi", but he had it staged at the Baliwala Theater, Bombay in 1922. It was a seven-act play, so Phalke decided to split it into two parts; four acts staged at one night and the remaining three on the next night. The performances were held in only three cities, Bombay, Poona, and Nashik. Made with the budget of , the play had very lukewarm response and was rejected for being "self-indulgent".


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: Various people tried convincing Phalke to join back the film industry. He declined the offer made by filmmaker Jamshedji Framji Madan to produce films under his film company Madan Theatre. Achyut Kolhatkar, editor of Marathi newspaper "Sandesh", wrote to Phalke requesting to rethink his decision. Phalke replied: "I am dead so far as the cinema industry is concerned and have no inclination to go back to it". Kolhatkar published Phalke's letter under the heading, "Dadasaheb Phalke is Dead". Several readers wrote to "Sandesh" requesting Phalke to make a comeback. All these letters were published in "Sandesh" and Kolhatkar sent all the issues of the newspaper to Phalke at Kashi. Reading these letters, Phalke decided to come back to Nashik.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: After Phalke left the Hindustan Cinema Films Company, its financial condition worsened with the shutting down of the company's Poona branch, Bharat Film Company. On hearing the news of Phalke's return to Nashik, the managing partner of the company, Waman Apte, with the help of the proprietor of Aryan Cinema, Bapusaheb Pathak, invited Phalke to join back the company as a Production Chief and Technical Advisor. Phalke readily agreed to the request and joined as an employee of the company on the monthly salary of .


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: The first film Phalke directed after joining the Hindustan Cinema Films Company was "Sant Namdeo" which was released on 28 October 1922. Thereafter, he directed films for the company till 1929. However, none of these films achieved comparable success with his earlier films. Phalke continued to have differences with the company owners and he left it twice until 1929. When he returned for the first time, he was offered the monthly salary of . For the second time, it was reduced to . After rest four partners left the company, its responsibility fell on the shoulders of Waman Apte. Not satisfied with the restrictions imposed by the company, Phalke tried raising the capital for the next film by himself. As Apte did not allow Phalke to raise the capital while still in the service of the company, Phalke resigned from the job.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: Phalke decided to form a new company, "Phalke Diamond Company", and approached Mayashankar Bhatt, a former partner of the Hindustan Cinema Films Company. Bhatt agreed to provide the capital of but with the condition that the film should be completed within the stipulated budget. Phalke accepted the proposal and started working on "Setubandhan". The outdoor shooting was completed at Hampi, Chennai (then Madras), Ratnagiri. However, the capital was exhausted before the film was complete. Bhatt refused to do any more investment. Phalke tried raising more capital with no success. Thus, the filming had to be stopped for the next one year.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: When Waman Apte of the Hindustan Cinema Films Company saw the sets erected for the film, he was impressed and agreed to help Phalke. He proposed the merger of the Phalke Diamond Company with his company. Phalke joined the company again as a partner and shifted the shooting at Imperial Film Studio of Bombay under the banner of the Hindustan Cinema Films Company. "Setubandhan" took two years to complete. As fifteen-year agreement for the Hindustan Cinema Films Company was completed, Apte decided to dissolve the company. By that time, the sound films had screened in India with the release on "Alam Ara"the first sound film in the Indian cinema, on 14 March 1931. Being a silent film, "Setubandhan" faced difficulties in getting theaters with the competition from sound films. It was released in 1932. Ardeshir Irani, the director of "Alam Ara", suggested Phalke to add sound to "Setubandhan". Phalke agreed and dubbed the film in Hindi at Irani's studio with the cost of . It was re-released in 1934 but was not commercially successful.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: In December 1934, the Maharaja of the princely state of Kolhapur, Rajaram III, invited Phalke to produce a sound film for his film company "Kolhapur Cinetone". Phalke declined the invitation but was again invited by the Maharaja. He accepted the invitation and was offered for writing the story and script and as his monthly expenses. Novelist Narayan Hari Apte helped Phalke for writing the script and dialogue. Vishwanath Jadhav composed the music for film and Phalke wrote the lyrics. The film, "Gangavataran", was completed in two years at the cost of . It was released on 6 August 1937 at the Royal Opera House, Bombay. "Gangavataran" was the only sound film directed by Phalke. He retired from the films due to his old age.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: The times changed and Phalke fell victim to the emerging technology of sound film. Unable to cope with the talkies, the man who had fathered the Indian film industry became obsolete. His last silent film "Setubandhan" was released in 1932 and later released with dubbing. During 1936–1938, he produced his last film "Gangavataran" (1937) which was the only talking movie directed by Phalke, before retiring to Nashik, where he died on 16 February 1944.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: The Dadasaheb Phalke Award, for lifetime contribution to cinema, was instituted in his honour by the Government of India in 1969. The award is one of the most prestigious awards in Indian cinema and is the highest official recognition for film personalities in the country. A postage stamp bearing his likeness was released by India Post to honour him in 1971. An honorary award from the "Dadasaheb Phalke Academy Mumbai" was introduced in the year 2001, for lifetime achievement in Indian cinema.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: In 2009, the Marathi film "Harishchandrachi Factory", which was directed by theatre veteran Paresh Mokashi and depicts Dadasaheb Phalke's struggle in making "Raja Harishchandra" in 1913. It was also selected as India's official entry to the Academy Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category.


title: Dadasaheb Phalke

text: On 30 April 2018, Google honored the Indian producer for the 148th year of his birth. The Google Doodle was featured in Canada, India, Australia, and New Zealand.


title: Black Square (painting)

text: Black Square (also known as The Black Square or Malevich's Black Square) is an iconic painting by Kazimir Malevich. The first version was done in 1915. Malevich made four variants of which the last is thought to have been painted during the late 1920s or early 1930s. "Black Square" was first shown in The Last Futurist Exhibition 0,10 in 1915. The work is frequently invoked by critics, historians, curators, and artists as the "zero point of painting", referring to the painting's historical significance and paraphrasing Malevich.


title: Black Square (painting)

text: The Black Square first appeared as part of a design for a stage curtain in the 1913 Russian Futurist/Cubo-Futurist opera "Victory over the Sun" by Velimir Khlebnikov, Aleksei Kruchyonykh, and Mikhail Matyushin, for whom he did the costume and stage designs.


title: Black Square (painting)

text: Malevich painted his first "Black Square" in 1915. He made four variants, of which the last is thought to have been painted during the late 1920s or early 1930s, despite the author's "1913" inscription on the reverse. The painting is commonly known as "Black Square", "The Black Square" or as "Malevich's Black Square."


title: Black Square (painting)

text: The painting was first shown in The Last Futurist Exhibition 0,10 in 1915. Its location in the icon corner emphasized the collision with the traditional orthodox culture.


title: Black Square (painting)

text: A plurality of art historians, curators, and critics refer to "Black Square" as one of the seminal works of modern art, and of abstract art in the Western painterly tradition generally.


title: Black Square (painting)

text: Malevich declared the square a work of Suprematism, a movement which he proclaimed but which is associated almost exclusively with the work of Malevich and his apprentice Lissitzky today. The movement did have a handful of supporters amongst the Russian avant garde but it was dwarfed by its sibling constructivism whose manifesto harmonized better with the ideological sentiments of the revolutionary communist government during the early days of Soviet Union. Suprematism may be understood as a transitional phase in the evolution of Russian art, bridging the evolutionary gap between futurism and constructivism.


title: Black Square (painting)

text: The larger and more universal leap forward represented by the painting, however, is the break between representational painting and abstract painting—a complex transition with which "Black Square" has become identified and for which it has become one of the key shorthands, touchstones or symbols.


title: Black Square (painting)

text: The work is frequently invoked by critics, historians, curators, and artists as the "zero point of painting", referring to the painting's historical significance as a paraphrase of a number of comments Malevich made about "The Black Square" in letters to his colleagues and dealers.


title: Black Square (painting)

text: The brushwork is juicy and brusque: filling in the shapes, fussing with the edges. But the forms are weightless, more like thoughts than like images. You don't look at the picture so much as launch yourself into its trackless empyrean. Beyond its obvious design flair, the work looks easy because it is. Malevich is monumental not for what he put into pictorial space but for what he took out: bodily experience, the fundamental theme of Western art since the Renaissance. His appeal to Americans isn’t surprising. Apart from a peculiarly Russian mystical tradition, which he exploited—evoking the compact spell of the icon, as a conduit of the divine—his work amounts to a cosmic "Song of the Open Road." It conveys sheer, surging, untrammelled possibility. This quality seemed in synch with the Revolution of 1917. It wasn't—which Malevich was painfully made aware of, first by his rivals in the Russian avant-garde and then, conclusively, by the regime of Joseph Stalin.


title: Black Square (painting)

text: Tone Roald and Johannes Lang wrote that "Black Square" "is an act of "iconic rupture" from a Russian-Orthodox Christian tradition, just as Ruben's "The Death of Seneca", or Kiefer's "Sulamith", can be understood as "acts of iconic suture"."


title: Black Square (painting)

text: The painting looks terrible: crackled, scuffed, and discolored, as if it had spent the past eighty-eight years patching a broken window. In fact, it passed most of that time deep in the Soviet archives, classed among the lowliest of the state's treasures. Malevich, like other members of the Revolutionary-era Russian avant-garde, was thrown into oblivion under Stalin. The axe fell on him in 1930. Accused of "formalism", he was interrogated and jailed for two months.


title: Black Square (painting)

text: In 2015, while viewing the "Black Square" with a microscope, art historians at the Tretyakov Gallery discovered a message underneath its black paint. It was believed to read as "Battle of negroes in a dark cave." The reference was linked to an 1897 comic by French writer Alphonse Allais with the caption: "" or "Negroes Fighting in a Cellar at Night." The researchers at the State Tretyakov Gallery speculated that Malevich was responding to the joke within Allais' popular work.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Harper's Bazaar is an American monthly women's fashion magazine. It was first published in New York City on November 2, 1867, as the weekly Harper's Bazar. "Harper's Bazaar" is published by Hearst and considers itself to be the style resource for "women who are the first to buy the best, from casual to couture". Since its debut in 1867, as the U.S.'s first fashion magazine, its pages have been home to talent such as the founding editor, author and translator Mary Louise Booth, as well as numerous fashion editors, photographers, illustrators and writers.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: "Harper's Bazaar"s corporate offices are located in the Hearst Tower, 300 West 57th Street or 959 Eighth Avenue, near Columbus Circle in Midtown Manhattan, New York City.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Book publishers Harper & Brothers founded the magazine based in New York City on November 2, 1867. This company also gave birth to "Harper's Magazine".


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: "Harper's Bazar" began publication as a tabloid-size weekly newspaper catering to women in the middle and upper classes. It showcased fashion from Germany and Paris in a newspaper-design format. In fact, it was directly inspired by and modeled on a German fashion magazine "Der Bazar", and received content from the German magazine in its early years, often publishing it simultaneously. It was not until 1901 "Harper's" moved to a monthly issued magazine which it maintains today. Now "Harper's Bazaar" is owned and operated by Hearst in the United States and the National Magazine Company in the United Kingdom. Hearst purchased the magazine in 1913.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: The name change to "Harper's Bazaar" was filed on December 30, 1930. however the first magazine that showed the spelling "bazaar" on the cover came earlier with the November 1929 issue.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: As the turn of the century began in America, "Harper's Bazar" began featuring both illustrations and photographs for its covers and inside features of high society and increasingly of fashion.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: During the late Victorian period, as the women's suffrage movement was gaining momentum (American women did not all win the right to vote until 1920 with the passing of the 19th Amendment), the introduction of more tailored dresses and jackets coincided with women's new sense of feminism. "Bazaar" also began profiling prominent socialites, such as the Astors and the Griscoms.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: In 1933, editor-in-chief Carmel Snow (a former editor at "Vogue") brought photojournalist Martin Munkacsi to a windswept beach to shoot a swimwear spread. As the model ran toward the camera, Munkacsi took the picture that made fashion-magazine history. Until that moment, nearly all fashion was carefully staged on mannequin-like models in a studio. Snow's buoyant spirit (she rarely slept or ate, although she had a lifelong love affair with the three-martini lunch) and wicked sense of adventure brought life to the pages of "Bazaar". Snow's genius came from cultivating the "best" people. Her first big find was art director Alexey Brodovitch, who innovated "Bazaar"s iconic Didot logo. Brodovitch is perhaps best known for his work with Richard Avedon, who, as a young photographer, was so determined to work at "Bazaar" that he endured the humiliation of 14 canceled interviews before finally being hired. Snow also unleashed the force of nature known as Diana Vreeland, whom she brought on as fashion editor in 1936. The collaboration of these four visionaries resulted in some of the germane fashion shoots of the 20th century and ended only with Snow's retirement, at age 70, in 1957. The publication in the September 15, 1937 issue of Man Ray's photograph of his partner, the Guadeloupean model and dancer Adrienne Fidelin, was the first time a Black model was featured in a major American fashion magazine. Caramel Snow was living in Ireland before her mother, Annie White paid for her and her sisters immigration to America when she was 8-years-old.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: In 1934, newly installed "Bazaar" editor Carmel Snow attended an Art Directors Club of New York exhibition curated by 36-year-old graphic designer Alexey Brodovitch and immediately offered Brodovitch a job as "Bazaar"s art director. Throughout his career at the magazine, Brodovitch, a Russian émigré (by way of Paris), revolutionized magazine design. With his directive "Astonish me", he inspired some of the greatest visual artists of the 20th century (including protégés Irving Penn, Hiro, Gleb Derujinsky, and, of course, Richard Avedon). One of his assistants was future "Rolling Stone" art director Tony Lane. Brodovitch's signature use of white space, his innovation of "Bazaar"s iconic Didot logo, and the cinematic quality that his obsessive cropping brought to layouts (not even the work of Man Ray and Henri Cartier-Bresson was safe from his busy scissors) compelled Truman Capote to write, "What Dom Pérignon was to champagne ... so [Brodovitch] has been to ... photographic design and editorial layout." Brodovitch's personal life was less triumphant. Plagued by alcoholism, he left "Bazaar" in 1958 and eventually moved to the south of France, where he died in 1971.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: When Carmel Snow saw Diana Vreeland dancing on the roof of New York's St. Regis Hotel in a white lace Chanel dress and a bolero with roses in her hair one evening in 1936, she knew she'd found "Bazaar"s newest staffer. Diana, who is said to have invented the word "pizzazz", first came to the attention of readers with her "Why Don't You ...?" column. (A typical suggestion: "Why don't you ... wear, like the Duchess of Kent, three enormous diamond stars arranged in your hair in front?") Before long, she became fashion editor, collaborating with photographers Louise Dahl-Wolfe, Alexey Brodovitch, and Richard Avedon and, later, art director Henry Wolf. Her eccentricity, perception and wit, as well as her sharp wit and sweeping pronouncements ("I adore that pink! It's the navy blue of India," "Elegance is refusal!"), were memorialized in the movie "Funny Face", making her, for many, the prototypical fashion-magazine editor.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Richard Avedon began creating fashion portfolios for "Harper's Bazaar" at age 22. His distinctive photographs showed both chic insouciance and boundless vitality. Avedon's women leapt off curbs, roller-skated on the Place de la Concorde, and were seen in nightclubs, enjoying the freedom and fashions of the postwar era. He wanted his art in photos to be in the moment for his models, to be much more natural and raw. The goal always for him was to eliminate the background and pull focus to the main subject of the photograph, such as a model in the desert suffering from being stranded in the middle of nowhere. His minimalist style of photography created this new theme in fashion where less can be more. Amazingly, he carved a pathway for models to show their true selves in modeling.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: He was immortalized in the film "Funny Face" by the character Dick Avery (played by Fred Astaire), who asked, "What's wrong with bringing out a girl who has character, spirit, and intelligence?" Alongside Fred Astaire was the leading lady Audrey Hepburn who portrays a "plain" girl who ultimately blossoms into a beautiful women. Avedon contributed many stills of Audrey Hepburn to the film, although he did not believe it truly captured her beauty, because getting to know her set her beauty on whole another level that just couldn't be caught in a photo.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Being photographed by Avedon for the February 1959 issue of "Harper's Bazaar", China Machado was one of the first non-caucasian models to appear on the pages of a fashion magazine.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Gleb Derujinsky's 18-year career at "Harper's Bazaar" spanned from 1950 to 1968 and during that time produced some of the classic images of the era.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Scouted by editor-in-chief Carmel Snow and art director Alexey Brodovitch, Derujinsky joined the elite group of photographers, including Richard Avedon, who shot for the magazine. Working closely with the then fashion editor Diana Vreeland, Derujinsky proved a pioneer in his field, creating stunning juxtapositions between European Haute Couture dresses and landscapes ranging from desert sands to car junkyards, fairgrounds and airports, all this at a time when air travel was yet to become as common as it is now. "Avedon shot dresses and clothes, Gleb shot women living in them".


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: To mark the inauguration of Pan Am's Boeing 707 in 1957, Derujinsky traveled across the world with Nena von Schlebrügge, and Ruth Neumann, whom he would later marry. The latter would be his muse from the seaside harbors of China, to the Nara Deer Park in Japan, and throughout Thailand, Spain and Greece.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: The 1957 Paris Collections were the basis for a 25-page spread in "Harper's Bazaar" featuring his photographs. "Gleb Derujinsky's photographs evoke the best of "Harper's Bazaar": exquisitely beautiful, original, and instantly iconic images of a very fashionable life".


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Nonnie Moore was hired as fashion editor in 1980, having served in the same post at "Mademoiselle." "The New York Times" noticed the changes she made at "Harper's Bazaar", highlighting how the magazine had been "looking a little dowdy", but that Moore had "noticeably sharpened the magazine's fashion point of view" by showing "brighter, younger and more stylish", complimenting her use of "young and exciting fashion photographers", such as Oliviero Toscani.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: "Harper's Bazaar Australia" founded the magazine based in Sydney on March 1, 1998, with Nicole Kidman on the cover. From 2009 until 2013, the winner of "Australia's Next Top Model", an annual Australian reality television series, appeared on the magazine's cover and in an editorial feature. The current editor-in-chief is Kellie Hush, whose first edited issue in Sydney in November 2012. Harper's Bazaar Australia first published based in Sydney on March 1, 1998. Since its debut in Sydney on March 1, 1998, it used the slogan and tagline Australia's No. 1 Fashion Magazine.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: In mid-July 2020, the magazine's Australian publisher Bauer Media Australia closed down "Harper's Bazaar Australia", citing declining advertising revenue and travel restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The magazine ceased publication in July 2020. Hearst Magazine has announced publication of the magazine restarted in September 2021.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Harper's Bazaar India published its first Indian edition of the magazine on March 1, 2009, which featured Kareena Kapoor and Swarovski crystals on the cover. The magazine is based in and published from Mumbai, in partnership with the Noida-based India Today Group. The launch editor was Sujata Assomull Sippy, but she left the magazine after the April 2012 issue. The ex-editor, Nishat Fatima, was appointed in December 2012. Recently, former editor of "ELLE India", Nonita Kalra, was appointed as the editor of "Harper's Bazaar India". Harper's Bazaar India first published in Mumbai on March 1, 2009, with the slogan and tagline India's No. 1 Fashion Magazine.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: New York City-based Hearst collaboration with Jakarta-based MRA Printed Media's "Harper's Bazaar Indonesia" founded the magazine based in Jakarta in June 2000, under the name PT Media Insani Abadi. Harper's Bazaar Indonesia first published based in Jakarta in June 2000. Since its debut in Jakarta on January 2, 2000, with the slogan and tagline its Indonesia's No. 1 Fashion Magazine.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: New York City-based Hearst Communications' "Harper's Bazaar Malaysia" founded the magazine based in Kuala Lumpur on April 6, 2003 with the tagline Malaysia's No. 1 Fashion Magazine.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: The "Harper's Bazaar Poland" edition was published in February 2013. The magazine was closed in December 2019.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: The "Harper's Bazaar UK" edition was first published in London in 1929. In November 1970, New York City-based Hearst Communications amalgamated it with "Queen" magazine (which dated from 1862) to form Harpers & Queen. The magazine was widely perceived to be focused on British "high society" and the lives of socialites and the British aristocracy. In March 2006, it was renamed "Harper's Bazaar", bringing it in line with its international sister titles, and repositioned as a more celebrity-oriented fashion magazine. "Harper's Bazaar UK" has a long history of literary contributions from leading writers, including Evelyn Waugh, Henry James, Thomas Hardy, and Virginia Woolf. It maintains that connection today, with recent articles written by Ali Smith, Jeanette Winterson, and Margaret Atwood, and runs its own Literary Salon. The magazine has won several awards, including Consumer Magazine of the Year. The current editor-in-chief is Lydia Slater. "Harper's Bazaar UK" has historically used the slogan, theme, and tagline "British's No. 1 Fashion Magazine".


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: The magazine was founded based in Ho Chi Minh City on June 27, 2011, the Vietnamese version of "Harper's Bazaar" is called "Phong cách Harper's Bazaar" as a result of merging "Harper's Bazaar" and "Phong cách". Trương Ngọc Ánh was the first face cover.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Starting 2012, "Harper's Bazaar Vietnam" launched an enhanced iPad edition, an official YouTube channel and an official fanpage on Facebook. "Harper's Bazaar Vietnam" was also a co-sponsor of the first season of "Project Runway Vietnam" (local title: "Nhà thiết kế thời trang Việt Nam").


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: In 2014, "Harper's Bazaar Vietnam" launched its website. "Harper's Bazaar Vietnam" was first published based in Ho Chi Minh City on June 27, 2011. Since its debut in Ho Chi Minh City, its slogan and tagline is Vietnam's No. 1 Fashion Magazine.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: "Harper's Bazaar Singapore" published its first Singapore edition of the magazine on November 4, 2001. It is published by SPH Magazines. Its official Facebook page was launched in 2008, and an enhanced iPad edition was launched in 2012.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: In 2015, "Harper's Bazaar Singapore" launched its website. It features news about fashion, beauty, lifestyle and celebrities.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: "Harper's Bazaar Singapore" has won several awards, including a MPAS Awards 2018 for Fashion Media of the Year (Gold). The magazine was also the media partner for the first four seasons of "Asia's Next Top Model".


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Kenneth Goh has been the editor-in-chief of the magazine since 2014. "Harper's Bazaar Singapore" first published based in Singapore on November 4, 2001. Since its debut in Singapore, its slogan and tagline is Singapore's No. 1 Fashion Magazine.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: "Harper's Bazaar China" originated as "Best China Fashion"s English version. On November 4, 2001, the magazine officially started a collaboration with Fashion Group. In September 2002, it began a copyright cooperation with "Harper's Bazaar". After three years of copyright collaboration, the magazine changed its name to "Harper's Bazaar" in 2005. The targeted audiences of "Harper's Bazaar China" are successful women over 25 that have high income, good taste, love fashion, and pursue perfection. The chief editor of "Harper's Bazaar China" is Simona Sha. The magazine now has offices in Harbin.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: "Harper's Bazaar China" has started BAZAAR Stars' Charity Night and has proposed to "let the charity become a kind of fashion." Hosted by "Harper's Bazaar China", BAZAAR Stars' Charity Gala is an annual fundraising gala for Chinese celebrities who support charities. It collects money through an auction, to be used for charities that support causes for impoverished children, medical aids, disaster recovery and many others.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: In an interview, the Editor-in-Chief of "Harper's Bazaar China", Su Mang, said, "People usually think Fashion has nothing to do with charity. Sometimes they regard charity merely as our strategy to gain attention, but I want to say that, if behind the glamorous dresses, there is a true willingness to help others, we should also applaud for them." "Harper's Bazaar China" first published based in Shanghai on November 4, 2001.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: "Harper's Bazaar Taiwan" founded the magazine based in New Taipei City on February 4, 1990. It was authorized by Hearst Cooperation to be published by Hwa Ker Publishing Company Limited. Its chief editor is Elaine Liao. Harper's Bazaar Taiwan first published based in New Taipei City on February 4, 1990. Since its debut in New Taipei City on February 4, 1990, with the slogan and tagline its Taiwan's No. 1 Fashion Magazine.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: Founded the magazine based in Hong Kong on January 3, 1988, "Harper's Bazaar Hong Kong" was authorized by Hearst Cooperation to be published by the SCMP Group. Its chief editor is Xaven Mak. Harper's Bazaar Hong Kong first published based in Hong Kong on 1988. Since its debut in Hong Kong on January 3, 1988, with the slogan and tagline its Hong Kong's No. 1 Fashion Magazine.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: "Harper's Bazaar Arabia" is the Middle East and North Africa edition of the international publication, and founded the magazine based in Dubai on March 1, 2007. It is published by ITP Media Group in Dubai and has prominent audiences in the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: As well as showcasing local and regional fashion, beauty and lifestyle trends, the title has secured a number of world-exclusive covers and interviews with celebrities including Rihanna, Kylie Jenner and Kris Jenner, will.i.am, Shanina Shaik, Sophia Vergara, Nancy Ajram, Sarah Jessica Parker and Janet Jackson. The English language magazine also has a web platform, and launched an Arabic-language version of the website in January 2017. The brand also publishes "Harper's Bazaar Art", "Interiors" and "Junior" titles and hosts an annual "Harper's Bazaar" Best Dressed event celebrating the most stylish women in the region.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: In July 2018 "Harper's Bazaar Arabia" became the first magazine to have a Saudi Arabian woman on the cover when they featured Taleedah Tamer as their July/August cover girl. Harper's Bazaar Arabia first published based in Dubai on March 1, 2007. Since its debut in Dubai on March 1, 2007, with the slogan and tagline its Arabia's No. 1 Fashion Magazine.


title: Harper's Bazaar

text: "Harper's Bazaar Thailand" founded the magazine based in Bangkok on January 2, 2005. The oldest fashion, beauty and lifestyle magazine in the world under the hearst international harper's bazaar and is the magazine of media expertise international (Thailand) limited. Its editor-in-chief is Chamnan Pakdeesuk. Harper's Bazaar Thailand first published based in Bangkok on January 2, 2005. Since its debut in Bangkok on January 2, 2005, with the slogan and tagline its Thailand's No. 1 Fashion Magazine.


title: Wuppertal

text: Wuppertal (; ""Wupper Dale"") is, with a population of approximately 355,000, the seventh-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia as well as the 17th-largest city of Germany. It was founded in 1929 by the merger of the cities and towns of Elberfeld, Barmen, Ronsdorf, Cronenberg and Vohwinkel, and was initially "Barmen-Elberfeld" before adopting its present name in 1930. It is regarded as the capital and largest city of the Bergisches Land (historically this was Düsseldorf).


title: Wuppertal

text: The city straddles the densely populated banks of the River Wupper, a tributary of the Rhine called "Wipper" in its upper course. Wuppertal is located between the Ruhr (Essen) to the north, Düsseldorf to the west, and Cologne to the southwest, and over time has grown together with Solingen, Remscheid and Hagen. The stretching of the city in a long band along the narrow Wupper Valley leads to a spatial impression of Wuppertal being larger than it actually is. The city is known for its steep slopes, its woods and parks, and for being the greenest city in Germany, with two-thirds green space of the total municipal area. From any part of the city, it is only a ten-minute walk to one of the public parks or woodland paths.


title: Wuppertal

text: The Wupper Valley was, along with the Ore Mountains and before the Ruhr, the first highly industrialized region of Germany, which resulted in the construction of the Wuppertal Schwebebahn suspension railway in the then independent cities of Elberfeld and Barmen. The increasing demand for coal from the textile mills and blacksmith shops from those cities encouraged the expansion of the nearby Ruhr. Wuppertal still is a major industrial centre, being home to industries such as textiles, metallurgy, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, electronics, automobiles, rubber, vehicles and printing equipment. Aspirin originates from Wuppertal, patented in 1897 by Bayer, as does the Vorwerk Kobold vacuum cleaner. The Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy and the European Institute for International Economic Relations are located in the city. Barmen was the birthplace of Friedrich Engels.


title: Wuppertal

text: Wuppertal in its present borders was formed in 1929 by merging the industrial cities of Barmen and Elberfeld along with the communities of Vohwinkel, Ronsdorf, Cronenberg, Langerfeld and Beyenburg. The initial name Barmen-Elberfeld was changed in a 1930 referendum to Wuppertal ("Wupper Valley"). The new city was administered as part of Prussia's Rhine Province.


title: Wuppertal

text: Uniquely for Germany, it is a "linear city", owing to the steep hillsides along the river Wupper. Its highest hill is the Lichtscheid, which is above sea level. The dominant urban centres Elberfeld (historic commercial centre) and Barmen (more industrial) have formed a continuous urbanized area since 1850. During the succeeding decades, "Wupper-Town" became the dominant industrial agglomeration of northwestern Germany. During the 20th century, this conurbation had been surpassed by Cologne, Düsseldorf and the Ruhr area, all with a more favourable topography.


title: Wuppertal

text: From July 5, 1933, to January 19, 1934, the Kemna concentration camp was established in Wuppertal. It was one of the early Nazi concentration camps, created by the Nazi Party to incarcerate their political opponents upon gaining power in 1933. The camp was established in a former factory on the Wupper in the Kemna neighborhood of the Barmen part of Wuppertal.


title: Wuppertal

text: During World War II, about 40% of buildings in the city were destroyed by Allied bombing, as were many other German cities and industrial centres (see Bombing of Wuppertal in World War II). However, a large number of historic sites have been preserved, such as:


title: Wuppertal

text: The US 78th Infantry Division under Major General Edwin P. Parker Jr. captured Wuppertal against scant resistance on April 16, 1945. Wuppertal became a part of the British Zone of Occupation, and subsequently part of the new state of North Rhine-Westphalia in West Germany.


title: Wuppertal

text: In total, Wuppertal possesses over 4,500 buildings classified as national monuments, most exemplifying styles such as Neoclassicism, Eclecticism, Historicism, Art Nouveau/Jugendstil and Bauhaus. The American TV station CNN recommended Wuppertal as one of 20 places worldwide to visit in the year 2020 because of the Schwebebahn, the architectural diversity and the Nordbahntrasse, a cycle route across the city 2020.


title: Wuppertal

text: In football, Wuppertal's most popular club is Wuppertaler SV which currently play in the Regionalliga West, the fourth tier of the German football league system. Playing their home games at the city's Stadion am Zoo, the club, which enjoyed its last season in a nationwide division during the 2009–10 season, looks back on a rich and eventful history since its establishment as the result of a 1954 merger between the two main Wuppertal clubs "SSV 04 Wuppertal" and "TSG Vohwinkel 80". The club spent a total of seven seasons in the top flight of German football, three of which in the Bundesliga, which they were promoted to during 1972. In their first season in the nationwide first division, the club reached a remarkable fourth place and qualified for the UEFA Cup for the first and only time in its history. After a first-round defeat by Polish side Ruch Chorzów and another two widely unsuccessful Bundesliga campaigns, the club disappeared from the top flight again, though, and has yet to return.


title: Wuppertal

text: During 2004, the club merged with local rivals "SV Borussia Wuppertal" to form "Wuppertaler SV Borussia", though the name change remained the only visible attribute of the merger with the club's colours and crest remaining unaltered. The additional "Borussia" was scrapped again during 2013 due to fans' demand amidst a change of leadership which was brought about to lead the club through necessary insolvency proceedings which have been completed as of September 2014.


title: Wuppertal

text: Another noteworthy Wuppertal football club is Cronenberger SC from the district of Cronenberg. Their greatest success to date is reaching the 1952 German amateur football championship final which they lost 5–2 against VfR Schwenningen. Today, they play one tier below WSV in the Oberliga Nordrhein.


title: Wuppertal

text: Famous players include Günter Pröpper who scored 39 of WSV's 136 Bundesliga goals and West Germany international Horst Szymaniak, as well as Cronenberg's Herbert Jäger who represented Germany at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki during his stay with the club.


title: Wuppertal

text: In handball, Wuppertal's most successful team is Bergischer HC, playing in the top-tier Handball-Bundesliga which they were promoted to for the second time during 2013, reaching 15th place during the 2013–14 campaign and therefore staying among the top scorers for a second consecutive season. "BHC" originates from a 2006 cooperation between the management, squad and main sponsor of LTV Wuppertal and rivals SG Solingen from the nearby city of the same name. The club advertises itself as a representative of the entire Bergisches Land region. The team plays its home games at both Wuppertal's "Uni-Halle" (3,200 seats) and Solingen's "Klingenhalle" (2,600 seats).


title: Wuppertal

text: Wuppertal's past most successful club are the aforementioned LTV Wuppertal. LTV spent most of their seasons in the second and third tiers, before they merged with "Wuppertaler SV's" handball section in 1996 to form "HSG LTV/WSV Wuppertal". The handball combination was promoted to the Bundesliga after its inaugural season, finishing 8th before dissolving again in 1998. However, the mere departure of Wuppertaler SV still allowed LTV Wuppertal, whose professional team were renamed "HC Wuppertal", to play another three seasons in the Bundesliga before returning to the 2nd division and re-introducing its old name. After the establishment of BHC in 2006, LTV lost its financial base and was relegated several times, currently playing in the fifth-tier Verbandsliga.


title: Wuppertal

text: In volleyball, SV Bayer Wuppertal was one of Germany's leading men's teams for many years during the 1990s and 2000s. The team was part of the well-known mass-sports club originating in Leverkusen and was promoted to the Bundesliga in 1978. Reacting to low attendances, the eponymous Bayer AG decided to relocate the volleyball team to Wuppertal in 1992, where there also was a Bayer-funded club. After the move, the club won various titles, including the German championship in 1994 and 1997 and the German Cup in 1995. In addition to that, they finished runners-up to Greek side Olympiacos S.C. in the 1995–96 European Cup Winners' Cup, losing the final in five sets.


title: Wuppertal

text: After the wide-reaching retreat of Bayer AG from less popular professional sport during 2008, the club acquired the name "Wuppertal Titans" and later "A!B!C Titans Berg. Land". However, the loss of their main sponsor eventually resulted in the team having to terminate during 2012. Presently, they once more play by the name of Bayer Wuppertal in the third-tier Regionalliga, unable to promote with their current financial set-up.


title: Wuppertal

text: Perhaps one of the most successful Wuppertal sports clubs was the women's basketball team of Barmer TV (known as "BTV Wuppertal" between 1994 and 2000, "BTV Gold-Zack Wuppertal" between 2000 and 2002 and "Wuppertal Wings" internationally). An 11-time German champion and 12-time German Cup winner, they won a remarkable ten consecutive doubles between 1993 and 2002. During 1996, they even won the European Cup as the first and so far only German side, beating Italy's SFT Como in the final. A year later, they narrowly missed out on back-to-back trebles, losing to French side CJM Bourges in the newly christened EuroLeague's final.


title: Wuppertal

text: In 2002, the club withdrew from the Bundesliga due to financial troubles, their then-main sponsor "Gold-Zack Werke" filing for insolvency a year later. After a decade-long stay in amateur divisions, Barmer TV returned to the second-tier 2nd Bundesliga North in 2014.


title: Wuppertal

text: In roller hockey, Wuppertal club RSC Cronenberg are one of the most successful German teams, having won the German championship and the German Cup in both men's and women's competitions. In total, the men won 13 German championships and nine cups, the women ten championships and nine cups. Both teams play their home games at "Alfred-Henckels-Halle".


title: Wuppertal

text: Wuppertal hosted several international tournaments, including the World Championship in 1997 (men) and 2004 (women) and the European Championship in 1992, 2010 (men) and 2011 (women).


title: Wuppertal

text: The privately financed Junior Uni is a unique German initiative to educate youth from the age of 4 to 18 in science outside the school program.


title: Wuppertal

text: The current Mayor of Wuppertal is Uwe Schneidewind of Alliance 90/The Greens, who was elected in 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, with a runoff held on 27 September, and the results were as follows:


title: Wuppertal

text: The Wuppertal city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:


title: Wuppertal

text: Wuppertal is well connected to the rail network. The town lies on the Cologne–Hagen and the Düsseldorf–Hagen railway lines, and is a stop for long-distance traffic. The central station is located in the district of Elberfeld. Regionalbahn trains and some Regional-Express trains also stop at Oberbarmen, Barmen, Ronsdorf and Vohwinkel. There are also S-Bahn stations in Langerfeld, Unterbarmen, Steinbeck, Zoologischer Garten and Sonnborn.


title: Wuppertal

text: The rail services that operate on the mainline through the valley are the RE 4 (Wupper-Express), RE 7 (Rhein-Münsterland-Express), RE 13 (Maas-Wupper-Express), RB 48 (Rhein-Wupper Bahn) and four Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn services: the S 7, S 8, S 9 and S 68 (peak hours only). Every 30 minutes, it is served by a long-distance (Intercity-Express, InterCity, EuroCity) service in each direction.


title: Wuppertal

text: With the exception of the line from Wuppertal to Solingen (operated as the S 7) and the Prince William Railway to Essen (now S-Bahn line S 9), all of the branch lines connecting to main line in the city of Wuppertal are now closed. This includes, among others, the Düsseldorf-Derendorf–Dortmund Süd railway (the "Wuppertaler Nordbahn"), the Burgholz Railway, the Wuppertal-Wichlinghausen–Hattingen railway, the Wupper Valley Railway and the Corkscrew Railway. Thus, there were once 31 stations in the Wuppertal area, including nine stations on the mainline. Nowadays only ten are serviced any more.


title: Wuppertal

text: The Wuppertal Suspension Railway, a suspended monorail, serves the city and its surroundings. It has operated since 1901, with new cars added beginning in December 2016. In 1950, a young elephant named Tuffi was put aboard the Wuppertal Schwebebahn (monorail), as a promotion for the Althoff Circus. The swinging tram upset the elephant, and she trumpeted, charged, and plummeted into the river below. Tuffi suffered minor injuries; she lived until 1989. In 1999, the "Schwebebahn" had its thus far only fatal accident.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Kulbhushan Sudhir Jadhav (also spelled Kulbhushan Yadav, alleged alias Hussain Mubarak Patel) (born 16 April 1970) is an Indian national. It is alleged by the Pakistani government that he was arrested in the Pakistani province of Balochistan on charges of terrorism and spying for India's intelligence agency, the Research and Analysis Wing. On 10 April 2017, Indian foreign ministry alleged he had been "kidnapped last year from Iran and his subsequent presence in Pakistan has never been explained credibly".


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: The Pakistani government stated that he was a commander in the Indian Navy who was involved in subversive activities inside Pakistan and was arrested on 3 March 2016 during a counter-intelligence operation in Balochistan. The Indian government recognised Jadhav as a former naval officer but denied any current links with him and maintained that he took premature retirement.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: On 10 April 2017, Jadhav was sentenced to death by a Field General Court Martial in Pakistan. On 18 May 2017, the International Court of Justice stayed the execution pending the final judgement on the case. On 17 July 2019, the court rejected India's appeal for Jadhav's release and ordered Pakistan to suspend the execution. It ruled that Pakistan will have to review the entire process of trial and conviction of Kulbhushan Jadhav and provide India with consular access. Pakistan granted consular access to India, once. However subsequent requests were blocked.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Jadhav was born to a Marathi family in Sangli, Maharashtra, on 16 April 1970 to Sudhir and Avanti Jadhav. His father is a retired Mumbai Police officer.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Jadhav is married and has two children. His family resides in Powai, Mumbai. According to reports in the Pakistani media, Jadhav joined the Indian National Defence Academy in 1987 and was commissioned in the engineering branch of the Indian Navy in 1991.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Pakistani media has also reported that he began to gather information and intelligence within India after the 2001 attack on the Parliament of India. After 14 years of service, he was inducted into intelligence operations in 2003 and established a small business in Chabahar in Iran from where he made several undetected visits to Karachi and Balochistan.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: According to the Pakistani government, on 3 March 2016, Jadhav was arrested inside Balochistan in Mashkel near the border region of Chaman. He was arrested during a counterintelligence raid conducted by security forces. India denied the claim and said he was abducted from Iran.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Pakistani security forces reported Jadhav as a serving officer in the Indian Navy and stated that he was commissioned to the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), India's external intelligence agency. They believed him to be involved in subversive activities in Balochistan and Karachi. Jadhav was soon shifted to Islamabad for interrogation. While according to Indian sources, Jadhav was kidnapped by a Mullah Omar Irani of Jaish ul-Adl from Sarbaz City, Iran who later handed over Jadhav to the Pakistani Army.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Pakistan stated that Jadhav entered Chabahar with a visa stamped on a fake passport numbered "L9630722" in 2003 where he got a new identity of Hussain Mubarak Patel – born on 30 August 1968, from Maharashtra, India.  Pakistani officials claimed that his job was to destabilise Pakistan by strengthening a separatist movement in Balochistan and Karachi – a mission which officially began in 2013.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Balochistan Home Minister Sarfraz Bugti said that Jadhav was obviously working for RAW and was in contact with Baloch separatists and militants, fueling sectarian violence in the province and the country. He further added that he was involved in financially supporting militants and that Jadhav has admitted his involvements in Karachi's unrest. Interrogation also reportedly revealed that naval combat training was being conferred to Baloch separatists, in an attempt to target the ports of Gwadar and Karachi. Pakistani authorities stated that Jadhav, during his interrogation, gave details about his funding, and plans to destabilise the country. They added that Jadhav also disclosed the presence of other Indian intelligence operatives in the southern metropolis.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: During interrogation Jadhav also reportedly revealed that at Wadh, he was in contact with Haji Baloch, who provided financial and logistic support to Baloch separatists and the IS network in Karachi. He also said that the masterminds of the Safoora bus attack, where gunmen shot dead 45 Ismaili passengers, were also in contact with Haji Baloch. Jadhav added that he had met Baloch several times, sometimes for planning sectarian violence in Karachi and the rest of Sindh. Pakistan said that, based on Jadhav's information, it had arrested hundreds of undercover operatives.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Asim Bajwa told the press that Jadhav converted to Islam, adopted a false identity and worked at Gadani under the cover of a scrap dealer. He stated that Jadhav established a network of operatives, provided funds, arranged to smuggle people into the country for the purpose of terrorism and reportedly purchased boats at the Iranian port in Chabahar to target Karachi and Gwadar ports in an alleged terrorist plot. According to him, Jadhav's goal was to sabotage the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor through propaganda – with Gwadar port as a special target – and also to create disharmony among the Baloch nationalist political parties. He also said that Jadhav told the interrogators to use a code phrase – "your monkey is with us" – to inform his handlers and the Indian authorities about his arrest. Asim also claimed to have confiscated maps from him and enunciated that there could be no clearer evidence of foreign interference in Pakistan. He termed the arrest of an intelligence or an armed forces officer of his rank a big achievement.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: The Indian Ministry of External Affairs claimed that Jadhav was an Indian Navy officer but had retired prematurely and he had no current link with the government since his retirement. The Indian High Commission also sought consular access to Jadhav but Pakistan did not agree to it. Pakistan's diplomat to India said that consular access wasn't automatic during cases related to security, explaining Jadhav had been travelling "under a fake name with an original Indian passport" since 2003.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: The family of Kulbhushan Jadhav and those who knew him stated that they never knew that Jadhav had left Indian Navy and had started his own business.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: According to Indian sources, Jadhav was abducted by Pakistan's forces from the Iran–Pakistan border and Pakistan fabricated his documents and leaked them without realising there were glaring inconsistencies in the same. According to sections of Indian media, the Sunni group Jaish ul-Adl is responsible for the kidnapping of Jadhav from the Iran–Pakistan border.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: According to Indian officials, Jadhav owned a cargo business in Iran and had been working out of Bandar Abbas and Chabahar ports. "It appears that he strayed into Pakistani waters. But there is also a possibility that he was lured into Pakistan sometime back and fake documents were created for him by the ISI."


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Some Indian intelligence officials also alleged that Jadhav was abducted from the Iran–Pakistan border by an extremist radical group called Jaishul Adil. Jaishul Adil, designated a terrorist organisation by Iran, is linked to Al Qaeda and has been often accused of targeting Iranian border guards. They also pointed to the inconsistencies between the claims made by Balochistan minister Sarfaraz Bugti that Jadhav was picked up from Chaman on the Afghan border, and those made by General Bajwa that he was picked from Saravan.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Indian author and journalist Hussain Zaidi claimed that Jadhav was a spy and may have been arrested by Pakistan's Intelligence Bureau because of complacency setting in, after a stay period of 14 years. It is alleged that his phone was on surveillance and his habit of talking in Marathi while conversing with his family blew his cover, as it did not commensurate with his fake identity.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: According to the Pakistani newspaper The News, German diplomat Gunter Mulack While speaking at the Pakistan Institute of International Affairs, claimed that Jadhav was caught by the Taliban and sold to Pakistani intelligence. Pakistani newspaper "The News" also noted that no Taliban groups operate in Iran, and stated that Mulack's statement reflected a "poor understanding of the issues and the dynamics of regional politics." After Jadhav's sentencing, Mulack told the "Times of India" that his information was based on "unconfirmed speculation from reliable sources which I cannot identify, nor confirm. Maybe it is not true."


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: In April 2016, Islamabad briefed diplomats of various countries regarding Jadhav's arrest and his claimed involvement in terrorist activities. The evidence was also shared with the United States and the United Kingdom. Separately, Pakistan's Interior Minister Nisar Ali Khan held a meeting with the Iranian ambassador. In September, Pakistan prepared a dossier outlining evidence of Indian-sponsored terrorism and provided it to the United Nations Secretary-General. It included Jadhav's details.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: According to the Indian newspaper and news channel NDTV, in December 2016, Sartaj Aziz, who functioned as the then Pakistan's Foreign Minister, told members of the country's senate that there was insufficient evidence presented of Jadhav's alleged espionage. "What the dossier contained on Indian spy Kulbhushan Yadav were mere statements. It did not have any conclusive evidence." and that they were waiting for more details.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: In January 2019, Vikram Sood who headed R&AW from 2000-2003 claimed that Pakistan had no leverage over India on Jadhav. He claimed, "No spy worth his salt will be caught with his passport. The charges against him are laughable."


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: During the joint conference held by the army and the government, a video confession by Jadhav was made public. Jadhav in the video alleged to have said that the Indian intelligence agency RAW was involved in destabilising Pakistan. He also said that he was a serving officer of the Indian Navy and was working in Pakistan at the behest of the RAW.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Referring to the video, Bajwa said, "There can be no clearer evidence of Indian interference in Pakistan," and added that Jadhav's activities were nothing short of state-sponsored terrorism. In the video, Jadhav acknowledged that he launched a covert operation against Pakistan from the Iranian port of Chabahar for which he used to get instructions from Research and Analysis Wing's joint secretary Anil Gupta. He also said that the RAW had been funding the Baloch separatists for the Balochistan insurgency. Jadhav said:


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: In the video, Jadhav also revealed that he had been directing various activities in Karachi and Balochistan on instructions from RAW since 2013 and had a role in the deteriorating law and order situation in Karachi. While giving details of these activities, Jadhav said:


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: India has rejected the video confession. Union Minister Kiren Rijiju claimed, "It is a completely doctored video, fake video made by Pakistan. They are just cooking up stories and doctoring videos to defame India." Indian agencies have claimed that the video released by Pakistan was heavily edited and the audio has been spliced in several places.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: On 3 April, it was reported that Iran was investigating whether Jadhav crossed the Pakistan-Iran border illegally after the matter was taken up by Pakistani officials in Hassan Rouhani's visit to Islamabad. However, Rouhani denied the report as a rumor, saying that the matter was not even mentioned. Iranian Ambassador to India said that Iran was probing into the matter. He said that once Iran completes the investigation, it will share the reports with "friendly countries". The Iranian embassy in Pakistan criticised "certain elements in Pakistan" for spreading "undignified and offensive" remarks that were attributed to Rouhani and added that these rumours "will not impact the positive views of the two countries regarding each other" as Pakistan had proven to be Iran's "trusted partner and neighbour".


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: On 10 April 2017, Jadhav was sentenced to death by a Field General Court Martial (FGCM) in Pakistan, following a confession before the magistrate and court. Jadhav's trial lasted three and a half months and the charges he was convicted for included spying for India, waging war against Pakistan, sponsoring terrorism, and destabilising the state. He was tried in a military court due to his naval background and the sensitive nature of his case, involving espionage and sabotage. The sentence was confirmed by army chief Qamar Javed Bajwa, and released via the ISPR. Pakistan's Defence Minister Khawaja Muhammad Asif stated that under the provisions of the Pakistan Army Act of 1952, Jadhav had the right to appeal against his conviction on three appellate forums within 40 days.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: India accused Pakistan of denying consular access to Jadhav despite several requests. Pakistan, it was said, had also not informed India about Jadhav's trial. As of 2 July 2017, the number of denied consular access stood at 18.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: Following the sentencing, the government of India summoned Pakistani High Commissioner to India, Abdul Basit and issued a demarche stating that the proceedings that led to Jadhav's sentencing were farcical and that India would regard Jadhav's execution as murder in the first degree. Basit replied to the Indian foreign secretary that "on the one hand you perpetrate terrorism in Pakistan, and record a protest against us on the other. We have not done anything wrong. A terrorist must be punished."


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: In an interview to "India Today", Basit said Pakistan held sufficient evidence against Jadhav and that it was shared with the Indian government. He also said that Jadhav was given a fair trial, including the right to seek clemency. This was in contrast to his stand before the senate in December 2016.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: In a statement issued in the Parliament of India on 11 April 2017, Rajnath Singh, India's Minister of Home Affairs, reiterated that Jadhav was kidnapped by Pakistani agencies from Iran and put through trial as a RAW agent. Sushma Swaraj, India's Minister of External Affairs said there was no evidence of any wrongdoing by Jadhav and termed his sentencing an act of "premeditated murder". Swaraj said that if Pakistan implemented the death sentence, the bilateral relations between both countries would face dire consequences.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: During a briefing to the Senate of Pakistan, Pakistani defence minister Khawaja Asif stated that Jadhav's prosecution followed due legal process based on the country's laws, rules, and regulations and "there was nothing in the legal proceedings that were against the law." He said that Jadhav had been provided a defending officer throughout the course of his trial. He rejected India's accusations of terming the trial a "premeditated murder". Asif added that Pakistan would allow no concessions to elements who threatened its security and stability, from inside the country or across the border.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: In May 2017, India approached the International Court of Justice (ICJ), asserting that Pakistani authorities were denying India its right of consular access to Jadhav in violation of the Vienna Convention.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: The ICJ proceedings began in The Hague on 15 May to review the case. India and Pakistan both sent their legal teams to put forward their arguments, led by Harish Salve and Khawar Qureshi respectively. On 18 May 2017, the International Court of Justice stayed the hanging of Jadhav.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: On 22 June 2017, Pakistani sources confirmed that Jadhav had sought clemency from the country's army chief following his conviction. Pakistan also released a new confessional video of Jadhav, in which he stated that he visited Karachi twice for gathering intelligence on naval facilities. He also admitted to supporting and funding, on behalf of India's RAW, Baloch militants affiliated with the BLA and BRA, in addition to infiltrating and establishing "30 to 40 RAW operatives along the Makran Coast" for involvement in terrorist activities. Jadhav said that RAW's activities in Balochistan and Sindh were conducted under the direction of Anil Kumar Dhasmana. India's Foreign Ministry again dismissed the confession as "false propaganda", stating that Pakistan was trying to influence ICJ proceedings while denying the consular rights to Jadhav. ICJ did not allow Pakistan to play the video during the hearing.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: On 25 December, Jadhav's mother and wife met Jadhav in Islamabad after being allowed permission by Pakistani authorities. India subsequently denounced Pakistan for its handling of the visit of the wife and mother of Jadhav, saying they were harassed and prevented from talking to Jadhav freely.


title: Kulbhushan Jadhav

text: India moved to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which after deliberation stayed the execution of the sentence passed by the Pakistani military court, the ICJ also found a violation of Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations by Pakistan and directed Pakistan to provide consular access to Kulbhushan Jadhav in its July 2019 verdict.


title: Humoral immunity

text: Humoral immunity is the aspect of immunity that is mediated by macromolecules - including secreted antibodies, complement proteins, and certain antimicrobial peptides - located in extracellular fluids. Humoral immunity is named so because it involves substances found in the humors, or body fluids. It contrasts with cell-mediated immunity. Humoral immunity is also referred to as antibody-mediated immunity.


title: Humoral immunity

text: The study of the molecular and cellular components that form the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system is divided into a more primitive innate immune system and an acquired or adaptive immune system of vertebrates, each of which contain both humoral and cellular immune elements.


title: Humoral immunity

text: Humoral immunity refers to antibody production and the coinciding processes that accompany it, including: Th2 activation and cytokine production, germinal center formation and isotype switching, and affinity maturation and memory cell generation. It also refers to the effector functions of antibodies, which include pathogen and toxin neutralization, classical complement activation, and opsonin promotion of phagocytosis and pathogen elimination.


title: Humoral immunity

text: The concept of humoral immunity developed based on the analysis of antibacterial activity of the serum components. Hans Buchner is credited with the development of the humoral theory. In 1890, Buchner described alexins as "protective substances" that exist in the blood serum and other bodily fluids and are capable of killing microorganisms. Alexins, later redefined as "complements" by Paul Ehrlich, were shown to be the soluble components of the innate response that leads to a combination of cellular and humoral immunity. This discovery helped to bridge the features of innate and acquired immunity.


title: Humoral immunity

text: Following the 1888 discovery of the bacteria that cause diphtheria and tetanus, Emil von Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburō showed that disease need not be caused by microorganisms themselves. They discovered that cell-free filtrates were sufficient to cause disease. In 1890, filtrates of diphtheria, later named diphtheria toxins, were used to vaccinate animals in an attempt to demonstrate that immunized serum contained an antitoxin that could neutralize the activity of the toxin and could transfer immunity to non-immune animals. In 1897, Paul Ehrlich showed that antibodies form against the plant toxins ricin and abrin, and proposed that these antibodies are responsible for immunity. Ehrlich, with his colleague von Behring, went on to develop the diphtheria antitoxin, which became the first major success of modern immunotherapy. The discovery of specified compatible antibodies became a major tool in the standardization of immunity and the identification of lingering infections.


title: Humoral immunity

text: Immunoglobulins are glycoproteins in the immunoglobulin superfamily that function as antibodies. The terms "antibody" and "immunoglobulin" are often used interchangeably. They are found in the blood and tissue fluids, as well as many secretions. In structure, they are large Y-shaped globular proteins. In mammals there are five types of antibody: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each immunoglobulin class differs in its biological properties and has evolved to deal with different antigens. Antibodies are synthesized and secreted by plasma cells that are derived from the B cells of the immune system.


title: Humoral immunity

text: An antibody is used by the acquired immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses. Each antibody recognizes a specific antigen unique to its target. By binding their specific antigens, antibodies can cause agglutination and precipitation of antibody-antigen products, prime for phagocytosis by macrophages and other cells, block viral receptors, and stimulate other immune responses, such as the complement pathway.


title: Humoral immunity

text: An incompatible blood transfusion causes a transfusion reaction, which is mediated by the humoral immune response. This type of reaction, called an acute hemolytic reaction, results in the rapid destruction (hemolysis) of the donor red blood cells by host antibodies. The cause is usually a clerical error, such as the wrong unit of blood being given to the wrong patient. The symptoms are fever and chills, sometimes with back pain and pink or red urine (hemoglobinuria). The major complication is that hemoglobin released by the destruction of red blood cells can cause acute kidney failure.


title: Humoral immunity

text: In humoral immune response, the B cells first mature in the bone marrow and gain B-cell receptors (BCR's) which are displayed in large numbers on the cell surface.


title: Humoral immunity

text: These membrane-bound protein complexes have antibodies which are specific for antigen detection. Each B cell has a unique antibody that binds with an antigen. The mature B cells then migrate from the bone marrow to the lymph nodes or other lymphatic organs, where they begin to encounter pathogens.


title: Humoral immunity

text: When a B cell encounters an antigen a signal is activated, the antigen binds to the receptor and is taken inside the B cell by endocytosis. The antigen is processed and presented on the B cell's surface again by MHC-II proteins. The MHC-II proteins are recognized by helper T cells, stimulating the production of proteins, allowing for B cells to multiply and the descendants to differentiate into antibody-secreting cells circulating in the blood. B cells can be activated through certain microbial agents without the help of T-cells and have the ability to work directly with antigens to provide responses to pathogens present.


title: Humoral immunity

text: The B cell waits for a helper T cell (T) to bind to the complex. This binding will activate the T cell, which then releases cytokines that induce B cells to divide rapidly, making thousands of identical clones of the B cell. These daughter cells either become plasma cells or memory cells. The memory B cells remain inactive here; later, when these memory B cells encounter the same antigen due to reinfection, they divide and form plasma cells. On the other hand, the plasma cells produce a large number of antibodies which are released freely into the circulatory system.


title: Humoral immunity

text: These antibodies will encounter antigens and bind with them. This will either interfere with the chemical interaction between host and foreign cells, or they may form bridges between their antigenic sites hindering their proper functioning. Their presence might also attract macrophages or killer cells to attack and phagocytose them.


title: Humoral immunity

text: The complement system is a biochemical cascade of the innate immune system that helps clear pathogens from an organism. It is derived from many small blood plasma proteins that work together to disrupt the target cell's plasma membrane leading to cytolysis of the cell. The complement system consists of more than 35 soluble and cell-bound proteins, 12 of which are directly involved in the complement pathways. The complement system is involved in the activities of both innate immunity and acquired immunity.


title: Humoral immunity

text: Activation of this system leads to cytolysis, chemotaxis, opsonization, immune clearance, and inflammation, as well as the marking of pathogens for phagocytosis. The proteins account for 5% of the serum globulin fraction. Most of these proteins circulate as zymogens, which are inactive until proteolytic cleavage.


title: Humoral immunity

text: Three biochemical pathways activate the complement system: the classical complement pathway, the alternate complement pathway, and the mannose-binding lectin pathway. The classical complement pathway typically requires antibodies for activation and is a specific immune response, while the alternate pathway can be activated without the presence of antibodies and is considered a non-specific immune response. Antibodies, in particular the IgG1 class, can also "fix" complement. These processes differ only in the process of activating C3 convertase, which is the initial step of complement activation, and the subsequent process are eventually the same, forming a structure called the membrane attack complex (MAC) on the bacterial cell wall to destroy the bacteria.


title: Humoral immunity

text: 9. Janeway CA Jr, Travers P, Walport M, et al. Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease. 5th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2001. The complement system and innate immunity. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27100/


title: Omniscience

text: Omniscience () is the capacity to know everything. In Hinduism, Sikhism and the Abrahamic religions, this is an attribute of God. In Jainism, omniscience is an attribute that any individual can eventually attain. In Buddhism, there are differing beliefs about omniscience among different schools.


title: Omniscience

text: The word "omniscience" derives from the Latin word "sciens" ("to know" or "conscious") and the prefix "omni" ("all" or "every"), but also means "all-seeing".


title: Omniscience

text: The topic of omniscience has been much debated in various Indian traditions, but no more so than by the Buddhists. After Dharmakirti's excursions into the subject of what constitutes a valid cognition, Śāntarakṣita and his student Kamalaśīla thoroughly investigated the subject in the Tattvasamgraha and its commentary the Panjika. The arguments in the text can be broadly grouped into four sections:


title: Omniscience

text: Some modern Christian theologians argue that God's omniscience is inherent rather than total, and that God chooses to limit his omniscience in order to preserve the free will and dignity of his creatures. John Calvin, among other theologians of the 16th century, comfortable with the definition of God as being omniscient in the total sense, in order for worthy beings' abilities to choose freely, embraced the doctrine of predestination.


title: Omniscience

text: In the Bhakti tradition of Vaishnavism, where Vishnu is worshipped as the supreme God, Vishnu is attributed with numerous qualities such as omniscience, energy, strength, lordship, vigour, and splendour.


title: Omniscience

text: In Islam, God ("Allah") is attributed with absolute omniscience. God knows the past, the present, and the future. It is compulsory for a Muslim to believe that God is indeed omniscient as stated in one of the six articles of faith which is:


title: Omniscience

text: It is believed that humans can only change their predestination (wealth, health, deed etc.) and not divine decree (date of birth, date of death, family etc.), thus allowing free will.


title: Omniscience

text: In Jainism, omniscience is considered the highest type of perception. In the words of a Jain scholar, "The perfect manifestation of the innate nature of the self, arising on the complete annihilation of the obstructive veils, is called omniscience."


title: Omniscience

text: Jainism views infinite knowledge as an inherent capability of every soul. "Arihanta" is the word used by Jains to refer to those human beings who have conquered all inner passions (like attachment, greed, pride, anger) and possess "Kevala Jnana" (infinite knowledge). They are said to be of two kinds:


title: Omniscience

text: Whether omniscience, particularly regarding the choices that a human will make, is compatible with free will has been debated by theologians and philosophers. The argument that divine foreknowledge is not compatible with free will is known as theological fatalism. It is argued that if humans are free to choose between alternatives, God could not know what this choice will be.


title: Omniscience

text: A question arises: if an omniscient entity knows everything, even about its own decisions in the future, does it therefore forbid any free will to that entity? William Lane Craig states that the question subdivides into two:


title: Omniscience

text: However, this kind of argument fails to recognize its use of the modal fallacy. It is possible to show that the first premise of arguments like these is fallacious.


title: Omniscience

text: Some philosophers, such as Patrick Grim, Linda Zagzebski, Stephan Torre, and William Mander have discussed the issue of whether the apparent exclusively first-person nature of conscious experience is compatible with God's omniscience. There is a strong sense in which conscious experience is private, meaning that no outside observer can gain knowledge of what it is like to be me "as me". If a subject cannot know what it is like to be another subject in an objective manner, the question is whether that limitation applies to God as well. If it does, then God cannot be said to be omniscient since there is then a form of knowledge that God lacks access to.


title: Omniscience

text: The philosopher Patrick Grim most notably raised this issue. Linda Zagzebski argued against this by introducing the notion of "perfect empathy", a proposed relation that God can have to subjects that would allow God to have perfect knowledge of their conscious experience. William Mander argued that God can only have such knowledge if our experiences are part of God's broader experience. Stephan Torre claimed that God can have such knowledge if self-knowledge involves the ascription of properties, either to oneself or to others.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: Grupo Modelo is a large brewery in Mexico that exports beer to most countries of the world. Its export brands include "Corona", "Modelo", and "Pacífico". Grupo Modelo also brews brands that are intended solely for the domestic Mexican market and has exclusive rights in Mexico for the import and distribution of beer produced by Anheuser-Busch. Until the 1960s, Grupo Modelo used red poppy flowers in most of its advertising.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: On June 12, 2008, "The Wall Street Journal" stated that Anheuser-Busch InBev, which owned a non-controlling 50% stake in the company, might attempt to acquire the remaining 50%. On June 29, 2012, it was announced that Anheuser-Busch InBev would acquire the remaining 50% stake for an all-cash price of $20.1 billion. On January 31, 2013, the US Department of Justice filed an antitrust suit in an attempt to prevent the buyout. The matter was settled and the two companies merged in June 2013, with the transfer of all United States rights to Constellation Brands. As a result, all of the company's brands are made (in Mexico) by an unrelated company. In the United States, Grupo Modelo brands are distributed by Constellation Brands.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: María Asunción Aramburuzabala, known as Mariasun, is Mexico's second wealthiest woman and inherited her stake in Grupo Modelo.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: Grupo Modelo, founded in 1925, is the leader in Mexico in beer production, distribution and marketing, with 63.0% of the total (domestic and export) market share, as of December 31, 2008. It has seven brewing plants in Mexico, with a total annual installed capacity of 60 million hectoliters. It is the importer of Anheuser-Busch InBev's products in Mexico, including Budweiser, Bud Light and O'Doul's. It also imports the Chinese Tsingtao Brewery brand and the Danish beer Carlsberg. Through a partnership with Nestlé Waters, it produces and distributes in Mexico the bottled water brands Sta. María and Nestlé Pureza Vital, among others.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: The main Corona brand is "Corona Extra", a 4.5% alcohol by volume pale lager. It is the top selling beer from Mexico and is one of the top five selling beers worldwide. Available in over 150 countries, it is also Mexico's leading export brand. It was first brewed in 1925 by Cervecería Modelo on the tenth anniversary of the brewery. In 1926 the brewery decided to package the beer in clear glass quarter bottles. In 1997, "Corona Extra" became the top-selling imported beer in the United States, surpassing "Heineken".


title: Grupo Modelo

text: "Corona Extra" is available in a variety of bottle sizes, ranging from the "ampolleta" (labeled "Coronita" and just referred as the "cuartito") up to the "Corona Familiar" (known as the "Familiar" or "Litro"). Corona Mega is now available in a 1.2 liter bottle. A draught version also exists, as does canned "Corona" in some markets.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: Unlike many beers, Corona is bottled in a clear bottle, increasing the opportunity for spoilage. Exposure to sunlight or light from fluorescent bulbs such as those used in refrigerated display cases significantly damages the taste of beer, yielding a taste that is often described as "skunky". This is the result of the essential hop oils spoiling due to UV exposure.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: The second Corona brand is "Corona Light", the first light beer produced by this brewer. "Corona Light" has 3.4% alcohol by volume, , per bottle.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: Pacífico is a 4.5% abv pale lager originally brewed in Mazatlán, Sinaloa. The name means Pacific. The picture on the bottle is the city's lighthouse, for which it is famous, surrounded by a ring buoy. A light variety was launched in 2008.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: First bottled in 1925, Modelo Especial, a 4.4% abv pilsner-style lager – is the #2 imported beer in the U.S. by case sales, selling 22.9 million annually. Modelo Especial is most commonly served in 355ml glass bottles although in some countries can be found in 12oz cans.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: Modelo Negra or Negra Modelo is a 5.4% abv Dunkel-style lager first brewed in Mexico by Austrian immigrants, and was introduced as a draft beer in 1926. Modelo Negra comes in an unusually shaped, wide brown bottle with a trademark gold label. Modela Negra is most commonly served in 355ml glass bottles.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: The full name of the beer is "Cerveza Negra Modelo". The word "modelo" means 'model' or 'example' in Spanish. Even though the gender agreement may seem not to match, "negra" means 'black' or 'dark' and modifies "cerveza", meaning 'beer'.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: Modelo Reserva ('Reserve') is Modelo Especial finished on aged wood from tequila barrels. It is a German Pilsner made in Mexico with a 5.5% ABV.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: "Victoria" is a 4% abv Vienna lager first brewed in Toluca, México, in 1865 by Compañía Toluca y México. Grupo Modelo bought out Compañía Toluca y México in 1935.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: It is generally sold in standard bottles and "familiares;" a smaller bottle exists, but it is rare. The labels of all its presentations depict Gambrinus holding aloft a frothing mug.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: Estrella ("star" in Spanish) is a pilsner beer produced in the Guadalajara Modelo plant and can be found in all of Mexico. Estrella was first produced in the late 19th century by Cervecería Estrella (currently known as Cervecería Modelo de Guadalajara), that Grupo Modelo acquired in 1954.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: León is a Munich-type dark amber-colored beer, that mixes a sweetness with light bitterness, and a white foam. The León brand was first launched into the market in the early 1900s, its origin is traced back to the southeast region of Mexico, over the years it has become popular throughout the country.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: Grupo Modelo is the owner of the Extra convenience store chain. Extra boasts 2,100 outlets in Mexico and is a part of Grupo Modelo's vertically integrated model of both producing and selling beer.


title: Grupo Modelo

text: After the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, the company has established a new concept named "Modelorama Now" in which beer, snacks and soda are delivered to homes after being ordered online on their website.


title: NetJets

text: Founded as Executive Jet Airways in 1964, it was later renamed Executive Jet Aviation. NetJets became the first private business jet charter and aircraft management company in the world. It launched its fractional ownership business in 1986 and became a subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway in 1998.